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2475 | Abadeh | Abadeh}}
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = File:Skyline of Abadeh from a mountain.jpg
| imagesize | image_caption Skyline of Abadeh from a mountain
| image_flag = Flag of Abadeh.gif
| image_seal = Abadeh Logo.png
| image_map | map_caption
| pushpin_map = Iran
| pushpin_label_position | pushpin_mapsize
| pushpin_map_caption | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_type1 = Province
| subdivision_name = Iran
| subdivision_name1 = Fars
| subdivision_type2 = County
| subdivision_name2 = Abadeh
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Central
| established_title | established_date 1925 (1304 Hejry Shamsi)
| government_type | leader_title Mayor<br/>(Shahrdar)
| leader_name = Mehdi Shaker
| leader_title1 = Member of Parliament
| leader_name1 = Rahim Zare
| unit_pref = metric
| area_magnitude | area_total_sq_mi
| area_total_km2 | area_land_sq_mi
| area_land_km2 | area_urban_sq_mi
| area_urban_km2 | area_metro_km2
| area_metro_sq_mi | population_as_of 2016
| population_footnotes
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m
| elevation_ft = 6200
| postal_code_type = Postal Code
| postal_code = 73911-***** to 73991-*****
| area_code = 071
| website =
| footnotes | name
}}
Abadeh () is a city in the Central District of Abadeh County, Fars province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district.
Abadeh is the largest city in the Northern Fars Region (South-Central Iran), which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of pear and box trees.Demographics
Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 52,042 in 14,184 households. The following census in 2011 counted 55,758 people in 16,546 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 59,116 people in 18,965 households. Geography LocationAbadeh is at an elevation of in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, from the former and from the latter.
Abadeh is in the northernmost point of Fars province. The city is connected to Isfahan province from the north and west, Safacity and Eqlid from the south, and Yazd province from the east. The city is located north of Shiraz, south of Tehran, south of Isfahan, and southwest of Yazd. The geographical area of Abadeh is , which is about 11% of the total area of the province.
Climate
Abadeh features an arid climate (Köppen climate classification BWk) with heat and dryness over summer, and cold (extreme at times) and relatively wetter winters, with huge variations between daytime and nighttime throughout the year. The area can experience severely cold weather due to its high elevation.
Transportation
Expressway 65 passes through Abadeh. This situation helps Abadeh to improve its capabilities compared to the neighboring city, Eqlid. Road 78 makes connections from Abadeh to Abarkuh, Yazd Eqlid and Yasuj. It has a junction with Abadeh Shiraz Expressway 24 km south of the city. A road starts from Abadeh Ring Road to Soqad and Semirom, Road 55.
The railroad from Isfahan to Shiraz passes Abadeh and there are train services at Abadeh Railway Station to Shiraz, Esfahan, Tehran and Mashad. Abadeh Airport (OISA) was planned to be built in the mid-1990s.
Historical monuments
Abadeh historical monuments include Emirate Kolah Farangi, Tymcheh Sarafyan and Khaje tomb, located in the Khoja mountains.
Sports
Abadeh's main sport is football, as in the rest of the country. The main stadium is Takhti Stadium located in Mo'allem Square. The main team in Abadeh is Behineh Rahbar Abadeh F.C. which is currently playing in Iran Football's 3rd Division after finishing first in Fars Provincial League (FPL) last year. It played in Hazfi Cup 2010-11 reaching the fourth round.
Education
* Islamic Azad University, Abadeh branch Notable people
* Jalal Zolfonun was an Iranian musician
* Mahmoud Zoufonoun was an Iranian-born American musician accomplished in the art of Persian traditional music.
* Hooshmand Aghili is a prominent Iranian singer
* Ruhollah Hosseinian was an Iranian principalist politician.
* Rahmatollah Khosravi is an Iranian politician who was formerly a member of the Iranian Parliament and City Council of Tehran.
* Mojtaba Heidarpanah is an Iranian cartoonist, illustrator, painter, character designer and animator.
* Mahmoud Mohammadi (diplomat) is an Iranian diplomat and politician.
* Soodeh Farokhi is an Iranian-Canadian award-winning entrepreneur recognized for her innovative contributions to the tech industry and her advocacy for diversity and inclusion.
* Seyed Mohammad Torbati researcher of world studies and politics, founder of the Scientific Association of World Studies
* Owrang Khazraei Iranian left-wing poet and speaker in Goethe's Ten Nights
* Bozorg Khazraei Iranian left-wing painter living in the Netherlands - the designer of Goethe's Ten Nights poster
* Iman Islamian bank researcher and deputy of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development
* Mozneb Abadei a poet and Sufi during the Qajar period in Abadeh
See also
Notes
References
Category:Populated places in Abadeh County
Category:Cities in Fars province | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abadeh | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.060291 |
2476 | Abae | <!---->
| gbgridref | map_dot_label Abae
| location = Ancient Phocis
| region | type
| part_of | length
| width | area
| volume | diameter
| circumference | height
| builder | material
| built | abandoned
| epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
| cultures | dependency_of
| occupants | event
| discovered | excavations
| archaeologists | condition
| ownership | management
| public_access | other_designation
| website = <!-- -->
| architectural_styles | architectural_details
| notes =
}}
Abae (, ) states that Abae is "a city of the Phokians, where there is a sanctuary of Apollo. This was the oracle before the one in Delphi." The s.v. stands for sub verso, "under the heading."}} was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age, and sites protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore, and continuous occupation from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period.
History
Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480 BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346 BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes.<!-- The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.
The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.
Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.
The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis:
"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. [150 m] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found."
The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex.
Attribution
NotesReferences
Reference bibliography
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External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120318060323/http://www.dainst.org/en/project/kalapodi?ft=28 German Archaeological Institute] (German)
* [http://www.lisa.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/projectvideo_diary.php?nav_id931&video_id1101 10-part documentary series] (German)
* [http://chronique.efa.gr/index.php/fiches/voir/168/ Excavation archive] of the British School at Athens and French School at Athens (English and French)
Category:Ancient Greek cities
Category:Cities in ancient Greece
Category:Populated places in ancient Phocis
Category:Former populated places in Greece
Category:Classical oracles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abae | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.072450 |
2477 | Abakan | | image_flag = Flag of Abakan (Khakassia).png
| flag_caption | image_coa Coat of Arms of Abakan (Khakassia).png
| coa_caption | anthem
| anthem_ref | holiday Second to last Saturday in August
| holiday_ref
<!-- administrative status -->
| federal_subject = Republic of Khakassia
| federal_subject_ref
| adm_ctr_of1 = City of Abakan
| adm_ctr_of1_ref
| leader_name = Alexey Lemin
| leader_name_ref
| representative_body = Council of Deputies
| representative_body_ref
| population_demonym =
<!-- history -->
| established_date = 1675
| established_title | established_date_ref —a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.HistoryAbakansky ostrog (), also known as Abakansk (), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye () was established in this area.
In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC–220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire's borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.Lithuanian and Polish exilesIn the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.
Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University.Administrative and municipal statusAbakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts
Economy
The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.
Transportation
Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.
The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.
Military
The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.Sites
in Abakan]]
Abakan's sites of interest include:
* Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral’nyy sobor))
* "Good Angel of Peace" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul’ptura «Dobryy angel mira»))
* Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva))
* Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova))
Sports
Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. The Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.
Geography
Climate
Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification Dwb)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains.
Local government
The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows:
* council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality;
* the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality;
* the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality;
* auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality.
; Council of Deputies
The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Composition of the City Council
! rowspan="2" |Party
! colspan="2" |Number of deputies
! rowspan="2" |Result
|-
!By okrug
!By lists
|-
|United Russia
|11
|5 (28.83%)
|16
|-
|CPRF
|2
|3 (23.97%)
|5
|-
|LDPR
|0
|3 (22.19%)
|3
|-
|Party of Pensioners
|0
|1 (7.11%)
|1
|-
|A Just Russia – For Truth
|0
|1 (6.93%)
|1
|-
|Communists of Russia
|0
|1 (6.83%)
|1
|-
|Self-nominated
|1
| ---
|1
|-
|
|14
|14
|28
|}
; Head of the city (head of the municipality)
* Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin
; Chairman of the Council of Deputies
* Albert Yuryevich Tupikin
; Nikolai Bulakin Prize
In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city's development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma.
References
Notes
Sources
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External links
* [http://абакан.рф/ Official website of Abakan]
* [http://www.abakan.ru Unofficial website of Abakan]
* [https://abakan.jsprav.ru/ Directory of organizations in Abakan]
*[http://russiatrek.org/abakan-city Abakan city streets views]
* [http://www.pdx.edu/turkish_studies_center/books] Beyaz Arif Akbas, "Khakassia: The Lost Land", Portland State Center for Turkish Studies, 2007
Category:Cities and towns in Khakassia
Category:Yeniseysk Governorate
Category:Populated places established in 1675
Category:1675 establishments in Russia
Category:Populated places on the Yenisei River | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abakan | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.090044 |
2482 | Arc de Triomphe | | location = Place Charles de Gaulle (formerly Place de l'Étoile)
| owner | altitude
| start_date 15 August 1806
| completion_date | inauguration_date 29 July 1836
| demolition_date | height
| other_dimensions = Wide: <br />Deep:
| floor_count | floor_area
| main_contractor | architect Jean Chalgrin<br/>Louis-Étienne Héricart de Thury
| structural_engineer | services_engineer
| civil_engineer | other_designers
| quantity_surveyor | awards
}}
The '''Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile,, , ; .}} often called simply the Arc de Triomphe''', is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'Étoile—the étoile or "star" of the juncture formed by its twelve radiating avenues. The location of the arc and the plaza is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east). The Arc de Triomphe honours those who fought and died for France in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I.
The central cohesive element of the Axe historique (historic axis, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route running from the courtyard of the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense), the Arc de Triomphe was designed by Jean Chalgrin in 1806; its iconographic programme pits heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail. It set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Arch of Titus in Rome, Italy, the Arc de Triomphe has an overall height of , width of and depth of , while its large vault is high and wide. The smaller transverse vaults are high and wide.
Paris's Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, which is high. The Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modeled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at . The Grande Arche in La Défense near Paris is 110 metres high, and, if considered to be a triumphal arch, is the world's tallest. History Construction and late 19th century
, the former Place de l'Étoile.]]
The Arc de Triomphe is located on the right bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806, after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. Laying the foundations alone took two years and, in 1810, when Napoleon entered Paris from the west with his new bride, Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, he had a wooden mock-up of the completed arch constructed. The architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot.
During the Bourbon Restoration, construction was halted, and it would not be completed until the reign of Louis Philippe I, between 1833 and 1836, by the architects Goust, then Huyot, under the direction of Héricart de Thury. The final cost was reported at about 10,000,000 francs (equivalent to an estimated €65 million or $75 million in 2020).
On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, Napoleon's remains passed under it on their way to the Emperor's final resting place at . Before burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc on the night of 22 May 1885.
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Barrière de l'étoile, QB.244a (cropped).jpg|The Arc de Triomphe under construction between the toll houses of the ''Barrière de l'Étoile'', 1818.
File:Funerailles de l'Empereur Napoleon.png|State funeral of Emperor Napoleon, 15 December 1840.
File:Nouveau Paris. - Vue générale du rond-point de l'Etoile dessin de M. Bertrand. - Voir page 610. QB.298.jpg|The Place de l'Étoile and Arc de Triomphe, 1868.
File:Les officiels regroupés sous l'Arc de Triomphe, 4246(2).jpg|State funeral of Victor Hugo, 31 May 1885.
</gallery>
20th century
The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, that the Battle of Verdun began in 1916. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations.
'', a long perspective that runs from the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense.]]
On 7 August 1919 three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919 (marking the end of hostilities in World War I), Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the arch's primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel. Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight
forces on parade after the liberation of Paris on 26 August 1944.]]
Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the rallying point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns and for the annual Bastille Day military parade. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944 and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées and U.S. airplanes fly overhead on 29 August 1944. After the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades (including the aforementioned post-1919) have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb and its symbolism. Both Hitler in 1940 and Charles de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom.
By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, the Grande Arche de la Défense, was built in 1982, completing the line of monuments that forms Paris's Axe historique. After the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the ''Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, the Grande Arche'' is the third arch built on the same perspective.
In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings.
On 12 July 1998, when France won the FIFA World Cup for the first time after defeating Brazil 3–0 at the Stade de France, images of the players including double goal scorer Zinedine Zidane and their names along with celebratory messages were projected onto the arch.
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Parijs (Frankrijk) Waaghalzerij in de lucht, SFA006011795.jpg|Charles Godefroy flying through the Arc de Triomphe in 1919.
File:Paris. Arc de Triomphe. Postcard, c.1920.jpg|Arc de Triomphe, postcard, .
File:Collier's 1921 Vol 4 Frontispiece -- Paris.jpg|A colourized aerial photograph of the southern side, published in 1921.
File:Avenue des Champs-Élysées in 1939.jpg|Arc de Triomphe in 1939.
</gallery>
21st century
In late 2018, the Arc de Triomphe suffered acts of vandalism as part of the Yellow vests protests. The vandals sprayed the monument with graffiti and ransacked its small museum. In September 2021, the arc was wrapped in a silvery blue fabric and red rope, as part of L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, a posthumous project planned by artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude since the early 1960s.
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Arc de Triomphe de lÉtoile, Paris 7 June 2012.jpg|View of the Arc de Triomphe from the Avenue d'Iéna, 2012.
File:Secretary Kerry, French Foreign Minister Fabius, Ambassador Hartley Pause After 70th Anniversary VE Day Wreath-Laying Ceremony in Paris (17421255431).jpg|Laurent Fabius, Minister of Foreign Affairs, with John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State, under the Arc de Triomphe in 2015.
File:Bastille Day Parade 170714-D-PB383-005 (35087624434).jpg|Bastille Day military parade, 2017.
File:PARADE DES CHAMPIONS PARIS 2024 CHAMPS ELYSEES (53997937113).jpg|The Arc de Triomphe during the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris.
</gallery>
Design
Monument
's drawing of the Arc de Triomphe, 1806.]]
The astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811), in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: Jean-Pierre Cortot; François Rude; Antoine Étex; James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are The Triumph of 1810 (Cortot), Resistance and Peace (both by Antoine Étex), and the most renowned of them all, Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 commonly called La Marseillaise (François Rude). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the honorary rank of Marshal of France. Since the fall of Napoleon (1815), the sculpture representing Peace is interpreted as commemorating the Peace of 1815.
In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 660 people, among which are 558 French generals of the First French Empire; The names of those generals killed in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major French victories in the Napoleonic Wars. The battles that took place in the period between the departure of Napoleon from Elba to his final defeat at Waterloo are not included.
For four years from 1882 to 1886, a monumental sculpture by Alexandre Falguière topped the arch. Titled Le triomphe de la Révolution ("The Triumph of the Revolution"), it depicted a chariot drawn by horses preparing "to crush Anarchy and Despotism".
Inside the monument, a permanent exhibition, conceived by artist Maurice Benayoun and architect Christophe Girault, opened in February 2007. Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
beneath the Arc de Triomphe.]]
Beneath the Arc is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. Interred on Armistice Day 1920, an eternal flame burns in memory of the dead who were never identified (now in both world wars).
A ceremony is held at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every 11 November on the anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 signed by the Entente Powers and Germany in 1918. It was originally decided on 12 November 1919 to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the Panthéon, but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc de Triomphe. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on 10 November 1920, and put in its final resting place on 28 January 1921.
Details
* The four main sculptural groups on each of the Arc's pillars are:
** Le Départ de 1792 (or La Marseillaise), by François Rude. The sculptural group celebrates the cause of the French First Republic during the 10 August uprising. Above the volunteers is the winged personification of Liberty. This group served as a recruitment tool in the early months of World War I and encouraged the French to invest in war loans in 1915–1916.
** Le Triomphe de 1810, by Jean-Pierre Cortot celebrates the Treaty of Schönbrunn. This group features Napoleon, crowned by the goddess of Victory.
** La Résistance de 1814, by Antoine Étex commemorates the French Resistance to the Allied Armies during the War of the Sixth Coalition.
** La Paix de 1815, by Antoine Étex commemorates the Treaty of Paris, concluded in that year.
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"240">
File:Paris July 2011-16a.jpg|Le Départ de 1792 <br /> (La Marseillaise).
File:Paris July 2011-17a.jpg|Le Triomphe de 1810.
File:Paris July 2011-15a.jpg|La Résistance de 1814.
File:Antoine Étex, Der Friede von 1815, Halbrelief, Arc de Triomphe, Paris.jpg|La Paix de 1815.
</gallery>
* Six reliefs sculpted on the façades of the arch, representing important moments of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era include:
** Les funérailles du général Marceau (General Marceau's burial), by Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire (Southern façade, right).
** ''La bataille d'Aboukir (The Battle of Aboukir), by Bernard Seurre (Southern façade, left).
** La bataille de Jemappes (The Battle of Jemappes), by Carlo Marochetti (Eastern façade).
** Le passage du pont d'Arcole (The Battle of Arcole), by Jean-Jacques Feuchère (Northern façade, right).
** La prise d'Alexandrie (The Fall of Alexandria), by John-Étienne Chaponnière (Northern façade, left).
** La bataille d'Austerlitz (The Battle of Austerlitz), by Jean-François-Théodore Gechter (Western façade).
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"110">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille de Jemmappes.jpg|La bataille de Jemmappes'',<br /> 6 November 1792.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille d'Austerlitz.jpg|''La bataille d'Austerlitz,<br /> 2 December 1805.
</gallery>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"100">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Mort de Marceau 2.jpg|Les funérailles du général Marceau'',<br /> 20 September 1796.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe Bataille d'Aboukir.jpg|''La bataille d'Aboukir'',<br />25 July 1799.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe passage du pont d'Arcole.jpg|''Le passage du pont d'Arcole'',<br /> 15 November 1796.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe prise d'Alexandrie.jpg|''La prise d'Alexandrie'',<br /> 3 July 1798.
</gallery>
* The names of 158 battles fought by the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the monument. Among them, 30 battles are engraved on the attic:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"110">
File:Batailles gravées sur atique ADT.jpg
</gallery>
* 96 battles are engraved on the inner façades, under the great arches:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"500">
File:Batailles gravées sous grandes arcades.jpg|
</gallery>
* The names of 660 military leaders who served during the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the inner façades of the small arches. Underlined names signify those who died on the battlefield:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 2.jpg|Northern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 3.jpg|Eastern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 7.jpg|Southern pillar.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe inscriptions 6.jpg|Western pillar.
</gallery>
* The spandrels of the great arches are decorated with allegorical figures representing characters in Roman mythology (by James Pradier):
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe 06.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Northern façade, left spandrel).
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe 07B.jpg|Figure of Victoria (Northern façade, right spandrel).
File:Figure allégorique 2 grande arche.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Southern façade, left spandrel).
File:Figure allégorique 1 grande arche.jpg|Figure of Pheme (Southern façade, right spandrel).
</gallery>
* The ceilings with sculpted roses:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Arc de triomphee.jpg|Ceilings of the great and small archways.
File:French Flag Flying.jpg|French flag suspended from the vault of the great archway.
File:Paris Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile Bogen 3.jpg|Ceiling of the great archway.
File:Arc de Triomphe May 7, 2008.jpg|Ceilings of the great and small archways.
</gallery>
* Interior of the Arc de Triomphe:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Stairs of Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile (49652636762).jpg|Stairway with 284 steps leading to the rooftop terrace at the top of the arch.
File:Interior of the Arc de Triomphe (22265695019).jpg|Permanent exhibition in the attic room below the terrace.
File:Arc de Triomphe statue.jpg|First World War monument.
File:DecorSculpteMB.jpg|Permanent exhibition in the attic room below the terrace.
</gallery>
* There are several plaques at the foot of the monument:
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"140">
File:Placa.004 - Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile.jpg|Plaque in memory of the proclamation of the Republic, 4 September 1870.
File:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Paris (4077371144).jpg|Plaque in memory of the return of the regions Alsace and Lorraine to France, 11 November 1918.
File:Placa.003 - Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile.jpg|Plaque in memory of the fighters of the Armies and the Resistance who died for France, 1939–1945.
File:De Gaulle speech plaque in Arc de Triomphe.jpg|Plaque in memory of de Gaulle's speech, 18 June 1940.
</gallery>
Access
The Arc de Triomphe is accessible by the RER and Métro, with exit at the Charles de Gaulle–Étoile station. Because of heavy traffic on the roundabout of which the Arc is the centre, pedestrians use the two underpasses located at the Champs-Élysées and the Avenue de la Grande Armée. A lift will take visitors almost to the top – to the attic, where a small museum contains large models of the Arc and tells its story from the time of its construction. Another 40 steps remain to climb to reach the top, the terrasse, from where one can enjoy a panoramic view of Paris.
The location of the arc, as well as the Place de l'Étoile, is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east).
<br><gallery mode"packed" heights"240">
File:ArcTriompheParis.jpg|Paris seen from the top of the Arc de Triomphe.
</gallery>
Replicas
While many structures around the world resemble the Arc de Triomphe, some were actually inspired by it. Replicas that used its design as a model include the Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, US (1924); the Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania (1936); the Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea (1982); and a miniature version at the Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US (1999).
<br><gallery mode="packed">
File:Memorial arch - panoramio.jpg|Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, US.
File:Triumphal Arch Bucharest 1.jpg|Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania.
File:Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang) 05.JPG|Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea.
File:Paris hotel (Las Vegas) Arc de Triomphe.JPG|Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US.
</gallery>
See also
* Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
* Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
* List of works by James Pradier
* Napoleon's tomb
*
* Bastille Day military parade
* Romanian Arcul de Triumf
* List of tourist attractions in Paris
* List of post-Roman triumphal arches
Notes
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050306125604/http://www.parisrama.com/thematiques/thematique_arcdetriomphe.htm Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://arcdetriompheparis.com/history Clarification of history of Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://www.arc-de-triomphe.org/ The permanent exhibition inside the Arc de Triomphe]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T_wyyfmCZuo View from the Arc de Triomphe]
Category:Triumphal arches in France
Category:Monuments and memorials related to Napoleonic Wars
Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1836
Category:Monuments and memorials in Paris
Category:Neoclassical architecture in Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 8th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 16th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 17th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Landmarks in France
Category:Champs-Élysées
Category:Terminating vistas in Paris
Category:Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
<!-- Category:Tombs in France and Category:Tombs of Unknown Soldiers not needed, due to new redirect (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (France) --> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.135851 |
2483 | April 21 | Events
Pre-1600
*753 BC – Romulus founds Rome (traditional date).
*43 BC – Battle of Mutina: Mark Antony is again defeated in battle by Aulus Hirtius, who is killed. Antony fails to capture Mutina and Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly after.
* 900 – The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (the earliest known written document found in what is now the Philippines): the Commander-in-Chief of the Kingdom of Tondo, as represented by the Honourable Jayadewa, Lord Minister of Pailah, pardons from all debt the Honourable Namwaran and his relations.
*1092 – The Diocese of Pisa is elevated to the rank of metropolitan archdiocese by Pope Urban II
*1506 – The three-day Lisbon Massacre comes to an end with the slaughter of over 1,900 suspected Jews by Portuguese Catholics.
*1509 – Henry VIII ascends the throne of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
*1526 – The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi is defeated and killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat.
1601–1900
*1615 – The Wignacourt Aqueduct is inaugurated in Malta.
*1782 – The city of Rattanakosin, now known internationally as Bangkok, is founded on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya River by King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke.
*1789 – John Adams sworn in as first US Vice President (nine days before George Washington).
* 1789 – George Washington's reception at Trenton is hosted by the Ladies of Trenton as he journeys to New York City for his first inauguration.
*1792 – Tiradentes, a revolutionary leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged, drawn and quartered.
*1796 – War of the First Coalition: In the climax of the Montenotte Campaign, Napoleon Bonaparte decisively defeats the army of Piedmont at the Battle of Mondovi, leading to Piedmont's surrender a week later and decisively turning the Italian campaign in France's favor.
*1802 – Twelve thousand Wahhabis sack Karbala, killing over three thousand inhabitants.
*1806 – Action of 21 April 1806: A French frigate escapes British forces off the coast of South Africa.
*1809 – Two Austrian army corps are driven from Landshut by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon as two French corps to the north hold off the main Austrian army on the first day of the Battle of Eckmühl.
*1821 – Benderli Ali Pasha arrives in Constantinople as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire; he remains in power for only nine days before being sent into exile.
*1836 – Texas Revolution: The Battle of San Jacinto: Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.
*1856 – Australian labour movement: Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne march from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day.
*1894 – Norway formally adopts the Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
*1898 – Spanish–American War: The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports. When the U.S. Congress issued a declaration of war on April 25, it declared that a state of war had existed from this date.
1901–present
*1914 – Ypiranga incident: A German arms shipment to Mexico is intercepted by the U.S. Navy near Veracruz.
*1918 – World War I: German fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen, better known as "The Red Baron", is shot down and killed over Vaux-sur-Somme in France.
*1926 – Al-Baqi cemetery, former site of the mausoleum of four Shi'a Imams, is leveled to the ground by Wahhabis.
*1934 – The "Surgeon's Photograph", the most famous photo allegedly showing the Loch Ness Monster, is published in the Daily Mail (in 1994, it is revealed to be a hoax).
*1945 – World War II: Soviet forces south of Berlin at Zossen attack the German High Command headquarters.
*1946 – The U.S. Weather Bureau publish a paper which stated the width of a tornado which struck the city of Timber Lake, South Dakota was , which would make this the widest tornado ever documented in history.
*1948 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 relating to Kashmir conflict is adopted.
*1950 – The Nainital wedding massacre occurs, killing 22 members of the Harijan caste.
*1952 – Secretary's Day (now Administrative Professionals' Day) is first celebrated.
*1958 – United Air Lines Flight 736 collides with a United States Air Force fighter jet near Arden, Nevada in what is now Enterprise, Nevada.
*1960 – Brasília, Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 09:30, the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, Rio de Janeiro.
*1962 – The Seattle World's Fair (Century 21 Exposition) opens. It is the first World's Fair in the United States since World War II.
*1963 – The first election of the Universal House of Justice is held, marking its establishment as the supreme governing institution of the Baháʼí Faith.
*1964 – A Transit-5bn satellite fails to reach orbit after launch; as it re-enters the atmosphere, of radioactive plutonium in its SNAP RTG power source is widely dispersed.
*1965 – The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair opens for its second and final season.
*1966 – Rastafari movement: Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Jamaica, an event now celebrated as Grounation Day.
*1967 – A few days before the general election in Greece, Colonel George Papadopoulos leads a coup d'état, establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
*1972 – Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke fly Apollo 16's Apollo Lunar Module to the Moon's surface, the fifth NASA Apollo Program crewed lunar landing.
*1975 – Vietnam War: President of South Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu flees Saigon, as Xuân Lộc, the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct North Vietnamese assault on Saigon, falls.
*1977 – Annie opens on Broadway.
*1982 – Baseball: Rollie Fingers of the Milwaukee Brewers becomes the first pitcher to record 300 saves.
*1985 – The compound of the militant group The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord surrenders to federal authorities in Arkansas after a two-day government siege.
*1987 – The Tamil Tigers are blamed for a car bomb that detonates in the Sri Lankan capital city of Colombo, killing 106 people.
*1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: In Beijing, around 100,000 students gather in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Chinese reform leader Hu Yaobang.
*1993 – The Supreme Court in La Paz, Bolivia, sentences former dictator Luis García Meza to 30 years in jail without parole for murder, theft, fraud and violating the constitution.
*2004 – Five suicide car bombers target police stations in and around Basra, killing 74 people and wounding 160.
*2010 – The controversial Kharkiv Pact (Russian Ukrainian Naval Base for Gas Treaty) is signed in Kharkiv, Ukraine, by Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; it was unilaterally terminated by Russia on March 31, 2014.
*2012 – Two trains are involved in a head-on collision near Sloterdijk, Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, killing one person and injuring 116 others.
*2014 – The American city of Flint, Michigan switches its water source to the Flint River, beginning the ongoing Flint water crisis which has caused lead poisoning in up to 12,000 people, and at least 12 deaths from Legionnaires' disease, ultimately leading to criminal indictments against 15 people, five of whom have been charged with involuntary manslaughter.
*2019 – Eight bombs explode at churches, hotels, and other locations in Sri Lanka on Easter Sunday, killing at least 269.
*2021 – Indonesian Navy submarine KRI Nanggala (402) sinks in the Bali Sea during a military drill, killing all 53 on board.BirthsPre-1600
*1132 – Sancho VI, king of Navarre (d. 1194)
*1488 – Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)
*1523 – Marco Antonio Bragadin, Venetian lawyer and military officer (d. 1571)
*1555 – Ludovico Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1619)
1601–1900
*1619 – Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch founder of Cape Town (d. 1677)
*1630 – Pieter Gerritsz van Roestraten, Dutch-English painter (d. 1700)
*1631 – Francesco Maidalchini, Catholic cardinal (d. 1700)
*1642 – Simon de la Loubère, French mathematician, poet, and diplomat (d. 1729)
*1651 – Joseph Vaz, Sri Lankan priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1711)
*1652 – Michel Rolle, French mathematician and academic (d. 1719)
*1671 – John Law, Scottish economist (d. 1729)
*1673 – Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1742)
*1713 – Louis de Noailles, French general (d. 1793)
*1730 – Antonín Kammel, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1788)
*1752 – Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait, French engineer, hydrographer, and politician, French Minister of Marine and the Colonies (d. 1807)
* 1752 – Humphry Repton, English gardener and author (d. 1818)
*1774 – Jean-Baptiste Biot, French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1862)
*1775 – Alexander Anderson, Scottish-American illustrator and engraver (d. 1870)
*1783 – Reginald Heber, English priest (d. 1821)
*1790 – Manuel Blanco Encalada, Spanish-Chilean admiral and politician, 1st President of Chile (d. 1876)
*1810 – John Putnam Chapin, American politician, 10th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1864)
*1811 – Alson Sherman, American merchant and politician, 8th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1903)
*1814 – Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts, English art collector and philanthropist (d. 1906)
*1816 – Charlotte Brontë, English novelist and poet (d. 1855)
*1837 – Fredrik Bajer, Danish lieutenant and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1922)
*1838 – John Muir, Scottish-American environmentalist and author (d. 1914)
*1854 – William Stang, German-American bishop (d. 1907)
*1864 – Max Weber, German economist and sociologist (d. 1920)
*1868 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (d. 1932)
* 1868 – Mary Rogers Miller, American author and educator (d. 1971)
*1870 – Edwin Stanton Porter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1941)
*1874 – Vincent Scotto, French composer and actor (d. 1952)
*1882 – Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
*1885 – Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (d. 1967)
*1887 – Joe McCarthy, American baseball manager (d. 1978)
*1889 – Marcel Boussac, French businessman (d. 1980)
* 1889 – Paul Karrer, Russian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
* 1889 – Efrem Zimbalist, Sr., Russian-American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1985)
*1892 – Freddie Dixon, English motorcycle racer and racing driver (d. 1956)
*1893 – Romeo Bertini, Italian runner (d. 1973)
*1897 – Odd Lindbäck-Larsen, Norwegian Army general and war historian (d. 1975)
*1898 – Maurice Wilson, English soldier, pilot, and mountaineer (d. 1934)
*1899 – Randall Thompson, American composer and academic (d. 1984)
1901–present
*1903 – Luis Saslavsky, Argentinian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)
*1904 – Jean Hélion, French painter (d. 1987)
* 1904 – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (d. 1945)
*1905 – Pat Brown, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Governor of California (d. 1996)
*1911 – Ivan Combe, American businessman, developed Clearasil (d. 2000)
* 1911 – Kemal Satır, Turkish physician and politician (d. 1991)
*1912 – Eve Arnold, Russian-American photojournalist (d. 2012)
* 1912 – Marcel Camus, French director and screenwriter (d. 1982)
*1913 – Norman Parkinson, English photographer (d. 1990)
*1914 – Angelo Savoldi, Italian-American wrestler and promoter, co-founded International World Class Championship Wrestling (d. 2013)
*1915 – Garrett Hardin, American ecologist, author, and academic (d. 2003)
* 1915 – Anthony Quinn, Mexican-American actor (d. 2001)
*1916 – Estella B. Diggs, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
*1918 – Eddy Christiani, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
*1919 – Don Cornell, American singer (d. 2004)
* 1919 – Roger Doucet, Canadian tenor (d. 1981)
* 1919 – Licio Gelli, Italian financer (d. 2015)
*1922 – Alistair MacLean, Scottish novelist and screenwriter (d. 1987)
* 1922 – Allan Watkins, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 2011)
*1923 – John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (d. 2009)
*1924 – Ira Louvin, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player (d. 1965)
*1925 – Anthony Mason, Australian soldier and judge, 9th Chief Justice of Australia
* 1925 – John Swinton of Kimmerghame, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire (d. 2018)
*1926 – Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom and her other realms (d. 2022)
* 1926 – Arthur Rowley, English footballer, manager, and cricketer (d. 2002)
*1927 – Ahmed Arif, Turkish poet and author (d. 1991)
*1928 – Jack Evans, Welsh-Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1996)
*1930 – Hilda Hilst, Brazilian author, poet, and playwright (d. 2004)
* 1930 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (d. 1989)
* 1930 – Dieter Roth, German-Swiss illustrator and sculptor (d. 1998)
* 1930 – Jack Taylor, English footballer and referee (d. 2012)
*1931 – Morgan Wootten, American high school basketball coach (d. 2020)
*1932 – Slide Hampton, African-American trombonist and composer (d. 2021)
* 1932 – Elaine May, American actress, comedian, director, and screenwriter
* 1932 – Angela Mortimer, English tennis player
*1933 – Edelmiro Amante, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
* 1933 – Easley Blackwood, Jr., American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2023)
* 1933 – Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (d. 2014)
*1935 – Charles Grodin, American actor and talk show host (d. 2021)
* 1935 – Thomas Kean, American academic and politician, 48th Governor of New Jersey
*1936 – James Dobson, American evangelist, psychologist, and author, founded Focus on the Family
* 1936 – Reg Fleming, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2009)
*1937 – Gary Peters, American baseball player (d. 2023)
* 1937 – Ben Zinn, Israeli-born American academic and former international soccer player
*1939 – John McCabe, English pianist and composer (d. 2015)
* 1939 – Sister Helen Prejean, American nun, activist, and author
* 1939 – Reni Santoni, American actor (d. 2020)
*1940 – Jacques Caron, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1940 – Souleymane Cissé, Malian director, producer, and screenwriter
*1941 – David Boren, American lawyer and politician, 21st Governor of Oklahoma (d. 2025)
*1942 – Geoffrey Palmer, New Zealand politician, 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand
*1945 – Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Indian cricketer and umpire
* 1945 – Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (d. 2017)
* 1945 – Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (d. 2000)
*1947 – Al Bumbry, American baseball player
* 1947 – Iggy Pop, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
* 1947 – John Weider, English bass player
*1948 – Gary Condit, American businessman and politician
* 1948 – Paul Davis, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2008)
* 1948 – Josef Flammer, Swiss ophthalmologist
* 1948 – Dieter Fromm, German runner
*1949 – Patti LuPone, American actress and singer
*1950 – Shivaji Satam, Indian actor
*1951 – Tony Danza, American actor and producer
* 1951 – Michael Freedman, American mathematician and academic
* 1951 – Bob Varsha, American sportscaster
* 1951 – Steve Vickers, Canadian ice hockey player
*1952 – Gerald Early, American author and academic
* 1952 – Cheryl Gillan, British businesswoman and politician, Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2021)
*1953 – John Brumby, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Victoria
*1954 – Ebiet G. Ade, Indonesian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1954 – James Morrison, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1954 – Mike Wingfield, South African academic and scientist
*1955 – Murathan Mungan, Turkish author, poet, and playwright
*1956 – Peter Kosminsky, English director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1956 – Phillip Longman, German-American demographer and journalist
*1957 – Hervé Le Tellier, French linguist and author
* 1957 – Herbert Wetterauer, German painter, sculptor, and author
*1958 – Andie MacDowell, American model, actress, and producer
* 1958 – Yoshito Usui, Japanese illustrator (d. 2009)
* 1958 – Michael Zarnock, American author
*1959 – Tim Jacobus, American illustrator and painter
* 1959 – Robert Smith, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1961 – David Servan-Schreiber, French physician, neuroscientist, and author (d. 2011)
*1963 – Ken Caminiti, American baseball player (d. 2004)
*1965 – Fiona Kelleghan, American academic, critic and librarian
*1969 – Toby Stephens, English actor
*1970 – Rob Riggle, American actor and comedian
*1971 – Michael Turner, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)
*1973 – Steve Backshall, English naturalist, writer, and television presenter
*1977 – Gyula Koi, Hungarian scholar and educator
*1979 – Virginie Basselot, French chef
* 1979 – James McAvoy, Scottish actor
*1980 – Tony Romo, American football player and announcer
*1983 – Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (d. 2020)
* 1983 – Kim Wall, British sprinter
*1988 – Ricky Berens, American swimmer
* 1988 – Jencarlos Canela, American singer-songwriter and actor
*1989 – Nikki Cross, Scottish wrestler
*1992 – Isco, Spanish footballer
* 1992 – Joc Pederson, American baseball player
*1994 – Ludwig Augustinsson, Swedish footballer
*1996 – Arianne Hartono, Dutch tennis player
*1997 – Mikel Oyarzabal, Spanish footballer
*1998 – Jarrett Allen, American basketball player
*1999 – Choi Hyun-suk, South Korean rapper
*2003 – Xavi Simons, Dutch footballer
*2007 – Princess Isabella of Denmark, daughter of King Frederik X and Queen Mary of Denmark
*2008 – Hyein, South Korean singer
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 234 – Emperor Xian of Han, Chinese emperor (b. 181)
* 586 – Liuvigild, king of the Visigoths
* 847 – Odgar, Frankish archbishop of Mainz
* 866 – Bardas, de facto regent of the Byzantine Empire
* 941 – Bajkam, de facto regent of the Abbasid Caliphate
*1073 – Pope Alexander II
*1109 – Anselm of Canterbury, Italian-English archbishop and saint (b. 1033)
*1136 – Stephen, Count of Tréguier Breton noblemen (b. )
*1142 – Peter Abelard, French philosopher and theologian (b. 1079)
*1213 – Maria of Montpellier, Lady of Montpellier, Queen of Aragon (b. 1182)
*1329 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282)
*1400 – John Wittlebury, English politician (b. 1333)
*1509 – Henry VII of England (b. 1457)
*1557 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1495)
*1574 – Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1519)
*1591 – Sen no Rikyū, Japanese exponent of the tea ceremony (b. 1522)
1601–1900
*1650 – Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (b. 1607)
*1668 – Jan Boeckhorst, Flemish painter (b. )
*1699 – Jean Racine, French playwright and poet (b. 1639)
*1719 – Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1640)
*1720 – Antoine Hamilton, Irish-French soldier and author (b. 1646)
*1722 – Robert Beverley, Jr., English historian and author (b. 1673)
*1736 – Prince Eugene of Savoy (b. 1663)
*1740 – Thomas Tickell, English poet and author (b. 1685)
*1758 – Francesco Zerafa, Maltese architect (b. 1679)
*1815 – Joseph Winston, American soldier and politician (b. 1746)
*1825 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician and academic (b. 1765)
*1852 – Ivan Nabokov, Russian general (b. 1787)
*1863 – Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet, Irish politician (b. 1782)
*1900 – Vikramatji Khimojiraj, Indian ruler (b. 1819)
1901–present
*1910 – Mark Twain, American novelist, humorist, and critic (b. 1835)
*1918 – Manfred von Richthofen, German captain and pilot (b. 1892)
*1924 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (b. 1858)
*1930 – Robert Bridges, English poet and author (b. 1844)
*1932 – Friedrich Gustav Piffl, Bohemian cardinal (b. 1864)
*1938 – Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani National philosopher and poet (b. 1877)
*1941 – Fritz Manteuffel, German gymnast (b. 1875)
*1945 – Walter Model, German field marshal (b. 1891)
*1946 – John Maynard Keynes, English economist and philosopher (b. 1883)
*1948 – Aldo Leopold, American ecologist and author (b. 1887)
*1952 – Leslie Banks, American actor, director and producer (b. 1890)
*1954 – Emil Leon Post, Polish-American mathematician and logician (b. 1897)
*1956 – Charles MacArthur, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1895)
*1965 – Edward Victor Appleton, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892)
*1971 – François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (b. 1907)
*1973 – Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894)
* 1973 – Kemal Tahir, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1910)
*1977 – Gummo Marx, American vaudevillian and talent agent (b. 1892)
*1978 – Sandy Denny, English singer-songwriter (b. 1947)
* 1978 – Thomas Wyatt Turner, American biologist and academic (b. 1877)
*1980 – Alexander Oparin, Russian biochemist and academic (b. 1894)
* 1980 – Sohrab Sepehri, Iranian poet and painter (b. 1928)
*1983 – Walter Slezak, Austrian-American actor and singer (b. 1902)
*1984 – Marcel Janco, Romanian-Israeli artist (b. 1895)
* 1984 – Hristo Prodanov, Bulgarian engineer and mountaineer (b. 1943)
*1985 – Rudi Gernreich, Austrian-American fashion designer, created the monokini (b. 1922)
* 1985 – Tancredo Neves, Brazilian banker and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (b. 1910)
*1986 – Marjorie Eaton, American painter and actress (b. 1901)
* 1986 – Salah Jahin, Egyptian poet, playwright, and composer (b. 1930)
*1987 – Gustav Bergmann, Austrian-American philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1906)
*1990 – Erté, Russian-French illustrator (b. 1892)
*1991 – Willi Boskovsky, Austrian violinist and conductor (b. 1909)
*1992 – Väinö Linna, Finnish author (b. 1920)
*1996 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer (b. 1925)
* 1996 – Jimmy Snyder, American sportscaster (b. 1919)
*1998 – Jean-François Lyotard, French sociologist and philosopher (b. 1924)
*1999 – Buddy Rogers, American actor (b. 1904)
*2003 – Nina Simone, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and activist (b. 1933)
*2005 – Zhang Chunqiao, Chinese writer and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1917)
*2010 – Gustav Lorentzen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1947)
* 2010 – Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spanish businessman, seventh President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1920)
* 2010 – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan-English engineer and civil servant (b. 1930)
*2011 – Catharina Halkes, Dutch theologian and academic (b. 1920)
*2012 – Doris Betts, American author and academic (b. 1932)
*2013 – Shakuntala Devi, Indian mathematician and astrologer (b. 1929)
* 2013 – Leopold Engleitner, Austrian Holocaust survivor, author, and educator (b. 1905)
*2014 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (b. 1936)
* 2014 – Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (b. 1930)
*2016 – Prince, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1958)
*2017 – Ugo Ehiogu, English footballer (b. 1972)
*2018 – Nabi Tajima, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1900)
*2019 – Polly Higgins, Scottish barrister, author and environmental lobbyist (b. 1968)
*2024 – Terry A. Anderson, American journalist (b. 1947)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Abdecalas
**Anastasius Sinaita
**Anselm of Canterbury
**Beuno
**Conrad of Parzham
**Holy Infant of Good Health
**Shemon Bar Sabbae
**Wolbodo
**April 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Natale di Roma (Rome)
*Parilia (ancient Rome)
*Civil Service Day (India)
*Grounation Day (Rastafari)
*National Tea Day (United Kingdom)
*National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
*San Jacinto Day (Texas)
References
Sources
* External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/21 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/21 Historical Events on April 21]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_21 | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.191785 |
2484 | ATM (disambiguation) | An automated teller machine (ATM) is an electronic device that performs financial transactions.
ATM or atm may also refer to:
Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software
ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991
Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts
Accelerated Turing machine, or Zeno machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking
ATM adaptation layer
ATM Adaptation Layer 5
Arts, entertainment, media
Amateur Telescope Making (books), a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls
"ATM" (song), a 2018 song by J. Cole from KOD
ATM (TV series), an Indian Telugu-language TV series
Film
ATM (2012 film), an American film
ATM: Er Rak Error, a 2012 Thai film
Azhagiya Tamil Magan, a 2007 Indian film
Groups, companies, organizations
Abiding Truth Ministries, anti-LGBT organization in Springfield, Massachusetts, US
Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK
Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in Tanked
ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia
Atlético Madrid (abbreviated AtM), football club in Spain
African Transformation Movement, South African political party founded in 2018
The a2 Milk Company (NZX ticker symbol ATM)
Science and engineering
Atmosphere (unit) (symbol atm), a unit of atmospheric pressure
Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory
ATM serine/threonine kinase, a serine/threonine kinase activated by DNA damage
The Airborne Topographic Mapper, a laser altimeter among the instruments used by NASA's Operation IceBridge
Transportation
Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England
Air traffic management, a concept in aviation
Altamira Airport (IATA airport code ATM), Brazil
Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the municipal public transport company of Milan
Par Avion (airline), formerly Airlines of Tasmania, (ICAO airline code ATM)
Catalonia, Spain
Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area
Other uses
A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist
Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize
Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks
Ass to mouth, a sexual act
At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price
At-the-market offering, a type of follow-on offering of stock
Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp
"at the moment" (atm) in the common abbreviation in SMS language
Texas A&M University, whose lettermark resembles "ATM"
See also
ATMS (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.197664 |
2487 | Amazonite | Amazonite, also known as amazonstone, is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline. Its chemical formula is KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>, which is polymorphic to orthoclase.
Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite. and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century.
Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite. It has been described as a "beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green" and as possessing a "lively green colour".
Occurrence
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks.
China:
* Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite
Libya:
* Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks
Mongolia:
* Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite
* Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape
United States:
* Colorado:
** Deer Trail, Arapahoe County
** Rutherford Mine, Amelia County A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.
Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature. Gallery <gallery widths"130" heights="150">
File:Microcline-Quartz-Albite-48224.jpg|Deep robins-egg blue color amazonite crystal on smoky quartz and albite, from Teller County, Colorado. Size: .
File:Amazonite, quartz 300-3-7927.JPG|Amazonite crystal on smoky quartz, from Pikes Peak, El Paso County, Colorado
File:Microcline-179612.jpg|Large deep-turquoise amazonite crystal with attached stark-white microcline, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Size: .
File:Microcline-Quartz-206935.jpg|Two smoky quartz crystals surrounded by amazonite crystals, from Smoky Hawk Mine, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: .
File:Amazonite 1.jpg|Amazonite crystals on orthoclase, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia.
File:Microcline-20436.jpg|Deep lustrous crystal of amazonite, from Take 5 Claim, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: .
File:Landsverk-1 amazonite+ordførerkjede.jpg|Amazonite from the Landsverk 1 mine with the livery collar of the mayor of Evje, Norway. Size: .
File:LANDSVERK-1 mikroklien-verdringt-amazoniet.jpg|Amazonite partly altered to brown microcline from the Landsverk 1 mine in Evje, Norway.
File:Amazonite specimen (polished) arp.jpg|Polished Amazonite specimen. Height .
</gallery>
References
Further reading
*
External links
Category:Feldspar
Category:Gemstones | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonite | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.218600 |
2490 | Ambrosius Bosschaert | | death_place = The Hague
| nationality = Dutch and Flemish
| field = Painting
| training | movement Baroque
| works | patrons
| influenced by | influenced
| awards =
}}
Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (18 January 1573 – 1621) was a Flemish-born Dutch still life painter and art dealer. He is recognised as one of the earliest painters who created floral still lifes as an independent genre. He founded a dynasty of painters who continued his style of floral and fruit painting and turned Middelburg into the leading centre for flower painting in the Dutch Republic.Biography
, Stockholm.]]
He was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587–1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A).
Bosschaert was one of the first artists to specialize in flower still life painting as a stand-alone subject. He started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses, and inspired the genre of Dutch flower painting. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests. His works commanded high prices although he never achieved the level of prestige of Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Antwerp master who contributed to the floral genre.<ref namethus/>Legacy
His sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century.
It may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after.
Although he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer.
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
External links
*
Category:1573 births
Category:1621 deaths
Category:Flemish Baroque painters
Category:Dutch flower artists
Category:Dutch Golden Age painters
Category:Dutch male painters
Category:Painters from Antwerp
Category:Painters from Middelburg
Category:Dutch still life painters
Category:Flemish still life painters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosius_Bosschaert | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.234108 |
2493 | Anthroposophy | Anthroposophy is a spiritual new religious movement<!-- see also: which was founded in the early 20th century by the esotericist Rudolf Steiner that postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world, accessible to human experience. Followers of anthroposophy aim to engage in spiritual discovery through a mode of thought independent of sensory experience. Though proponents claim to present their ideas in a manner that is verifiable by rational discourse and say that they seek precision and clarity comparable to that obtained by scientists investigating the physical world, many of these ideas have been termed pseudoscientific by experts in epistemology and debunkers of pseudoscience.
Anthroposophy has its roots in German idealism, Western and Eastern esoteric ideas, various religious traditions, and modern Theosophy. Steiner chose the term anthroposophy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος , 'human', and σοφία sophia, 'wisdom') to emphasize his philosophy's humanistic orientation. He defined it as "a scientific exploration of the spiritual world", others have variously called it a "philosophy and cultural movement", a "spiritual movement", a "spiritual science", "a system of thought", "a speculative and oracular metaphysic", "system [...] replete with esoteric and occult mystifications", or "a spiritualist movement".
Anthroposophical ideas have been applied in a range of fields including education (both in Waldorf schools and in the Camphill movement), environmental conservation and banking; with additional applications in agriculture, organizational development, the arts, and more.
The Anthroposophical Society is headquartered at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland. Anthroposophy's supporters include writers Saul Bellow, Romuva religious founder Vydūnas, and former president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia. While critics and proponents alike acknowledge Steiner's many anti-racist statements, "Steiner's collected works...contain pervasive internal contradictions and inconsistencies on racial and national questions."
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has termed anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history". Many scientists, physicians, and philosophers, including Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized anthroposophy's application in the areas of medicine, biology, agriculture, and education, considering it dangerous and pseudoscientific. Ideas of Steiner's that are unsupported or disproven by modern science include: racial evolution, clairvoyance (Steiner claimed he was clairvoyant), and the Atlantis myth.
History
]]
The early work of the founder of anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, culminated in his Philosophy of Freedom (also translated as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path). Here, Steiner developed a concept of free will based on inner experiences, especially those that occur in the creative activity of independent thought.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned almost exclusively to spirituality. His work began to draw the attention of others interested in spiritual ideas; among these was the Theosophical Society. From 1900 on, thanks to the positive reception his ideas received from Theosophists, Steiner focused increasingly on his work with the Theosophical Society, becoming the secretary of its section in Germany in 1902. During his leadership, membership increased dramatically, from just a few individuals to sixty-nine lodges.
By 1907, a split between Steiner and the Theosophical Society became apparent. While the Society was oriented toward an Eastern and especially Indian approach, Steiner was trying to develop a path that embraced Christianity and natural science. The split became irrevocable when Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, presented the child Jiddu Krishnamurti as the reincarnated Christ. Steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense; many years later, Krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion. Steiner's continuing differences with Besant led him to separate from the Theosophical Society Adyar. He was subsequently followed by the great majority of the Theosophical Society's German members, as well as many members of other national sections. He spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the Akashic Records (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history, and future of the world and mankind. In a number of works, Steiner described a path of inner development he felt would let anyone attain comparable spiritual experiences. In Steiner's view, sound vision could be developed, in part, by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration, and meditation. In particular, Steiner believed a person's spiritual development could occur only after a period of moral development.
By 1923, a schism had formed between older members, focused on inner development, and younger members eager to become active in contemporary social transformations. In response, Steiner attempted to bridge the gap by establishing an overall School for Spiritual Science. As a spiritual basis for the reborn movement, Steiner wrote a Foundation Stone Meditation which remains a central touchstone of anthroposophical ideas.
Steiner died just over a year later, in 1925. The Second World War temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of Continental Europe, as the Anthroposophical Society and most of its practical counter-cultural applications were banned by the Nazi government. Though at least one prominent member of the Nazi Party, Rudolf Hess, was a strong supporter of anthroposophy, very few anthroposophists belonged to the National Socialist Party. In reality, Steiner had both enemies and loyal supporters in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime. Staudenmaier speaks of the "polycratic party-state apparatus", so Nazism's approach to Anthroposophy was not characterized by monolithic ideological unity. When Hess flew to the UK and was imprisoned, their most powerful protector was gone, The truth was that while Anthroposophists complained of bad press, they were to a surprising extent tolerated by the Nazi regime, "including outspokenly supportive pieces in the Völkischer Beobachter". Ideological purists from Sicherheitsdienst argued largely in vain against Anthroposophy. According to Staudenmaier, "The prospect of unmitigated persecution was held at bay for years in a tenuous truce between pro-anthroposophical and anti-anthroposophical Nazi factions."
|}}
}}
}}
Morals: Anthroposophy was not the stake of that dispute, but merely powerful Nazis wanting to get rid of other powerful Nazis. E.g. Jehovah's Witnesses were treated much more aggressively than Anthroposophists.
}}
Kurlander stated that "the Nazis were hardly ideologically opposed to the supernatural sciences themselves"—rather they objected to the free (i.e. non-totalitarian) pursuit of supernatural sciences.
According to Hans Büchenbacher, an anthroposophist, the Secretary General of the General Anthroposophical Society, Guenther Wachsmuth, as well as Steiner's widow, Marie Steiner, were "completely pro-Nazi." Marie Steiner-von Sivers, Guenther Wachsmuth, and Albert Steffen, had publicly expressed sympathy for the Nazi regime since its beginnings; led by such sympathies of their leadership, the Swiss and German Anthroposophical organizations chose for a path conflating accommodation with collaboration, which in the end ensured that while the Nazi regime hunted the esoteric organizations, Gentile Anthroposophists from Nazi Germany and countries occupied by it were let be to a surprising extent. Of course they had some setbacks from the enemies of Anthroposophy among the upper echelons of the Nazi regime, but Anthroposophists also had loyal supporters among them, so overall Gentile Anthroposophists were not badly hit by the Nazi regime.
|}}
Staudenmaier's overall argument is that "there were often no clear-cut lines between theosophy, anthroposophy, ariosophy, astrology and the völkisch movement from which the Nazi Party arose."
By 2007, national branches of the Anthroposophical Society had been established in fifty countries and about 10,000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophical ideas.
Etymology and earlier uses of the word
Anthroposophy is an amalgam of the Greek terms ( 'human') and ( 'wisdom'). An early English usage is recorded by Nathan Bailey (1742) as meaning "the knowledge of the nature of man".
The first known use of the term anthroposophy occurs within Arbatel de magia veterum, summum sapientiae studium, a book published anonymously in 1575 and attributed to Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. The work describes anthroposophy (as well as theosophy) variously as an understanding of goodness, nature, or human affairs. In 1648, the Welsh philosopher Thomas Vaughan published his Anthroposophia Theomagica, or a discourse of the nature of man and his state after death.
The term began to appear with some frequency in philosophical works of the mid- and late-nineteenth century. In the early part of that century, Ignaz Troxler used the term anthroposophy to refer to philosophy deepened to self-knowledge, which he suggested allows deeper knowledge of nature as well. He spoke of human nature as a mystical unity of God and world. Immanuel Hermann Fichte used the term anthroposophy to refer to "rigorous human self-knowledge", achievable through thorough comprehension of the human spirit and of the working of God in this spirit, in his 1856 work Anthropology: The Study of the Human Soul. In 1872, the philosopher of religion Gideon Spicker used the term anthroposophy to refer to self-knowledge that would unite God and world: "the true study of the human being is the human being, and philosophy's highest aim is self-knowledge, or Anthroposophy."
In 1882, the philosopher Robert Zimmermann published the treatise, "An Outline of Anthroposophy: Proposal for a System of Idealism on a Realistic Basis," proposing that idealistic philosophy should employ logical thinking to extend empirical experience. Steiner attended lectures by Zimmermann at the University of Vienna in the early 1880s, thus at the time of this book's publication.
In the early 1900s, Steiner began using the term anthroposophy (i.e. human wisdom) as an alternative to the term theosophy (i.e. divine wisdom).
Central ideas
Spiritual knowledge and freedom
Anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the scientific method to phenomena of human soul-life and spiritual experiences. Steiner believed this required developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception, which he maintained was still possible for contemporary humans. The steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved imagination, inspiration, and intuition. Steiner believed results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way that can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science. For Steiner, the human capacity for rational thought would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and bypass the danger of dependency on an authority such as himself.
Anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human consciousness. Early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality, including a clairvoyant perception of spiritual realities. Humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on intellectual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences, which have become atavistic. The increasing intellectualization of consciousness, initially a progressive direction of evolution, has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities. However, to go further requires new capacities that combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the imagination and with consciously achieved inspiration and intuitive insights.
Anthroposophy speaks of the reincarnation of the human spirit: that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living on earth, leaving the body behind, and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. After the death of the physical body, the human spirit recapitulates the past life, perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions. A complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life. The individual's karmic condition eventually leads to a choice of parents, physical body, disposition, and capacities that provide the challenges and opportunities that further development requires, which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life.
Evolution
The anthroposophical view of evolution considers all animals to have evolved from an early, unspecialized form. As the least specialized animal, human beings have maintained the closest connection to the archetypal form; contrary to the Darwinian conception of human evolution, all other animals devolve from this archetype. The spiritual archetype originally created by spiritual beings was devoid of physical substance; only later did this descend into material existence on Earth. In this view, human evolution has accompanied the Earth's evolution throughout the existence of the Earth.
Anthroposophy adapted Theosophy's complex system of cycles of world development and human evolution. The evolution of the world is said to have occurred in cycles. The first phase of the world consisted only of heat. In the second phase, a more active condition, light, and a more condensed, gaseous state separate out from the heat. In the third phase, a fluid state arose, as well as a sounding, forming energy. In the fourth (current) phase, solid physical matter first exists. This process is said to have been accompanied by an evolution of consciousness which led up to present human culture.
Ethics
The anthroposophical view is that good is found in the balance between two polar influences on world and human evolution. These are often described through their mythological embodiments as spiritual adversaries which endeavour to tempt and corrupt humanity, Lucifer and his counterpart Ahriman. These have both positive and negative aspects. Lucifer is the light spirit, which "plays on human pride and offers the delusion of divinity", but also motivates creativity and spirituality; Ahriman is the dark spirit that tempts human beings to "...deny [their] link with divinity and to live entirely on the material plane", but that also stimulates intellectuality and technology. Both figures exert a negative effect on humanity when their influence becomes misplaced or one-sided, yet their influences are necessary for human freedom to unfold. located in some 60 countries; the great majority of these are independent (private) schools. Sixteen of the schools have been affiliated with the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, which sponsors education projects that foster improved quality of education throughout the world. Waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations, Australia and in parts of the United States (as Waldorf method public or charter schools) and Canada.
The schools have been founded in a variety of communities: for example in the favelas of São Paulo to wealthy suburbs of major cities;
Benjamin Lazier calls Steiner a "maverick educator".
Biodynamic agriculture
Biodynamic agriculture, is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudo-scientific and esoteric concepts. It was also the first intentional form of organic farming, Steiner is considered one of the founders of the modern organic farming movement.
"And Himmler, Hess, and Darré all promoted biodynamic (anthroposophic) approaches to farming as an alternative to industrial agriculture."
"Steiner's 'biodynamic agriculture' based on 'restoring the quasi-mystical relationship between earth and the cosmos' was widely accepted in the Third Reich (28)."
Anthroposophical medicine
Anthroposophical medicine is a form of alternative medicine based on pseudoscientific and occult notions rather than in science-based medicine.
Most anthroposophic medical preparations are highly diluted, like homeopathic remedies, while harmless in of themselves, using them in place of conventional medicine to treat illness is ineffective and risks adverse consequences.
One of the most studied applications has been the use of mistletoe extracts in cancer therapy, but research has found no evidence of benefit.
Special needs education and services
In 1922, Ita Wegman founded an anthroposophical center for special needs education, the Sonnenhof, in Switzerland. In 1940, Karl König founded the Camphill Movement in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now over a hundred Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for children and adults in need of special care in about 22 countries around the world. Both Karl König, Thomas Weihs and others have written extensively on these ideas underlying Special education.
Architecture
, designed by Steiner in 1920, Dornach, Switzerland]]
Steiner designed around thirteen buildings in an organic—expressionist architectural style. Foremost among these are his designs for the two Goetheanum buildings in Dornach, Switzerland. Thousands of further buildings have been built by later generations of anthroposophic architects.
Architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include Imre Makovecz in Hungary, Hans Scharoun and Joachim Eble in Germany, Erik Asmussen in Sweden, Kenji Imai in Japan, Thomas Rau, Anton Alberts and Max van Huut in the Netherlands, Christopher Day and Camphill Architects in the UK, Thompson and Rose in America, Denis Bowman in Canada, and Walter Burley Griffin and Gregory Burgess in Australia.
ING House in Amsterdam is a contemporary building by an anthroposophical architect which has received awards for its ecological design and approach to a self-sustaining ecology as an autonomous building and example of sustainable architecture.
Eurythmy
Together with Marie von Sivers, Steiner developed eurythmy, a performance art combining dance, speech, and music.
Social finance and entrepreneurship
Around the world today are a number of banks, companies, charities, and schools for developing co-operative forms of business using Steiner's ideas about economic associations, aiming at harmonious and socially responsible roles in the world economy.
Socially responsible banks founded out of anthroposophy include Triodos Bank, founded in the Netherlands in 1980 and also active in the UK, Germany, Belgium, Spain and France. Other examples include Cultura Sparebank which dates from 1982 when a group of Norwegian anthroposophists began an initiative for ethical banking but only began to operate as a savings bank in Norway in the late 90s, La Nef in France and RSF Social Financein San Francisco.
Harvard Business School historian Geoffrey Jones traced the considerable impact both Steiner and later anthroposophical entrepreneurs had on the creation of many businesses in organic food, ecological architecture and sustainable finance.Organizational development, counselling and biography workBernard Lievegoed, a psychiatrist, founded a new method of individual and institutional development oriented towards humanizing organizations and linked with Steiner's ideas of the threefold social order. This work is represented by the NPI Institute for Organizational Development in the Netherlands and sister organizations in many other countries.
Art
Anthroposophic painting, a style inspired by Rudolf Steiner, featured prominently in the first Goetheanum's cupola. The technique frequently begins by filling the surface to be painted with color, out of which forms are gradually developed, often images with symbolic-spiritual significance. Paints that allow for many transparent layers are preferred, and often these are derived from plant materials. Rudolf Steiner appointed the English sculptor Edith Maryon as head of the School of Fine Art at the Goetheanum. Together they carved the 9-metre tall sculpture titled The Representative of Humanity, on display at the Goetheanum.
*The Harduf kibbutz in Israel.
Social goals
For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well known in Germany, in part because he lectured widely proposing social reforms. Steiner was a sharp critic of nationalism, which he saw as outdated, and a proponent of achieving social solidarity through individual freedom.
Steiner did influence Italian Fascism, which exploited "his racial and anti-democratic dogma." The fascist ministers Giovanni Antonio Colonna di Cesarò (nicknamed "the Anthroposophist duke"; he became antifascist after taking part in Benito Mussolini's government) and Ettore Martinoli have openly expressed their sympathy for Rudolf Steiner.
According to Egil Asprem, "Steiner's teachings had a clear authoritarian ring, and developed a rather crass polemic against 'materialism', 'liberalism', and cultural 'degeneration'. [...] For example, anthroposophical medicine was developed to contrast with the 'materialistic' (and hence 'degenerate') medicine of the establishment."Esoteric pathPaths of spiritual developmentAccording to Steiner, a real spiritual world exists, evolving along with the material one. Steiner held that the spiritual world can be researched in the right circumstances through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline. Steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline; the most complete exposition of these is found in his book How To Know Higher Worlds. The aim of these exercises is to develop higher levels of consciousness through meditation and observation. Details about the spiritual world, Steiner suggested, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, though no more infallibly than the results of natural science.}}
Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasised that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.
In anthroposophy, artistic expression is also treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality.}}
Steiner's stated prerequisites to beginning on a spiritual path include a willingness to take up serious cognitive studies, a respect for factual evidence, and a responsible attitude. Central to progress on the path itself is a harmonious cultivation of the following qualities:
* By focusing on symbolic patterns, images, and poetic mantras, the meditant can achieve consciously directed Imaginations that allow sensory phenomena to appear as the expression of underlying beings of a soul-spiritual nature.
* By transcending such imaginative pictures, the meditant can become conscious of the meditative activity itself, which leads to experiences of expressions of soul-spiritual beings unmediated by sensory phenomena or qualities. Steiner calls this stage Inspiration.
* By intensifying the will-forces through exercises such as a chronologically reversed review of the day's events, the meditant can achieve a further stage of inner independence from sensory experience, leading to direct contact, and even union, with spiritual beings ("Intuition") without loss of individual awareness.Spiritual exercises
Steiner described numerous exercises he believed would bring spiritual development; other anthroposophists have added many others. A central principle is that "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development." According to Steiner, moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over one's inner life and can exercise it in harmony with the spiritual life of other people; it shows the real progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception. It also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions (which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world) and true perceptions: i.e., the capacity to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements (i.e., viewpoint) and objective reality. In his early works, Steiner sought to overcome what he perceived as the dualism of Cartesian idealism and Kantian subjectivism by developing Goethe's conception of the human being as a natural-supernatural entity, that is: natural in that humanity is a product of nature, supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend nature's realm, allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy, art and science. Steiner was one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split in Western thought.
Christian and Jewish mystical thought have also influenced the development of anthroposophy.
Union of science and spirit
Steiner believed in the possibility of applying the clarity of scientific thinking to spiritual experience, which he saw as deriving from an objectively existing spiritual world. Steiner identified mathematics, which attains certainty through thinking itself, thus through inner experience rather than empirical observation, as the basis of his epistemology of spiritual experience.
Anthroposophy regards mainstream science as Ahrimanic.
Relationship to religion
Christ as the center of earthly evolution
Steiner's writing, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes Western tradition as having evolved to meet contemporary needs.}}
Thus, anthroposophy considers there to be a being who unifies all religions, and who is not represented by any particular religious faith. This being is, according to Steiner, not only the Redeemer of the Fall from Paradise, but also the unique pivot and meaning of earth's evolutionary processes and of human history. rather than any denominational term.Divergence from conventional Christian thoughtSteiner's views of Christianity diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include gnostic elements:
* One central point of divergence is Steiner's views on reincarnation and karma.
* Steiner differentiated three contemporary paths by which he believed it possible to arrive at Christ:
** Through heart-felt experiences of the Gospels; Steiner described this as the historically dominant path, but becoming less important in the future.
** Through inner experiences of a spiritual reality; this Steiner regarded as increasingly the path of spiritual or religious seekers today.
** Through initiatory experiences whereby the reality of Christ's death and resurrection are experienced; Steiner believed this is the path people will increasingly take. (The genealogies given in the two gospels diverge some thirty generations before Jesus' birth, and 'Jesus' was a common name in biblical times.)
* His view of the second coming of Christ is also unusual; he suggested that this would not be a physical reappearance, but that the Christ being would become manifest in non-physical form, visible to spiritual vision and apparent in community life for increasing numbers of people beginning around the year 1933.
* He emphasized his belief that in the future humanity would need to be able to recognize the Spirit of Love in all its genuine forms, regardless of what name would be used to describe this being. He also warned that the traditional name of the Christ might be misused, and the true essence of this being of love ignored.
According to Jane Gilmer, "Jung and Steiner were both versed in ancient gnosis and both envisioned a paradigmatic shift in the way it was delivered."
As Gilles Quispel put it, "After all, Theosophy is a pagan, Anthroposophy a Christian form of modern Gnosis."
Maria Carlson stated "Theosophy and Anthroposophy are fundamentally Gnostic systems in that they posit the dualism of Spirit and Matter." She also stated that Theosophy and Anthroposophy "are both modern gnostic doctrines."
R. McL. Wilson in The Oxford Companion to the Bible agrees that Steiner and Anthroposophy are under the influence of gnosticism.
Robert A. McDermott says Anthroposophy belongs to Christian Rosicrucianism. According to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Rudolf Steiner "blended modern Theosophy with a Gnostic form of Christianity, Rosicrucianism, and German Naturphilosophie".
Geoffrey Ahern states that Anthroposophy belongs to neo-gnosticism broadly conceived, which he identifies with Western esotericism and occultism.
Stefanie von Schnurbein briefly agrees that Steiner propagated Gnostic Christianity.
}}
}}
According to Catholic scholars Anthroposophy belongs to the New Age.
Elizabeth Dipple stated that Rudolf Steiner's system was a "neo-Platonic, semi-Gnostic, occult anthroposophical system [...] with its allegiance to mystical Christianity, Rosicrucianism and certain versions of spiritualism [...]".
Carl Abrahamsson stated that Steiner posited a gnostic Christ.
Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke described Anthroposophy as a [modern] offshoot of Ancient Gnosticism, especially of "the aeons of the Valentinian pleroma".
Steiner's theology is "redemption through sin", he accuses good Christians of killing the spirit of Christianity.JudaismRudolf Steiner wrote and lectured on Judaism and Jewish issues over much of his adult life. He was a fierce opponent of popular antisemitism, but asserted that there was no justification for the existence of Judaism and Jewish culture in the modern world, a radical assimilationist perspective which saw the Jews completely integrating into the larger society. He also supported Émile Zola's position in the Dreyfus affair., ein nicht gezeichnetes, auf den 10. Oktober 1918 datiertes Vorwort verfaßte, sich also einen Monat vor dem Waffenstillstand und inmitten des Zusammenbruchs des Deutschen Reiches äußerte. »Die Geheimgesellschaften der Entente-Länder«, hieß es dort, hätten eine »die Weltkatastrophe vorbereitende politische Gesinnung und Beeinflussung der Weltereignisse« an den Tag gelegt. Bei der Suche nach der »Schuld am Weltkriege« habe man auch an die Freimaurer zu denken. Dies war nicht nur eine reduktive Lösung der »Kriegsschuldfrage« im Jahr 1918, sondern möglicherweise auch ein Hinweis auf seine Motivlage im Jahr 1914: Steiner hätte sich dann aus Solidarität mit Deutschland aus dem Internationalismus der Freimaurerei verabschiedet. Andere theosophische Gesellschaften haben diesen Schnitt übrigens nicht so deutlich vollzogen."}}"}} The publication comprised a conspiracy theory according to whom World War I was a consequence of a collusion of Freemasons and Jews – still favorite scapegoats of the conspiracy theorists – their purpose being the destruction of Germany. Fact is that Steiner spent a large sum of money for publishing"}} "a now classic work of anti-Masonry and anti-Judaism".
Important early anthroposophists who were Jewish included two central members on the executive boards of the precursors to the modern Anthroposophical Society, and Karl König, the founder of the Camphill movement, who had converted to Christianity. Martin Buber and Hugo Bergmann, who viewed Steiner's social ideas as a solution to the Arab–Jewish conflict, were also influenced by anthroposophy. A number of these organizations are striving to foster positive relationships between the Arab and Jewish populations: The Harduf Waldorf school includes both Jewish and Arab faculty and students, and has extensive contact with the surrounding Arab communities, while the first joint Arab-Jewish kindergarten was a Waldorf program in Hilf near Haifa.
Christian Community
Towards the end of Steiner's life, a group of theology students (primarily Lutheran, with some Roman Catholic members) approached Steiner for help in reviving Christianity, in particular "to bridge the widening gulf between modern science and the world of spirit". Selma Lagerlöf, Andrei Bely, Joseph Beuys, Owen Barfield, architect Walter Burley Griffin, Andrei Tarkovsky, Bruno Walter, Right Livelihood Award winners Sir George Trevelyan, and Ibrahim Abouleish, and child psychiatrist Eva Frommer.
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has termed anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history."Scientific basisThough Rudolf Steiner studied natural science at the Vienna Technical University at the undergraduate level, his doctorate was in epistemology and very little of his work is directly concerned with the empirical sciences. In his mature work, when he did refer to science it was often to present phenomenological or Goethean science as an alternative to what he considered the materialistic science of his contemporaries.
Whether this is a sufficient basis for anthroposophy to be considered a spiritual science has been a matter of controversy.
Sven Ove Hansson has disputed anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis, stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable.
According to Dan Dugan, Steiner was a champion of the following pseudoscientific claims, also championed by Waldorf schools:
#wrong color theory;
#weird approach to physiological systems;
Religious nature
Two German scholars have called Anthroposophy "the most successful form of 'alternative' religion in the [twentieth] century." Other scholars stated that Anthroposophy is "aspiring to the status of religious dogma". According to Maria Carlson, anthroposophy is a "positivistic religion" "offering a seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience."
According to Swartz, Brandt, Hammer, and Hansson, Anthroposophy is a religion. They also call it "settled new religious movement", while Martin Gardner called it a cult. Another scholar also calls it a new religious movement or a new spiritual movement. Already in 1924 Anthroposophy got labeled "new religious movement" and "occultist movement". Other scholars agree it is a new religious movement. Hammer also notices that Steiner's occult doctrines bear a strong resemblance to post-Blavatskyan Theosophy (e.g. Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater). According to Helmut Zander, Steiner's clairvoyant insights always developed according to the same pattern. He took revised texts from theosophical literature and then passed them off as his own higher insights. Because he did not want to be an occult storyteller, but a (spiritual) scientist, he adapted his reading, which he had seen supernaturally in the world's memory, to the current state of technology. When, for example, the Wright brothers began flying with gliders and eventually with motorized aircraft in 1903, Steiner transformed the ponderous gondola airships of his Atlantis story into airplanes with elevators and rudders in 1904.
As an explicitly spiritual movement, anthroposophy has sometimes been called a religious philosophy. In 1998 People for Legal and Non-Sectarian Schools (PLANS) started a lawsuit alleging that anthroposophy is a religion for Establishment Clause purposes and therefore several California school districts should not be chartering Waldorf schools; the lawsuit was dismissed in 2012 for failure to show anthroposophy was a religion. A 2012 paper in legal science reports this verdict as being provisional, and disagrees with its result, i.e. anthroposophy was declared "not a religion" due to an outdated legal framework. In 2000, a French court ruled that a government minister's description of anthroposophy as a cult was defamatory. The French governmental anti-cults agency MIVILUDES reported that it remains vigilant about Anthroposophy, especially because of its deviant medical applications and its work with underage persons, and that the works of Grégoire Perra which lambast anthroposophical medicine do not constitute defamation. Anthroposophical MDs think diseases are caused primarily by karma and demons, rather than materialistic causes. The Catholic Church did in 1919 issue an edict classifying Anthroposophy as "a neognostic heresy" despite the fact that Steiner "very well respected the distinctions on which Catholic dogma insists". The secular scholar Joan Braune agrees that Anthroposophy is Gnosticism.
Some Baptist and mainstream academical heresiologists still appear inclined to agree with the more narrow prior edict of 1919 on dogma and the Lutheran (Missouri Sinod) apologist and heresiologist Eldon K. Winker quoted Ron Rhodes that Steiner's Christology is very similar to Cerinthus. Steiner did perceive "a distinction between the human person Jesus, and Christ as the divine Logos", which could be construed as Gnostic but not Docetic, Older scholarship says Steiner's Christology is Nestorian. According to Egil Asprem, "Steiner's Christology was, however, quite heterodox, and hardly compatible with official church doctrine."
Statements on race
Rudolf Steiner was an extreme pan-German nationalist, and never disavowed such stance.
Some anthroposophical ideas challenged the National Socialist racialist and nationalistic agenda. In contrast, some American educators have criticized Waldorf schools for failing to equally include the fables and myths of all cultures, instead favoring European stories over African ones.
* From the mid-1930s on, National Socialist ideologues attacked the anthroposophical worldview as being opposed to Nazi racist and nationalistic principles; anthroposophy considered "Blood, Race and Folk" as primitive instincts that must be overcome.
* An academic analysis of the educational approach in public schools noted that "[A] naive version of the evolution of consciousness, a theory foundational to both Steiner's anthroposophy and Waldorf education, sometimes places one race below another in one or another dimension of development. It is easy to imagine why there are disputes [...] about Waldorf educators' insisting on teaching Norse tales and Greek myths to the exclusion of African modes of discourse."
In response to such critiques, the Anthroposophical Society in America published in 1998 a statement clarifying its stance:
<blockquote>We explicitly reject any racial theory that may be construed to be part of Rudolf Steiner's writings. The Anthroposophical Society in America is an open, public society and it rejects any purported spiritual or scientific theory on the basis of which the alleged superiority of one race is justified at the expense of another race.</blockquote>
Tommy Wieringa, a Dutch writer who grew among Anthroposophists, commenting upon an essay by the Anthroposophist , he wrote "It was a meeting of old acquaintances: Nazi leaders such as Rudolf Hess and Heinrich Himmler already recognized a kindred spirit in Rudolf Steiner, with his theories about racial purity, esoteric medicine and biodynamic agriculture."
The racism of Anthroposophy is spiritual and paternalistic (i.e. benevolent), while the racism of fascism is materialistic and often malign. Olav Hammer, university professor expert in new religious movements and Western esotericism, confirms that now the racist and anti-Semitic character of Steiner's teachings can no longer be denied, even if that is "spiritual racism".
According to Munoz, in the materialist perspective (i.e. no reincarnations), Anthroposophy is racist, but in the spiritual perspective (i.e. reincarnations mandatory) it is not racist.Reception by Nazi regime in GermanyThough several prominent members of the Nazi Party were supporters of anthroposophy and its movements, including agriculturalist , SS colonel Hermann Schneider, and Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller, anti-Nazis such as Traute Lafrenz, a member of the White Rose resistance movement, were also followers. Rudolf Hess, the adjunct Führer, was a patron of Waldorf schools and a staunch defender of biodynamic agriculture. "Before 1933, Himmler, Walther Darré (the future Reich Agriculture Minister), and Rudolf Höss (the future commandant of Auschwitz) had studied ariosophy and anthroposophy, belonged to the occult-inspired Artamanen movement, [...]"
"One of the most insightful contributions to this area is Peter Staudenmaier's case study of Anthroposophy, which has demonstrated the ambiguous role of Anthroposophists in fascist Italy and Nazi Germany." According to Staudenmaier, the fascist and Nazi authorities saw occultism not as deviant, but as deeply familiar.<ref name"o691" />See also
* Esoteric Christianity
* Esotericism in Germany and Austria
* Pneumatosophy
* Spiritual but not religious
References
Notes
Citations
External links
* [http://www.rsarchive.org/ Rudolf Steiner Archive] (Steiner's works online)
* [http://fvn-rs.net/ Steiner's complete works in German]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514194542/http://www.rudolf-steiner-handbuch.de/images/SteinerHandbook2012.pdf Rudolf Steiner Handbook] (PDF; 56 MB)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160812104906/http://www.goetheanum.org/45.html?L1 Goetheanum]Societies* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160806033214/https://www.goetheanum.org/Anthroposophical-Society.336.0.html?&L1 General Anthroposophical Society]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org/ Anthroposophical Society in America]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.uk/ Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain]
*
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.au/ Anthroposophical Society in Australia]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org.nz/ Anthroposophical Society in New Zealand]
Category:Esoteric Christianity
Category:New religious movements established in the 1910s
Category:Rudolf Steiner
Category:Theosophy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophy | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.357543 |
2494 | Aurochs | Bos taurus|European bison|Oryx}}
| image = Copenhagen Aurochse.jpg
| image_caption = Mounted skeleton of an aurochs bull at the National Museum of Denmark
| status = EX
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref
| extinct = 1627
| genus = Bos
| species = primigenius
| authority Bojanus, 1825
In Old High German, this word was compounded with ohso ('ox') to ūrohso, which became the early modern Aurochs.
The use of the plural form in English is a direct parallel of the German plural Ochsen and recreates the same distinction by analogy as English singular ox and plural oxen, although aurochs may stand for both the singular and the plural term; both are attested.
Taxonomy and evolution
The scientific name Bos taurus was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for feral cattle in Poland.
The scientific name Bos primigenius was proposed for the aurochs by Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus who described the skeletal differences between the aurochs and domestic cattle in 1825, published in 1827. The name Bos namadicus was used by Hugh Falconer in 1859 for cattle fossils found in Nerbudda deposits.
Bos primigenius mauritanicus was coined by Philippe Thomas in 1881 who described fossils found in deposits near Oued Seguen west of Constantine, Algeria.
In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature placed Bos primigenius on the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology and thereby recognized the validity of this name for a wild species. Subspecies
Three aurochs subspecies have traditionally been recognised to have existed in historical times:
* The Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) was part of the Pleistocene megafauna in Eurasia and survived until the 17th century in Eastern Europe.
* The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) lived on the Indian subcontinent.
* The North African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) lived north of the Sahara.
In the 21st century, Chinese geneticists published mitochondrial DNA evidence supporting that Eurasian aurochs populations from northern China were genetically isolated for large stretches of the Pleistocene, and as a result distinctive enough to be considered a separate subspecies, the East Asian aurochs (B. p. sinensis), even if the animals were not morphologically distinct.
* B. p. thrinacius on the Greek island of Kythira.
Evolution
Calibrations using fossils of 16 Bovidae species indicate that the Bovini tribe evolved about . The Bos and Bison genetic lineages are estimated to have genetically diverged from the Bovini about . The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the aurochs based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in the Bovini tribe:
}}
|2=}}}}}}}}
The cold Pliocene climate caused an extension of open grassland, which enabled the evolution of large grazers. The origin of the aurochs is unclear, with authors suggesting either an African or Asian origin for the species. Bos acutifrons is considered to be a possible ancestor of the aurochs, of which a fossil skull was excavated in the Sivalik Hills in India that dates to the Early Pleistocene about .
An aurochs skull excavated in Tunisia's Kef Governorate from early Middle Pleistocene strata dating about is the oldest well-dated fossil specimen to date. The authors of the study proposed that Bos might have evolved in Africa and migrated to Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene. Middle Pleistocene aurochs fossils were also excavated in a Saharan erg in the Hoggar Mountains.
Fossils of the Indian subspecies (Bos primigenius namadicus) were excavated in alluvial deposits in South India dating to the Middle Pleistocene. Remains of aurochs are common in Late Pleistocene sites across the Indian subcontinent. however a 2024 re-examination of the site found that presence of aurochs at the locality was unsupported, with the oldest records of aurochs now placed at the Ponte Molle site in central Italy, dating to around 550-450,000 years ago. Aurochs were present in Britain by Marine Isotope Stage 11 ~400,000 years ago.
The earliest remains aurochs in East Asia are uncertain, but may date to the late Middle Pleistocene.
Late Pleistocene aurochs fossils were found in Affad 23 in Sudan dating to 50,000 years ago when the climate in this region was more humid than during the African humid period.
Following the most recent deglaciation, the range of the aurochs expanded into Denmark and southern Sweden at the beginning of the Holocene, around 12-11,000 years ago. Description
; translated: "I am Urus, in Polish, in German; the ignorant ones gave me the name Bison"
| image2 = Copenhagen Zoological Museum Aurochs bull.jpg
| caption2 = Aurochs skeleton from Zealand island in Denmark on display in the Natural History Museum of Denmark
}}
According to a 16th-century description by Sigismund von Herberstein, the aurochs was pitch-black with a grey streak along the back; his wood carving made in 1556 was based on a culled aurochs, which he had received in Mazovia. In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith published an image of an aurochs that was based on an oil painting that he had purchased from a merchant in Augsburg, which is thought to have been made in the early 16th century. This painting is thought to have shown an aurochs, Contemporary reconstructions of the aurochs are based on skeletons and the information derived from contemporaneous artistic depictions and historic descriptions of the animal. Depictions show that the North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back. Calves were probably born with a chestnut colour, and young bulls changed to black with a white eel stripe running down the spine, while cows retained a reddish-brown colour. Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle, but evidence for variation in coat colour does not exist. Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes, with a light saddle, but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domesticated cattle.
The African aurochs was similar in size to the European aurochs in the Pleistocene, but declined in size during the transition to the Holocene; it may have also varied in size geographically.
The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability. Some individuals reached around , whereas those from the late Middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to . Horns The horns were massive, reaching in length and between in diameter. Further studies using the aurochs whole genome sequence have identified candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes. A comprehensive sequence analysis of Late Pleistocene and Holocene aurochs published in 2024 suggested that Indian aurochs (represented by modern zebu cattle) were the most genetically divergent aurochs population, having diverged from other aurochs around 300–166,000 years ago, with other aurochs populations spanning Europe and the Middle East to East Asia sharing much more recent common ancestry within the last 100,000 years. Late Pleistocene European aurochs were found to have a small (~3%) ancestry component from a divergent lineage that split prior to the divergence of Indian and other aurochs, suggested to be residual from earlier European aurochs populations. Towards the end of the Late Pleistocene, European aurochs experienced considerable gene flow from Middle Eastern aurochs. European Holocene aurochs primarily descend from those that were present in the Iberian Peninsula during the Last Glacial Maximum, with the Holocene also seeing mixing between previously isolated aurochs populations.
Distribution and habitat
(130–115,000 years ago)]]
The aurochs was widely distributed in North Africa, Mesopotamia, and throughout Europe to the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Caucasus and Western Siberia in the west and to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in the north.
Fossil horns attributed to the aurochs were found in Late Pleistocene deposits at an elevation of on the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau close to the Heihe River in Zoigê County that date to about 26,620±600 years BP. Most fossils in China were found in plains below in Heilongjiang, Yushu, Jilin, northeastern Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, near Beijing, Yangyuan County in Hebei province, Datong and Dingcun in Shanxi province, Huan County in Gansu and in Guizhou provinces. Ancient DNA in aurochs fossils found in Northeast China indicate that the aurochs survived in the region until at least 5,000 years BP. Fossils were also excavated on the Korean Peninsula, and in the Japanese archipelago.
During warm interglacial periods the aurochs was widespread across Europe, Pollen of mostly small shrubs found in fossiliferous sediments with aurochs remains in China indicate that it preferred temperate grassy plains or grasslands bordering woodlands. In the warm Atlantic period of the Holocene, it was restricted to remaining open country and forest margins, where competition with livestock and humans gradually increased leading to a successive decline of the aurochs. Behaviour and ecology
(foreground) wild horse (left), the straight-tusked elephant (background centre-left), bison, (background centre) and the narrow-nosed rhinoceros (far right)]]
Aurochs formed small herds mainly in winter, but typically lived singly or in smaller groups during the summer.
Mating season was in September, and calves were born in spring. with evidence for the consumption of aurochs by cave hyenas (Crocuta (Crocuta) spelaea) having been found from Late Pleistocene Italy. The lion (Panthera leo), tiger (Panthera tigris) and wolf are thought to have been the aurochs main predators during the Holocene.
Relationship with humans
In Asia
Acheulean layers in Hunasagi on India's southern Deccan Plateau yielded aurochs bones with cut marks. An aurochs bone with cut marks induced with flint was found in a Middle Paleolithic layer at the Nesher Ramla Homo site in Israel; it was dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5 about 120,000 years ago. An archaeological excavation in Israel found traces of a feast held by the Natufian culture around 12,000 years BP, in which three aurochs were eaten. This appears to be an uncommon occurrence in the culture and was held in conjunction with the burial of an older woman, presumably of some social status. Petroglyphs depicting aurochs in Gobustan Rock Art in Azerbaijan date to the Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic periods.
Aurochs bones and skulls found at the settlements of Mureybet, Hallan Çemi and Çayönü indicate that people stored and shared food in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture.
Remains of an aurochs were also found in a necropolis in Sidon, Lebanon, dating to around 3,700 years BP; the aurochs was buried together with numerous animals, a few human bones and foods.
Seals dating to the Indus Valley civilisation found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro show an animal with curved horns like an aurochs. Aurochs figurines were made by the Maykop culture in the Western Caucasus.
The aurochs is denoted in the Akkadian words rīmu and rēmu, both used in the context of hunts by rulers such as Naram-Sin of Akkad, Tiglath-Pileser I and Shalmaneser III; in Mesopotamia, it symbolised power and sexual potency, was an epithet of the gods Enlil and Shamash, denoted prowess as an epithet of the king Sennacherib and the hero Gilgamesh. Wild bulls are frequently referred to in Ugaritic texts as hunted by and sacrificed to the god Baal. An aurochs is depicted on Babylon's Ishtar Gate, constructed in the 6th century BC. In Africa Petroglyphs depicting aurochs found in Qurta in the upper Nile valley were dated to the Late Pleistocene about 19–15,000 years BP using luminescence dating and are the oldest engravings found to date in Africa. Aurochs are part of hunting scenes in reliefs in a tomb at Thebes, Egypt dating to the 20th century BC, and in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu dating to around 1175 BC. The latter is the youngest depiction of aurochs in Ancient Egyptian art to date.
In Europe
Evidence has been found for the butchery of aurochs by archaic hominins in Europe during the Middle Palaeolithic, such as the Biache-Saint-Vaast site in northern France dating to around 240,000 years ago, where bones of aurochs have been found burnt by fire and with cut marks, thought to have been created by Neanderthals. At the late Middle Palaeolithic Cueva Des-Cubierta site in Spain, Neanderthals are proposed to have kept the skulls of aurochs as hunting trophies.
The aurochs is widely represented in Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves in southern France dating to 36,000 and 21,000 years BP, respectively.
Two Paleolithic rock engravings in the Calabrian Romito Cave depict an aurochs.
Palaeolithic engravings showing aurochs were also found in the Grotta del Genovese on the Italian island of Levanzo.
Upper Paleolithic rock engravings and paintings depicting the aurochs were also found in caves on the Iberian Peninsula dating from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian cultures.
Aurochs bones with chop and cut marks were found at various Mesolithic hunting and butchering sites in France, Luxemburg, Germany, the Netherlands, England and Denmark. Aurochs bones were also found in Mesolithic settlements by the Narva and Emajõgi rivers in Estonia. Aurochs and human bones were uncovered from pits and burnt mounds at several Neolithic sites in England.
A cup found in the Greek site of Vaphio shows a hunting scene, in which people try to capture an aurochs. One of the bulls throws one hunter on the ground while attacking the second with its horns. The cup seems to date to Mycenaean Greece. Greeks and Paeonians hunted aurochs and used their huge horns as trophies, cups for wine, and offerings to the gods and heroes. The ox mentioned by Samus, Philippus of Thessalonica and Antipater as killed by Philip V of Macedon on the foothills of mountain Orvilos, was actually an aurochs; Philip offered the horns, which were long and the skin to a temple of Hercules.
The aurochs was described in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Aurochs horns were often used by Romans as hunting horns. During the Middle Ages, aurochs horns were used as drinking horns including the horn of the last bull; many aurochs horn sheaths are preserved today. The aurochs drinking horn at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge was engraved with the college's coat of arms in the 17th century.
An aurochs head with a star between its horns and Christian iconographic elements represents the official coat of arms of Moldavia perpetuated for centuries.
Aurochs were hunted with arrows, nets and hunting dogs, and its hair on the forehead was cut from the living animal; belts were made out of this hair and believed to increase the fertility of women. When the aurochs was slaughtered, the os cordis was extracted from the heart; this bone contributed to the mystique and magical powers that were attributed to it.
In Late Neolithic sites of northern Iraq and western Iran dating to the sixth millennium BC, cattle remains are also smaller but more frequent, indicating that domesticated cattle were imported during the Halaf culture from the central Fertile Crescent region.
Results of genetic research indicate that the modern taurine cattle (Bos taurus) arose from 80 aurochs tamed in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria about 10,500 years ago.
Hybridisation between male aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred in central Europe between 9500 and 1000 BC.
Analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences of Italian aurochs specimens dated to 17–7,000 years ago and 51 modern cattle breeds revealed some degree of introgression of aurochs genes into south European cattle, indicating that female aurochs had contact with free-ranging domestic cattle. Cattle bones of various sizes found at a Chalcolithic settlement in the Kutná Hora District provide further evidence for hybridisation of aurochs and domestic cattle between 3000 and 2800 BC in the Bohemian region. The Murboden cattle breed also exhibits sporadic introgression of female European aurochs into domestic cattle in the Alps. Domestic cattle continued to diminish in both body and horn size until the Middle Ages.
Aurochs fossils found at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan are dated to around 8,000 years BP and represent some of the earliest evidence for its domestication on the Indian subcontinent. Female Indian aurochs contributed to the gene pool of zebu (Bos indicus) between 5,500 and 4,000 years BP during the expansion of pastoralism in northern India. The zebu initially spread eastwards to Southeast Asia.
Hybridisation between zebu and early taurine cattle occurred in the Near East after 4,000 years BP coinciding with the drought period during the 4.2-kiloyear event. The zebu was introduced to East Africa about 3,500–2,500 years ago,
A third domestication event thought to have occurred in Egypt's Western Desert is not supported by results of an analysis of genetic admixture, introgression and migration patterns of 3,196 domestic cattle representing 180 populations. However, the same study supported extensive hybridization between taurine cattle in Africa, arrived from the Near East after domestication, and local wild African aurochs prior to the entry of the zebu in Africa.
Extinction
in Thebes, Egypt, depicting a North African aurochs bull, cow and calf being hunted with dogs and javelins.]]
The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) became extinct sometime during the Holocene period, likely due to habitat loss caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with the domestic zebu. The timing of extinction of aurochs in the Indian subcontinent is unclear, due to difficulty distinguishing aurochs remains from those of domestic cattle, with a 2021 review suggesting remains from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, dating to around 8,000 years ago "might constitute the only dated and reliably identified evidence" of Holocene Indian aurochs.
A 2014 review suggested that the youngest remains of African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) dated to around 6,000 years Before Present (BP), though some authors suggest that it may have survived until at least to the Roman period, as indicated by remains found in Buto and Faiyum in the Nile Delta.
The Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) was present in southern Sweden during the Holocene climatic optimum until at least 7,800 years BP. In Denmark, the first-known local extinction of the aurochs occurred after the sea level rise on the newly formed Danish islands about 8,000–7,500 years BP, and the last documented aurochs lived in southern Jutland around 3,000 years BP.
Excessive hunting began and continued until the aurochs was nearly extinct. The gradual extinction of the aurochs in Central Europe was concurrent with the clearcutting of large forest tracts between the 9th and 12th centuries.
Findings from subfossil records indicate that wild aurochs might have survived in northwestern Transylvania until the 14th to 16th century, in western Moldavia until probably the early 17th century.
The last-known aurochs herd lived in a marshy woodland in Poland's Jaktorów Forest. It decreased from around 50 individuals in the mid 16th century to four individuals by 1601. The last aurochs cow died in 1627 from natural causes.
A 2021 study argued that the aurochs possibly survived in northeastern Bulgaria until at least the 17th century. A horn-core excavated in 2020 in Sofia was identified as being from an aurochs; the archaeological layer in which it was found was dated to the second half of the 17th or first half of the 18th century, suggesting that aurochs may have survived in Bulgaria until that date.
Breeding of aurochs-like cattle
In the early 1920s, Heinz Heck initiated a selective breeding program in Hellabrunn Zoo attempting to breed back the aurochs using several cattle breeds; the result is called Heck cattle.
Herds of these cattle were released to Oostvaardersplassen, a polder in the Netherlands in the 1980s as aurochs surrogates for naturalistic grazing with the aim to restore prehistorical landscapes. Large numbers of them died of starvation during the cold winters of 2005 and 2010, and the project of no interference ended in 2018.
Starting in 1996, Heck cattle were crossed with southern European cattle breeds such as Sayaguesa Cattle, Chianina and to a lesser extent Spanish Fighting Bulls in the hope of creating a more aurochs-like animal. The resulting crossbreeds are called Taurus cattle. Other breeding-back projects are the Tauros Programme and the Uruz Project.
See also
*Ur (rune)
*Sacred bull
*Chillingham cattle
References
External links
*[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/where-did-aurochs-live The Story of the Aurochs Is More Complicated Than We Thought], December 12, 2024. Article at Atlas Obscura
Category:Mammals described in 1827
Category:Bos
Category:Extinct mammals of Europe
Category:Extinct mammals
Category:Extinct mammals of Asia
Category:Extinct mammals of Africa
Category:Fossil taxa described in 1827
Category:Holocene extinctions
Category:Mammal extinctions since 1500
Category:Pleistocene Artiodactyla
Category:Pleistocene first appearances
Category:Pliocene Artiodactyla
Category:Prehistoric bovids
Category:Species made extinct by human activities
Category:Bovids of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochs | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.419610 |
2499 | Asynchronous Transfer Mode | thumb|IBM Turboways ATM 155 PCI network interface card
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a telecommunications standard defined by the American National Standards Institute and International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly CCITT) for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s, ATM provides functionality that uses features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using asynchronous time-division multiplexing. ATM was seen in the 1990s as a competitor to Ethernet and networks carrying IP traffic as, unlike Ethernet, it was faster and designed with quality-of-service in mind, but it fell out of favor once Ethernet reached speeds of 1 gigabits per second.
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets) called cells. This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) (OSI layer 3) or Ethernet (also layer 2) that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the data exchange begins. ATM is a core protocol used in the synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH) backbone of the public switched telephone network and in the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.
Protocol architecture
To minimize queuing delay and packet delay variation (PDV), all ATM cells are the same small size. Reduction of PDV is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analog audio signal is an inherently real-time process. The decoder needs an evenly spaced stream of data items.
At the time of the design of ATM, synchronous digital hierarchy with payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to in the US, and 2 to in Europe.
At , a typical full-length 1,500 byte Ethernet frame would take 77.42 μs to transmit. On a lower-speed T1 line, the same packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over. This was considered unacceptable for speech traffic.
The design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. Cells were introduced to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all data packets and voice streams into 48-byte pieces, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. Being 1/30th the size reduced cell contention jitter by the same factor of 30.
The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice. Parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (4 ms of voice data) would avoid the need for echo cancellation on domestic voice calls. The United States, due to its larger size, already had echo cancellers widely deployed. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length.
48 bytes was chosen as a compromise, despite having all the disadvantages of both proposals and the additional inconvenience of not being a power of two in size. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information.
Cell structure
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. ATM defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI) and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
Diagram of a UNI ATM cell
7 4 3 0 GFC VPI VPI VCI VCI VCI PT CLP HEC
Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)
Diagram of an NNI ATM cell
7 4 3 0 VPI VPI VCI VCI VCI PT CLP HEC
Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)
GFC
The generic flow control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized, and the field is always set to 0000.
VPI
Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI)
VCI
Virtual channel identifier (16 bits)
PT
Payload type (3 bits)
Bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply:
Bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced
Bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries.
CLP
Cell loss priority (1-bit)
HEC
Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X8 + X2 + X + 1)
ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit (MSB) of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general-purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the MSB is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type: network management segment, network management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use.
Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found.
A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control and sub-multiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.
The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 212 VPs of up to almost 216 VCs each.
Service types
ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.
Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a network, reducing the motivation for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. The increased link speeds by themselves do not eliminate jitter due to queuing.
ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP, Ethernet VLANs, VxLAN, MPLS, and multi-protocol support over SONET.
Virtual circuits
An ATM network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. This is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. Call admission is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection.
Motivation
ATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using VCs. This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16-bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on a user-network interface (at the edge of the network), or if it is sent on a network-network interface (inside the network).
As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI/VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in Frame Relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X.25.
Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths.
Types
ATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes.
PVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service contract) and the two endpoints.
ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end station. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are interconnected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.
Routing
Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI is a link-state routing protocol like OSPF and IS-IS. PNNI also includes a very powerful route summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.
Traffic engineering
Another key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which quality of service (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.
CBR Constant bit rate: a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is specified, which is constant.
VBR Variable bit rate: an average or Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is specified, which can peak at a certain level, a PCR, for a maximum interval before being problematic.
ABR Available bit rate: a minimum guaranteed rate is specified.
UBR Unspecified bit rate: traffic is allocated to all remaining transmission capacity.
VBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and serves for bursty traffic. Non-real-time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr-nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of cell-delay variation tolerance (CDVT), which defines the clumping of cells in time.
Traffic policing
To maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user–network interfaces (UNIs) and network-to-network interfaces (NNIs) using usage/network parameter control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU-T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVT alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVT and an SCR and maximum burst size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR-SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells.
If the traffic on a virtual circuit exceeds its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or set the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit, allowing the cells to be dropped at a congestion point. Basic policing works on a cell-by-cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic as discarding a single cell will invalidate a packet's worth of cells. As a result, schemes such as partial packet discard (PPD) and early packet discard (EPD) have been developed to discard a whole packet's cells. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM user-to-ATM user (AUU) indication bit in the payload-type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR-SDU.
Traffic shaping
Traffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface controller (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate.
Reference model
The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI reference model. It specifies the following layers:
At the physical network level, ATM specifies a layer that is equivalent to the OSI physical layer.
The ATM layer 2 roughly corresponds to the OSI data link layer.
The OSI network layer is implemented as the ATM adaptation layer (AAL).
Deployment
thumb|ATM switch by FORE systems
ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price–performance ratio of Internet Protocol-based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real-time and bursty network traffic. Additionally, among cable companies using ATM there often would be discrete and competing management teams for telephony, video on demand, and broadcast and digital video reception, which adversely impacted efficiency. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot-com bubble, some still predicted that "ATM is going to dominate". However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum.
Wireless or mobile ATM
Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM, consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as a crossover switch, which is similar to the mobile switching center of GSM networks.
The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and high-speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high-speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs.
See also
VoATM
ATM25
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
ATM ChipWeb - Chip and NIC database
Category:ITU-T recommendations
Category:Link protocols
Category:Networking standards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.481014 |
2500 | Anus | In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the anus (: anuses or ani; from Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is the external body orifice at the exit end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e. the opposite end from the mouth. Its function is to facilitate the expulsion of wastes that remain after digestion.
Bowel contents that pass through the anus include the gaseous flatus and the semi-solid feces, which (depending on the type of animal) include: indigestible matter such as bones, hair pellets, endozoochorous seeds and digestive rocks; residual food material after the digestible nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; excreted metabolites like bilirubin-containing bile; and dead mucosal epithelia or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Passage of feces through the anus is typically controlled by muscular sphincters, and failure to stop unwanted passages results in fecal incontinence.
Amphibians, reptiles and birds use a similar orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.
The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated "modules" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.
In comb jellies, there are species with one and sometimes two permanent anuses, species like the warty comb jelly grows an anus, which then disappear when it is no longer needed.
Development
In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (proto– meaning "first") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. Research from 2001 shows the edges of the dent close up in the middles of protosomes, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouths and anuses.
See also
References
External links
Category:Digestive system | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anus | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.487747 |
2501 | Appendix | Appendix (: appendices or appendixes) may refer to:
__NOTOC__
In documents
Addendum, an addition made to a document by its author after its initial printing or publication
Bibliography, a systematic list of books and other works
Index (publishing), a list of words or phrases with pointers to where related material can be found in a document
Anatomy
Appendix (anatomy), a part of the human digestive system
A part of the spadix of certain plants within family Araceae
Arts and media
Appendix (band), a Finnish punk rock group
The Appendix, a quarterly journal of history and culture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendix | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.489804 |
2502 | Acantharia | The Acantharia are a group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their strontium sulfate skeletons. Acantharians are heterotrophic marine microplankton that range in size from about 200 microns in diameter up to several millimeters. Some acantharians have photosynthetic endosymbionts and hence are considered mixotrophs.
Morphology
crystal]]
Acantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate, SrSO<sub>4</sub>, in the form of mineral celestine crystal. Celestine is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals, and is the heaviest mineral in the ocean.
The strontium sulfate crystals However, unlike other radiolarians whose skeletons are made of silica, acantharian skeletons do not fossilize, primarily because strontium sulfate is very scarce in seawater and the crystals dissolve after the acantharians die. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law in terms of lines of latitude and longitude – the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two tropical spines or one equatorial and two polar spines, in alternation.
The cell cytoplasm is divided into two regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm. The endoplasm, at the core of the cell, contains the main organelles, including many nuclei, and is delineated from the ectoplasm by a capsular wall made of a microfibril mesh. In symbiotic species, the algal symbionts are maintained in the endoplasm. The ectoplasm consists of cytoplasmic extensions used for prey capture and also contains food vacuoles for prey digestion. The ectoplasm is surrounded by a periplasmic cortex, also made up of microfibrils, but arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spicule projects. The cortex is linked to the spines by contractile myonemes, which assist in buoyancy control by allowing the ectoplasm to expand and contract, increasing and decreasing the total volume of the cell.
* Holacanthida – 10 diametric spicules, simply crossed, no central junction, capable of encystment
*Chaunacanthida – 20 radial spicules, loosely attached, capable of encystment
* Symphiacanthida – 20 radial spicules, tight central junction
* Arthracanthida – 20 radial spines, tight central junction
The morphological classification system roughly agrees with phylogenetic trees based on the alignment of ribosomal RNA genes, although the groups are mostly polyphyletic. Holacanthida seems to have evolved first and includes molecular clades A, B, and D. Chaunacanthida evolved second and includes only one molecular clade, clade C. Arthracanthida and Symphacanthida, which have the most complex skeletons, evolved most recently and constitute molecular clades E and F.
Symbiotic Holacanthida acantharians host diverse symbiont assemblages, including several genera of dinoflagellates (Pelagodinium, Heterocapsa, Scrippsiella, Azadinium) and a haptophyte (Chrysochromulina). Clade E & F acantharians have a more specific symbiosis and primarily host symbionts from the haptophyte genus Phaeocystis, Releasing swarmer cells in deeper water may improve the survival chances of juveniles. Study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to "close the lifecycle" and maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations.
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acantharia | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.499300 |
2503 | African National Congress | | abbreviation = ANC
| president = Cyril Ramaphosa
| secretary_general = Fikile Mbalula
| governing_body = National Executive Committee
| spokesperson = Mahlengi Bhengu
| leader1_title = Deputy President
| leader1_name = Paul Mashatile
| leader2_title = Chairperson
| leader2_name = Gwede Mantashe
| leader3_title = First Deputy Secretary-General
| leader3_name = Nomvula Mokonyane
| leader4_title = Second Deputy Secretary-General
| leader4_name = Maropene Ramokgopa
| leader5_title = Treasurer-General
| leader5_name = Gwen Ramokgopa
| founders =
| founded
| legalised
| headquarters = Luthuli House<br />54 Sauer Street<br />Johannesburg<br />Gauteng
| newspaper = ANC Today
| think_tank | student_wing
| youth_wing = ANC Youth League
| womens_wing = ANC Women's League
| wing1_title = Veterans' wing
| wing1 = ANC Veterans' League
| wing2_title = Paramilitary wing
| wing2 = uMkhonto we Sizwe (until 1993)
| membership_year = 2022
| membership 661,489
| ideology Social democracy<br>African nationalism
| position Centre-left
| national = Tripartite Alliance
| international Socialist International
| affiliation1_title = African affiliation
| affiliation1 = Former Liberation Movements of Southern Africa
| colours = Black| Green| Gold}}
| slogan = ''South Africa's National Liberation Movement''
| anthem = "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika"<br />
| seats1_title = National Assembly seats
| seats1 }}
| seats2_title = NCOP seats
| seats2 }}
| seats3_title = Control of NCOP delegations
| seats3 }}
| seats4_title = Pan-African Parliament
| seats4 }}<small>(South African seats)</small>
| seats5_title = Provincial Legislatures
| seats5 }}
| seats6_title = Cape Town City Council
| seats6 }}
| symbol | flag Flag of the African National Congress.svg
| website =
| country = South Africa
| footnotes =
}}
The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa. Cyril Ramaphosa, the incumbent national President, has served as President of the ANC since 18 December 2017.
Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans. When the National Party government came to power in 1948, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid. To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics, and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53. The ANC was banned by the South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990. During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island. Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom. However, it positioned itself as a key player in the negotiations to end apartheid, which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990. For much of that time, the ANC leadership, along with many of its most active members, operated from abroad. After the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the ANC remained committed to achieving its objectives through armed struggle, led by its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. These circumstances significantly shaped the ANC during its years in exile. Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members.
Following the 2024 general election, the ANC lost its majority in parliament for the first time in South Africa's democratic history. However, it still remained the largest party, with just over 40% of the vote. The party also lost its majority in Kwa-Zulu Natal, Gauteng and Northern Cape. Despite these setbacks, the ANC retained power at the national level through a grand coalition referred to as the Government of National Unity, including parties which together have 72% of the seats in Parliament.
History
Origins
A successor of the Cape Colony's Imbumba Yamanyama organisation, the ANC was founded as the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein on 8 January 1912, and was renamed the African National Congress in 1923. Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Sol Plaatje, John Dube, and Walter Rubusana founded the organisation, who, like much of the ANC's early membership, were from the conservative, educated, and religious professional classes of black South African society. Although they would not take part, Xhosa chiefs would show huge support for the organisation; as a result, King Jongilizwe donated 50 cows to during its founding. Around 1920, in a partial shift away from its early focus on the "politics of petitioning", the ANC developed a programme of passive resistance directed primarily at the expansion and entrenchment of pass laws. When Josiah Gumede took over as ANC president in 1927, he advocated for a strategy of mass mobilisation and cooperation with the Communist Party, but was voted out of office in 1930 and replaced with the traditionalist Seme, whose leadership saw the ANC's influence wane. This culminated in the 1952–53 Defiance Campaign, a campaign of mass civil disobedience organised by the ANC, the Indian Congress, and the coloured Franchise Action Council in protest of six apartheid laws. The ANC's membership swelled. Before the trial was concluded, the Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960. In the aftermath, the ANC was banned by the South African government. It was not unbanned until February 1990, almost three decades later. , Walter Rubusana, John Dube, Saul Msane, and Sol Plaatje.|left]] Exile in Lusaka After its banning in April 1960, the ANC was driven underground, a process hastened by a barrage of government banning orders, by an escalation of state repression, and by the imprisonment of senior ANC leaders pursuant to the Rivonia trial and Little Rivonia trial. From around 1963, the ANC effectively abandoned much of even its underground presence inside South Africa and operated almost entirely from its external mission, with headquarters first in Morogoro, Tanzania, and later in Lusaka, Zambia. For the entirety of its time in exile, the ANC was led by Tambo – first de facto, with president Albert Luthuli under house arrest in Zululand; then in an acting capacity, after Luthuli's death in 1967; and, finally, officially, after a leadership vote in 1985. Also notable about this period was the extremely close relationship between the ANC and the reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), which was also in exile. In 1969, Tambo was compelled to call the landmark Morogoro Conference to address the grievances of the rank-and-file, articulated by Chris Hani in a memorandum which depicted MK's leadership as corrupt and complacent. Although MK's malaise persisted into the 1970s, conditions for armed struggle soon improved considerably, especially after the Soweto uprising of 1976 in South Africa saw thousands of students – inspired by Black Consciousness ideas – cross the borders to seek military training. MK guerrilla activity inside South Africa increased steadily over this period, with one estimate recording an increase from 23 incidents in 1977 to 136 incidents in 1985. In the latter half of the 1980s, a number of South African civilians were killed in these attacks, a reversal of the ANC's earlier reluctance to incur civilian casualties. In fact, neither the ANC nor Mandela were removed from the U.S. terror watch list until 2008. The animosity of Western regimes was partly explained by the Cold War context, and by the considerable amount of support – both financial and technical – that the ANC received from the Soviet Union. President F. W. de Klerk announced in February 1990 that the government would unban the ANC and other banned political organisations, and that Mandela would be released from prison. Some ANC leaders returned to South Africa from exile for so-called "talks about talks", which led in 1990 and 1991 to a series of bilateral accords with the government establishing a mutual commitment to negotiations. Importantly, the Pretoria Minute of August 1990 included a commitment by the ANC to unilaterally suspend its armed struggle. This made possible the multi-party Convention for a Democratic South Africa and later the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum, in which the ANC was regarded as the main representative of the interests of the anti-apartheid movement.
However, ongoing political violence, which the ANC attributed to a state-sponsored third force, led to recurrent tensions. Most dramatically, after the Boipatong massacre of June 1992, the ANC announced that it was withdrawing from negotiations indefinitely. It faced further casualties in the Bisho massacre, the Shell House massacre, and in other clashes with state forces and supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP). However, once negotiations resumed, they resulted in November 1993 in an interim Constitution, which governed South Africa's first democratic elections on 27 April 1994. In the elections, the ANC won an overwhelming 62.65% majority of the vote. Mandela was elected president and formed a coalition Government of National Unity, which, under the provisions of the interim Constitution, also included the National Party and IFP. The ANC has controlled the national government since then.
Breakaways
In the post-apartheid era, several significant breakaway groups have been formed by former ANC members. The first is the Congress of the People, founded by Mosiuoa Lekota in 2008 in the aftermath of the Polokwane elective conference, when the ANC declined to re-elect Thabo Mbeki as its president and instead compelled his resignation from the national presidency. The second breakaway is the Economic Freedom Fighters, founded in 2013 after youth leader Julius Malema was expelled from the ANC. Before these, the most important split in the ANC's history occurred in 1959, when Robert Sobukwe led a splinter faction of African nationalists to the new Pan Africanist Congress.
uMkhonto weSizwe rose to prominence in December 2023, when former president Jacob Zuma announced that, while planning to remain a lifelong member of the ANC, he would not be campaigning for the ANC in the 2024 South African general election, and would instead be voting for MK. In July 2024, Jacob Zuma was expelled from the ANC, because of campaigning for a rival party (MK party) in the 29 May general election. Current structure and composition was elected ANC president at the 2017 conference.]] Leadership Under the ANC constitution, every member of the ANC belongs to a local branch, and branch members select the organisation's policies and leaders. They do so primarily by electing delegates to the National Conference, which is currently convened every five years. Between conferences, the organisation is led by its 86-member National Executive Committee, which is elected at each conference. The most senior members of the National Executive Committee are the so-called Top Six officials, the ANC president primary among them. A symmetrical process occurs at the subnational levels: each of the nine provincial executive committees and regional executive committees are elected at provincial and regional elective conferences respectively, also attended by branch delegates; and branch officials are elected at branch general meetings. The membership and leadership of the three organisations has traditionally overlapped significantly. The alliance constitutes a de facto electoral coalition: the SACP and COSATU do not contest in government elections, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy. However, the SACP, in particular, has frequently threatened to field its own candidates, and in 2017 it did so for the first time, running against the ANC in by-elections in the Metsimaholo municipality, Free State.
Electoral candidates
Under South Africa's closed-list proportional representation electoral system, parties have immense power in selecting candidates for legislative bodies. The ANC's internal candidate selection process is overseen by so-called "list committees" and tends to involve a degree of broad democratic participation, especially at the local level, where ANC branches vote to nominate candidates for the local government elections. Between 2003 and 2008, the ANC also gained a significant number of members through the controversial floor crossing process, which occurred especially at the local level.
The leaders of the executive in each sphere of government – the president, the provincial premiers, and the mayors – are indirectly elected after each election. In practice, the selection of ANC candidates for these positions is highly centralised, with the ANC caucus voting together to elect a pre-decided candidate. Although the ANC does not always announce whom its caucuses intend to elect, the National Assembly has thus far always elected the ANC president as the national president.
Cadre deployment
The ANC has adhered to a formal policy of cadre deployment since 1985. In the post-apartheid era, the policy includes but is not exhausted by selection of candidates for elections and government positions: it also entails that the central organisation "deploys" ANC members to various other strategic positions in the party, state, and economy.Ideology and policies
saw the ANC expand and informally absorb other anti-apartheid groups.]]
The ANC prides itself on being a broad church, and, like many dominant parties, resembles a catch-all party, accommodating a range of ideological tendencies. As Mandela told the Washington Post in 1990:<blockquote>The ANC has never been a political party. It was formed as a parliament of the African people. Right from the start, up to now, the ANC is a coalition, if you want, of people of various political affiliations. Some will support free enterprise, others socialism. Some are conservatives, others are liberals. We are united solely by our determination to oppose racial oppression. That is the only thing that unites us. There is no question of ideology as far as the odyssey of the ANC is concerned, because any question approaching ideology would split the organization from top to bottom. Because we have no connection whatsoever except at this one, of our determination to dismantle apartheid. </blockquote>The post-apartheid ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, pursuing "the complete liberation of the country from all forms of discrimination and national oppression". Nonetheless, some basic commonalities are visible in the policy and ideological preferences of the organisation's mainstream. Non-racialism
The ANC is committed to the ideal of non-racialism and to opposing "any form of racial, tribalistic or ethnic exclusivism or chauvinism".
National Democratic Revolution
The 1969 Morogoro Conference committed the ANC to a "national democratic revolution [which] – destroying the existing social and economic relationship – will bring with it a correction of the historical injustices perpetrated against the indigenous majority and thus lay the basis for a new – and deeper internationalist – approach". For the movement's intellectuals, the concept of the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) was a means of reconciling the anti-apartheid and anti-colonial project with a second goal, that of establishing domestic and international socialism – the ANC is a member of the Socialist International, The concept remained important to ANC intellectuals and strategists after the end of apartheid. Indeed, the pursuit of the NDR is one of the primary objectives of the ANC as set out in its constitution. Specifically, the state was to intervene in the economy through three primary channels: a land reform programme; a degree of economic planning, through industrial and trade policy; and state investments in infrastructure and the provision of basic services, including health and education. Although the RDP was abandoned in 1996, these three channels of state economic intervention have remained mainstays of subsequent ANC policy frameworks.
Neoliberal turn
In 1996, Mandela's government replaced the RDP with the Growth Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) programme, which was maintained under President Thabo Mbeki, Mandela's successor. GEAR has been characterised as a neoliberal policy, and it was disowned by both COSATU and the SACP. While some analysts viewed Mbeki's economic policy as undertaking the uncomfortable macroeconomic adjustments necessary for long-term growth, Debate about ANC commitment to redistribution on a socialist scale has continued: in 2013, the country's largest trade union, the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa, withdrew its support for the ANC on the basis that "the working class cannot any longer see the ANC or the SACP as its class allies in any meaningful sense". It is evident, however, that the ANC never embraced free-market capitalism, and continued to favour a mixed economy: even as the debate over GEAR raged, the ANC declared itself (in 2004) a social-democratic party, and it was at that time presiding over phenomenal expansions of its black economic empowerment programme and the system of social grants.
Developmental state
As its name suggests, the RDP emphasised state-led development – that is, a developmental state – which the ANC has typically been cautious, at least in its rhetoric, to distinguish from the neighbouring concept of a welfare state. In this regard, ANC politicians often cite China as an aspirational example. A discussion document ahead of the ANC's 2015 National General Council proposed that:<blockquote>[[Chinese economic reform|China['s] economic development]] trajectory remains a leading example of the triumph of humanity over adversity. The exemplary role of the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China in this regard should be a guiding lodestar of our own struggle. </blockquote>
Radical economic transformation
Towards the end of Jacob Zuma's presidency, an ANC faction aligned to Zuma pioneered a new policy platform referred to as radical economic transformation (RET). Zuma announced the new focus on RET during his February 2017 State of the Nation address, and later that year, explaining that it had been adopted as ANC policy and therefore as government policy, defined it as entailing "fundamental change in the structures, systems, institutions and patterns of ownership and control of the economy, in favour of all South Africans, especially the poor". Arguments for RET were closely associated with the rhetorical concept of white monopoly capital. At the 54th National Conference in 2017, the ANC endorsed a number of policy principles advocated by RET supporters, including their proposal to pursue land expropriation without compensation as a matter of national policy. Foreign policy and relations
The ANC has long had close ties with China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the CCP having supported ANC's struggle of apartheid since 1961. In 2008, the two parties signed a memorandum of understanding to train ANC members in China.
President Cyril Ramaphosa and the ANC have not condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and have faced criticism from opposition parties, public commentators, academics, civil society organisations, and former ANC members due to this. The ANC youth wing has meanwhile condemned sanctions against Russia and denounced NATO's eastward expansion as "fascistic". Officials representing the ANC Youth League acted as international observers for Russia's staged referendum to annex Ukrainian territory conquered during the war. In February 2024 ANC Secretary-General Fikile Mbalula attend a "forum on combating Western neocolonialism" hosted by Russia, thereby drawing further criticism for the party's perceived support for Russia's invasion.
The ANC had received large donations from the Putin linked Russian oligarch Viktor Vekselberg, whilst the party's investment arm, Chancellor House, has a joint investment with Vekselberg in a South African manganese mine.Symbols and media Flag and logo The logo of the ANC incorporates a spear and shield – symbolising the historical and ongoing struggle, armed and otherwise, against colonialism and racial oppression – and a wheel, which is borrowed from the 1955 Congress of the People campaign and therefore symbolises a united and non-racial movement for freedom and equality. The logo uses the same colours as the ANC flag, which comprises three horizontal stripes of equal width in black, green and gold. The black symbolises the native people of South Africa; the green represents the land of South Africa; and the gold represents the country's mineral and other natural wealth. In addition, since 1972, it has been traditional for the ANC president to publish annually a so-called January 8 Statement: a reflective letter sent to members on 8 January, the anniversary of the organisation's founding. In earlier years, the ANC published a range of periodicals, the most important of which was the monthly journal Sechaba (1967–1990), printed in the German Democratic Republic and banned by the apartheid government. The ANC's Radio Freedom also gained a wide audience during apartheid. Amandla "Amandla ngawethu", or the Sotho variant "Matla ke arona", is a common rallying call at ANC meetings, roughly meaning "power to the people".
Criticism and controversy
The ANC has received criticism from both internal and external sources. Internally Mandela publicly criticized the party, following the conclusion of his presidency, for ignoring instances of corruption and mismanagement, whilst allowing for the growth of a culture of racial and ideological intolerance.
Corruption controversies
The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to then Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik. Zuma, the former South African President, was charged with fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal, but the charges were subsequently withdrawn by the National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa due to their delay in prosecution. The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolition of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik. Tony Yengeni, in his position as chief whip of the ANC and head of the Parliaments defence committee has recently been named as being involved in bribing the German company ThyssenKrupp over the purchase of four corvettes for the SANDF.
Other corruption issues in the 2000s included the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince, and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were funnelled into ANC coffers.
The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance. The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor. This has resulted in the "No Land! No House! No Vote!" Campaign which became very prominent during elections.
In 2018, the New York Times reported on the killings of ANC corruption whistleblowers.
During an address on 28 October 2021, former president Thabo Mbeki commented on the history of corruption within the ANC. He reflected that Mandela had already warned in 1997 that the ANC was attracting individuals who viewed the party as "a route to power and self-enrichment." He added that the ANC leadership "did not know how to deal with this problem." During a lecture on 10 December, Mbeki reiterated concerns about "careerists" within the party, and stressed the need to "purge itself of such members".
In May 2024, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists in association with amaBhungane showed in documents that R200 million in the ANC's election fund was siphoned off to the church of controversial archbishop Bheki Lukhele in Eswatini; the Chief Financial Officer of the ANC, Bongani Mahlalela along with the Ambassador of Eswatini to Belgium, Sibusisiwe Mngomezulu, were implicated in the scheme.Condemnation over Secrecy Bill
In late 2011, the ANC was heavily criticised over the passage of the Protection of State Information Bill, which opponents claimed would improperly restrict the freedom of the press. Opposition to the bill included otherwise ANC-aligned groups such as COSATU. Notably, Nelson Mandela and other Nobel laureates Nadine Gordimer, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and F. W. de Klerk have expressed disappointment with the bill for not meeting standards of constitutionality and aspirations for freedom of information and expression.
Role in the Marikana killings
The ANC have been criticised for its role in failing to prevent 16 August 2012 massacre of Lonmin miners at Marikana in the Northwest. Some allege that Police Commissioner Riah Phiyega and Police Minister Nathi Mthethwa gave the go ahead for the police action against the miners on that day.
Commissioner Phiyega of the ANC came under further criticism as being insensitive and uncaring when she was caught smiling and laughing during the Farlam Commission's video playback of the massacre.
In 2014, Archbishop Desmond Tutu announced that he could no longer bring himself to vote for the ANC, as it was no longer the party that he and Nelson Mandela fought for. He stated that the party had lost its way, and was in danger of becoming a corrupt entity in power.Financial mismanagementSince at least 2017, the ANC has encountered significant problems related to financial mismanagement. According to a report filed by the former treasurer-general Zweli Mkhize in December 2017, the ANC was technically insolvent as its liabilities exceeded its assets. These problems continued into the second half of 2021. By September 2021, the ANC had reportedly amassed a debt exceeding R200-million, including over R100-million owed to the South African Revenue Service.
Beginning in May 2021, the ANC failed to pay monthly staff salaries on time. Having gone without pay for three consecutive months, workers planned a strike in late August 2021. In response, the ANC initiated a crowdfunding campaign to raise money for staff salaries. By November 2021, its Cape Town staff was approaching their fourth month without salaries, while medical aid and provident fund contributions had been suspended in various provinces. The party has countered that the Political Party Funding Act, which prohibits anonymous contributions, has dissuaded some donors who previously injected money for salaries.State capture
In January 2018, then-President Jacob Zuma established the Zondo Commission to investigate allegations of state capture, corruption, and fraud in the public sector. Over the following four years, the Commission heard testimony from over 250 witnesses and collected more than 150,000 pages of evidence. After several extensions, the first part of the final three-part report was published on 4 January 2022.
The report found that the ANC, including Zuma and his political allies, had benefited from the extensive corruption of state enterprises, including the South African Revenue Service. It also found that the ANC "simply did not care that state entities were in decline during state capture or they slept on the job – or they simply didn't know what to do."
Electoral history
thumb|Proportion of votes cast for the ANC in the 2014 election, by ward.
.]]
National Assembly elections
{| classwikitable styletext-align:center
!Election
!Party leader
!Votes
!%
!Seats
!+/–
!Position
!Result
|-
|1994
|Nelson Mandela
|12,237,655
|62.65%
|}}
| 252
| 1st
|
|-
|1999
| rowspan="2" |Thabo Mbeki
|10,601,330
|66.35%
|}}
| 14
| 1st
|
|-
|2004
|10,880,915
|69.69%
|}}
| 13
| 1st
|
|-
|2009
| rowspan="2" |Jacob Zuma
|11,650,748
|65.90%
|}}
| 15
| 1st
|
|-
|2014
|11,436,921
|62.15%
|}}
| 15
| 1st
|
|-
|2019
| rowspan="2" |Cyril Ramaphosa
|10,026,475
|57.50%
|}}
| 19
| 1st
|
|-
|2024
|6,459,683
|40.18%
|}}
| 71
| 1st
|
|}
National Council of Provinces elections
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!Election
!Party leader
!Seats
!+/–
!Position
!Result
|-
|1994
|Nelson Mandela
|
| 60
| 1st
|
|-
|1999
| rowspan="2" |Thabo Mbeki
|
| 3
| 1st
|
|-
|2004
|}}
| 2
| 1st
|
|-
|2009
| rowspan="2" |Jacob Zuma
|}}
| 3
| 1st
|
|-
|2014
|}}
| 2
| 1st
|
|-
|2019
| rowspan="2" |Cyril Ramaphosa
|}}
| 6
| 1st
|
|-
|2024
|}}
| 11
|| 1st
|
|}
Provincial legislatures
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
! rowspan"2" |Election
! colspan="2" |Eastern Cape
! colspan="2" |Free State
! colspan="2" |Gauteng
! colspan="2" |KwaZulu-Natal
! colspan="2" |Limpopo
! colspan="2" |Mpumalanga
! colspan="2" |North-West
! colspan="2" |Northern Cape
! colspan="2" |Western Cape
|-
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
!%
!Seats
|-
|1994
|84.35
|48/56
|76.65
|24/30
|57.60
|50/86
|32.23
|26/81
|91.63
|38/40
|80.69
|25/30
|83.33
|26/30
|49.74
|15/30
|33.01
|14/42
|-
|1999
|73.80
|47/63
|80.79
|25/30
|67.87
|50/73
|39.38
|32/80
|88.29
|44/49
|84.83
|26/30
|78.97
|27/33
|64.32
|20/30
|42.07
|18/42
|-
|2004
|79.27
|51/63
|81.78
|25/30
|68.40
|51/73
|46.98
|38/80
|89.18
|45/49
|86.30
|27/30
|80.71
|27/33
|68.83
|21/30
|45.25
|19/42
|-
|2009
|68.82
|44/63
|71.10
|22/30
|64.04
|47/73
|62.95
|51/80
|84.88
|43/49
|85.55
|27/30
|72.89
|25/33
|60.75
|19/30
|31.55
|14/42
|-
|2014
|70.09
|45/63
|69.85
|22/30
|53.59
|40/73
|64.52
|52/80
|78.60
|39/49
|78.23
|24/30
|67.39
|23/33
|64.40
|20/30
|32.89
|14/42
|-
|2019
|68.74
|44/63
|61.14
|19/30
|50.19
|37/73
|54.22
|44/80
|75.49
|38/49
|70.58
|22/30
|61.87
|21/33
|57.54
|18/30
|28.63
|12/42
|-
|2024
| 62.16 || 45/73
| 51.87 || 16/30
| 34.76 || 28/80
| 16.99 || 14/80
| 73.30 || 48/64
| 51.31 || 27/51
| 57.73 || 21/38
| 49.34 || 15/30
| 19.55 || 8/42
|}
Municipal elections
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!Election
!Votes
!%
!Change
|-
|1995–96
| align="right" |5,033,855
| align="right" |58%
| align="right" |
|-
|2000
| align="right" |None released
| align="right" |59.4%
| align="right" | 1.4%
|-
|2006
| align="right" |17,466,948
| align="right" |66.3%
| align="right" | 6.9%
|-
|2011
| align="right" |16,548,826
| align="right" |61.9%
| align="right" | 4.4%
|-
|2016
| align="right" |21,450,332
| align="right" |55.7%
| align="right" | 6.2%
|-
|2021
| align="right" |14,531,908
| align="right" |47.5%
| align="right" | 8.2%
|}
See also
* :Category:Members of the African National Congress
* Democratic Alliance
* Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College
* Step-aside rule
* State v. Ebrahim
* United Democratic Front
References
External links
*
* [https://www.jstor.org/site/struggles-for-freedom/southern-africa/sechaba-28107673/ Sechaba archive]
* [https://www.jstor.org/site/struggles-for-freedom/southern-africa/mayibuye-28107646/ Mayibuye archive]
* [http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page1&casualties_type&casualties_max&perpetrator281&count100&charttypeline&chartovertime&obGTDID&oddesc&expandedyes#results-table Attacks attributed to the ANC on the START terrorism database]
* [https://anc-news.co.za List of articles & videos about the ANC]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041204081114/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2004/at48.htm#art2 Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004]
Category:Anti-apartheid organisations
Category:Anti-Zionism in Africa
Category:Corruption in South Africa
Category:National liberation movements
Category:Organisations associated with apartheid
Category:Political parties based in Johannesburg
Category:Social democratic parties in South Africa
Category:Full member parties of the Socialist International
Category:Political parties established in 1912
Category:Organizations formerly designated as terrorist by the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_National_Congress | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.587213 |
2504 | Amphetamine | | tradename = Evekeo, Adderall, others
| MedlinePlus = a616004
| DailyMedID = Amphetamine
| Drugs.com =
| dependency_liability Physical: None<br />Psychological: Moderate
| legal_UN = Psychotropic Schedule II
| legal_status =
<!-- Physiological data -->
| target_tissues | receptors TAAR1, VMAT2, 5HT1A
<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->
| bioavailability Oral: <br /> dosing: hours
| elimination_half-life }}: hours<br />}}: hours
| melting_point = 146
| melting_notes
| boiling_point = 203
| boiling_notes at 760 mmHg<br />Levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine are also known as or levamfetamine (INN) and or dexamfetamine (INN) respectively.|name"UseOfAdderallName"| group"note"}} dextroamphetamine, or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine. Amphetamine increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmission in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmitter systems. across 9 categories of outcomes related to academics, antisocial behavior, driving, non-medicinal drug use, obesity, occupation, self-esteem, service use (i.e., academic, occupational, health, financial, and legal services), and social function. One review highlighted a nine-month randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in children that found an average increase of 4.5 IQ points, continued increases in attention, and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity. Another review indicated that, based upon the longest follow-up studies conducted to date, lifetime stimulant therapy that begins during childhood is continuously effective for controlling ADHD symptoms and reduces the risk of developing a substance use disorder as an adult.
Models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems; Approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans. The Cochrane reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that short-term studies have demonstrated that these drugs decrease the severity of symptoms, but they have higher discontinuation rates than non-stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects. A Cochrane review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse, but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals.
<!-- section end:ADHD -->
<!-- Section begin:BED -->
Binge eating disorder
<!-- BED content is not transcluded to Adderall and dextroamphetamine articles because unlike LDX, those formulations are not recognised their use in treating BED -->
Binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by recurrent and persistent episodes of compulsive binge eating. These episodes are often accompanied by marked distress and a feeling of loss of control over eating. As of July 2024, lisdexamfetamine is the only USFDA- and TGA-approved pharmacotherapy for BED. Evidence suggests that lisdexamfetamine's treatment efficacy in BED is underpinned at least in part by a psychopathological overlap between BED and ADHD, with the latter conceptualized as a cognitive control disorder that also benefits from treatment with lisdexamfetamine. In addition, dextroamphetamine's actions outside of the central nervous system may also contribute to its treatment effects in BED. Peripherally, dextroamphetamine triggers lipolysis through noradrenergic signaling in adipose fat cells, leading to the release of triglycerides into blood plasma to be utilized as a fuel substrate. Dextroamphetamine also activates TAAR1 in peripheral organs along the gastrointestinal tract that are involved in the regulation of food intake and body weight. Together, these actions confer an anorexigenic effect that promotes satiety in response to feeding and may decrease binge eating as a secondary effect. This view is supported by the failure of anti-obesity medications and other appetite suppressants to significantly reduce BED symptom severity, despite their capacity to induce weight loss.|group"sources"|name"BED efficacy"}} These reviews suggest that lisdexamfetamine is persistently effective at treating BED and is associated with significant reductions in the number of binge eating days and binge eating episodes per week. Patients with narcolepsy are diagnosed as either type 1 or type 2, with only the former presenting cataplexy symptoms. Type 1 narcolepsy results from the loss of approximately 70,000 orexin-releasing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus, leading to significantly reduced cerebrospinal orexin levels; this reduction is a diagnostic biomarker for type 1 narcolepsy.
Amphetamine’s therapeutic mode of action in narcolepsy primarily involves increasing monoamine neurotransmitter activity in the ARAS. Dextroamphetamine, the more dopaminergic enantiomer of amphetamine, is particularly effective at promoting wakefulness because dopamine release has the greatest influence on cortical activation and cognitive arousal, relative to other monoamines. Treatment with pharmaceutical amphetamines is generally less preferred relative to other stimulants (e.g., modafinil) and is considered a third-line treatment option. Medical reviews indicate that amphetamine is safe and effective for the treatment of narcolepsy. these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through the indirect activation of both dopamine D<sub>1</sub> receptor and α<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptor in the prefrontal cortex. Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals. Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and increase arousal (wakefulness), in turn promoting goal-directed behavior. Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs. However, high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control. however, non-medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate, national, and international anti-doping agencies. In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> acceleration,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> athletic performance in anaerobic conditions,<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" --> and endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of fatigue),<!-- Refs:"Ergogenics" & "Ergogenics2" & "Roelands_2013" --> while improving reaction time. Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a "safety switch", allowing the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off-limits. At therapeutic doses, the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance;RecreationalAmphetamine, specifically the more dopaminergic dextrorotatory enantiomer (dextroamphetamine), is also used recreationally as a euphoriant and aphrodisiac, and like other amphetamines; is used as a club drug for its energetic and euphoric high. Dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) is considered to have a high potential for misuse in a recreational manner since individuals typically report feeling euphoric, more alert, and more energetic after taking the drug. Mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs. Large recreational doses of dextroamphetamine may produce symptoms of dextroamphetamine overdose. Immediate-release formulations have higher potential for abuse via insufflation (snorting) or intravenous injection due to a more favorable pharmacokinetic profile and easy crushability (especially tablets). Injection into the bloodstream can be dangerous because insoluble fillers within the tablets can block small blood vessels.|group"note"}} amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse, Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses.|group"sources"}} However, amphetamine pharmaceuticals are contraindicated in individuals with cardiovascular disease. these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the FDA, "there is no systematic evidence" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility. meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine.| other}} Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway, a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens, plays a central role in amphetamine addiction. Exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as an adjunct therapy with behavioral therapies for addiction.|group"note"}} that produce these alterations are Delta FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (ΔFosB), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB).|group"sources"}}
ΔJunD, a transcription factor, and G9a, a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).|group"sources"}} which occurs via H3K9me2-mediated repression of transcription factors for ΔFosB and H3K9me2-mediated repression of various ΔFosB transcriptional targets (e.g., CDK5). Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce the expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause the brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction. Consequently, ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sexual addictions, which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use. These sexual addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs. Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses. Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1-selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions; Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and NMDA receptors-serine}} or glycine) to open the ion channel.|group"note"}} in the nucleus accumbens;
A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed the efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction; There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of the other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine, sertraline), antipsychotics (aripiprazole), anticonvulsants (topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin), naltrexone, varenicline, citicoline, ondansetron, prometa, riluzole, atomoxetine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil. Other treatment modalities examined in the analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy, 12-step programs, non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy, and other combination therapies involving these. In particular, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces the reinstatement (i.e., relapse) of drug-seeking, and induces increased dopamine receptor D<sub>2</sub> (DRD2) density in the striatum. One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system.
According to a Cochrane review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use, many report a time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose." This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in roughly 88% of cases, and persist for weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week. The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine.
{| class"wikitable center" style"margin: 1em auto;"
|+ Overdose symptoms by system
! scope"col" style"text-align:center"| System
! scope"col" style"width: 40%;"| Minor or moderate overdose| group "sources"}}
|-
! scope="row"| Cardiovascular
|
* Abnormal heartbeat
* High or low blood pressure
|
* Cardiogenic shock (heart not pumping enough blood)
* Cerebral hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain)
* Circulatory collapse (partial or complete failure of the circulatory system)
|-
! scope="row"| Central nervous<br />system
|
* Confusion
* Abnormally fast reflexes
* Severe agitation
* Tremor (involuntary muscle twitching)
|
* Acute amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia)
* Compulsive and repetitive movement
* Serotonin syndrome (excessive serotonergic nerve activity)
* Sympathomimetic toxidrome (excessive adrenergic nerve activity)
|-
! scope="row"| Musculoskeletal
|
* Muscle pain
|
* Rhabdomyolysis (rapid muscle breakdown)
|-
! scope="row"| Respiratory
|
* Rapid breathing
|
* Pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs)
* Pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the arteries of the lung)
* Respiratory alkalosis (reduced blood CO<sub>2</sub>)
|-
! scope="row"| Urinary
|
* Painful urination
* Urinary retention (inability to urinate)
|
* No urine production
* Kidney failure
|-
! scope="row"| Other
|
* Elevated body temperature
* Mydriasis (dilated pupils)
|
* Elevated or low blood potassium
* Hyperpyrexia (extremely elevated core body temperature)
* Metabolic acidosis (excessively acidic bodily fluids)
|}
Toxicity
In rodents and primates, sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity, or damage to dopamine neurons, which is characterized by dopamine terminal degeneration and reduced transporter and receptor function. However, large doses of amphetamine may indirectly cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity as a result of hyperpyrexia, the excessive formation of reactive oxygen species, and increased autoxidation of dopamine. Animal models of neurotoxicity from high-dose amphetamine exposure indicate that the occurrence of hyperpyrexia (i.e., core body temperature ≥ 40 °C) is necessary for the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity. Prolonged elevations of brain temperature above 40 °C likely promote the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in laboratory animals by facilitating the production of reactive oxygen species, disrupting cellular protein function, and transiently increasing blood–brain barrier permeability. According to the same review, there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis. The human serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter do not contain zinc binding sites. Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) like atomoxetine prevent norepinephrine release induced by amphetamines and have been found to reduce the stimulant, euphoriant, and sympathomimetic effects of dextroamphetamine in humans.
In general, there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food, but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine, respectively. Activation of increases production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function. Monoamine autoreceptors (e.g., D<sub>2</sub> short, presynaptic α<sub>2</sub>, and presynaptic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub>) have the opposite effect of TAAR1, and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines.|group"sources"|name"Reuptake inhibition"}} SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a glutamate transporter located in neurons, SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter. a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior, stress, and reward, which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival in vitro. The CART receptor has yet to be identified, but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique . Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidases at very high doses, resulting in less monoamine and trace amine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines. In humans, the only post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the receptor, where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity. serotonin, histamine, adrenocorticotropic hormone,DopamineIn certain brain regions, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux. Through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, reduces the firing rate of dopamine neurons, preventing a hyper-dopaminergic state.
Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter, . Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2, amphetamine induces the collapse of the vesicular pH gradient, which results in the release of dopamine molecules from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol via dopamine efflux through VMAT2.Other neurotransmitters, peptides, hormones, and enzymes{| class"wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: 8px; float:right; text-align:center"
|+ Human carbonic anhydrase<br />activation potency
! Enzyme
! K<sub>A</sub> ()
! class="unsortable" | <small>Sources</small>
|-
| hCA4 || 94 ||
|-
| hCA5B || 2560 || <!--
Amphetamine has no direct effect on acetylcholine neurotransmission, but several studies have noted that acetylcholine release increases after its use. In lab animals, amphetamine increases acetylcholine levels in certain brain regions as a downstream effect.PharmacokineticsThe oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH; Amphetamine is a weak base with a pK<sub>a</sub> of 9.9; Following absorption, amphetamine readily distributes into most tissues in the body, with high concentrations occurring in cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue.
The half-lives of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH. Following absorption into the blood stream, lisdexamfetamine is completely converted by red blood cells to dextroamphetamine and the amino acid <small>L</small>-lysine by hydrolysis via undetermined aminopeptidase enzymes. This is the rate-limiting step in the bioactivation of lisdexamfetamine. , and norephedrine. The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, N-oxidation, N-dealkylation, and deamination. The known metabolic pathways, detectable metabolites, and metabolizing enzymes in humans include the following:
and norephedrine; Since the total number of microbial and viral cells in the human body (over 100 trillion) greatly outnumbers human cells (tens of trillions),
Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines, which are naturally occurring neuromodulator molecules produced in the human body and brain. Among this group, the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine, the parent compound of amphetamine, and , a structural isomer of amphetamine (i.e., it has an identical molecular formula). In humans, phenethylamine is produced directly from by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme, which converts into dopamine as well. Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine adipate, aspartate, phosphate, saccharate, Dextroamphetamine sulfate is the most common enantiopure salt.Substituted derivatives
The substituted derivatives of amphetamine, or "substituted amphetamines", are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a "backbone"; specifically, this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents. The class includes amphetamine itself, stimulants like methamphetamine, serotonergic empathogens like MDMA, and decongestants like ephedrine, among other subgroups. The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non-metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction (method 1).
A number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine. Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale.
A large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions. Another example employs the Ritter reaction (method 3). In this route, allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate. A third route starts with which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into acid. This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement (method 4).
A significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro, imine, oxime, or other nitrogen-containing functional groups. Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia, producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride (method 6).|group"sources"}} Techniques such as immunoassay, which is the most common form of amphetamine test, may cross-react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs.|name"OTC levmetamfetamine"|group"note"}} or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines. Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite, including benzphetamine, clobenzorex, famprofazone, fenproporex, lisdexamfetamine, mesocarb, methamphetamine, prenylamine, and selegiline, among others. These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests.
For the assays, a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Amphetamine had no medical use until late 1933, when Smith, Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the brand name Benzedrine as a decongestant. Benzedrine sulfate was introduced 3 years later and was used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions, including narcolepsy, obesity, low blood pressure, low libido, and chronic pain, among others. As the addictive properties of the drug became known, governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine. musicians, mathematicians, and athletes. Among European Union (EU) member states 11.9 million adults of ages have used amphetamine or methamphetamine at least once in their lives and 1.7 million have used either in the last year. During 2012, approximately 5.9 metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states; the "street price" of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from per gram during the same period. Consequently, it is heavily regulated in most countries. Some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use. In other nations, such as Brazil (class A3), Canada (schedule I drug), the Netherlands (List I drug), the United States (schedule II drug), Thailand (category 1 narcotic), and United Kingdom (class B drug), amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment.Pharmaceutical productsSeveral currently marketed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers, including those marketed under the brand names Adderall, Adderall XR, Mydayis,
|-
| Adzenys ER || amphetamine || 3:1 <small>(base)</small> || suspension || 2017 ||
|-
| || amphetamine || 3:1 <small>(base)</small> || ODT || 2016 ||
|-
| Dyanavel XR || amphetamine || 3.2:1 <small>(base)</small> || suspension || 2015 ||
|-
| Evekeo || amphetamine sulfate || 1:1 <small>(salts)</small> || tablet || 2012 ||
|-
| Evekeo ODT|| amphetamine sulfate || 1:1 <small>(salts)</small> || ODT || 2019 ||
|-
| Dexedrine || dextroamphetamine sulfate || 1:0 <small>(salts)</small> || capsule || 1976 ||
|-
| rowspan2 | Vyvanse || rowspan2 | lisdexamfetamine dimesylate || rowspan2 | 1:0 <small>(prodrug)</small> || capsule || rowspan2 | 2007 || rowspan2 |
|-
| tablet
|-
| Xelstrym || dextroamphetamine || 1:0 <small>(base)</small> || patch || 2022 ||
|}
Notes
<!--Notes list -->
;Image legend
Reference notes
References
External links
<!-- List of external links -->
* – Dextroamphetamine
* – Levoamphetamine
* [https://ctdbase.org/query.go?typeixn&chemqtequals&chemname%3AAmphetamine&actionDegreeTypesincreases&actionDegreeTypesdecreases&actionDegreeTypesaffects&actionTypesANY&geneqtequals&gene&pathwayqtequals&pathway&taxonqtequals&taxonTAXON%3A9606&goqtequals&go&sortchemNmSort&perPage500&actionSearch Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: Amphetamine]
* [https://ctdbase.org/detail.go?typegene&acc9607&qid=2119242 Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: CARTPT]
<!--Navigation templates -->
<!-- Article categories -->
Category:5-HT1A agonists
Category:Anorectics
Category:Aphrodisiacs
Category:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management
Category:Carbonic anhydrase activators
Category:Drugs acting on the cardiovascular system
Category:Drugs acting on the nervous system
Category:Drugs in sport
Category:Ergogenic aids
Category:Euphoriants
Category:Excitatory amino acid reuptake inhibitors
Category:German inventions
Category:Human drug metabolites
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Category:Narcolepsy
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Category:TAAR1 agonists
Category:VMAT inhibitors
Category:World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.748962 |
2506 | Asynchronous communication | In telecommunications, asynchronous communication is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols.
The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits.
Physical layer
In asynchronous serial communication in the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits. A variable length space can be inserted between the code words. No bit synchronization signal is required. This is sometimes called character oriented communication. Examples include MNP2 and modems older than V.2.
Data link layer and higher
Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). In this case, the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells. The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH.
The packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times. Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication. Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols.
Application layer
An asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate. Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web. An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IPTV and video conferencing.
Electronically mediated communication
Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently. Examples include email
and bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times than they read them. The term "asynchronous communication" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations.
See also
Synchronization in telecommunications
Asynchronous serial communication
Asynchronous system
Asynchronous circuit
Anisochronous
Baud rate
Plesiochronous
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
References
Category:Synchronization
Category:Telecommunications techniques | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_communication | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.756883 |
2508 | Artillery | test fire an M777 Lightweight 155-millimeter Howitzer at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms (2005)]]
Artillery are ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery cannons developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility generally providing the largest share of an army's total firepower.
Originally, the word "artillery" referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, "artillery" has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, and mortars (collectively called barrel artillery, cannon artillery or gun artillery) and rocket artillery. In common speech, the word "artillery" is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called "equipment". However, there is no generally recognized generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses "artillery piece", but most English-speaking armies use "gun" and "mortar". The projectiles fired are typically either "shot" (if solid) or "shell" (if not solid). Historically, variants of solid shot including canister, chain shot and grapeshot were also used. "Shell" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.
By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies, the artillery arm has operated field, coastal, anti-aircraft, and anti-tank artillery; in others these have been separate arms, and with some nations coastal has been a naval or marine responsibility.
In the 20th century, target acquisition devices (such as radar) and techniques (such as sound ranging and flash spotting) emerged, primarily for artillery. These are usually utilized by one or more of the artillery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, and in some armies, provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was "the god of war". Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy, which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, but also required the construction of very large engines to accumulate sufficient energy. A 1st-century BC Roman catapult launching stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16 kilojoules, compared to a mid-19th-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a round, with a kinetic energy of 240 kilojoules, or a 20th-century US battleship that fired a projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350 megajoules.
From the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation. These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns; the largest of these large-calibre guns ever conceived – Project Babylon of the Supergun affair – was theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit. Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles generally replacing guns in surface warfare.
Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties. The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today.
In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called "serving the gun" by the "detachment" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history, this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.
Crew<!-- Gunner (artillery) links here. Pls do not change -->
Some armed forces use the term "gunners" for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery.
, War in Afghanistan, 2009]]
The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either "crews" or "detachments". Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company. In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with "1" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command. "Gunner" is also the lowest rank, and junior non-commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artillery arms.
Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps.
The term "artillery" also designates a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons.
Tactics
, Switzerland. The illuminated mountain is Mount Fletschhorn, 9 km from the photographer's position.]]
During military operations, field artillery has the role of providing support to other arms in combat or of attacking targets, particularly in-depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, aiming either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and from blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.
Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or another observer, including crewed and uncrewed aircraft, or called onto map coordinates.
Military doctrine has had a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between the delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.
The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. Two distinct forms of artillery were developed: the towed gun, used primarily to attack or defend a fixed-line; and the self-propelled gun, intended to accompany a mobile force and to provide continuous fire support and/or suppression. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organizations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100 m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part is close-quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.
Etymology
The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from French atelier, meaning the place where manual work is done.
Another suggestion is that it originates from the 13th century and the Old French artillier, designating craftsmen and manufacturers of all materials and warfare equipments (spears, swords, armor, war machines); and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company, which was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century.
Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian arte de tirare (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia. The term was used by Girolamo Ruscelli (died 1566) in his Precepts of Modern Militia published posthumously in 1572.
History
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Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as "engines of war", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.
Medieval
During medieval times, more types of artillery were developed, most notably the counterweight trebuchet. Traction trebuchets, using manpower to launch projectiles, have been used in ancient China since the 4th century as anti-personnel weapons. The much more powerful counterweight trebuchet was invented in the eastern Mediterranean region in the 12th century, with the earliest definite attestation in 1187.
Invention of gunpowder
Early Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This includes the "long range awe inspiring" cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming dynasty treatise Huolongjing. With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon", an early example of field artillery. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the madfaa'') and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner.
In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out.
As small smooth-bore barrels, these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannons were always muzzle-loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders.Expansion of use
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In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely bombardas, colebratas, and falconetes. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Marinids brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.
The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. By the end of the 14th century, cannons were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.
However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. Cannons during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before. These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.
, the earliest extant large-calibre gun]]
Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves. As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.
. Very heavy 15th-C bronze muzzle-loading cannon of type used by Ottomans in siege of Constantinople (1453), showing ornate decoration. Taken by The Land Feb 07 at Fort Nelson, Hampshire.]]
The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times. Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444. Early cannon were not always reliable; King James II of Scotland was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon, imported from Flanders, at the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460.
The able use of artillery supported to a large measure the expansion and defense of the Portuguese Empire, as it was a necessary tool that allowed the Portuguese to face overwhelming odds both on land and sea from Morocco to Asia. An especially noticeable division between siege guns and anti-personnel guns enhanced the use and effectiveness of Portuguese firearms above contemporary powers, making cannon the most essential element in the Portuguese arsenal. The most popular in Portuguese arsenals was the berço, a 5 cm, one pounder bronze breech-loading cannon that weighted 150 kg with an effective range of 600 meters.
in the Jinju National Museum. These cannons were made in the mid 16th century. The closest is a "Cheonja chongtong"(천자총통, 天字銃筒), the second is a "Jija chongtong"(지자총통, 地字銃筒), and the third is a "Hyeonja chongtong"(현자총통, 玄字銃筒).]]
The new Ming Dynasty established the "Divine Engine Battalion" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, "the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation".
When the Portuguese and Spanish arrived at Southeast Asia, they found that the local kingdoms were already using cannons. Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on occasion. Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They made many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. In all aspects the Javanese were considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it. In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, over and above what they have in India". By the early 16th century, the Javanese had already started locally-producing large guns, which were dubbed "sacred cannon[s]" or "holy cannon[s]" and have survived up to the present day - though in limited numbers. These cannons varied between 180 and 260 pounders, weighing anywhere between 3–8 tons, measuring between 3–6 m.
Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used Kunikuzushi (国崩し – Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and Ōzutsu (大筒 – large size Tanegashima) as their largest firearms.
In the 16th century Ottoman Empire, Humbaracıs were founded.
Smoothbores
fortification]]
<!--Article Tower of St. Olav refers to this heading. Do not change it-->
Bombards were of value mainly in sieges. A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.
Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.
The use of the word "cannon" marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber—this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in the siege and static defenses. The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of trunnions—projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast—allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier. The development of specialized pieces—shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars—was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ribauldequin (known as "organ guns"), were also produced.
The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual.
One of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect—by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building. After the wars, several Mysore rockets were sent to England, but experiments with heavier payloads were unsuccessful. In 1804 William Congreve, considering the Mysorian rockets to have too short a range (less than 1,000 yards) developed rockets in numerous sizes with ranges up to 3,000 yards and eventually utilizing iron casing as the Congreve rocket which were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.
Napoleonic
to commemorate the city's resistance to the 1799 siege by Napoleon's troops.]]
With the Napoleonic Wars, artillery experienced changes in both physical design and operation. Rather than being overseen by "mechanics", artillery was viewed as its own service branch with the capability of dominating the battlefield. The success of the French artillery companies was at least in part due to the presence of specially trained artillery officers leading and coordinating during the chaos of battle. Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault.
Physically, cannons continued to become smaller and lighter. During the Seven Years War, King Frederick II of Prussia used these advances to deploy horse artillery that could move throughout the battlefield. Frederick also introduced the reversible iron ramrod, which was much more resistant to breakage than older wooden designs. The reversibility aspect also helped increase the rate of fire, since a soldier would no longer have to worry about what end of the ramrod they were using.
Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid-18th century. He developed a 6-inch (150 mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. While the Gribeauval system made for more efficient production and assembly, the carriages used were heavy and the gunners were forced to march on foot (instead of riding on the limber and gun as in the British system). Each cannon was named for the weight of its projectiles, giving us variants such as 4, 8, and 12, indicating the weight in pounds. The projectiles themselves included solid balls or canister containing lead bullets or other material. These canister shots acted as massive shotguns, peppering the target with hundreds of projectiles at close range. The solid balls, known as round shot, was most effective when fired at shoulder-height across a flat, open area. The ball would tear through the ranks of the enemy or bounce along the ground breaking legs and ankles.Modern
n artillery at the Battle of Langensalza (1866)]]
The development of modern artillery occurred in the mid to late 19th century as a result of the convergence of various improvements in the underlying technology. Advances in metallurgy allowed for the construction of breech-loading rifled guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity.
After the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars, the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked the birth of modern artillery. Three of its features particularly stand out.
(1868–69)|left]]
First, the piece was rifled, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery was not available until the mid-19th century. Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War. The cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's rifling grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of windage as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.
, Fort Fisher, 1865]]
His gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism could not withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in metallurgy and precision engineering capabilities during the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.
What made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The "built-up" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter. The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube. When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the gun which was directed inward against the outward forces that the gun's firing exerted on the barrel.
Another innovative feature, more usually associated with 20th-century guns, was what Armstrong called its "grip", which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.
, the first modern artillery piece]]
Armstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initially for "special service in the field" and initially he produced only smaller artillery pieces, 6-pounder (2.5 in/64 mm) mountain or light field guns, 9-pounder (3 in/76 mm) guns for horse artillery, and 12-pounder (3 inches /76 mm) field guns.
The first cannon to contain all 'modern' features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897. The gun used cased ammunition, was breech-loading, had modern sights, and a self-contained firing mechanism. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 5 miles (8,500 m) away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew. These were rates that contemporary bolt action rifles could not match.Indirect fire
Indirect fire, the firing of a projectile without relying on direct line of sight between the gun and the target, possibly dates back to the 16th century. Early battlefield use of indirect fire may have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when the Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees, and at the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of the Royal Horse Artillery fired shrapnel indirectly against advancing French troops.
In 1882, Russian Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published Indirect Fire for Field Artillery, which provided a practical method of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, "all the essentials of aiming points, crest clearance, and corrections to fire by an observer".
A few years later, the Richtfläche (lining-plane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect laying in azimuth, complementing the clinometers for indirect laying in elevation which already existed. Despite conservative opposition within the German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by the 1890s. In the early 1900s, Goertz in Germany developed an optical sight for azimuth laying. It quickly replaced the lining-plane; in English, it became the 'Dial Sight' (UK) or 'Panoramic Telescope' (US).
The British halfheartedly experimented with indirect fire techniques since the 1890s, but with the onset of the Boer War, they were the first to apply the theory in practice in 1899, although they had to improvise without a lining-plane sight.
In the next 15 years leading up to World War I, the techniques of indirect fire became available for all types of artillery.<!--To make indirect fire really effective required telegraph or telephone communication...--> Indirect fire was the defining characteristic of 20th-century artillery and led to undreamt of changes in the amount of artillery, its tactics, organisation, and techniques, most of which occurred during World War I.
An implication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target, this increased the time of flight and the vertex of the trajectory. The result was decreasing accuracy (the increasing distance between the target and the mean point of impact of the shells aimed at it) caused by the increasing effects of non-standard conditions. Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions including a specific muzzle velocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propellant temperature. In practice, this standard combination of conditions almost never existed, they varied throughout the day and day to day, and the greater the time of flight, the greater the inaccuracy. An added complication was the need for survey to accurately fix the coordinates of the gun position and provide accurate orientation for the guns. Of course, targets had to be accurately located, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniques enabled this, and ground survey techniques could sometimes be used.
during World War I]]
In 1914, the methods of correcting firing data for the actual conditions were often convoluted, and the availability of data about actual conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, the assumption was that fire would always be ranged (adjusted). British heavy artillery worked energetically to progressively solve all these problems from late 1914 onwards, and by early 1918, had effective processes in place for both field and heavy artillery. These processes enabled 'map-shooting', later called 'predicted fire'; it meant that effective fire could be delivered against an accurately located target without ranging. Nevertheless, the mean point of impact was still some tens of yards from the target-centre aiming point. It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages. These processes remain in use into the 21st century with refinements to calculations enabled by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.
The British Major General Henry Hugh Tudor pioneered armour and artillery cooperation at the breakthrough Battle of Cambrai. The improvements in providing and using data for non-standard conditions (propellant temperature, muzzle velocity, wind, air temperature, and barometric pressure) were developed by the major combatants throughout the war and enabled effective predicted fire. The effectiveness of this was demonstrated by the British in 1917 (at Cambrai) and by Germany the following year (Operation Michael).
Major General J.B.A. Bailey, British Army (retired) wrote:
An estimated 75,000 French soldiers were casualties of friendly artillery fire in the four years of World War I.
Precision-guidance
guided artillery shell]]
Modern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its long range, firing an explosive shell or rocket and a mobile carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights. Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I.<!--To make indirect fire really effective required telegraph or telephone communication...--> However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitable for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression. Nevertheless, by the late 1970s precision-guided munitions started to appear, notably the US 155 mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152 mm Krasnopol equivalent that had success in Indian service. These relied on laser designation to 'illuminate' the target that the shell homed onto. However, in the early 21st century, the Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled relatively cheap and accurate guidance for shells and missiles, notably the US 155 mm Excalibur and the 227 mm GMLRS rocket. The introduction of these led to a new issue, the need for very accurate three dimensional target coordinates—the mensuration process.
can be added to unguided projectiles]]
Weapons covered by the term 'modern artillery' include "cannon" artillery (such as howitzer, mortar, and field gun) and rocket artillery. Certain smaller-caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms. This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.
The term "artillery" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, preferring the term "missilery", though some modern artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large-caliber guided projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction. See Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF), Joint terminal attack controllerAmmunition
One of the most important roles of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage (ammunition dump, arsenal, magazine
) and the provision of fuzes, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell.
A round of artillery ammunition comprises four components:
# Fuze
# Projectile
# Propellant
# Primer
Fuzes
Fuzes are the devices that initiate an artillery projectile, either to detonate its High Explosive (HE) filling or eject its cargo (illuminating flare or smoke canisters being examples). The official military spelling is "fuze". Broadly there are four main types:
* impact (including graze and delay)
* mechanical time including airburst
* proximity sensor including airburst<!--proximity has also been used against ground troops & barges...-->
* programmable electronic detonation including airburst
Most artillery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used with armor-piercing shells and for squash head (High-Explosive Squash Head (HESH) or High Explosive, Plastic (HEP) anti-tank shells). At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base.
Impact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, the standard fuze for HE projectiles. Their default action is normally 'superquick', some have had a 'graze' action which allows them to penetrate light cover and others have 'delay'. Delay fuzes allow the shell to penetrate the ground before exploding. Armor or Concrete-Piercing (AP or CP) fuzes are specially hardened. During World War I and later, ricochet fire with delay or graze fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat angle of descent, was used to achieve airburst.
HE shells can be fitted with other fuzes. Airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function. However, until the introduction of proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions—for example, shrapnel, illumination, and smoke. The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst. Airburst fuzes have to have the fuze length (running time) set on them. This is done just before firing using either a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to the required fuze length.
Early airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which lasted into the second half of the 20th century. Mechanical time fuzes appeared in the early part of the century. These required a means of powering them. The Thiel mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e. 'clockwork'), Junghans used centrifugal force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugal force and balls. From about 1980, electronic time fuzes started replacing mechanical ones for use with cargo munitions.
Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar. The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery 'unrotated projectiles' (rockets) in World War II. Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (time) fuzes which they replaced. Mechanical time fuzes required an accurate calculation of their running time, which was affected by non-standard conditions. With HE (requiring a burst 20 to above the ground), if this was very slightly wrong the rounds would either hit the ground or burst too high. Accurate running time was less important with cargo munitions that burst much higher.
The first radar proximity fuzes (perhaps originally codenamed 'VT' and later called Variable Time (VT)) were invented by the British and developed by the US and initially used against aircraft in World War II. Their ground use was delayed for fear of the enemy recovering 'blinds' (artillery shells which failed to detonate) and copying the fuze. The first proximity fuzes were designed to detonate about above the ground. These air-bursts are much more lethal against personnel than ground bursts because they deliver a greater proportion of useful fragments and deliver them into terrain where a prone soldier would be protected from ground bursts.
However, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds. This led to 'Controlled Variable Time' (CVT) after World War II. These fuzes have a mechanical timer that switched on the radar about 5 seconds before expected impact, they also detonated on impact.
The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. They have become known as the U.S. Artillery's "Christmas present", and were much appreciated when they arrived during the Battle of the Bulge. They were also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles in the Pacific against kamikaze as well as in Britain against V-1 flying bombs.
Electronic multi-function fuzes started to appear around 1980. Using solid-state electronics they were relatively cheap and reliable, and became the standard fitted fuze in operational ammunition stocks in some western armies. The early versions were often limited to proximity airburst, albeit with height of burst options, and impact. Some offered a go/no-go functional test through the fuze setter.
Later versions introduced induction fuze setting and testing instead of physically placing a fuze setter on the fuze. The latest, such as Junghan's DM84U provide options giving, superquick, delay, a choice of proximity heights of burst, time and a choice of foliage penetration depths.
Projectiles
, as seen in this 1953 nuclear test.]]
The projectile is the munition or "bullet" fired downrange. This may be an explosive device. Projectiles have traditionally been classified as "shot" or "shell", the former being solid and the latter having some form of "payload".
Shells can be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection. The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I. Base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes. Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time.
Payloads have included:
* Bursting: high-explosive, white phosphorus, coloured marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high-explosive anti-tank and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell.
* Nose ejection: shrapnel, star, incendiary and flechette (a more modern version of shrapnel).
* Base ejection: Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition bomblets, which arm themselves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from the projectile (this produces unexploded sub-munitions, or "duds", which remain dangerous), scatterable mines, illuminating, coloured flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff (foil to jam radars) and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions.
Stabilization
* Rifled: Artillery projectiles have traditionally been spin-stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling, which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a "driving band" (UK) or "rotating band" (U.S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have been used.
* Smoothbore/fin-stabilized: In modern artillery, smoothbore barrels have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns.
* Rifled/fin-stabilized: A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance or gliding.Propellant
during the Iran–Iraq War]]
Most forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile to the target. Propellant is always a low explosive, which means it deflagrates, rather than detonating like high explosives. The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant. This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor.
Until the late 19th century, the only available propellant was black powder. It had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns, and make aiming impossible. In 1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitroglycerin was discovered at nearly the same time. Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless. Early guncotton was unstable, however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear. Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant.
Many other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant – low temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Modern gun propellants are broadly divided into three classes: single-base propellants that are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants consisting of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine.
Artillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways:
* Rocket-assisted projectiles enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base.
* Base bleed uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag.
* Ramjet-assisted, similar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120-mm mortar shell could reach a range of .
Propelling charges for barrel artillery can be provided either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases. Generally, anti-aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to 3" or 76.2 mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered, depending on the range to the target. It also makes handling of larger shells easier. Cases and bags require totally different types of breech. A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech; this is called obturation. With bagged charges, the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer. In either case, the primer is usually percussion, but electrical is also used, and laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155 mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech.
Artillery ammunition has four classifications according to use:
* Service: ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as "warshot" ammunition.
* Practice: Ammunition with a non- or minimally-explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high-explosive charge.
* Dummy: Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display.
* Blank: Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder), and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use.
Field artillery system
, Belgium, September 5, 1917]]
Because modern field artillery mostly uses indirect fire, the guns have to be part of a system that enables them to attack targets invisible to them, in accordance with the combined arms plan.
The main functions in the field artillery system are:
* Communications
* Command: authority to allocate resources;
* Target acquisition: detect, identify and deduce the location of targets;
* Control: authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack;
* Computation of firing data – to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target;
* Fire units: guns, launchers or mortars grouped together;
* Specialist services: produce data to support the production of accurate firing data;
* Logistic services: to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.
All these calculations to produce a quadrant elevation (or range) and azimuth were done manually using instruments, tabulated, data of the moment, and approximations until battlefield computers started appearing in the 1960s and 1970s. While some early calculators copied the manual method (typically substituting polynomials for tabulated data), computers use a different approach. They simulate a shell's trajectory by 'flying' it in short steps and applying data about the conditions affecting the trajectory at each step. This simulation is repeated until it produces a quadrant elevation and azimuth that lands the shell within the required 'closing' distance of the target coordinates.
NATO has a standard ballistic model for computer calculations and has expanded the scope of this into the NATO Armaments Ballistic Kernel (NABK) within the SG2 Shareable (Fire Control) Software Suite (S4).
Logistics
Supply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics. Up until World War I some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations. Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level. A key difference is whether supply is 'push' or 'pull'. In the former the 'pipeline' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack.
Classification
using 130 mm Gun M-46 during a direct fire mission in a live fire exercise in 2010.]]
Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements.
Types of ordnance
The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles.
Types of artillery:
PzH 2000 self-propelled artillery]]
* Cannon: The oldest type of artillery with direct firing trajectory.
* Bombard: A type of a large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery piece, a cannon or mortar used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications.
* Falconet was a type of light cannon developed in the late 15th century that fired a smaller shot than the similar falcon.
* Swivel gun is a type of small cannon mounted on a swiveling stand or fork which allows a very wide arc of movement. Camel mounted swivel guns called zamburak were used by the Gunpowder Empires as self-propelled artillery.
* Volley gun is a gun with multiple single-shot barrels that volley fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession. Although capable of unleashing intense firepower, volley guns differ from modern machine guns in that they lack autoloading and automatic fire mechanisms
* Siege artillery: Large-caliber artillery that have limited mobility with indirect firing trajectory, which was used to bombard targets at long distances.
**Large-calibre artillery.
* Field artillery: Mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include:
** Infantry support guns: Directly support infantry units.
** Mountain guns: Lightweight guns that can be disassembled and transported through difficult terrain.
** Field guns: Capable of long-range direct fires.
** Howitzers: Capable of high-angle fire, they are most often employed for indirect-fire.
** Gun-howitzers: Capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.
** Mortars: Typically muzzle-loaded, short-barreled, high-trajectory weapons designed primarily for an indirect-fire role.
** Gun-mortars: Typically breech-loaded, capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.
** Tank guns: Large-caliber guns mounted on tanks to provide mobile direct fire.
** Anti-tank artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed primarily for direct fire to destroy armored fighting vehicles with heavy armor.
**Anti-tank gun: Guns designed for direct fire to destroy tanks and other armored fighting vehicles.
** Anti-aircraft artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft by land and/or at sea. Some guns were suitable for the dual roles of anti-aircraft and anti-tank warfare.
** Rocket artillery: Launches rockets or missiles, instead of shot or shell.
* Railway gun: Large-caliber weapons that are mounted on, transported by and fired from specially-designed railway wagons.
* Naval artillery: Guns mounted on warships to be used either against other naval vessels or to bombard coastal targets in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, but the advent of air power and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete. They are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role.
* Coastal artillery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (for example, the Atlantic Wall in World War II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Modern coastal artillery (for example, Russia's "Bereg" system) is often self-propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit.
* Aircraft artillery: Large-caliber guns mounted on attack aircraft, this is typically found on slow-flying gunships.
* Nuclear artillery: Artillery which fires nuclear shells.
Modern field artillery can also be split into two other subcategories: towed and self-propelled. As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually an artillery tractor or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Towed artillery is in some cases equipped with an APU for small displacements. Self-propelled artillery is permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and is thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. It includes mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection.
Organizational types
At the beginning of the modern artillery period, the late 19th century, many armies had three main types of artillery, in some case they were sub-branches within the artillery branch in others they were separate branches or corps. There were also other types excluding the armament fitted to warships:
s, operate a howitzer during World War I]]
* Horse artillery, first formed as regular units in the late 18th century, with the role of supporting cavalry, they were distinguished by the entire crew being mounted.
* Field or "foot" artillery, the main artillery arm of the field army, using either guns, howitzers, or mortars. In World War II this branch again started using rockets and later surface to surface missiles.
* Fortress or garrison artillery, operated a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, either on land or coastal frontiers. Some had deployable elements to provide heavy artillery to the field army. In some nations coast defence artillery was a naval responsibility.
* Mountain artillery, a few nations treated mountain artillery as a separate branch, in others it was a speciality in another artillery branch. They used light guns or howitzers, usually designed for pack animal transport and easily broken down into small easily handled loads
* Naval artillery, some nations carried pack artillery on some warships, these were used and manhandled by naval (or marine) landing parties. At times, part of a ship's armament would be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and limbers for actions ashore, for example during the Second Boer War, during the First World War the guns from the stricken SMS Königsberg formed the main artillery strength of the German forces in East Africa.
(1772–1851)]]
After World War I many nations merged these different artillery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches. Naval artillery disappeared apart from that belonging to marines. However, two new branches of artillery emerged during that war and its aftermath, both used specialised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in the 1950s and 1960s both started to make extensive use of missiles:
* Anti-tank artillery, also under various organisational arrangements but typically either field artillery or a specialist branch and additional elements integral to infantry, etc., units. However, in most armies field and anti-aircraft artillery also had at least a secondary anti-tank role. After World War II anti-tank in Western armies became mostly the responsibility of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artillery matter, with some exceptions.
* Anti-aircraft artillery, under various organisational arrangements including being part of artillery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being split between army for the field and air force for home defence. In some cases infantry and the new armoured corps also operated their own integral light anti-aircraft artillery. Home defence anti-aircraft artillery often used fixed as well as mobile mountings. Some anti-aircraft guns could also be used as field or anti-tank artillery, providing they had suitable sights.
However, the general switch by artillery to indirect fire before and during World War I led to a reaction in some armies. The result was accompanying or infantry guns. These were usually small, short range guns, that could be easily man-handled and used mostly for direct fire but some could use indirect fire. Some were operated by the artillery branch but under command of the supported unit. In World War II they were joined by self-propelled assault guns, although other armies adopted infantry or close support tanks in armoured branch units for the same purpose, subsequently tanks generally took on the accompanying role.
Equipment types
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies.
The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century.
True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. , 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks.]]
Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately).
That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi-charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels.
Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading.
There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations.
A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry.
A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s.
In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine.
Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Caliber categories
A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as "light", "medium", "heavy" and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coastal guns.Modern operations
showcasing towing, turning and firing of rounds]]
(155 mm AUF1) Self-propelled Guns, 40th Regiment d' Artillerie, with IFOR markings are parked at Hekon base, near Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina, in support of Operation Joint Endeavor]]
List of countries in order of amount of artillery (only conventional barrel ordnance is given, in use with land forces):
{| class"wikitable sortable" styletext-align:right;
|+
! Country
! scopecol classunsortable | Number
! scopecol classunsortable | Ref
|-
| Russia || 26,121 ||
|-
| North Korea || 17,900+ ||
|-
| China || 17,700+ ||
|-
| India || 11,258+ ||
|-
| South Korea || 10,774+ ||
|-
| United States || 8,137 ||
|-
| Turkey || 7,450+ ||
|-
| Israel || 5,432 ||
|-
| Egypt || 4,480 ||
|-
| Pakistan || 4,291+ ||
|-
| Syria || 3,805+ ||
|-
| Iran || 3,668+ ||
|-
| Algeria || 3,465 ||
|-
| Jordan || 2,339 ||
|-
| Iraq || 2,300+ ||
|-
| Finland || 1,398 ||
|-
| Brazil || 900 ||
|-
| Cameroon || 883 ||
|-
| Morocco || 848 ||
|-
| Hungary || 835 ||
|-
| France || 758 ||
|}
Artillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber. The general role of artillery is to provide fire support—"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize or suppress the enemy". This NATO definition makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic. The italicised terms are NATO's.
Unlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering close supporting fire. However, they are all suitable for providing deep supporting fire although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role. Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to direct supporting fire. Guns are used either for this or general supporting fire while rockets are mostly used for the latter. However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies.
Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armour units. This means they generally do not have to concentrate their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies. However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO.
In NATO armies artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to. It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used. The standard terms are: direct support, general support, general support reinforcing and reinforcing. These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: operational command, operational control, tactical command or tactical control.
In NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions. However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation. Nevertheless, the batteries' fire can be concentrated onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions.
Application of fire
M-198 howitzer]]
There are several dimensions to this subject. The first is the notion that fire may be against an opportunity target or may be arranged. If it is the latter it may be either on-call or scheduled. Arranged targets may be part of a fire plan. Fire may be either observed or unobserved, if the former it may be adjusted, if the latter then it has to be predicted. Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other target acquisition system.
NATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes:
* Counterbattery fire: delivered for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the enemy's fire support system.
* Counterpreparation fire: intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered.
* Covering fire: used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms.
* Defensive fire: delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action.
* Final Protective Fire: an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.
* Harassing fire: a random number of shells are fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale.
* Interdiction fire: placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point.
* Preparation fire: delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position.
These purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of suppression in counterbattery is an omission. Broadly they can be defined as either:
* Deep supporting fire: directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation; or
* Close supporting fire: placed on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit.
M-198 firing outside of Fallujah, Iraq in 2004]]
Two other NATO terms also need definition:
* Neutralization fire: delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and
* Suppression fire: that degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfill its mission. Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire.
The tactical purposes also include various "mission verbs", a rapidly expanding subject with the modern concept of "effects based operations".
Targeting is the process of selecting target and matching the appropriate response to them taking account of operational requirements and capabilities. It requires consideration of the type of fire support required and the extent of coordination with the supported arm. It involves decisions about:
* what effects are required, for example, neutralization or suppression;
* the proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants;
* what types of munitions, including their fuzing, are to be used and in what quantities;
* when the targets should be attacked and possibly for how long;
* what methods should be used, for example, converged or distributed, whether adjustment is permissible or surprise essential, the need for special procedures such as precision or danger close
* how many fire units are needed and which ones they should be from those that are available (in range, with the required munitions type and quantity, not allotted to another target, have the most suitable line of fire if there is a risk to own troops or non-combatants);
The targeting process is the key aspect of tactical fire control. Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed. In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer. This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units. The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances.
Surprise may be essential or irrelevant. It depends on what effects are required and whether or not the target is likely to move or quickly improve its protective posture. During World War II UK researchers concluded that for impact fuzed munitions the relative risk were as follows:
* men standing – 1
* men lying – 1/3
* men firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50
* men crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100
Airburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men, etc. Historically most casualties occur in the first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e. the time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, this is less relevant if airburst is used.
There are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability:
* ordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a "fire at" time. The disadvantage is that if the fire is concentrated from many dispersed fire units then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time. To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window.
* burst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight. Smaller caliber guns, such as 105 mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it was not until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155 mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability.
* multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI), where a single weapon or multiple individual weapons fire multiple rounds at differing trajectories so that all rounds arrive on target at the same time.
* time on target, fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve. It can be used with both the previous two methods.
Counter-battery fire
Modern counter-battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery. Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns. In World War I the latter required air observation. The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon.
Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter.
Once hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter-battery policy. Air strike is another option. In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff. In other situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy.
Modern counter-battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging. Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'follow' a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example. Counter-measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physically and electronically.
]]
Field artillery team
'Field Artillery Team' is a US term and the following description and terminology applies to the US, other armies are broadly similar but differ in significant details. Modern field artillery (post–World War I) has three distinct parts: the Forward Observer (FO), the Fire Direction Center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping. A lesser known part of the team is the FAS or Field Artillery Survey team which sets up the "Gun Line" for the cannons. Today most artillery battalions use an "Aiming Circle" which allows for faster setup and more mobility. FAS teams are still used for checks and balances purposes and if a gun battery has issues with the "Aiming Circle" a FAS team will do it for them.
The FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires.
The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns. Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However, in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link.
Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.
Time on target
A technique called time on target (TOT) was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert. With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire. When each fire unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time all the opening rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.
Multiple round simultaneous impact
Multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI) is a modern version of the earlier time on target concept. MRSI is when a single gun fires multiple shells so all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is possible because there is more than one trajectory for a round to fly to any given target. Typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and by using different sized propellant charges with each shell, it is possible to utilize more than two trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target. If shells are fired on higher trajectories for initial volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and later volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, with the correct timing the shells will all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional methods of firing, the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to take cover between volleys. However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver multiple rounds in a few seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target.
MRSI has a few prerequisites. The first is guns with a high rate of fire. The second is the ability to use different sized propellant charges. Third is a fire control computer that has the ability to compute MRSI volleys and the capability to produce firing data, sent to each gun, and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order. The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire. To allow the most shells to reach the target, the target has to be in range of the lowest propellant charge.
Examples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS-90, South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA 2, and K9 Thunder.
The Archer project (developed by BAE-Systems Bofors in Sweden) is a 155 mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun. The 120 mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland), is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability. It is unclear how many fire control computers have the necessary capabilities.
Two-round MRSI firings were a popular artillery demonstration in the 1960s, where well trained detachments could show off their skills for spectators.
Air burst
The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuzes or proximity fuzes. Time fuzes use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuze can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These employ a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuze to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. The proximity fuze itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare.
This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open; even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position.
Use in monuments
(American Civil War)]]
Numerous war memorials around the world incorporate an artillery piece that was used in the war or battle commemorated.
See also
* List of artillery
* Advanced Gun System
* Artillery museums
* Barrage (artillery)
* Beehive anti-personnel round
* Coilgun
* Combustion light-gas gun
* Cordite
* Fuze
* Gun laying
* Light-gas gun
* Paris Gun
* Railgun
* Shoot-and-scoot
* Shrapnel shell
* Suppressive fire
* Improvised artillery in the Syrian Civil War
References
Notes
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
* External links
* [http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/index_weapons.htm Naval Weapons of the World]
* [http://www.cannonartillery.com/ Cannon Artillery – The Voice of Freedom's Thunder]
* [http://www.enemyforces.com/artillery.htm Modern Artillery]
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1179/1574077313Z.00000000029?needAccesstrue What sort of forensic information can be derived from the analysis of shell fragments]
* Evans, Nigel F. (2001–2007) "[http://nigelef.tripod.com/index.htm British Artillery in World War 2]"
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_tactics.htm Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars]
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/IMPERIAL_GUARD_artillery.htm Artillery of Napoleon's Imperial Guard]
* [http://www.artillerie.info/ French artillery and its ammunition. 14th to the end of the 19th century]
* Historic films showing artillery in World War I at [http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914%20Artillery/multilingual:1/showOnly:video europeanfilmgateway.eu]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUvcdKGD-FM/ Video: Inside shrieking shrapnel. Hear the great sound of shrapnel's – Finnish field artillery fire video year 2013]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5--klcaqbZY Video: Forensic and archaeological interpretation of artillery shell fragments and shrapnel]
*
Category:Chinese inventions
Category:Explosive weapons | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.813741 |
2510 | Arnulf of Carinthia | | succession = Emperor in Italy
| title = Emperor of the Romans
| reign = 22 February 896 – 8 December 899
| coronation = 22 February 896, Rome
| predecessor = Lambert
| successor = Louis the Blind
| succession1 = King of Italy
| reign1 = 894 – 8 December 899
| predecessor1 = Lambert
| successor1 = Louis the Blind
| succession2 = King of East Francia
| reign2 = – 8 December 899
| predecessor2 = Charles the Fat
| successor2 = Louis the Child
| spouse = Ota<br />Oda of West Francia<br />Vinburge
| issue = Louis the Child<br />Ratold of Italy<br />Zwentibold<br />Glismut of Carinthia<br />Hedwig of Carinthia
| royal house = Carolingian
| father = Carloman of Bavaria
| mother = Liutswind
| birth_date =
| birth_place | death_date 8 December 899
| death_place Ratisbon, Duchy of Bavaria, East Francia (now Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany)
| date of burial | place of burial St. Emmeram's Basilica, Ratisbon
| signature_type = signum manus (890)
| signature = Arnulf of Carinthia - monogram.svg
}}
Arnulf of Carinthia ( – 8 December 899) was the duke of Carinthia who overthrew his uncle Emperor Charles the Fat to become the Carolingian king of East Francia from 887, the disputed king of Italy from 894, and the disputed emperor from 22 February 896 until his death at Ratisbon, Bavaria.
Early life
Illegitimacy and early lifeArnulf was the illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria and Liutswind, who may have been the sister of Ernst, Count of the Bavarian Nordgau Margraviate (now in the area of the Upper Palatinate), or perhaps the burgrave of Passau, according to other sources. After Arnulf's birth, Carloman married before 861, a daughter of that same Count Ernst, who died after 8 August 879. As it is mainly West-Franconian historiography that speaks of Arnulf's illegitimacy, it is quite possible that the two women are actually the same person, Liutswind, and that Carloman married Arnulf's mother, thus legitimizing his son.
Arnulf was granted the rule over the Duchy of Carinthia, a Frankish vassal state and successor of the ancient Principality of Carantania by his father, after Carloman reconciled with his own father, King Louis the German, and was made king in the Duchy of Bavaria.
Arnulf spent his childhood in Mosaburch or Mosapurc, which is widely believed to be Moosburg in Carinthia. Moosburg was a few miles away from one of the imperial residences, the Carolingian Kaiserpfalz at Karnburg, which had been the residence of the Carantanian princes. Arnulf kept his seat here, and from later events it may be inferred that the Carantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own duke. Later, after he had been crowned King of East Francia, Arnulf turned his old territory of Carinthia into the March of Carinthia, a part of the Duchy of Bavaria.Regional ruler
After Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke in 879, Louis the Younger inherited Bavaria, Charles the Fat was given the Kingdom of Italy, and Arnulf was confirmed in Carinthia by an agreement with Carloman. However, Bavaria was more or less ruled by Arnulf during the summer and autumn of 879 while his father arranged his succession. He was also granted "Pannonia," in the words of the Annales Fuldenses, or "Carantanum," in the words of Regino of Prüm. The division of the realm was confirmed in 880 after Carloman's death.
When Engelschalk II of Pannonia in 882 rebelled against Margrave Aribo and ignited the Wilhelminer War, Arnulf supported him and accepted his and his brother's homage. This ruined Arnulf's relationship with his uncle, Emperor Charles the Fat, and put him at war with Svatopluk of Moravia. Pannonia was invaded, but Arnulf refused to give up the young Wilhelminers. Arnulf did not make peace with Svatopluk until late 885, by which time the Moravian ruler was loyal to the emperor. Some scholars see this war as destroying Arnulf's hopes of succeeding Charles the Fat.
King of East Francia
.]]
Arnulf took the leading role in the deposition of Charles the Fat. With the support of the Frankish nobles, Arnulf called a Diet at Tribur and deposed Charles in November 887, under threat of military action. Charles peacefully agreed to this involuntary retirement, but not without first chastising his nephew for his treachery and asking for a few royal villas in Swabia on which to live out his final months, which Arnulf granted him. Arnulf, having distinguished himself in the war against the Slavs, was then elected king by the nobles of East Francia (only the eastern realm, though Charles had ruled the whole of the Frankish Empire). West Francia, the Kingdom of Burgundy, and the Kingdom of Italy elected their own kings from the Carolingian family.
Like many rulers of the period, Arnulf was heavily involved in ecclesiastical disputes. In 895, at the Diet of Tribur, he presided over a dispute between the episcopal sees of Bremen, Hamburg, and Cologne over jurisdictional authority, which saw Bremen and Hamburg remain a combined see, independent of the see of Cologne.
Arnulf was more a fighter than a negotiator. In 890, he was successfully battling Slavs in Pannonia. In early/mid-891, Vikings invaded Lotharingia and crushed an East Frankish army at Maastricht. Terms such as "Vikings", "Danes", "Northmen" and "Norwegians" have been used loosely and interchangeably to describe these invaders. In September 891, Arnulf repelled the Vikings and essentially ended their attacks on that front. The Annales Fuldenses report that there were so many dead Northmen that their bodies blocked the run of the river. After this victory, Arnulf built a castle on an island in the Dijle river.Intervention in West Francia
Arnulf took advantage of the problems in West Francia after the death of Charles the Fat to secure the territory of Lotharingia, which he converted into a kingdom for his son Zwentibold. In 889, Arnulf supported the claim of Louis the Blind to the kingdom of Provence, after receiving a personal appeal from Louis' mother, Ermengard, who came to see Arnulf at Forchheim in May 889.
Recognising the superiority of Arnulf's position in 888, king Odo of France formally accepted the suzerainty of Arnulf. In 893, Arnulf switched his support from Odo to Charles the Simple after being persuaded by Fulk, Archbishop of Reims, that it was in his best interests. Arnulf then took advantage of the following fighting between Odo and Charles in 894, harrying some territories of West Francia. At one point, Charles the Simple was forced to flee to Arnulf and ask for his protection. His intervention soon forced Pope Formosus to get involved, as he was worried that a divided and war weary West Francia would be easy prey for the Vikings.
In 895, Arnulf summoned both Charles and Odo to his residence at Worms. Charles's advisers convinced him not to go, and he sent a representative in his place. Odo, on the other hand, personally attended, together with a large retinue, bearing many gifts for Arnulf. Angered by the non-appearance of Charles, he welcomed Odo at the Diet of Worms in May 895 and again supported Odo's claim to the throne of West Francia. In the same assembly he crowned his illegitimate son Zwentibold as the king of Lotharingia.Wars with MoraviaAs early as 880, Arnulf had designs on Great Moravia and had the Frankish bishop Wiching of Nitra interfere with the missionary activities of the Eastern Orthodox priest Methodius, with the aim of preventing any potential for creating a unified Moravian state. Arnulf had formal relations with the ruler of the Moravian Kingdom, Svatopluk, using them to learn the latter's military and political secrets. Later, these tactics were used to occupy the territory of the Greater Moravian state.
Arnulf failed to conquer the whole of Great Moravia in wars of 892, 893, and 899. Yet Arnulf did achieve some successes, in particular in 895, when the Duchy of Bohemia broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal state. An accord was reached between him and Duke of Bohemia Borivoj I. Bohemia was thus freed from the dangers of Frankish invasion. In 893 or 894 Great Moravia probably lost a part of its territory—present-day western Hungary—to him. As a reward, Wiching became Arnulf's chancellor in 892. In his attempts to conquer Moravia, in 899 Arnulf reached out to Magyars who had settled in the Carpathian Basin, and with their help he imposed a measure of control over Moravia.King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
, early 14th-century)]]
In Italy Guy III of Spoleto and Berengar of Friuli fought over the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Berengar had been crowned king in 887, but Guy was then crowned in 889. While Pope Stephen V supported Guy, even crowning him Roman Emperor in 891, Arnulf threw his support behind Berengar.
In 893, the new Pope Formosus, not trusting the newly crowned co-emperors Guy and his son Lambert, sent an embassy to Omuntesberch, where Arnulf was meeting with Svatopluk, to request that Arnulf come and liberate Italy, where he would be crowned emperor in Rome. Arnulf met the Primores of the Kingdom of Italy, dismissed them with gifts and promised to assist the pope. Arnulf then sent Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to join Berengar. They defeated Guy but were bought off and left in autumn.
When Pope Formosus again asked Arnulf to invade, the duke personally led an army across the Alps, early in 894. In January 894, Bergamo fell, and Count Ambrose, Guy's representative in the city, was hanged from a tree by the city's gates. His march northward through the Alps was interrupted by Rudolph I of Burgundy, and it was only with great difficulty that Arnulf crossed the mountain range. In retaliation, Arnulf ordered Zwentibold to ravage Rudolph's kingdom. In the meantime, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude travelled to Rome to receive papal confirmation of his imperial succession, but when Pope Formosus, still desiring to crown Arnulf, refused, he was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo.
by Johann Jakob Jung (1840).]]
In September 895, a new papal embassy arrived in Regensburg beseeching Arnulf's aid. In October, Arnulf undertook his second campaign into Italy. He crossed the Alps quickly and again took Pavia, but then he continued slowly, garnering support among the nobility of Tuscany. Maginulf, Count of Milan, and Walfred of Friuli joined him. Eventually even Adalbert II of Tuscany abandoned Lambert. Finding Rome locked against him and held by Ageltrude, Arnulf had to take the city by force on 21 February 896, freeing the pope. Arnulf was then greeted at the Ponte Milvio by the Roman Senate who escorted him into the Leonine City, where he was received by Pope Formosus on the steps of the Santi Apostoli.
On 22 February 896, Formosus led the king into the church of St. Peter, anointed and crowned him as emperor, and saluted him as Augustus. Arnulf then proceeded to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, where he received the homage of the Roman people, who swore "never to hand over the city to Lambert or his mother Ageltrude". Arnulf then proceeded to exile to Bavaria two leading senators, Constantine and Stephen, who had helped Ageltrude to seize Rome.
Leaving one of his vassals, Farold, to hold Rome, two weeks later Arnulf marched on Spoleto, where Ageltrude had fled to join Lambert. However at this point, Arnulf had a stroke, forcing him to call off the campaign and return to Bavaria. Rumours of the time made Arnulf's condition to be a result of poisoning at the hand of Ageltrude.
Arnulf retained power in Italy only as long as he was personally there. On his way north, he stopped at Pavia where he crowned his illegitimate son Ratold as sub-king of Italy, after which he left Ratold in Milan in an attempt to preserve his hold on Italy. That same year Pope Formosus died, leaving Lambert once again in power, and both he and Berengar proceeded to kill any officials who had been appointed by Arnulf, forcing Ratold to flee from Milan to Bavaria. For the rest of his life Arnulf exercised very little control in Italy, and his agents in Rome did not prevent the accession of Pope Stephen VI in 896. The pope initially gave his support to Arnulf but eventually became a supporter of Lambert.
Final years
In addition to after effects of the stroke, Arnulf contracted morbus pediculosis (infestation of pubic lice on his eyelid), which prevented him from effectively dealing with the problems besetting his reign. Italy was lost, raiders from Moravia and Magyars were continually harassing his lands, and Lotharingia was in revolt against Zwentibold. He was also plagued by escalating violence and power struggles among the lower Frankish nobility.
On 8 December 899 Arnulf died at Ratisbon, in present-day Bavaria. After Louis' death in 911 at age 17 or 18, the East Frankish branch of the Carolingian dynasty ceased to exist. Arnulf had had the nobility recognize the rights of his illegitimate sons, Zwentibold and Ratold, as his successors. Zwentibold continued to rule Lotharingia until his murder in 900.
See also
*Family tree of German monarchs
*List of Frankish kings
Notes
References
* Duckett, Eleanor (1968). Death and Life in the Tenth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Comyn, Robert. [https://archive.org/stream/historywesterne01unkngoog#page/n6/mode/2up History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol. I.] 1851
* Bryce, James, [https://archive.org/stream/holyromanempir00bryc#page/n5/mode/2up The Holy Roman Empire], MacMillan. 1913
* Mann, Horace, K. [https://archive.org/stream/livesofpopesinea03mann#page/n7/mode/2up The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol III: The Popes During the Carolingian Empire, 858–891.] 1925
* Mann, Horace, K. [https://archive.org/stream/livesofpopesinea04mann#page/n7/mode/2up The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891–999.] 1925
Category:850s births
Category:899 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:9th-century Holy Roman Emperors
Category:9th-century kings of Italy
Category:9th-century kings of East Francia
Category:9th-century dukes of Bavaria
Category:Frankish warriors
Category:Kings of Bavaria
Category:Kings of Saxony
Category:Kings of Lotharingia
Category:People from Carinthia
Category:Burials at St. Emmeram's Abbey
Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.828237 |
2511 | Alexanderplatz | }}
in 2015
| map_type = Germany Berlin
| map_size | map_caption Location within Berlin
| map_alt = Location within Berlin
| former_names |||–1805)}}}}
| part_of =
| namesake = Alexander I of Russia
| type = Public square
| owner | maint
| length | length_m
| length_km | length_ref
| length_notes | width
| area
The George Gate became the most important of Berlin's city gates during the 16th century, being the main entry point for goods arriving along the roads to the north and north-east of the city, for example from , and , and the big Hanseatic cities on the Baltic Sea.
After the Thirty Years' War, the city wall was strengthened. From 1658 to 1683, a citywide fortress was constructed to plans by the Linz master builder, . The new fortress contained 13 bastions connected by ramparts and was preceded by a moat measuring up to wide. Within the new fortress, many of the historic city wall gates were closed. For example, the southeastern Gate was closed but the Georgian Gate remained open, making the Georgian Gate an even more important entrance to the city.
In 1681, the trade of cattle and pig fattening was banned within the city. Frederick William, the Great Elector, granted cheaper plots of land, waiving the basic interest rate, in the area in front of the Georgian Gate. Settlements grew rapidly and a weekly cattle market was established on the square in front of the Gate.
The area developed into a suburb – the – which continued to flourish into the late 17th century. Unlike the southwestern suburbs (, ) which were strictly and geometrically planned, the suburbs in the northeast (, and the ) proliferated without plan. Despite a building ban imposed in 1691, more than 600 houses existed in the area by 1700.
At that time, the George Gate was a rectangular gatehouse with a tower. Next to the tower stood a remaining tower from the original medieval city walls. The upper floors of the gatehouse served as the city jail. A drawbridge spanned the moat and the gate was locked at nightfall by the garrison using heavy oak planks.
A highway ran through the cattle market to the northeast towards . To the right stood the George chapel, an orphanage and a hospital that was donated by the Elector Sophie Dorothea in 1672. Next to the chapel stood a dilapidated medieval plague house which was demolished in 1716. Behind it was a rifleman's field and an inn, later named the .
By the end of the 17th century, 600 to 700 families lived in this area. They included butchers, cattle herders, shepherds and dairy farmers. The George chapel was upgraded to the George church and received its own preacher.
(1701–1805) |italicno}} is shown in red, the royal suburbs northeast brown.]]
After his coronation in on 6 May 1701 the Prussian King Frederick I entered Berlin through the George Gate. This led to the gate being renamed the King's Gate, and the surrounding area became known in official documents as (King's Gate Square). The suburb was renamed (or 'royal suburbs' short).
In 1734, the Berlin Customs Wall, which initially consisted of a ring of palisade fences, was reinforced and grew to encompass the old city and its suburbs, including . This resulted in the King's Gate losing importance as an entry point for goods into the city. The gate was finally demolished in 1746.
By the end of the 18th century, the basic structure of the royal suburbs of the had been developed. It consisted of irregular-shaped blocks of buildings running along the historic highways which once carried goods in various directions out of the gate. At this time, the area contained large factories (silk and wool), such as the (one of Berlin's first cloth factories, located in a former barn) and a workhouse established in 1758 for beggars and homeless people, where the inmates worked a man-powered treadmill to turn a mill.
Soon, military facilities came to dominate the area, such as the 1799–1800 military parade grounds designed by David Gilly. At this time, the residents of the were mostly craftsmen, petty-bourgeois, retired soldiers and manufacturing workers.
to take the name , and the square in front of the workhouse in the newly-conceived suburb settles with the name of , this is hereby made known to the public for news and attention."|signRoyal Prussian Police Directorate|source}}In the southeast of the square, the cloth factory buildings were converted into the Theater by at a cost of 120,000 Taler. The foundation stone was laid on 31 August 1823 and the opening ceremony occurred on 4 August 1824. Sales were poor, forcing the theatre to close on 3 June 1851. Thereafter, the building was used for wool storage, then as a tenement building, and finally as an inn called until the building's demolition in 1932.
During these years, was populated by fish wives, water carriers, sand sellers, rag-and-bone men, knife sharpeners and day laborers.
During the March Revolution of 1848, large-scale street fighting occurred on the streets of , where revolutionaries used barricades to block the route from to the city.
Novelist and poet , who worked in the vicinity in a nearby pharmacy, participated in the construction of barricades and later described how he used materials from the Theater to barricade .
The continued to grow throughout the 19th century, with three-storey developments already existing at the beginning of the century and fourth storeys being constructed from the middle of the century. By the end of the century, most of the buildings were already five storeys high. The large factories and military facilities gave way to housing developments (mainly rental housing for the factory workers who had just moved into the city) and trading houses.
At the beginning of the 1870s, the Berlin administration had the former moat filled to build the Berlin city railway, which was opened in 1882 along with (' Railway Station').
In 1883–1884, the Grand Hotel, a neo-Renaissance building with 185 rooms and shops beneath was constructed. From 1886 to 1890, built the police headquarters, a huge brick building whose tower on the northern corner dominated the building. In 1890, a district court at was also established.
In 1886, the local authorities built a central market hall west of the rail tracks, which replaced the weekly market on the in 1896. During the end of the 19th century, the emerging private traffic and the first horse bus lines dominated the northern part of the square, the southern part (the former parade ground) remained quiet, having green space elements added by garden director in 1889. The northwest of the square contained a second, smaller green space where, in 1895, the copper Berolina statue by sculptor was erected.
Between Empire and the Nazi era (1900–1940)
and the Berlin Cathedral, ca. 1930]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, experienced its heyday. In 1901, founded the first German cabaret, the , in the former ('Secession stage') at , initially under the name . It was announced as " as upscale entertainment with artistic ambitions. Emperor-loyal and market-oriented stands the uncritical amusement in the foreground."
The merchants , and opened large department stores on : (1904–1911), (1910–1911) and (1911). marketed itself as a department store for the Berlin people, whereas modelled itself as a department store for the world.
In October 1905, the first section of the department store opened to the public. It was designed by architects and , who had already won second prize in the competition for the construction of the building. The department store underwent further construction phases and, in 1911, had a commercial space of and the longest department store façade in the world at in length.
For the construction of the department store, by architects and , the were removed in 1910 and now stand in the Park in .
In October 1908, the ('the teacher's house') was opened next to the at . It was designed by and Henry Gross. The building belonged to the ('teachers’ association'), who rented space on the ground floor of the building out to a pastry shop and restaurant to raise funds for the association. The building housed the teachers' library which survived two world wars, and today is integrated into the library for educational historical research. ran out of in all directions in a star shape. The subway station was designed by Alfred Grenander and followed the colour-coded order of subway stations, which began with green at and ran through to dark red.
In the Golden Twenties, was the epitome of the lively, pulsating cosmopolitan city of Berlin, rivalled in the city only by . Many of the buildings and rail bridges surrounding the platz bore large billboards that illuminated the night. The Berlin cigarette company Manoli had a famous billboard at the time which contained a ring of neon tubes that constantly circled a black ball. The proverbial "" of those years was characterized as "". Writer wrote a poem referencing the advert, and the composer Rudolf Nelson made the legendary with the dancer Lucie Berber. The writer named his novel, , after the square, and filmed parts of his 1927 film (Berlin: The Symphony of the Big City) at .
Destruction of (1940–1945) One of Berlin's largest air-raid shelters during the Second World War was situated under . It was built between 1941 and 1943 for the by .
The war reached in early April 1945. The Berolina statue had already been removed in 1944 and probably melted down for use in arms production. During the Battle of Berlin, Red Army artillery bombarded the area around . The battles of the last days of the war destroyed considerable parts of the historic , as well as many of the buildings around .
The had entrenched itself within the tunnels of the underground system. Hours before fighting ended in Berlin on 2 May 1945, troops of the SS detonated explosives inside the north–south tunnel under the Canal to slow the advance of the Red Army towards Berlin's city centre. The entire tunnel flooded, as well as large sections of the network via connecting passages at the underground station. Many of those seeking shelter in the tunnels were killed.
Reconstruction planning for post-war Berlin gave priority to the dedicated space to accommodate the rapidly growing motor traffic in inner-city thoroughfares. This idea of a traffic-oriented city was already based on considerations and plans by and from the 1930s. ]]After German reunification (1989)Ever since German reunification, has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. After the political turnaround in the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall, socialist urban planning and architecture of the 1970s no longer corresponded to the current ideas of an inner-city square. Investors demanded planning security for their construction projects. After initial discussions with the public, the goal quickly arose to reinstate 's tram network for better connections to surrounding city quarters. In 1993, an urban planning ideas competition for architects took place to redesign the square and its surrounding area.
In the first phase, there were 16 submissions, five of which were selected for the second phase of the competition. These five architects had to adapt their plans to detailed requirements. For example, the return of the Alex's trams was planned, with the implementation to be made in several stages.
The winner, who was determined on 17 September 1993, was the Berlin architect . 's plan was based on Behrens’ design, provided a horseshoe-shaped area of seven- to eight-storey buildings and high towers with 42 floors. The and the – both listed buildings – would form the southwestern boundary. Second place went to the design by and . The proposal of the architecture firm Kny & Weber, which was strongly based on the horseshoe shape of Wagner, finally won the third place. The design by was chosen on 7 June 1994 by the Berlin Senate as a basis for the further transformation of .
In 1993, architect 's master plan for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published.
In 1995, completed the renovation of the . In 1998, the first tram returned to , and in 1999, the town planning contracts for the implementation of and 's plans were signed by the landowners and the investors.
21st century
|left]]
station at the alexanderplatz]]
On 2 April 2000, the Senate finally fixed the development plan for . The purchase contracts between investors and the Senate Department for Urban Development were signed on 23 May 2002, thus laying the foundations for the development.
The CUBIX multiplex cinema (CineStar Cubix am Alexanderplatz, styled CUBIX), which opened in November 2000, joined the team of Berlin International Film Festival cinemas in 2007, and the festival shows films on three of its screens.
Renovation of the department store began in 2004, led by Berlin professor of architecture, and his son . The building was enlarged by about and has since operated under the name .
Beginning with the reconstruction of the department store in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings were redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side. Sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed.
The was given a pavement of yellow granite, bordered by grey mosaic paving around the buildings. Wall AG modernized the 1920s-era underground toilets at a cost of 750,000 euros. The total redesign cost amounted to around 8.7 million euros.
On 12 September 2007 the Alexa shopping centre opened. It is located in the immediate vicinity of the , on the site of the old Berlin police headquarters. With a sales area, it is one of the largest shopping centres in Berlin.
In May 2007, the Texas property development company Hines began building a six-story commercial building named . The building was built on a plot of , which, according to the plans, closes the square to the east and thus reduces the area of the Platz. The building was opened on 25 March 2009.
At the beginning of 2007, the construction company created an underground garage with three levels below the , located between the hotel tower and the building, which cost 25 million euros to build and provides space for around 700 cars. The opening took place on 26 November 2010. At the same time, the Senate narrowed from almost wide to wide (), thus reducing it to three lanes in each direction.
Behind the station, next to the CUBIX cinema in the immediate vicinity of the TV tower, the high residential and commercial building, Alea 101, was built between 2012 and 2014.
it was assessed that due to a lack of demand the skyscrapers planned in 1993 were unlikely to be constructed.
The area is the largest area for crime in Berlin. As of October 2017, was classified a ("crime-contaminated location") by the (General Safety and Planning Laws).Today and future plansDespite the reconstruction of the tram line crossing, it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied , a popular venue.
is reputedly the most visited area of Berlin, beating Friedrichstrasse and City West. It is a popular starting point for tourists, with many attractions including the (TV tower), the Nikolai Quarter and the ('Red City Hall') situated nearby. is still one of Berlin's major commercial areas, housing various shopping malls, department stores and other large retail locations.
Many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of . The traditional seat of city government, the , or 'Red City Hall', is located nearby, as was the former East German parliament building, the . The was demolished from 2006–2008 to make room for a full reconstruction of the Baroque Berlin Palace, or .
is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. It is one of Berlin's largest and most important transportation hubs, being a meeting place of three subway () lines, three lines, and many tram and bus lines, as well as regional trains.
It also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, the House of Travel, and 's (House of Teachers)'.
in Berlin ]]
Long-term plans exist for the demolition of the high former (now the Hotel Park-Inn), with the site to be replaced by three skyscrapers. If and when this plan will be implemented is unclear, especially since the hotel tower received a new façade as recently as in 2005, and the occupancy rates of the hotel are very good. However, the plans could give way in the next few years to a suggested high new block conversion. The previous main tenant of the development, Saturn, moved into the building in March 2009. In 2014, Primark opened a branch inside the hotel building.
The majority of the planned high skyscrapers will probably never be built. The state of Berlin has announced that it will not enforce the corresponding urban development contracts against the market. Of the 13 planned skyscrapers, 10 remained as of 2008, after modifications to the plans – eight of which had construction rights. Some investors in the Alexa shopping centre announced several times since 2007 that they would sell their respective shares in the plot to an investor interested in building a high-rise building.
The first concrete plans for the construction of a high-rise were made by Hines, the investor behind die mitte. In 2009, the construction of a high tower to be built behind die mitte was announced. On 12 September 2011, a slightly modified development plan was presented, which provided for a residential tower housing 400 apartments. In early 2013, the development plan was opened to the public.
In autumn 2015, the Berlin Senate organized two forums in which interested citizens could express their opinions on the proposed changes to the . Architects, city planners and Senate officials held open discussions. On that occasion, however, it was reiterated that the plans for high-rise developments were not up for debate. According to the master plan of the architect , up to eleven huge buildings will continue to be built, which will house a mixture of shops and apartments.
Roads and public transport
During the post-war reconstruction of the 1960s, was completely pedestrianized. Since then, trams were reintroduced to the area in 1998.
station provides connections, access to the U2, U5 and U8 subway lines, regional train lines for DB Regio and ODEG services and, on weekends, the (HBX). Several tram and bus lines also service the area.
The following main roads connect to :
* Northwest: (federal highways B 2 and B 5)
* Northeast: (B 2 and B 5)
* Southeast: (B 1)
* Southwest (in front of the station, in the pedestrian zone):
Several arterial roads lead radially from to the outskirts of Berlin. These include (clockwise from north to south-east):
* / – – (to Bundesstraße 96a)
* – intersection – (main road 109 to the triangle at the )
* / – (B 2) – (intersection ) – (B 2 via to the junction at )
(B 1 and B 5) – – / – (B 1 and B 5 to junction at ) Structures
and Park Inn hotel in the background]]
World Clock
The World Clock (‹See Tfd›German: Weltzeituhr), is a large turret-style world clock located. By reading the markings on its metal rotunda, the current time for 148 major cities from around the world can be determined. Since its erection by the German Democratic Republic in 1969, it has been a tourist attraction and meeting place.
Berolina
Berolina is the female personification of Berlin and the allegorical female figure symbolizing the city. One of the best-known portraits of Berolina is the statue that once stood in Alexanderplatz.
Fountain of Friendship
The Fountain of Friendship () was erected in 1970 during the redesign of and inaugurated on October 7. It was created by and his group of artists. Its water basin has a diameter of 23 meters, it is 6.20 meters high and is built from embossed copper, glass, ceramics and enamel. The water spurts from the highest point and then flows down in spirals over 17 shells, which each have a diameter between one and four meters. After German reunification, it was completely renovated in a metal art workshop during the reconstruction of the . Other Apart from , is the only existing square in front of one of the medieval gates of Berlin's city well.
Image gallery
<gallery widths"250" mode"packed-hover">
Der Alexanderplatz um 1908.jpg|, 1908 (left to right: , , )
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-C0623-0001-001, Berlin, Alexanderplatz, Haus des Lehrers, Kongresshalle.jpg|Trams at
Apstatue.jpg|
Weltzeituhr.jpg|The World Clock with the in the background
Berlin Alexanderplatz abend.JPG| and the
Reloj Mundial, Berlín, Alemania, 2016-04-22, DD 46-48 HDR.jpg|Night view of the World Clock
Berlin TV tower reflection.jpg|Park Inn with a reflection from the
Die mitte Alexanderplatz IMGP1725.jpg| shopping mall
Bahnhof Berlin-Alexanderplatz.jpg|
2019-08-06 Tram at Alexanderplatz 2.jpg|Modern tram
Berlin Alexanderplatz - Alexanderhaus 1.jpg|
Project-blinkenlights-aerial-view.jpg|Project Blinkenlights
</gallery>
Further reading
* Weszkalnys, Gisa (2010). Berlin, Alexanderplatz: Transforming Place in a Unified Germany. Berghahn Books.
* [https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en/alexanderplatz Alexanderplatz: Plenty of Space for Free Speech.] In: [https://www.orte-der-einheit.de/en/ Sites of Unity] (Haus der Geschichte), 2022.
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080921122322/http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/staedtebau-projekte/alexanderplatz/index_en.shtml Alexanderplatz – Overview of the changes]
References
Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century
Category:13th-century establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Mitte
Category:Squares in Berlin
Category:Zones of Berlin
Category:Cremer & Wolffenstein
Category:Alexander I of Russia
Category:Frederick William III of Prussia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderplatz | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.884898 |
2512 | Asian Development Bank | | msize | mcaption
| abbreviation = ADB
| formation
| extinction | type Multilateral development bank
| status = Treaty
| purpose = Social and Economic Development
| headquarters = 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila 1550, Philippines
| region_served = Indo-Pacific
| membership = 69
countries
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Masato Kanda
| main_organ Board of Governors
| parent_organization | affiliations International Monetary Fund (International)
| num_staff 3,769
| num_volunteers | budget
| website =
| remarks =
}}
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank to promote social and economic development in Asia. The bank is headquartered in Metro Manila, Philippines and maintains 31 field offices around the world
The bank was established on 19 December 1966 and admits the members of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East or ECAFE), and non-regional developed countries. Starting with 31 members at its establishment, by 2019 ADB had 69 members.
The ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank and has a similar weighted voting system, where votes are distributed in proportion with members' capital subscriptions. ADB releases an annual report that summarizes its operations, budget, and other materials for review by the public. The ADB-Japan Scholarship Program (ADB-JSP) enrolls about 300 students annually in academic institutions located in 10 countries within the Region. After completing their study programs, scholars are expected to contribute to the economic and social development of their home countries. ADB holds the status of an official United Nations Observer.
As of 31 December 2020, Japan and the United States each holds the largest proportion of shares at 15.571%. China holds 6.429%, India holds 6.317%, and Australia holds 5.773%.OrganizationThe highest policy-making body of the bank is the Board of Governors, composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the twelve members of the board of directors and their deputies. Eight of the twelve members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the others come from non-regional members.
The Board of Governors also elect the bank's president, who is the chairperson of the board of directors and manages ADB. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be re-elected. Traditionally, and because Japan is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the president has always been Japanese.
The current president is Masatsugu Asakawa. He succeeded Takehiko Nakao on 17 January 2020, who succeeded Haruhiko Kuroda in 2013. In 2024, Asakawa announced his resignation effective on 23 February 2025.
The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines, and it has 42 field offices in Asia and the Pacific and representative offices in Washington, Frankfurt, Tokyo and Sydney. The bank employs about 3,000 people, representing 60 of its 68 members.List of presidents
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Dates
! Nationality
|-
| Takeshi Watanabe
| 1966–1972
| ese
|-
| Shiro Inoue
| 1972–1976
| ese
|-
|
| 1976–1981
| ese
|-
|
| 1981–1989
| ese
|-
|
| 1989–1993
| ese
|-
| Mitsuo Sato
| 1993–1999
| ese
|-
| Tadao Chino
| 1999–2005
| ese
|-
| Haruhiko Kuroda
| 2005–2013
| ese
|-
| Takehiko Nakao
| 2013–2020
| ese
|-
| Masatsugu Asakawa
|2020–February 23, 2025
| ese
|-
| Masato Kanda
|February 24, 2025–
| ese
|}
History
1960s
As early as 1956, Japan Finance Minister Hisato Ichimada had suggested to United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that development projects in Southeast Asia could be supported by a new financial institution for the region. A year later, Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi announced that Japan intended to sponsor the establishment of a regional development fund with resources largely from Japan and other industrial countries. But the US did not warm to the plan and the concept was shelved. See full account in "Banking the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank", July 2017.
The idea came up again late in 1962 when Kaoru Ohashi, an economist from a research institute in Tokyo, visited Takeshi Watanabe, then a private financial consultant in Tokyo, and proposed a study group to form a development bank for the Asian region. The group met regularly in 1963, examining various scenarios for setting up a new institution and drew on Watanabe's experiences with the World Bank. However, the idea received a cool reception from the World Bank itself and the study group became discouraged.
In parallel, the concept was formally proposed at a trade conference organized by the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) in 1963 by a young Thai economist, Paul Sithi-Amnuai. (ESCAP, United Nations Publication March 2007, "The first parliament of Asia" pp. 65). Despite an initial mixed reaction, support for the establishment of a new bank soon grew.
An expert group was convened to study the idea, with Japan invited to contribute to the group. When Watanabe was recommended, the two streams proposing a new bank—from ECAFE and Japan—came together. Initially, the US was on the fence, not opposing the idea but not ready to commit financial support. But a new bank for Asia was soon seen to fit in with a broader program of assistance to Asia planned by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson in the wake of the escalating U.S. military support for the government of South Vietnam.
As a key player in the concept, Japan hoped that the ADB offices would be in Tokyo. However, eight other cities had also expressed an interest: Bangkok, Colombo, Kabul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Phnom Penh, Singapore, and Tehran. To decide, the 18 prospective regional members of the new bank held three rounds of votes at a ministerial conference in Manila in November/December 1965. In the first round on 30 November, Tokyo failed to win a majority, so a second ballot was held the next day at noon. Although Japan was in the lead, it was still inconclusive, so a final vote was held after lunch. In the third poll, Tokyo gained eight votes to Manila's nine, with one abstention. Therefore, Manila was declared the host of the new development bank; the Japanese were mystified and deeply disappointed. Watanabe later wrote in his personal history of ADB: "I felt as if the child I had so carefully reared had been taken away to a distant country." (Asian Development Bank publication, "Towards a New Asia", 1977, p. 16)
On 3 December 1965, Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal lays the foundation stone of the Asian Development Bank.
As intensive work took place during 1966 to prepare for the opening of the new bank in Manila, high on the agenda was choice of president. Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō asked Watanabe to be a candidate. Although he initially declined, pressure came from other countries and Watanabe agreed. In the absence of any other candidates, Watanabe was elected first President of the Asian Development Bank at its Inaugural Meeting on 24 November 1966.
By the end of 1972, Japan had contributed $173.7 million (22.6% of the total) to the ordinary capital resources and $122.6 million (59.6% of the total) to the special funds. In contrast, the United States contributed only $1.25 million to the special fund.
Early loans went largely to Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea and the Philippines; these countries accounted for 78.48% of the total ADB loans between 1967 and 1972. Moreover, Japan received tangible benefits, 41.67% of the total procurements between 1967 and 1976. Japan tied its special funds contributions to its preferred sectors and regions and procurements of its goods and services, as reflected in its $100 million donation for the Agricultural Special Fund in April 1968.
1970s–1980s
In the 1970s, ADB's assistance to developing countries in Asia expanded into education and health, and then to infrastructure and industry. The gradual emergence of Asian economies in the latter part of the decade spurred demand for better infrastructure to support economic growth. ADB focused on improving roads and providing electricity. When the world suffered its first oil price shock, ADB shifted more of its assistance to support energy projects, especially those promoting the development of domestic energy sources in member countries.
In 2009, ADB's Board of Governors agreed to triple ADB's capital base from $55 billion to $165 billion, giving it much-needed resources to respond to the global economic crisis. The 200% increase is the largest in ADB's history, and was the first since 1994.Objectives and activitiesAimThe ADB defines itself as a social development organization that is dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. This is carried out through investments – in the form of loans, grants and information sharing – in infrastructure, health care services, financial and public administration systems, helping countries prepare for the impact of climate change or better manage their natural resources, as well as other areas.Focus areasEighty percent of ADB's lending is concentrated public sector lending in five operational areas.
* Education – Most developing countries in Asia and the Pacific have earned high marks for a dramatic rise in primary education enrollment rates in the last three decades, but daunting challenges remain, threatening economic and social growth.
* Environment, Climate Change, and Disaster Risk Management – Environmental sustainability is a prerequisite for economic growth and poverty reduction in Asia and the Pacific.
* Finance Sector Development – The financial system is the lifeline of a country's economy. It creates prosperity that can be shared throughout society and benefit the poorest and most vulnerable people. Financial sector and capital market development, including microfinance, small and medium-sized enterprises, and regulatory reforms, is vital to decreasing poverty in Asia and the Pacific. This has been a key priority of the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) since 2002. One of the most active sub-sectors of finance is the PSOD's support for trade finance. Each year the PSOD finances billions of dollars in letters of credit across all of Asia and the rest of the world.
* Infrastructure, including transport and communications, energy, water supply and sanitation, and urban development.
* Regional Cooperation and Integration – Regional cooperation and integration (RCI) was introduced by President Kuroda when he joined the ADB in 2004. It was seen as a long-standing priority of the Japanese government as a process by which national economies become more regionally connected. It plays a critical role in accelerating economic growth, reducing poverty and economic disparity, raising productivity and employment, and strengthening institutions.
* Private Sector Lending – This priority was introduced into the ADB's activities at the insistence of the Reagan Administration. However, that effort was never a true priority until the administration of President Tadeo Chino who in turn brought in a seasoned American banker – Robert Bestani. From then on, the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) grew at a very rapid pace, growing from the smallest financing unit of the ADB to the largest in terms of financing volume. As noted earlier, this culminated in the Long Term strategic Framework (LTSF) which was adopted by the Board in March 2008.
Financings
The ADB offers "hard" loans on commercial terms primarily to middle income countries in Asia and "soft" loans with lower interest rates to poorer countries in the region. Based on a new policy, both types of loans will be sourced starting January 2017 from the bank's ordinary capital resources (OCR), which functions as its general operational fund.
The ADB's Private Sector Department (PSOD) can and does offer a broader range of financings beyond commercial loans. They also have the capability to provide guarantees, equity and mezzanine finance (a combination of debt and equity).
In 2017, ADB lent $19.1 billion of which $3.2 billion went to private enterprises, as part of its "non-sovereign" operations. ADB's operations in 2017, including grants and co-financing, totaled $28.9 billion.
ADB obtains its funding by issuing bonds on the world's capital markets. It also relies on the contributions of member countries, retained earnings from lending operations, and the repayment of loans.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right;float:left;"
|+Five largest borrowing countries
!rowspan"2" |Country !!colspan"2"|2018 !!colspan"2"| 2017 !!colspan"2"|2016 !!colspan="2"| 2015
|-
!$ million !!% !!$ million !!% !!$ million !!% !!$ million !!%
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||17,015 ||16.6 ||16,284 ||16.9||15,615 ||24.8 ||14,646 ||25.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||16,115 ||15.7 ||14,720 ||15.2||13,331 ||21.2 ||12,916 ||22.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||10,818 ||10.6 ||10,975 ||11.4 ||4,570 ||7.3 ||4,319 ||7.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||10,356 ||10.1 ||9,393 ||9.7||8,700 ||13.8 ||8,214 ||14.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||9,169 ||8.9 ||8,685 ||9.0 ||- ||- ||- ||-
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| ||- ||- ||- ||- ||5,935 ||9.4 || 5,525 ||9.5
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Others ||38,998 ||38.1 ||36,519 ||37.8 ||14,831 ||23.5 ||12,486 ||21.6
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Total ||102,470 ||100.0 ||96,577 ||100.0 ||62,983 ||100.0 ||58,106 ||100.0
|}
Private sector investments
ADB provides direct financial assistance, in the form of debt, equity and mezzanine finance to private sector companies, for projects that have clear social benefits beyond the financial rate of return. ADB's participation is usually limited but it leverages a large amount of funds from commercial sources to finance these projects by holding no more than 25% of any given transaction.Co-financingADB partners with other development organizations on some projects to increase the amount of funding available. In 2014, $9.2 billion—or nearly half—of ADB's $22.9 billion in operations were financed by other organizations. According to Jason Rush, Principal Communication Specialist, the Bank communicates with many other multilateral organizations.
Funds and resources
More than 50 financing partnership facilities, trust funds, and other funds – totaling several billion each year – are administered by ADB and put toward projects that promote social and economic development in Asia and the Pacific. ADB has raised Rupees 5 billion or around Rupees 5 billion from its issuance of 5-year offshore Indian rupee (INR) linked bonds.
On 26 February 2020, ADB raises $118 million from rupee-linked bonds and supporting the development of India International Exchange in India, as it also contributes to an established yield curve which stretches from 2021 through 2030 with $1 billion of outstanding bonds.
2022 Annual Report
The 2022 Annual Report details ADB's efforts in aiding its developing member countries to overcome the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, tackle new challenges like the Russian invasion of Ukraine and a severe food crisis, while also addressing climate change with significant financial commitments, including $6.7 billion for climate initiatives and a $14 billion package for food security. The ADB committed a total of $20.5 billion in various forms of assistance, including private sector financing, and fostered regional cooperation, with a focus on gender equality, education, healthcare, and unlocking additional resources through innovative financial mechanisms. The report also notes organizational reforms for increased efficacy, the adoption of a hybrid work model following the full reopening of its headquarters.
Access to information
ADB has an information disclosure policy that presumes all information that is produced by the institution should be disclosed to the public unless there is a specific reason to keep it confidential. The policy calls for accountability and transparency in operations and the timely response to requests for information and documents. ADB does not disclose information that jeopardizes personal privacy, safety and security, certain financial and commercial information, as well as other exceptions.Notable projects and technical assistance* Afghanistan: Hairatan to Mazar-e-Sharif Railway Project
* Armenia: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project
* Bhutan: Green Power Development Project
* India: Rural Roads Sector II Investment Program; Agartala Municipal Infrastructure Development Project
* Indonesia: Vocational Education Strengthening Project
* Laos: Northern and Central Regions Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project
* Mongolia: Food and Nutrition Social Welfare Program and Project
* Philippines: North–South Commuter Railway Extension Project (Malolos–Clark Railway Project and South Commuter Railway Project), jointly funded with Japan International Cooperation Agency; Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge, jointly funded by Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank; Laguna Lakeshore Road Network, jointly funded by Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and Export-Import Bank of Korea-Economic Development Cooperation Fund
* Solomon Islands: Pacific Private Sector Development InitiativeCriticismSince the ADB's early days, critics have charged that the two major donors, Japan and the United States, have had extensive influence over lending, policy and staffing decisions.
Oxfam Australia has criticized the Asian Development Bank for insensitivity to local communities. "Operating at a global and international level, these banks can undermine people's human rights through projects that have detrimental outcomes for poor and marginalized communities." The bank also received criticism from the United Nations Environmental Program, stating in a report that "much of the growth has bypassed more than 70 percent of its rural population, many of whom are directly dependent on natural resources for livelihoods and incomes."
There had been criticism that ADB's large scale projects cause social and environmental damage due to lack of oversight. One of the most controversial ADB-related projects is Thailand's Mae Moh coal-fired power station. Environmental and human rights activists say ADB's environmental safeguards policy as well as policies for indigenous peoples and involuntary resettlement, while usually up to international standards on paper, are often ignored in practice, are too vague or weak to be effective, or are simply not enforced by bank officials.
The bank has been criticized over its role and relevance in the food crisis. The ADB has been accused by civil society of ignoring warnings leading up the crisis and also contributing to it by pushing loan conditions that many say unfairly pressure governments to deregulate and privatize agriculture, leading to problems such as the rice supply shortage in Southeast Asia.
Indeed, whereas the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) closed out that year with financings of $2.4 billion, the ADB has significantly dropped below that level in the years since and is clearly not on the path to achieving its stated goal of 50% of financings to the private sector by 2020. Critics also point out that the PSOD is the only department that actually makes money for the ADB. Hence, with the vast majority of loans going to concessionary (sub-market) loans to the public sector, the ADB is facing considerable financial difficulty and continuous operating losses.
Countries with the largest subscribed capital and voting rights
The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by subscribed capital and voting power at the Asian Development Bank as of December 2021.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right"
|+ The 20 countries with the largest capital contribution and voting rights in the Asian Development Bank
! Rank !! Country !! Subscribed capital<br>(% of total) !! Voting power<br>(% of total)
|-
| || align=left|World || 100.000 || 100.000
|-
| 1 || align=left| || 15.571 || 12.751
|-
| 1 || align=left| || 15.571 || 12.751
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 6.429 || 5.437
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 6.317 || 5.347
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 5.773 || 4.913
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 5.434 || 4.641
|-
| 7 || align=left| || 5.219 || 4.469
|-
| 8 || align=left| || 5.026 || 4.315
|-
| 9 || align=left| || 4.316 || 3.747
|-
| 10 || align=left| || 2.717 || 2.468
|-
| 11 || align=left| || 2.377 || 2.196
|-
| 12 || align=left| || 2.322 || 2.152
|-
| 13 || align=left| || 2.174 || 2.033
|-
| 14 || align=left| || 2.038 || 1.924
|-
| 15 || align=left| || 1.803 || 1.737
|-
| 16 || align=left| || 1.532 || 1.520
|-
| 17 || align=left| || 1.358 || 1.381
|-
| 18 || align=left| || 1.087 || 1.164
|-
| 19 || align=left| || 1.023 || 1.113
|-
| 20 || align=left| || 1.019 || 1.109
|-
| || align=left| || 10.894 || 22.832
|}
Members
(DMC) graduation stages
]]
ADB has 69 members (as of 27th September 2024): 49 members from the Asian and Pacific Region, and 19 members from Other Regions. The year listed after a member's name indicates the year of their membership. When a country no longer remains a member, the Bank shall arrange for the repurchase of such country's shares by the Bank as a part of the settlement of accounts with such country in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 of Article 43.
{| style="border-collapse: collapse; background: transparent;"
|-
| style="vertical-align: top;" |
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Regional members
! Date of accession
|-
| || rowspan="19" | 1966
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
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See also
* African Development Bank
* Asian Clearing Union
* Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI)
* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
* Asia Cooperation Dialogue
* Asia Council
* CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean
* Caribbean Development Bank
* Eurasian Development Bank
* Inter-American Development Bank
* International Monetary Fund
* South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation
* World Bank
References
Further reading
* Huang, P.W. 1975. The Asian Development Bank: Diplomacy and Development in Asia. New York, NY: Vantage Press.
* Krishnamurti, R. 1977. ADB: The Seeding Days. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* McCawley, Peter. 2017. [https://www.adb.org/publications/50-years-adb Banking on the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank.] Manila: Asian Development Bank, (print), (e-ISBN), (Japanese language edition).
* McCawley, Peter. 2020. [https://www.adb.org/publications/indonesia-adb-50-years-partnership Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership] Manila: Asian Development Bank, (print), (e-book). DOI: [http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/SGP200146-2 Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership]
* Watanabe, Takeshi. 1977 (reprinted 2010). Towards a New Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* Wihtol, Robert. 1988. The Asian Development Bank and Rural Development: Policy and Practice. Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Press.
* Wilson, Dick. 1997. A Bank for Half the World: The Story of the Asian Development Bank, 1966–1986. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
* Yasutomo, D.T. 1983. Japan and the Asian Development Bank. New York, NY: Praeger.
External links
*
Category:Banking institutes
Category:Supranational banks
Category:Organizations based in Manila
Category:International development multilaterals
Category:Multilateral development banks
Category:United Nations General Assembly observers
Category:International banking institutions
Category:Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
Category:Development in Asia
Category:Banks established in 1966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.926727 |
2514 | Aswan | <br />
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline =
| image_caption = From top left: <br /> Aerial view of the city, Philae temple complex, Aswan High Dam, view of the city from the Nile, El Khattaya bridge, a resort in the city, Monastery of St. Simeon
| flag_size | image_seal
| seal_size | image_shield
| shield_size | nickname
| motto =
<!-- images and maps ----------->
| image_map | mapsize
| map_caption | pushpin_map Egypt
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_relief = yes
| pushpin_mapsize | pushpin_map_caption Location within Egypt
<!-- Location ------------------>
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = Governorate
| subdivision_type2 | subdivision_type3
| subdivision_name1 = Aswan
| subdivision_name2 | subdivision_name3
| established_title = <!-- Settled -->
| established_date | government_footnotes
| government_type | leader_title Governor
| leader_name | leader_title1 <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager -->
| leader_name1 =
<!-- Area --------------------->
| area_footnotes
| area_magnitude | area_total_km2 375
| area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion-->
| elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use tags-->
| elevation_m = 194
| elevation_ft =
<!-- Population ----------------------->
| population_total = 379,774
| population_as_of = 2021
| population_footnotes ; ) is a city in Southern Egypt, and is the capital of the Aswan Governorate.
Aswan is a busy market and tourist centre located just north of the Aswan Dam on the east bank of the Nile at the first cataract. The modern city has expanded and includes the formerly separate community on the island of Elephantine.
Aswan includes five monuments within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae; these are the Old and Middle Kingdom tombs of Qubbet el-Hawa, the town of Elephantine, the stone quarries and Unfinished Obelisk, the Monastery of St. Simeon and the Fatimid Cemetery. The city's Nubian Museum is an important archaeological center, containing finds from the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia before the Aswan Dam flooded all of Lower Nubia.
The city is part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of craft and folk art. Aswan joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2017.
Other spellings and variations
Aswan was formerly spelled Assuan or Assouan. Names in other languages include (; Ancient Egyptian: ; ; ; proposed Biblical Hebrew: סְוֵנֵה Sǝwēnê). The Nubians also call the city Dib which means "fortress, palace" and is derived from the Old Nubian name ⲇⲡ̅ⲡⲓ. History
Aswan is the ancient city of Swenett, later known as Syene, which in antiquity was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt facing the south. Swenett is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name. This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt because of the similar association of their goddesses with childbirth, and of which the import is "the opener". The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for "trade", or "market".
Because the Ancient Egyptians oriented themselves toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south, and as Swenett was the southernmost town in the country, Egypt always was conceived to "open" or begin at Swenett. The city is mentioned by numerous ancient writers, including Herodotus, Strabo, Stephanus of Byzantium, Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius, and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary. It may also be mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah.
The Nile is nearly wide above<!--Should this say "below"? Bear in mind that north is down on the Nile.--> Aswan. From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than without bar or cataract. The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favorable weather.
Archaeological findings
In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the head of the bust of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius at the Temple of Kom Ombo during work to protect the site from groundwater.
In September 2018, the Egyptian Antiquities Minister Khaled el-Enany announced that a sandstone sphinx statue had been discovered at the temple of Kom Ombo. The statue, measuring approximately in width and ) in height, probably dates to the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Archaeologists discovered 35 mummified remains of Egyptians in a tomb in Aswan in 2019. Italian archaeologist Patrizia Piacentini and El-Enany both reported that the tomb, where the remains of ancient men, women and children were found, dates back to the Greco-Roman period between 332 BC and 395 AD. While the findings assumed belonging to a mother and a child were well preserved, others had suffered major destruction. Other than the mummies, artifacts including painted funerary masks, vases of bitumen used in mummification, pottery and wooden figurines were revealed. Thanks to the hieroglyphs on the tomb, it was detected that the tomb belongs to a tradesman named Tjit.
Piacentini commented "It's a very important discovery because we have added something to the history of Aswan that was missing. We knew about tombs and necropoli dating back to the second and third millennium, but we didn't know where the people who lived in the last part of the Pharaonic era were. Aswan, on the southern border of Egypt, was also a very important trading city".
In February 2021, archaeologists from the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced significant discoveries at an archaeological site called Shiha Fort in Aswan, namely a Ptolemaic period temple, a Roman fort, an early Coptic church and an inscription in hieratic script. According to Mostafa Waziri, the crumbling temple was decorated with palm leaf carvings and an incomplete sandstone panel that described a Roman emperor. Researcher Abdel Badie states more generally that the church contained ovens used to bake pottery, four rooms, a long hall, stairs, and stone tiles. Geography Northern Tropic boundary The latitude of the city that would become Aswan – located at 24° 5′ 23″ – was an object of great interest to the ancient geographers and mathematicians. They believed that it was seated immediately under the tropic, and that on the day of the summer solstice, a vertically positioned staff cast no shadow. Aswan is one of the least humid cities on the planet, with an average relative humidity of only 26%, with a maximum mean of 42% during winter and a minimum mean of 16% during summer.
The weather of Aswan is extremely clear, bright and sunny year-round in all seasons, with low seasonal variation and almost 4,000 hours of annual sunshine – very close to the maximum theoretical sunshine duration. Aswan is one of the sunniest places on Earth.
The highest record temperature was on July 4, 1918, and the lowest record temperature was on January 6, 1989.
| source 2 Meteo Climat (record temperatures)
}}
Education
In 2012, the Aswan University was inaugurated, which is headquartered in the city. Aswan is also home to the Aswan Higher Institute of Social Work, which was established in 1975.
Transport
The city is crossed by the Cape to Cairo Road, which connects it to Luxor and Cairo to the north, and Abu Simbel and Wadi Halfa to the south. Also important is the Aswan-Berenice highway, which connects with the ports of the Red Sea.
Aswan is linked to Cairo by the Cape to Cairo Railway, which also connects it with Wadi Halfa. The railway is incomplete towards the south.
Other key transport infrastructures are the Port of Aswan, the largest river port in the region, and Aswan International Airport.
International relations
Twin towns/Sister cities
Aswan is twinned with:
* Sonoma, California, United States Gallery <gallery mode"packed">
File:Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic style 2006-10-EGYPT-ASWAN.jpg|Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic style.
File:El-Tabia Mosque, Aswan.jpg| El-Tabia Mosque in Aswan
File:Lotus-tower near Aswan.jpg|The Lotus-Tower near Aswan, monument to Arab-Soviet Friendship. Near Aswan High Dam.
File:Aswan Nubian Museum entrance.jpg|Nubia Museum entrance
File:Fatimid Cemetery at Aswan.jpg|Fatimid Cemetery
File:Unfinished Obelisk in Aswan.jpg|Unfinished Obelisk in Aswan
File:Aswan street parallel to Corniche, Egypt, October 2004.jpg|A street parallel to Corniche in Aswan.
File:Al Khattarah Aswan Bridge.jpg|Aswan Bridge
File:Kitchener-Insel Aswan Botanical Garden.jpg|Aswan Botanical Garden
File:Aswan Souq (West Gate).jpg|Aswan souq
File:Market, Shopping street, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|Market in Aswan
File:Aswan Railway station (Egypt).jpg|Aswan station
File:Gharb Seheil by Hatem Moushir 1.JPG|Gharb Seheil
File:Assuao.jpg|Nubian village in Elephantine Island.
File:Cimetières des nobles Qubbet el-Hawa.jpg|Qubbet el-Hawa
File:Nile River, Boats and feluccas, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|River Nile in Aswan
File:Nile Feluccas in Aswan.jpg|Feluccas in Aswan
</gallery>
See also
References
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110707104222/http://aldokkan.com/geography/aswan.htm Ancient Aswan City]
Category:Governorate capitals in Egypt
Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt
Category:Populated places in Aswan Governorate
Category:Roman sites in Egypt
Category:Tourism in Egypt
Category:Medieval cities of Egypt
Category:Upper Egypt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aswan | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.945774 |
2519 | Adelaide of Italy | (Catholicism)
|attributes = dispensing alms and food to the poor, often beside a ship
| patronage = <!-- WARNING: patronages MUST CORRESPOND to a reliable secondary source, per WP:RS -->
| major_shrine | prayer
| prayer_attrib =
}}
<br>
|house = Elder House of Welf
|father = Rudolph II of Burgundy
|mother = Bertha of Swabia
|issue = }}
Adelaide of Italy (; 931 – 16 December 999 AD), also called Adelaide of Burgundy, was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great. She was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962. She was the first empress designated consors regni, denoting a "co-bearer of royalty" who shared power with her husband. She was essential as a model for future consorts regarding both status and political influence. She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991–995.LifeEarly lifeAdelaide was born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), to Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.
Adelaide was involved from the outset in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy. The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar's death, enabling Rudolf to claim the throne.
Not happy with this, the inhabitants of Lombardy appealed to another ally, Hugh of Provence, who had long considered Rudolf an enemy. Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide's father died in 937. So as to control Upper Burgundy, Hugh decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy, to the 15-year-old Adelaide (in 947, before 27 June).
The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948. Emma became Queen of West Francia by marrying King Lothair of France.
Marriage and alliance with Otto I
]]
The calendar of saints states that Lothair was poisoned on 22 November 950 in Turin by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy.
There were some suspicions amongst the people of Lombardy that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself. Berengar attempted to thwart this and cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como. However, she was quickly tracked down and was imprisoned for four months at Garda.
According to Adelaide's contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a "certain impregnable fortress," likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio. She was able to send an emissary to the East Frankish king Otto I asking for his protection. Adelaide met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951. Early in their marriage, Adelaide and Otto had two children, Henry and Bruno, both of whom died before reaching adulthood.
A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto's son by his first marriage, instigated a big revolt that was quelled by his father. As a consequence, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title. This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court. Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry.
After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. He then extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obotrites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz on 16 October 955. That same year, Adelaide gave birth to Otto II. In 955 or 956, she gave birth to a daughter who would become Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg.Holy Roman EmpressAdelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII. In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII. Breaking new ground, Pope John XII also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress. In 960, a new ordo was created for her coronation and anointing, including prayers to biblical female figures, especially Esther. The ordo presents a theological and political concept that legitimizes the empress's status as a divinely ordained component of the earthly rule. In 966, Adelaide and the eleven-year-old Otto II, travelled again with Otto on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him). Crucial to Otto's establishing legitimacy in his conquest of Italy and in bringing the imperial crown to the couple, was the support of Adelaide and her extensive network of relations. As heir to the Italian throne, Adelaide established for late Carolingian traditions the legitimate claim over Italy by the imperial throne.
Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy and ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband returned to Germany, where Otto I died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.
After her coronation, which increased her power as she was now consors regni and able to receive people from the entire Empire, Adelaide's interventions in political decisions increased. According to Buchinger, "Between 962 and 972 Adelheid appears as intervenient in seventy-five charters. Additionally Adelheid and Otto I are named together in Papal bulls". She often protected the ecclesiastic institutions, seemingly to gain a sphere of influence separate from that of her husband. Between 991 and 993, the brothers of Feuchtwang wrote to her and requested to be "protected by the shadow of your rule from now on, we may be safe from the tumults of secular attacks". They promised they would pray for her so that her reign would be long and stable.
Adelaide wielded a great amount of power during her husband's reign, as evidenced by several requests made to her. A letter, written in the 980s by her daughter Emma demanded that Adelaide intervene against Emma's enemies and mobilize forces in the Ottonian Empire. She also asked that Adelaide capture Hugh Capet, who was already elected king of West Frankia in 987.
Another enemy of Emma's was Charles, the brother of Emma's deceased consort Lothar, who had accused his sister-in-law of adultery. Another pleader was Gerbert of Aurillac, at that time archbishop of Reims (the later Pope Sylvester II), who wrote to Adelaide to ask for protection against his enemies. Buchinger remarks that, "These examples are remarkable, because they imply that Adelheid had the possibilities to help in both cases or at least Emma and Gerbert do believe that she could have intervened and succeeded. Both are themselves important political figures in their realm and still they rely on Adelheid. Adelheid’s power and importance must have been extremely stable and reliable to do as wished by the pleaders."Otto II's eraIn the years following Otto I's death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court. However, Adelaide was in conflict with her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, as only one woman could be queen and hold the associated functions and powers at court. Adelaide was able to maintain the title imperatrix augusta even though Theophanu now also used it. Moreover, Theophanu opposed Adelaide in the use of her dowry lands, which Adelaide wanted to continue to use and donate to ecclesiastical institutions, ensuring her power base. Adelaide had the right to make transactions of her Italian lands as she pleased, but she needed the permission of the emperor to use her Ottonian lands. Adelaide also sided with her extended kin against Otto II. Wilson compares this action with those of other royal women: "Royal women possessed agency and did not always do the bidding of male relatives. Engelberge greatly influenced her husband, Emperor Louis II, in his attempts to extend imperial control to southern Italy in the 870s. Matilda’s favouritism for her younger son Heinrich caused Otto I considerable trouble, while Adelaide sided with her extended kin against her own son, Otto II, until he temporarily exiled her to Burgundy in 978. Agency was clearest during regencies, because these lacked formal rules, offering scope for forceful personalities to assert themselves." After being expelled from court by Otto II in 978, she divided her time between living in Italy in the royal palace of Pavia and Arles with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son. In 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy.RegencyIn 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by Adelaide's grandson Otto III under the regency of Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy. For some time, Adelaide and Theophanu were able to put aside their separate interests and work together to ensure Otto III's succession. This is seen through their joint appearance in the charters. According to the Annales Quedlinburgenses, after Otto II's death, Henry, duke of Bavaria kidnapped Otto III. The narrative claims that Adelaide returned from Lombardy to join with Theophanu, Matilda, and other leaders of Europe and reclaim the child.
When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of Otto III until he reached legal majority four years later.
Adelaide's role in establishing Otto's position can be seen in a letter Otto III wrote to his grandmother in 996: "According to your [Adelheid’s] wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us [Otto III] with a happy outcome".
Troubles in the East continued under Adelaide, as Boleslaus of Bohemia wavered in his loyalty. In 992, there was war between Bohemia and Poland, and again like in Theophanu's time, the Ottonian regime sided with Poland. Jestice comments that, "Christianity was not re-established in the land of the Liutizi during their lifetimes. But there were territorial gains, and by 987 it was possible to begin rebuilding destroyed fortresses along the Elbe". A Saxon army, with Otto III's presence, took Brandenburg in 991. The reports that there was another expedition in 992.
Thietmar of Merseburg reports that Otto III dismissed his grandmother after his mother's death, but Althoff doubts this story. Even after Otto attained majority, Adelaide often accompanied him in his travels and influenced him, along with other women.
In Burgundy, Adelaide's homeland, the counts and castellans behaved increasingly independently from their king Rudolph III. Just before her death in 999, she had to intervene in Burgundy to restore peace.Later yearsAdelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared to be of the legal majority in 995. From then on, she devoted herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses, i.e. monasteries, churches and abbeys.
Adelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace.
On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097. After serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, Adelaide's relics were moved elsewhere. A goblet reputed to have belonged to Saint Adelaide has long been preserved in Seltz.; it was used to give potions to people with fever and the healings were said to have been numerous.
Adelaide constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent — almost an embodiment — of the work of the pre-schism Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe.
Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses.
Issue
In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy. The union produced one child:
* Emma of Italy (948 – after 987), queen of France and wife of Lothair of France
In 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor. The union produced four children:
* Henry (952 – 7 April 954)
* Bruno (953 – 8 September 957)
* Matilda (early 955 – † 6 February 999), the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg
* Otto II (end 955 – 7 December 983), later Holy Roman Emperor.Historiography and cultural depictionsHistoriography
Adelaide was one of the most important and powerful medieval female rulers. Historically, as empress and saint, she has been described as powerful, with both male attributes (like strength, justness and prudence) and female attributes (piety, self denying). Modern German historiography tends to focus on her contributions to the Ottonian dynasty and the development of the Holy Roman Empire.Depictions in art
Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown. Since the 14th century, she is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (by which she is said to have escaped from captivity).
The most famous representation of Adelaide in German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260. She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her.
Operas
* Adelaide of Burgundy is the main character of the opera ''l'Adelaide (1672) by Antonio Sartorio.
* Adelaide is the subject of a 1723 opera by Nicola Porpora, where she was played by the great castrato Farinelli en travesti.
* Lotario is a 1729 opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adelaide.
* Adelaide is the heroine of Adelaide di Borgogna'', an opera with two acts (1817) by Gioachino Rossini (music) and Giovanni Schmidt (libretto).
* Adelaide is the heroine of William Bernard McCabe's 1856 novel Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown.
Books and novels
* Adelheid, Mutter der Königreiche (Adelaide, Mother of Kingdoms) published in 1936 by Gertrud Bäumer.
* Die fremde Königin (The Foreign Queen), published in 2017, Adelaide is one of the central characters in Rebecca Gablé's novel.
* Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda: medieval female rulership and the foundations of European society by Penelope Nash (2017).
* Imperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany by Phyllis G. Jestice (2018)
* ''God's Maidservant: The story of Adelaide of Italy (Women of the Dark Ages) by Anna Chant (2017)
Artwork
* San Giuseppe con Gesù Bambino tra Sant'Adelaide, Sant'Antonio da Padova, San Lupo e San Michele arcangelo'' by Francesco Coghetti, 1828
* Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor, with the related place setting of Theodora (wife of Justinian I).
See also
* List of Eastern Orthodox saints
* List of Holy Roman empresses
* List of Catholic saints
* Saint Adelaide, patron saint archive
References
Sources
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*Further reading* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060504152424/http://www.genealogie-mittelalter.de/deutschland_koenige_2/adelheid_von_burgund_999_rudolfinger_hugoniden_liudolfinger/adelheid_von_burgund_999.html Genealogie-Mittelalter: "Adelheid von Burgund".]Bibliography* <!-- s:A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Adelaide, daughter of Rodolphus -->
* Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz: Adelheid of Burgundy. In: Biographical-Bibliographical Dictionary of Churches (BBKL). Volume 1, Bautz, Hamm 1975. 2nd, unchanged edition Hamm 1990, , Sp. 35–35.
* Amalie Fößel: Adelheid. In: Amalie Fößel (Ed.): The Empresses of the Middle Ages. Pustet, Regensburg 2011, , p. 35-59.
* Werner Goez: Empress Adelheid. In: Pictures of life from the Middle Ages. The time of the Ottonians, Salians and Staufers. Primus, Darmstadt 2010, , p. 66-82.
* Bruno Keiser: Adelheid. Queen, empress, saint. Piper Verlag, Munich 2009, .
* Walter Schlesinger: Adelheid. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1953, , p. 57 f. (digitized version).
* Franz Staab: Thorsten Unger (Ed.): Empress Adelheid and her monastery foundation in Selz (= Publications of the Palatinate Society for the Advancement of Science in Speyer. Vol. 99). Presentations at the scientific conference in Landau and Selz from 15 to 17 October 1999, published by the Society for the Advancement of Science, Speyer 2005, .
* Ernst Steindorff: Adelheid (Empress). In: General German Biography (ADB). Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1875, pp. 75–77.
* Stefan Weinfurter: Empress Adelheid and the Ottonian Empire. In: Early Medieval Studies. Vol. 33, 1999, pp. 1–19, (digitised version).
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141030073006/http://epistolae.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/woman/19.html ''Women's Biography: Adelaide of Burgundy, Ottonian empress'']
* Monks of Ramsgate. "Adelaide". Book of Saints, 1921. Saints.SQPN.com. 1 May 2012. Web. {2012-9-20}. [http://saints.sqpn.com/book-of-saints-adelaide]
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Category:931 births
Category:999 deaths
Category:10th-century women regents
Category:10th-century Christian saints
Category:10th-century German nobility
Category:10th-century German women
Category:People from Orbe
Category:Roman Catholic royal saints
Category:Medieval German saints
Category:Ottonian dynasty
Category:German female regents
Category:Holy Roman Empresses
Category:Queens consort of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)
Category:Remarried queens consort
Category:Eastern Orthodox royal saints
Category:Elder House of Welf
Category:Duchesses of Saxony
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Category:Regents of the Holy Roman Empire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide_of_Italy | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.960417 |
2524 | Airbus A300 | | number_built 561 In 1965, a British government study, known as the Plowden Report, had found British aircraft production costs to be between 10% and 20% higher than American counterparts due to shorter production runs, which was in part due to the fractured European market. To overcome this factor, the report recommended the pursuit of multinational collaborative projects between the region's leading aircraft manufacturers.
European manufacturers were keen to explore prospective programmes; the proposed 260-seat wide-body HBN 100 between Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation being one such example. National governments were also keen to support such efforts amid a belief that American manufacturers could dominate the European Economic Community; in particular, Germany had ambitions for a multinational airliner project to invigorate its aircraft industry, which had declined considerably following the Second World War. In July 1967, during a high-profile meeting between French, German, and British ministers, an agreement was made for greater cooperation between European nations in the field of aviation technology, and "for the joint development and production of an airbus".
Workshare and redefinition
On 26 September 1967, the French, West German and British governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding to start the development of the 300-seat Airbus A300. At this point, the A300 was only the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, the first being the Anglo-French Concorde. Under the terms of the memorandum, the French and British were to each receive a 37.5 per cent work share on the project, while the West Germans would receive a 25 per cent share. Sud Aviation was recognized as the lead contractor for the A300, with Hawker Siddeley being selected as the British partner company.
The programme cost was US$4.6 billion (in 1993 dollars, equivalent to $}} in ).
containers below. This is part of the first A300 prototype, F-OCAZ, on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich.]]
In December 1968, the French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. It had been feared that the original 300-seat proposal was too large for the market, thus it had been scaled down to produce the A250. The dimensional changes involved in the shrink reduced the length of the fuselage by and the diameter by , reducing the overall weight by . For increased flexibility, the cabin floor was raised so that standard LD3 freight containers could be accommodated side-by-side, allowing more cargo to be carried. Refinements made by Hawker Siddeley to the wing's design provided for greater lift and overall performance; this gave the aircraft the ability to climb faster and attain a level cruising altitude sooner than any other passenger aircraft. This maiden flight, which was performed a month ahead of schedule, lasted for one hour and 25 minutes; the captain was Max Fischl and the first officer was Bernard Ziegler, son of Henri Ziegler. On 5 February 1973, the second prototype performed its maiden flight.
The A300 is powered by a pair of underwing turbofan engines, either General Electric CF6 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines; the sole use of underwing engine pods allowed for any suitable turbofan engine to be more readily used. Additional composites were also made use of, such as carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP), as well as their presence in an increasing proportion of the aircraft's components, including the spoilers, rudder, air brakes, and landing gear doors. Another feature of later aircraft was the addition of wingtip fences, which improved aerodynamic performance and thus reduced cruise fuel consumption by about 1.5% for the A300-600.
In addition to passenger duties, the A300 became widely used by air freight operators; according to Airbus, it is the best-selling freight aircraft of all time.
Airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes were forced to reduce frequencies to try and fill the aircraft. As a result, they lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. Eventually, Airbus had to build its own narrowbody aircraft (the A320) to compete with the Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80. The saviour of the A300 was the advent of ETOPS, a revised FAA rule which allows twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them. This enabled Airbus to develop the aircraft as a medium/long-range airliner.
introduced the A300 in the US market in 1977]]
In 1977, US carrier Eastern Air Lines leased four A300s as an in-service trial. Borman proceeded to order 23 A300s, becoming the first U.S. customer for the type. This order is often cited as the point at which Airbus came to be seen as a serious competitor to the large American aircraft-manufacturers Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. qualifying for Extended Twin Engine Operations over water, providing operators with more versatility in routing. In 1982, Garuda Indonesian Airways became the first airline to fly the A300B4-200FFCC with the newly Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit concept, the world's first wide-body aircraft that only operated by two-man cockpit crew. By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 400 aircraft sold to over forty airlines.
In 1989, Chinese operator China Eastern Airlines received its first A300; by 2006, the airline operated around 18 A300s, making it the largest operator of both the A300 and the A310 at that time. On 31 May 2014, China Eastern officially retired the last A300-600 in its fleet, having begun drawing down the type in 2010.
From 1997 to 2014, a single A300, designated A300 Zero-G, was operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as a reduced-gravity aircraft for conducting research into microgravity; the A300 is the largest aircraft to ever have been used in this capacity.<!--ref nameBeysens--> A typical flight would last for two and a half hours, enabling up to 30 parabolas to be performed per flight.
, was delivered to FedEx Express, as of May 2022 the largest operator with 65 aircraft still in service]]
By the 1990s, the A300 was being heavily promoted as a cargo freighter.
The final version was the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters; large numbers were being converted during the late 1990s.
The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later stretched (A330 and A340), shortened (A310), or modified into derivatives (A300-600ST Beluga Super Transporter). In 2006, unit cost of an −600F was $105 million. making them the first Airbus aircraft to be discontinued. The final production A300, an A300F freighter, performed its initial flight on 18 April 2007, and was delivered to FedEx Express on 12 July 2007. Airbus has announced a support package to keep A300s flying commercially.
Airbus offers the A330-200F freighter as a replacement for the A300 cargo variants.
The life of UPS's fleet of 52 A300s, delivered from 2000 to 2006, will be extended to 2035 by a flight deck upgrade based around Honeywell Primus Epic avionics; new displays and flight management system (FMS), improved weather radar, a central maintenance system, and a new version of the current enhanced ground proximity warning system.<!--
<!-- more details : http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/will-upgraded-cockpit-ups-s-airbus-a300-600-start-trend -->
As of July 2017, there are 211 A300s in service with 22 operators, with the largest operator being FedEx Express with 68 A300-600F aircraft. Variants A300B1 The A300B1 was the first variant to take flight. It had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of , was long and was powered by two General Electric CF6-50A engines.
A300B2
A300B2-100
Responding to a need for more seats from Air France, Airbus decided that the first production variant should be larger than the original prototype A300B1. The CF6-50A powered A300B2-100 was longer than the A300B1 and had an increased MTOW of , allowing for 30 additional seats and bringing the typical passenger count up to 281, with capacity for 20 LD3 containers. The variant had an increased MTOW of and was powered by CF6-50C engines, was certified on 23 June 1976, and entered service with South African Airways in November 1976. The variant made its first flight on 8 July 1983, was certified on 9 March 1984, and entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian Airlines. Deliveries
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right; font-size:96%"
|-
! !!Total!!2007!!2006!!2005!!2004!!2003!!2002!!2001!!2000!!1999!!1998!!1997!!1996!!1995!!1994!!1993!!1992!!1991
|-
!Deliveries
|561||6||9||9||12||8||9||11||8||8||13||6||14||17||23||22||22||25
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right; font-size:96%"
|-
! !!1990!!1989!!1988!!1987!!1986!!1985!!1984!!1983!!1982!!1981!!1980!!1979!!1978!!1977!!1976!!1975!!1974
|-
!Deliveries
|19||24||17||11||10||16||19||19||46||38||39||26||15||15||13||8||4
|}
<small>Data through end of December 2007.</small> Accidents and incidents As of June 2021, the A300 has been involved in 77 occurrences including 24 hull-loss accidents causing 1133 fatalities, and criminal occurrences and hijackings causing fatalities.
Accidents with fatalities
thumb|American Airlines Flight 587 vertical stabilizer
* 21 September 1987: An Egyptair Airbus A300B4-203 touched down past the runway threshold during a training flight. The right main gear hit the runway lights and the aircraft collided with an antenna and fences. No passengers were on board the plane, but 5 crew members were killed. The aircraft was written off. This was the first fatal accident of an Airbus A300.
* 28 September 1992: PIA Flight 268, an A300B4 crashed on approach near Kathmandu, Nepal. All 12 crew and 155 passengers died.
* 26 April 1994: China Airlines Flight 140 crashed at the end of runway at Nagoya, Japan, killing all 15 crew and 249 of 256 passengers on board.
* 26 September 1997: Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 was on approach to Polonia International Airport in Medan. The plane later crashed into a ravine in Buah Nabar due to ATC error and apparent haze that covers the country which limits the visibility. All 234 passengers and crew aboard were killed in Indonesia's deadliest crash.
* 16 February 1998: China Airlines Flight 676 crashed into a residential area close to CKS International Airport near Taipei, Taiwan. All 196 people on board were killed, including Taiwan's central bank president. Six people on the ground were also killed.
* 2 February 2000: During take-off, a Lockheed C-130 Hercules owned by the Iranian Air Force lost control and veered off the runway, striking an Airbus A300B2-203 owned by Iran Air, killing eight people.
* 12 November 2001: American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into Belle Harbor—a neighbourhood in Queens, New York, United States—shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport. The vertical stabiliser ripped off the aircraft after the rudder was mishandled during wake turbulence. All 260 people on board were killed, along with 5 people on the ground. It is the second-deadliest incident involving an A300 to date and the second-deadliest aircraft incident in the United States.
* 14 April 2010: AeroUnion Flight 302, an A300B4-203F, crashed on a road short of the runway while attempting to land at Monterrey Airport in Mexico. Seven people (five crew members and two on the ground) were killed.
* 14 August 2013: UPS Flight 1354, an Airbus A300F4-622R, crashed outside the perimeter fence on approach to Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Alabama, United States. Both crew members died.
Non-fatal hull losses
* 18 December 1983: Malaysian Airline System Flight 684, an Airbus A300B4 leased from Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), registration OY-KAA, crashed short of the runway at Kuala Lumpur in bad weather while attempting to land on a flight from Singapore. All 247 people aboard escaped unharmed but the aircraft was destroyed in the resulting fire.
* 24 April 1993: an Air Inter Airbus A300B2-1C was written off after colliding with a light pole while being pushed back at Montpellier.
* 15 November 1993, an Indian Airlines Airbus A300, registered as VT-EDV, crash landed near Hyderabad Airport. There were no deaths but the aircraft was written off.
* 10 August 1994 – Korean Air Flight 2033 (Airbus A300) from Seoul to Jeju, the flight approached faster than usual to avoid potential windshear. Fifty feet above the runway the co-pilot, who was not flying the aircraft, decided that there was insufficient runway left to land and tried to perform a go-around against the captain's wishes. The aircraft touched down 1,773 meters beyond the runway threshold. The aircraft could not be stopped on the remaining 1,227 meters of runway and overran at a speed of 104 knots. After striking the airport wall and a guard post at 30 knots, the aircraft burst into flames and was incinerated. The cabin crew was credited with safely evacuating all passengers although only half of the aircraft's emergency exits were usable.
* 17 October 2001: Pakistan International Airlines flight PK231, registration AP-BCJ, from Islamabad via Peshawar to Dubai veered off the side of the runway after the right hand main landing gear collapsed as it touched down. The aircraft skidded and eventually came to rest in sand 50 meters from the runway. The aircraft sustained damage to its right wing structure and its no. 2 engine, which partly broke off the wing. All 205 passengers and crew survived.
* 1 March 2004: Pakistan International Airlines Flight 2002 burst 2 tyres whilst taking off from King Abdulaziz International Airport. Fragments of the tyre were ingested by the engines, this caused the engines to catch fire and an aborted takeoff was performed. Due to the fire substantial damage to the engine and the left wing caused the aircraft to be written off. All 261 passengers and 12 crew survived.
* 16 November 2012: an Air Contractors Airbus A300B4-203(F) EI-EAC, operating flight QY6321 on behalf of EAT Leipzig from Leipzig (Germany) to Bratislava (Slovakia), suffered a nose wheel collapse during roll out after landing at Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport. All three crew members survived unharmed, the aircraft was written off. As of December 2017, the aircraft still was parked at a remote area of the airport between runways 13 and 22.
* 12 October 2015: An Airbus A300B4-200F Freighter operated by Egyptian Tristar cargo carrier crashed in Mogadishu, Somalia. All the passengers and crew members survived the crash.
* 1 October 2016: An Airbus A300-B4 registration PR-STN on a cargo flight between São Paulo-Guarulhos and Recife suffered a runway excursion after landing and the aft gear collapsed upon touchdown.
Violent incidents
* 27 June 1976: Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv, Israel and carrying 248 passengers and a crew of 12 took off from Athens, Greece, headed for Paris, France. The flight was hijacked by terrorists, and was eventually flown to Entebbe Airport in Uganda. At the airport, Israeli commandos rescued 102 of the 106 hostages.
* 26 October 1986: Thai Airways Flight 620, an Airbus A300B4-601, originating in Bangkok suffered an explosion mid-flight. The aircraft descended rapidly and was able to land safely at Osaka. The aircraft was later repaired and there were no fatalities. The cause was a hand grenade brought onto the plane by a Japanese gangster of the Yamaguchi-gumi. 62 of the 247 people on board were injured.
* 3 July 1988: Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by USS Vincennes in the Persian Gulf after being mistaken for an attacking Iranian F-14 Tomcat, killing all 290 passengers and crew.
* 15 February 1991: two Kuwait Airways A300C4-620s and two Boeing 767s that had been seized during Iraq's occupation of Kuwait were destroyed in coalition bombing of Mosul Airport.
* 24 December 1994: Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked at Houari Boumedienne Airport in Algiers, by four terrorists who belonged to the Armed Islamic Group. The terrorists apparently intended to crash the plane over the Eiffel Tower on Boxing Day. After a failed attempt to leave Marseille following a confrontational firefight between the terrorists and the GIGN French Special Forces, the result was the death of all four terrorists. (Snipers on the terminal front's roof shot dead two of the terrorists. The other two terrorists died as a result of gunshots in the cabin after approximately 20 minutes.) Three hostages including a Vietnamese diplomat were executed in Algiers, 229 hostages survived, many of them wounded by shrapnel. The almost 15-year-old aircraft was written off.
* 24 December 1999: Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 from Kathmandu, Nepal, to New Delhi was hijacked. After refuelling and offloading a few passengers, the flight was diverted to Kandahar, Afghanistan. A Nepalese man was murdered while the plane was in flight.
* 22 November 2003: European Air Transport OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-14 'Gremlin' missile after takeoff from Baghdad International Airport. The aeroplane lost hydraulic pressure and thus the controls. After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was repaired and offered for sale, but in April 2011 it still remained parked at Baghdad Intl.
* 25 August 2011: an A300B4-620 5A-IAY of Afriqiyah Airways and A300B4-622 5A-DLZ of Libyan Arab Airlines were both destroyed in fighting between pro- and anti-Gaddafi forces at Tripoli International Airport.
Aircraft on display
|sectionyes}}
Fifteen A300s are currently preserved:
*F-BUAD Airbus A300 ZERO-G, since August 2015 preserved at Cologne Bonn Airport, Germany.
*F-WUAB The first prototype of the Airbus A300 is Partially preserved with a fuselage section, the right-hand wing, and an engine on display at the Deutsches Museum
*ex-HL7219 Korean Air Airbus A300B4 preserved at Korean Air Jeongseok Airfield.
*ex-N11984 Continental Airlines Airbus A300B4 preserved in South Korea as a Night Flight Restaurant.
*ex TC-ACD and TC-ACE Air ACT, preserved as coffee house at Uçak Cafe in Burhaniye, Turkey.
*ex TC-MNJ MNG Airlines, preserved as Köfte Airlines restaurant at Tekirdağ, Turkey.
*ex TC-FLA Fly Air, preserved as the Airbus Cafe & Restaurant at Kayseri, Turkey.
*ex TC-ACC Air ACT, preserved as the Uçak Kütüphane library and education centre at Çankırı, Turkey.
*ex EP-MHA Mahan Air, preserved as instructional airframe at the Botia Mahan Aviation College at Kerman, Iran.
*ex TC-FLM Fly Air, preserved as a restaurant at Istanbul, Turkey.
*ex B-18585 China Airlines, preserved as the Flight of Happiness restaurant at Taoyuan, Taiwan.
*ex-PK-JID Sempati Air Airbus A300B4 repainted in first A300B1 prototype colours, including original F-WUAB registration, became an exhibit in 2014 at the Aeroscopia museum in Blagnac, near Toulouse, France.
*ex TC-MCE MNG Airlines, preserved as a restaurant at the Danialand theme park at Agadir, Morocco.
*ex HL7240 Korean Air, preserved as instructional airframe (gate guard) at the Korea Aerospace University at Goyang, South Korea.
*ex HS-TAM Thai Airways A300-600R, preserved in a field near Doi Saket, Chiang Mai.
Specifications
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align: center"
!Model
!A300B4-200
!A300-600R
!A300-600F
|-
! Cockpit crew
| Three
| colspan=2 | Two
|-
! Main deck
| 281/309Y @ 34/31 in)<br />max 345
| 247 (46F + 201Y)/285Y @ 34 in<br />max 345 (3-3-3 Y)
| 540 m<sup>3</sup>, 43 AYY ULD<br />9 AMJ/LD7 + 16 AYY
|-
! Lower deck
| 20 LD3 + bulk
| colspan=2 | 22 LD3 + bulk / 158 m<sup>3</sup>
|-
! Length
|
| colspan=2 |
|-
! Height
|
| colspan=2 |
|-
! Wing
| colspan3 | span, area aspect ratio
|-
! Width
| colspan=3 | cabin, Fuselage, usually 2-4-2Y
|-
! Pressurized volume
| 542 m<sup>3</sup> (19,140 cu ft)
| 860 m<sup>3</sup> (30,370 cu ft)
|
|-
! MTOW
|
|
|
|-
! Max payload
|
|
|
|-
! Fuel capacity
|
| colspan=2 |
|-
! OEW
|
|
|
|-
! Engines
| GE CF6-50C2 or<br />PW JT9D-59A
| colspan=2 | GE CF6-80C2 or<br />PW4158
|-
! Takeoff thrust
|
|}
Aircraft model designations
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align: center;"
|+ Type Certificate Data Sheet
! Model !! Certification Date !! Engines
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B1 || rowspan"2" | 12 November 1974 || GE CF6-50A
|-
| GE CF6-50C
|-
| A300B2-1A || 15 March 1974 || GE CF6-50A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2-1C || rowspan"2" | 2 October 1974 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2K-3C || rowspan"2" | 23 June 1976 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| A300B2-202 || 22 February 1978 || GE CF6-50C1
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B2-203 || rowspan"2" | 21 February 1980 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B2-320 || 4 January 1980 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-2C || rowspan"2" | 26 March 1975 || GE CF6-50C
|-
| GE CF6-50C2R
|-
| A300B2-102 || 7 December 1977 || GE CF6-50C1
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-103 || rowspan"2" | 21 March 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B4-120 || 4 February 1981 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300B4-203 || rowspan"2" | 26 April 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| GE CF6-50C2D
|-
| A300B4-220 || 8 January 1982 || PW JT9D-59A
|-
| A300C4-203 || 18 December 1979 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| A300C4-203 || 6 June 1986 || GE CF6-50C2
|-
| A300B4-601 || 17 September 1985 || GE CF6-80C2A1
|-
| A300B4-603 || 27 January 1987 || GE CF6-80C2A3
|-
| A300B4-620 || 9 March 1984 || PW JT9D-7R4H1
|-
| A300B4-622 || 6 March 1989 || PW4158
|-
| A300C4-620 || 17 May 1984 || PW JT9D-7R4H1
|-
| rowspan"3" | A300B4-605R || rowspan"3" | 10 March 1988 || GE CF6-80C2A3
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5F
|-
| A300B4-622R || 25 November 1988 || PW4158
|-
| A300C4-605R || 2 July 1999 || GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| rowspan"2" | A300F4-605R || rowspan"2" | 19 April 1994 || GE CF6-80C2A5
|-
| GE CF6-80C2A5F
|-
| A300F4-622R || 20 June 2000 || PW4158
|}
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
* External links
*
*
A300
Category:1970s international airliners
Category:Twinjets
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Low-wing aircraft
Category:Aircraft first flown in 1972
Category:Wide-body aircraft
Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A300 | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.036948 |
2526 | Agostino Carracci | | death_place = Parma, Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
| nationality = Italian
| known_for = Painting
| training | movement Baroque
| notable_works | patrons
| awards | signature
}}
Agostino Carracci (or Caracci; ; 16 August 1557 – 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter, printmaker, tapestry designer, and art teacher. He was, together with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the Progressives) in Bologna. Intended to devise alternatives to the Mannerist style favored in the preceding decades, this teaching academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence.LifeAgostino Carracci was born in Bologna as the son of a tailor. He was the elder brother of Annibale Carracci and the cousin of Ludovico Carracci. He initially trained as a goldsmith. He later studied painting, first with Prospero Fontana, who had been Lodovico's master, and later with Bartolomeo Passarotti. He traveled to Parma to study the works of Correggio. Accompanied by his brother Annibale, he spent a long time in Venice, where he trained as an engraver under the renowned Cornelis Cort. Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings.
He traveled to Venice (1582, 1587–1589) and Parma (1586–1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (Histories of Jason and Medea, 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (Histories of Romulus, 1590–1592). In 1592 he also painted the Communion of St. Jerome, now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. In 1620, Giovanni Lanfranco, a pupil of the Carracci, famously accused another Carracci student, Domenichino, of plagiarizing this painting. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the Madonna with Child and Saints, in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598 to 1600 is a triple Portrait, now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished. His friend the poet Claudio Achillini composed an epitaph, which was later published by Carlo Cesare Malvasia in the life of the Carracci.
Agostino's son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father's Academy.
An engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting Love in the Golden Age by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse's Le bonheur de vivre (Joy of Life).
Critical evaluation
While his undoubted value in the graphic field is widely recognised, Agostino, as a painter, although admired by his contemporaries, ended up being overshadowed by the fame of his brother Annibale. Perhaps even his long practice of engraving ended up putting him at disadvantage, since he might have been perceived as more inclined to copy than to create.
Even Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who included Agostino Carracci in his selective collection of biographies of artists (''Vite de' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni, 1672), described his activity as a painter, with the sole exception of the Communion of Saint Jerome, a work that he praises, almost entirely limited to the role of supporting his younger brother Annibale, and reproaches him for having dedicated too much of his work to graphic production.
The modern critical evaluation of the painter Agostino Carracci probably still suffers from the negative legacies of the past. The fact that there is still only one important monograph dedicated to him published (Stephen E. Ostrow, from the United States, 1966, never translated into Italian), and that an individual exhibition on this artist has yet to be held, are probably significant factors that show that he remains an underrated artist.
However, there have been a positive critical reevaluation of the painter, since there is now a better awareness of his artistic role, alongside his more famous relatives, and the knowledge of his personal work is now greater.
Works
Oil on canvas unless otherwise noted
* 1573 – Pietà (Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia)
* 1586 – Madonna and Child with Saints (Galleria nazionale di Parma)
* – Lamentation or Pietà (Hermitage, St. Petersburg)
* – (engraving, Baltimore Museum of Art)
* – Annunciation (Musée du Louvre, Paris)
* 1590–1595 – Portrait of a Woman as Judith (private collection)
* – Assumption (Ss. Salvatore church, Bologna)
* 1592–1597 – The Last Communion of Saint Jerome (Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna)
* – Head of a Faun in a Concave (drawing in roundel, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
* 1598–1600 – Triple Portrait of Arrigo, Pietro and Amon (National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples)
Fresco collaborations with Annibale and Ludovico
*Life of Aeneas (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
*Lives of Jason and Medea (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
*Scenes from the Foundation of Rome (Palazzo Magnani, Bologna)
*Life of Hercules (Palazzo Sampieri Talon, Bologna)
Undated
* The Penitent Magdalen (private collection)
* Carracci's erotic work (prints)
See also
* The Carracci
Bibliography
* Stephen E. Ostrow, Agostino Carracci (1966), Thesis (Ph.D.) New York University, New York
References
External links
*
Category:1557 births
Category:1602 deaths
Category:16th-century Italian painters
Category:Italian male painters
Category:17th-century Italian painters
Category:Italian Baroque painters
Category:Painters from Bologna
Category:Italian printmakers
Category:Italian erotic artists
Category:Italian Roman Catholics
Category:Sibling artists
Category:Catholic painters
Category:Catholic decorative artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Carracci | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.044796 |
2528 | Adenylyl cyclase | Adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as adenyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, abbreviated AC) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming). It catalyzes the following reaction:
:ATP = 3′,5′-cyclic AMP + diphosphate
It has key regulatory roles in essentially all cells. It is the most polyphyletic known enzyme: six distinct classes have been described, all catalyzing the same reaction but representing unrelated gene families with no known sequence or structural homology. The best known class of adenylyl cyclases is class III or AC-III (Roman numerals are used for classes). AC-III occurs widely in eukaryotes and has important roles in many human tissues.
All classes of adenylyl cyclase catalyse the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to 3',5'-cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate. Class II These adenylyl cyclases are toxins secreted by pathogenic bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis, Bordetella pertussis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Vibrio vulnificus during infections. These bacteria also secrete proteins that enable the AC-II to enter host cells, where the exogenous AC activity undermines normal cellular processes. The genes for Class II ACs are known as cyaA, one of which is anthrax toxin. Several crystal structures are known for AC-II enzymes.
Class III
These adenylyl cyclases are the most familiar based on extensive study due to their important roles in human health. They are also found in some bacteria, notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis where they appear to have a key role in pathogenesis. Most AC-III's are integral membrane proteins involved in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Earl Sutherland in 1971 for discovering the key role of AC-III in human liver, where adrenaline indirectly stimulates AC to mobilize stored energy in the "fight or flight" response. The effect of adrenaline is via a G protein signaling cascade, which transmits chemical signals from outside the cell across the membrane to the inside of the cell (cytoplasm). The outside signal (in this case, adrenaline) binds to a receptor, which transmits a signal to the G protein, which transmits a signal to adenylyl cyclase, which transmits a signal by converting adenosine triphosphate to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP is known as a second messenger.
Cyclic AMP is an important molecule in eukaryotic signal transduction, a so-called second messenger. Adenylyl cyclases are often activated or inhibited by G proteins, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli. Following activation of adenylyl cyclase, the resulting cAMP acts as a second messenger by interacting with and regulating other proteins such as protein kinase A and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. A green-light activated rhodopsin adenylyl cyclase (CaRhAC) has recently been engineered by modifying the nucleotide binding pocket of rhodopsin guanylyl cyclase. Structure Most class III adenylyl cyclases are transmembrane proteins with 12 transmembrane segments. The protein is organized with 6 transmembrane segments, then the C1 cytoplasmic domain, then another 6 membrane segments, and then a second cytoplasmic domain called C2. The important parts for function are the N-terminus and the C1 and C2 regions. The C1a and C2a subdomains are homologous and form an intramolecular 'dimer' that forms the active site. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis and many other bacterial cases, the AC-III polypeptide is only half as long, comprising one 6-transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain, but two of these form a functional homodimer that resembles the mammalian architecture with two active sites. In non-animal class III ACs, the catalytic cytoplasmic domain is seen associated with other (not necessarily transmembrane) domains.
Class III adenylyl cyclase domains can be further divided into four subfamilies, termed class IIIa through IIId. Animal membrane-bound ACs belong to class IIIa.
In neurons, calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for faster reaction to Ca<sup>2+</sup> influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylyl cyclases are coincidence detectors, meaning that they are activated only by several different signals occurring together. In peripheral cells and tissues adenylyl cyclases appear to form molecular complexes with specific receptors and other signaling proteins in an isoform-specific manner.
Function
Individual transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms have been linked to numerous physiological functions. Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, AC10) has a critical role in sperm motility. Adenylyl cyclase has been implicated in memory formation, functioning as a coincidence detector. Class IV
AC-IV was first reported in the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila, and the structure of the AC-IV from Yersinia pestis has been reported. These are the smallest of the AC enzyme classes; the AC-IV (CyaB) from Yersinia is a dimer of 19 kDa subunits with no known regulatory components (). AC-IV forms a superfamily with mammalian thiamine-triphosphatase called CYTH (CyaB, thiamine triphosphatase).
Classes V and VI
These forms of AC have been reported in specific bacteria (Prevotella ruminicola and Rhizobium etli , respectively) and have not been extensively characterized. There are a few extra members (~400 in Pfam) known to be in class VI. Class VI enzymes possess a catalytic core similar to the one in Class III.
Additional images
<gallery>
File:Beta adrenergic receptor kinase.JPG|Beta adrenergic receptor kinase pathway
</gallery>
References
Further reading
*
External links
*
*Interactive 3D views of Adenylate cyclase at
Category:EC 4.6.1
Category:Cell signaling
Category:Signal transduction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylyl_cyclase | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.057078 |
2529 | Alexandra | <br />
| gender = Female
| meaning = "Defender, protector of mankind"
| language = From the Greek Alexandra, the female form of Alexandros, from alexein meaning "to ward off, keep off, turn away, defend, protect" and aner meaning "man"
| name day = August 30
| seealso = Alejandra, Aleksandra, Alissandra, Alessandra, Oleksandra, Alexandrine, Alex, Alexa, Alexis, Cassandra, Kassandra, Lexi, Lexie, Lexa, Alessia, Alessiya, Alesiya, Olesia, Olesiya, Olessiya, Sandra, Sandrna, Sandrine, Sally, Sandy, Sendy, Shandy, Sasha, Shura, Xandra, Ksandra.<br />The name Alexandria is similar, though itself means "land, place of Alexander".
}}
Alexandra (), <br>|name|grouplower-alpha}} is a female given name of Greek origin. It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander (, ). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb (; meaning 'to defend') and (<small>; GEN</small> , ; meaning 'man'). Thus it may be roughly translated as "defender of man" or "protector of man". The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to save warriors". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek ( or //), written in the Linear B syllabic script. Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken. Variants
* Alejandra, Alejandrina (diminutive) (Spanish)
* Aleksandra (Александра) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian)
* Alessandra (Italian)
* Alessia (Italian)
* Alex (various languages)
* Alexa (English, Romanian, Spanish)
* Alexandra (English, German, Dutch, French, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Greek, Portuguese, Romanian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Ukrainian, Ancient Greek)
* Alexis (English)
* Alexandra, Alexa, Alexis, Sandra, Sandy, Sasha (Indonesian)
* Aliaksandra (Belarusian)
* Alikhandra /اليخاندرا (Egyptian Arabic)
* Alissandra/Alyssandra (Sicilian, Greek)
* Allie (English)
* Ally (English)
* Alya (Russian)
* Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali)
* Αλεξάνδρα (Greek)
* Leska (Czech)
* Lesya (Ukrainian)
* Lexa (English)
* Lexie (English)
* Lexine (English)
* Lexi (English)
* Lexy (English)
* Oleksandra (Ukrainian)
* Sacha (French)
* Sanda (Romanian)
* Sandie (English)
* Sandra (Danish, Dutch, English, Polish, Estonian, Italian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Swedish)
* Sandy (English)
* Sascha (German)
* Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Spanish)
* Saskia (Slavic)
* Saundra (English, Lowland Scottish)
* Saša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene)
* Saška (Serbian)
* Shura (Russian)
* Sondra (English)
* Szandra (Hungarian)
People with the name
Royalty
* Alexandra of Russia (disambiguation), various grand duchesses and royal consorts
* Empress Alexandra (disambiguation), various empresses
** Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), last empress consort of Russia by marriage to Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia. She is mentioned in the song "Rasputin".
* Princess Alexandra (disambiguation), various princesses
* Queen Alexandra (disambiguation), various queens
** Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), queen consort of the United Kingdom by marriage to Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom
* Alexandra the Maccabee (63 BCE – 28 BCE), only child of Hyrcanus II, King of Judaea
* Duchess Alexandra of Oldenburg (1838–1900), eldest child of Duke Constantine Frederick Peter of Oldenburg
Alexandra
* Alexandra of Antioch (), Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch
* Alexandra of Lithuania (), duchess consort of Masovia
* Alexandra of Rome (), Christian saint and martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions
* Alexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian–Australian linguist
* Alexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer
* Alexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor
* Alexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler
* Alexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer
* Alexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician
* Alexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian–born Italian water polo player
* Alexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician
* Alexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player
* Alexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek–Swiss choreographer and visual artist
* Alexandra Backford (1942–2010), Aleut–American painter
* Alexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra Balashova (1942–1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer
* Alexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian–born Canadian sprint kayaker
* Alexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress
* Alexandra Bastedo (1946–2014), English actress
* Alexandra Beaton (born ), Canadian actress
* Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian–American mathematician
* Alexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player
* Alexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler
* Alexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist
* Alexandra Beukes, South African politician
* Alexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer, and newspaper editor
* Alexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovakian sprinter
* Alexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist
* Alexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovakian–Hungarian actress
* Alexandra Botez (born 1995), American–Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer
* Alexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian–Bulgarian actress, model, and singer
* Alexandra Boyko (1916–1996), Russian tank commander
* Alexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author
* Alexandra Bradshaw (1888–1981), Canadian–American art professor and watercolor artist
* Alexandra Branitskaya (1754–1838), Russian courtier
* Alexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen
* Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer
* Alexandra Brewis Slade (born 1965), New Zealand-American anthropologist
* Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer
* Alexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player
* Alexandra Brushtein (1884–1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist
* Alexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist
* Alexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat
* Alexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian–German sabre fencer
* Alexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player
* Alexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter
* Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer
* Alexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist
* Alexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer
* Alexandra Cardenas (born 1976), Colombian composer
* Alexandra Carlisle (1886–1936), English actress and suffragist
* Alexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player
* Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player
* Alexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker
* Alexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean–Canadian actress and dancer
* Alexandra Chalupa (born 1976 or 1977), American lawyer and pro–Ukrainian activist
* Alexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player
* Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress
* Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner
* Alexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer
* Alexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer
* Alexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist
* Alexandra Cheron (1983–2011), Dominican–American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite
* Alexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer
* Alexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur
* Alexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author
* Alexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier
* Alexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker
* Alexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican–born Portuguese marine biologist
* Alexandra Cunningham (born 1972 or 1973), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer
* Alexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen
* Alexandra Čvanová (1897–1939), Ukrainian–born Czech operatic soprano
* Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress
* Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress
* Alexandra Dane (born 1940), South African–born English actress
* Alexandra Danilova (1903–1997), Russian ballet dancer
* Alexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist
* Alexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier
* Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969), French explorer and spiritualist
* Alexandra Davies (born 1977), English–born Australian actress
* Alexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress
* Alexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist
* Alexandra Denisova (1922–2018), Canadian ballet dancer
* Alexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French–Canadian operatic soprano
* Alexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete
* Alexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress
* Alexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter
* Alexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player
* Alexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician
* Alexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress
* Alexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder
* Alexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer
* Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player
* Alexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer
* Alexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer
* Alexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter
* Alexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist
* Alexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter
* Alexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater
* Alexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka
* Alexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress
* Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete
* Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano
* Alexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player
* Alexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer
* Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower
* Alexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer
* Alexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host
* Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player
* Alexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer
* Alexandra Pavlovna Galitzine (1905–2006), Russian princess
* Alexandra Gajda (born 1979), English historian
* Alexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist
* Alexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer
* Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English–South African artist
* Alexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist
* Alexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African–born Hungarian–Canadian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka
* Alexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist
* Alexandra Gripenberg (1857–1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher
* Alexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player
* Alexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower
* Alexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player
* Alexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player
* Alexandra Hasluck (1908–1993), Australian author and historian
* Alexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer
* Alexandra Heidrich, German canoeist
* Alexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan–born Swiss Paralympic athlete
* Alexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer
* Alexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director
* Alexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovakian–Czech ice dancer
* Alexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan–American documentarian
* Alexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist
* Alexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger
* Alexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen
* Alexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player
* Alexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player
* Alexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress
* Alexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovakian football player
* Alexandra van Huffelen (born 1968), Dutch politician
* Alexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete
* Alexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player
* Alexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player
* Alexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian–Canadian speed skater
* Alexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player
* Alexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish–English swimmer
* Alexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress
* Alexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player
* Alexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer
* Alexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer
* Alexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete
* Alexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater
* Alexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model
* Alexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician
* Alexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player
* Alexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist
* Alexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress
* Alexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian–born Argentine sprint canoer
* Alexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker
* Alexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor
* Alexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva (born 2002), Australian Olympic rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Kim (1885–1918), Russian–Korean revolutionary political activist
* Alexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer
* Alexandra Kluge (1937–2017), German actress
* Alexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor
* Alexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player
* Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), Russian politician
* Alexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist
* Alexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian
* Alexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer
* Alexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner
* Alexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster
* Alexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist
* Alexandra Kropotkin (1887–1966), Russian–American writer
* Alexandra Krosney, American actress
* Alexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovakian figure skater
* Alexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model
* Alexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer
* Alexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress
* Alexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player
* Alexandra Lapierre, French author
* Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian–German actress
* Alexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer
* Alexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish–Argentine model
* Alexandra Lazarowich, Cree–Canadian director and producer
* Alexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman
* Alexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter
* Alexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra
* Alexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician
* Alexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress
* Alexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong–born English photographer
* Alexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer
* Alexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower
* Alexandra London (born 1973), French actress
* Alexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovakian archer
* Alexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player
* Alexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician
* Alexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician
* Alexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player
* Alexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player
* Alexandra Lydon, American actress
* Alexandra Măceșanu (2003–2019), Romanian murder victim
* Alexandra Makovskaya (1837–1915), Russian landscape painter
* Alexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist
* Alexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier
* Alexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress
* Alexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer
* Alexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician
* Alexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter
* Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605–1684), Greek intellectual
* Alexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen
* Alexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer
* Alexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician
* Alexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model
* Alexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician
* Alexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator
* Alexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer
* Alexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist
* Alexandra Mitsotaki (born 1956), Greek activist and entrepreneur
* Alexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist
* Alexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver
* Alexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer
* Alexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist
* Alexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist
* Alexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player
* Alexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player
* Alexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier
* Alexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater
* Alexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player
* Alexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German–born Kenyan épée fencer
* Alexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian–American cubist painter and philanthropist
* Alexandra Nekvapilová (1919–2014), Czech alpine skier
* Alexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress
* Alexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer
* Alexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor
* Alexandra Nessmar (born 1994), Swedish racing cyclist
* Alexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor
* Alexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player
* Alexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress
<!--* Alexandra Norman (born 1983), Canadian squash player-->
* Alexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player
* Alexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician
* Alexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet
* Alexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer
* Alexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower
* Alexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player
* Alexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek–Canadian actress
* Alexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player
* Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player
* Alexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower
* Alexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress
* Alexandra Parks (born 1984), English singer-songwriter
* Alexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek–Swedish author and columnist
* Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912–2010), Greek architect
* Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek–American music supervisor
* Alexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist
* Alexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist
* Alexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player
* Alexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer
* Alexandra Petrova (1980–2000), Russian beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress
* Alexandra Pierce (1934–2021), American composer and pianist
* Alexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian–American tennis player
* Alexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka
* Alexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer
* Alexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress
* Alexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player
* Alexandra Potter (born 1970), English author
* Alexandra Poulovassilis, Greek–English computer scientist
* Alexandra Powers, American actress
* Alexandra Pringle (born 1953), British publisher
* Alexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress
* Alexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer
* Alexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler
* Alexandra Raffé (born 1955), Canadian film and television producer
* Alexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter
* Alexandra Rapaport (born 1971), Swedish actress
* Alexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete
* Alexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka
* Alexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer
* Alexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovakian blind alpine skier
* Alexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model
* Alexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress
* Alexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican–born English Paralympic sailor
* Alexandra Ridout (born 1998), English jazz trumpeter
* Alexandra Ripley (1934–2004), American writer
* Alexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress
* Alexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer
* Alexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist
* Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player
* Alexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder
* Alexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator
* Alexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model
* Alexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater
* Alexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian–born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter
* Alexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor
* Alexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player
* Alexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter
* Alexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player
* Alexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovakian author
* Alexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian–born Ecuadorian soccer player
* Alexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter
* Alexandra Schepisi, Australian actress
* Alexandra Schörghuber (born 1958), German entrepreneur
* Alexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player
* Alexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist
* Alexandra Shimo, Canadian writer
* Alexandra Shipp, American actress and singer
* Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player
* Alexandra Shiva, American documentarian
* Alexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist
* Alexandra Sicoe (1932–2019), Romanian sprinter
* Alexandra Sidorovici (1906–2000), Romanian politician
* Alexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer
* Alexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress
* Alexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian–born French pianist
* Alexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist
* Alexandra Slade, American actress
* Alexandra Smirnoff (1838–1913) Finnish pomologist
* Alexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player
* Alexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress
* Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter
* Alexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast
* Alexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer
* Alexandra Sorina (1899–1973), Belarusian actress
* Alexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian–born French violinist
* Alexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian
* Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer
* Alexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer
* Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player
* Alexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress
* Alexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist
* Alexandra Styron, American author and professor
* Alexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer
* Alexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian
* Alexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player
* Alexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter
* Alexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower
<!--* Alexandra Teague, American poet-->
* Alexandra Techet, American marine engineer
* Alexandra Tegleva (1894–1955), Russian nursemaid
* Alexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player
* Alexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician
* Alexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer
* Alexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast
* Alexandra Tolstaya (1884–1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy
* Alexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer
* Alexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player
* Alexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player
* Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater
* Alexandra Truwit (born 2000), American Paralympic swimmer
* Alexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower
* Alexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder
* Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress
* Alexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian–Czech politician
* Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player
* Alexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician
* Alexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress
* Alexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater
* Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician
* Alexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor
* Alexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower
* Alexandra Vinogradova (born 1988), Russian volleyball player
* Alexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician
* Alexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano
* Alexandra von Dyhrn (1873–1945), German author and genealogist
* Alexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong–born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite
* Alexandra Voronin (1905–1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling
* Alexandra Vydrina (1988–2021), Russian linguist
* Alexandra Wager (born ), American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager
* Alexandra Wallace (born 1975 or 1976), American news media executive
* Alexandra Walsham (born 1966), English–Australian historian
* Alexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist
* Alexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model
* Alexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian
* Alexandra Wejchert (1921–1995), Polish–Irish sculptor
* Alexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer
* Alexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress
* Alexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian–born German long jumper
* Alexandra Williams, American rugby player
* Alexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist
* Alexandra Worden (born 1970), American genome scientist and microbial ecologist
* Alexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer
* Alexandra Zabelina (1937–2022), Soviet fencer
* Alexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher
* Alexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor
* Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer
* Alexandra Zarini (born 1985), Italian–American daughter of Patricia Gucci
* Alexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian–born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter
* Alexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer
* Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1842–1899), Russian–German lady-in-waiting
* Alexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist
* Alexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer
Aleksandra
* Aleksandra Antonova, various people
* Aleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player
* Aleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master
* Aleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer
* Aleksandra Fedoriva (born 1988), Russian athlete
* Aleksandra Izmailovich (1878–1941), Belarusian revolutionary
* Aleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder
* Aleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854–1941), Polish novelist
* Aleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player
* Aleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master
* Aleksandra Melnichenko (born 1977), Serbian billionaire, former singer, and model who is the wife of the Russian billionaire Andrey Melnichenko
* Aleksandra Perišić (born 2002), Serbian taekwondo practitioner
* Aleksandra Prijović (born 1995), Serbian pop-folk singer
* Aleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist
* Aleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Shchekoldina (born 2002), retired Russian gymnast
* Aleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player
* Aleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player
* Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player
* Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer
Fictional characters
* Alexandra, a character from the game Mystic Defender
* Alexandra, Nikita character
* Alexandra, the main antagonist in The Wildwood Chronicles
* Alexandra the Royal Baby Fairy, character in the British book series Rainbow Magic
* Alexandra "Alex" Bailey, a main character in Chris Colfer's The Land of Stories
* Alexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse
* Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a. Lexie Carver, character in the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives
* Alexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March
* Alexandra "Alex" Cahill, character in the 1990s television series Walker, Texas Ranger
* Alexandra Cross, a.k.a. Lexy Cross, a character in the USA/Syfy TV series, Chucky, based on the ''Child's Play'' media franchise
* Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a. Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers' sister in Supergirl
* Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a. Alex Dunphy, character in the popular television series Modern Family
* Alexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe
* Alexandra Finch, sister of Atticus Finch in the 1960 novel To Kill A Mockingbird
* Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series ''Kuroko's Basketball
* Alexandra Grey, a.k.a. Lexie Grey, character in the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy
* Alexandra Vladimirovna Litvyak, a.k.a. Sanya V. Litvyak, a character from the anime/manga franchise Strike Witches
* Alexandra Mack, a.k.a. Alex Mack, titular lead character in the popular television series The Secret World of Alex Mack
* Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a. Alex Nuñez, character in the Canadian television drama Degrassi: The Next Generation
* Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a. Alex Russo, character in the Disney Channel television series Wizards of Waverly Place'', played by Selena Gomez
* Alexandra Vause, a.k.a. Alex Vause, imprisoned drug dealer and love interest to protagonist to Piper Chapman in Netflix's Orange Is The New Black
* Aleksandra Billewicz, a character in Deluge by Henryk Sienkiewicz
* Aleksandra 'Zarya' Zaryanova, a Russian weightlifter turned soldier in the video game Overwatch
* Alexandra "Lex" Foster, the main protagonist of Team StarKid's Black Friday (musical)
See also
* Alexander
* Alexandria (given name)
References
Category:Feminine given names
Category:Greek feminine given names
Category:Romanian feminine given names
Category:Serbian feminine given names
Category:English feminine given names
Category:French feminine given names
Category:Hera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.080959 |
2536 | Articolo 31 | | years_active = 1990–2006, 2018–present
| label =
| associated_acts | website
| current_members = * J-Ax
* DJ Jad
| past_members =
}}
Articolo 31 is a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups.
Band history
Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini).
In the spoken intro of the album Strade di Città ("City Streets"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press. They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act.
Articolo 31 released one of the first Italian hip hop records, Strade di città, in 1993.
Their 2002 album Domani smetto represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples. Several of their songs rotate around the theme of soft drugs legalization in Italy (pointing strongly in favour). "Un bel viaggio" was later announced as their entry for the Sanremo Music Festival 2023.
Band members
*J-Ax – vocals
*DJ Jad – turntables
Discography
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Label
|-
| 1993 || Strade di città || Best Sound
|-
| 1994 || Messa di vespiri || Best Sound
|-
| 1996 || ''Così com'è || Best Sound
|-
| 1998 || Nessuno || Best Sound
|-
| 2001 || Xché sì! || Best Sound
|-
| 2002 || Domani smetto || Best Sound
|-
| 2003 || Italiano medio || Best Sound
|-
| 2024 || Protomaranza'' || Columbia
|}
References
Category:Italian hip hop groups
Category:Musical groups from Milan
Category:Hip-hop groups from Milan
Category:Italian rappers
Category:Italian rap rock groups | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articolo_31 | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.093000 |
2543 | Alexander Kerensky | }}
| image = Alexander Kerensky 1917 Crop.jpg
| caption = Kerensky in 1917
| office1 = Chairman of the<br />Russian Provisional Government<br />(Prime Minister of Russia)
| term_start1 = 21 July 1917
| term_end1 = 7 November 1917<br /><small>[6 July – 25 October 1917 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor1 = Georgy Lvov
| successor1 = Vladimir Lenin
| office2 = Minister of War and Navy of the<br />Russian Provisional Government
| term_start2 = 18 May 1917
| term_end2 = 14 September 1917<br /><small>[5 May – 1 September 1917 Old Style]</small>
| 1blankname2 = Minister-Chairman
| 1namedata2 = Georgy Lvov <br /> Himself
| predecessor2 = Alexander Guchkov
| successor2 | office3 Minister of Justice of the<br />Russian Provisional Government
| term_start3 = 16 March 1917
| term_end3 = 1 May 1917<br /><small>[3 March – 18 April 1917 Old Style]</small>
| 1blankname3 = Minister-Chairman
| 1namedata3 = Georgy Lvov
| predecessor3 = Office established
| successor3 = Pavel Pereverzev
| office4 Vice Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet
| 1blankname4 = Chairman
| 1namedata4 = Nikolai Chkheidze
| term_start4 = 12 March 1917
| term_end4 = 9 November 1917<br /><small>[27 February – 27 October 1917 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor4 = Office established
| successor4 = Matvey Skobelev
| office5 = Member of the<br />Russian Constituent Assembly
| term_start5 = 25 November 1917
| term_end5 = 20 January 1918<br /><small>[12 November – 7 January 1918 Old Style]</small>
| predecessor5 = Constituency established
| successor5 = Constituency abolished
| constituency5 = Saratov
| office6 = Member of the Russian State Duma
| term_start6 = 15 November 1912
| term_end6 = 6 October 1917
| predecessor6 = Multi-member district
| successor6 = Constituency abolished
| constituency6 = Volsk
| birth_date
| birth_place = Simbirsk, Simbirsk Governorate, Russian Empire
| death_date
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| restingplace = Putney Vale Cemetery, London
| alma_mater = Saint Petersburg State University
| profession =
| party Socialist-Revolutionary Party
| otherparty = Trudoviks
| children =
| signature = Kerensky autograph.svg
}}
Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky ; , ; original spelling: }} ( – 11 June 1970) was a Russian lawyer and revolutionary who led the Russian Provisional Government and the short-lived Russian Republic for three months from late July to early November 1917 (N.S.).
After the February Revolution of 1917, he joined the newly formed provisional government, first as Minister of Justice, then as Minister of War, and after July as the government's second Minister-Chairman. He was the leader of the social-democratic Trudovik faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. Kerensky was also a vice-chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, a position that held a sizable amount of power. Kerensky became the prime minister of the Provisional Government, and his tenure was consumed with World War I. Despite mass opposition to the war, Kerensky chose to continue Russia's participation. His government cracked down on anti-war sentiment and dissent in 1917, which made his administration even more unpopular.
Kerensky remained in power until the October Revolution. This revolution saw the Bolsheviks create a government led by them in a coalition with Left SRs, to replace Kerensky's government. Kerensky fled Russia and lived the remainder of his life in exile. He divided his time between Paris and New York City. Kerensky worked for the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, California.
Biography
Early life and activism Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga river on 4 May 1881 and was the eldest son in the family. His father, Fyodor Mikhailovich Kerensky, was a teacher was the granddaughter of a former serf who had managed to purchase his freedom before serfdom was abolished in 1861. He subsequently embarked upon a mercantile career, in which he prospered. This allowed him to move his business to Moscow, where he continued his success and became a wealthy Moscow merchant.
Members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends; Kerensky's father was the teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) and had even secured him acceptance into the University of Kazan. In 1889, when Kerensky was eight, the family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools (superintendent). Kerensky graduated with honours in 1899. The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology. The next year he switched to law. He earned his law degree in 1904 and married Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya, the daughter of a Russian general, the same year. Kerensky joined the Narodnik movement and worked as a legal counsel to victims of the Revolution of 1905. At the end of 1904, he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group. Afterwards, he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries.
In 1912, Kerensky became widely known when he visited the goldfields at the Lena River and published material about the Lena massacre. In the same year, Kerensky was elected to the Fourth Duma as a member of the Trudoviks, a socialist, non-Marxist labour party founded by Alexis Aladin that was associated with the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and joined a Freemason society uniting the anti-monarchy forces that strived for democratic renewal of Russia. In fact, the Socialist Revolutionary Party bought Kerensky a house, as he otherwise would not be eligible for election to the Duma, according to the Russian property-laws.
During the 4th Session of the Fourth Duma in spring 1915, Kerensky appealed to Mikhail Rodzianko with a request from the Council of elders to inform the tsar that to succeed in the war he must:
# change his domestic policy,
# proclaim a General Amnesty for political prisoners,
# restore the Constitution of Finland,
# declare autonomy of Poland,
# provide national minorities autonomy in the field of culture,
# abolish restrictions against Jews,
# end religious intolerance,
# stop the harassment of legal trade union organizations.
In August, he became a significant member of the Progressive Bloc, which included several socialist parties, Mensheviks, and Liberals – but not Bolsheviks. He was a brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader of the socialist opposition to the government of Tsar Nicholas II.
Kerensky was an active member of the irregular Freemasonic lodge, the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples, which derived from the Grand Orient of France. Kerensky was Secretary-General of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples and stood down following his ascent to the government in July 1917. He was succeeded by a Menshevik, Alexander Halpern.
Rasputin
In response to bitter resentments held against the imperial favourite Grigori Rasputin in the midst of Russia's failing effort in World War I, Kerensky, at the opening of the Duma on 2 November 1916, called the imperial ministers "hired assassins" and "cowards", and alleged that they were "guided by the contemptible Grishka Rasputin!" Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich, Prince Georgy Lvov, and General Mikhail Alekseyev attempted to persuade the Emperor Nicholas II to send away the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, Rasputin's steadfast patron, either to the Livadia Palace in Yalta or to Britain. Mikhail Rodzianko, Zinaida Yusupova (the mother of Felix Yusupov), Alexandra's sister Elisabeth, Grand Duchess Victoria and the empress's mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna also tried to influence and pressure the imperial couple to remove Rasputin from his position of influence within the imperial household, but without success. According to Kerensky, Rasputin had terrorised the empress by threatening to return to his native village.
Members of the nobility murdered Rasputin in December 1916, and he was buried near the imperial residence in Tsarskoye Selo. Shortly after the February Revolution of 1917, Kerensky ordered soldiers to re-bury the corpse at an unmarked spot in the countryside. However, the truck broke down or was forced to stop because of the snow on Lesnoe Road outside of St. Petersburg. It is likely the corpse was incinerated (between 3 and 7 in the morning) in the cauldrons of the nearby boiler shop of the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, including the coffin, without leaving a single trace.
Russian Provisional Government of 1917
When the February Revolution broke out in 1917, Kerensky – together with Pavel Milyukov – was one of its most prominent leaders. As one of the Duma's most well-known speakers against the monarchy and as a lawyer and defender of many revolutionaries, Kerensky became a member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the newly formed Petrograd Soviet. These two bodies, the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, or – rather – their respective executive committees, soon became each other's antagonists on most matters except regarding the end of the tsar's autocracy.
The Petrograd Soviet grew to include 3000 to 4000 members, and their meetings could drown in a blur of everlasting orations. At the meeting of to the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, or Ispolkom, formed a self-appointed committee, with (eventually) three members from each of the parties represented in the Soviet. Kerensky became one of the members representing the Socialist Revolutionary Party (the SRs).
On , without any consultation with the government, the Ispolkom of the Soviet issued the infamous Order No. 1, intended only for the 160,000-strong Petrograd garrison, but soon interpreted as applicable to all soldiers at the front. The order stipulated that all military units should form committees like the Petrograd Soviet. This led to confusion and "stripping of officers' authority"; further, "Order No. 3" stipulated that the military was subordinate to Ispolkom in the political hierarchy. The ideas came from a group of socialists and aimed to limit the officers' power to military affairs. The socialist intellectuals believed the officers to be the most likely counterrevolutionary elements. Kerensky's role in these orders is unclear, but he participated in the decisions. But just as before the revolution he had defended many who disliked the tsar, he now saved the lives of many of the tsar's civil servants about to be lynched by mobs.
]]
Additionally, the Duma formed an executive committee which eventually became the Russian Provisional Government. As there was little trust between Ispolkom and this government (and as he was about to accept the office of Attorney General in the Provisional Government), Kerensky gave a most passionate speech, not just to the Ispolkom, but to the entire Petrograd Soviet. He then swore, as minister, never to violate democratic values, and ended his speech with the words "I cannot live without the people. In the moment you begin to doubt me, then kill me." The huge majority (workers and soldiers) gave him great applause, and Kerensky now became the first and the only one who participated in both the Provisional Government and the Ispolkom. As a link between Ispolkom and the Provisional Government, Kerensky stood to benefit from this position.
After the first government crisis over Pavel Milyukov's secret note re-committing Russia to its original war-aims on 2–4 May, Kerensky became the Minister of War and the dominant figure in the newly formed socialist-liberal coalition government. On 10 May (Julian calendar), Kerensky started for the front and visited one division after another, urging the men to do their duty. His speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect. Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on . At first successful, the offensive soon met strong resistance and the Central Powers riposted with a strong counter-attack. The Russian army retreated and suffered heavy losses, and it became clear from many incidents of desertion, sabotage, and mutiny that the army was no longer willing to attack.
The military heavily criticised Kerensky for his liberal policies, which included stripping officers of their mandates and handing over control to revolutionary-inclined "soldier committees" () instead; abolition of the death penalty; and allowing revolutionary agitators to be present at the front. Many officers scornfully referred to commander-in-chief Kerensky as the "persuader-in-chief".
On 2 July 1917 the Provisional Government's first coalition collapsed over the question of Ukraine's autonomy. Following the July Days unrest in Petrograd (3–7 July [16–20 July, N.S.] 1917) and the official suppression of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky succeeded Prince Georgy Lvov as Russia's prime minister on . Following the Kornilov Affair, an attempted military coup d'état at the end of August, and the resignation of the other ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief, as well.
On 15 September Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic, which was contrary to the non-socialists' understanding that the Provisional Government should hold power only until a Constituent Assembly should meet to decide Russia's form of government, but which was in line with the long-proclaimed aim of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. He formed a five-member Directory, which consisted of himself, Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko, Minister of War General Aleksandr Verkhovsky, Minister of the Navy Admiral Dmitry Verderevsky and Minister of Posts and Telegraphs . He retained his post in the final coalition government in October 1917 until the Bolsheviks overthrew it on .
Kerensky faced a major challenge: three years of participation in World War had exhausted Russia, while the provisional government offered little motivation for a victory outside of continuing Russia's obligations towards its allies. Russia's continued involvement in the war was not popular among the lower and middle classes, and especially not popular among the soldiers. They had all believed that Russia would stop fighting when the Provisional Government took power, and subsequently felt deceived. Furthermore, Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party were promising "peace, land, and bread" under a communist system. The Russian army, war-weary, ill-equipped, dispirited and ill-disciplined, was disintegrating, with soldiers deserting in large numbers. By autumn 1917, an estimated two million men had unofficially left the army.
Kerensky and other political leaders continued Russia's involvement in World War I, thinking that a glorious victory was the only way forward, and fearing that the economy, already under huge stress from the war effort, might become increasingly unstable if vital supplies from France and from the United Kingdom ceased flowing. The dilemma of whether to withdraw was a great one, and Kerensky's inconsistent and impractical policies further destabilised the army and the country at large.
Furthermore, Kerensky adopted a policy that isolated the right-wing conservatives, both democratic and monarchist-oriented. His philosophy of "no enemies to the left" greatly empowered the Bolsheviks and gave them a free hand, allowing them to take over the military arm or "voyenka" () of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. His arrest of Lavr Kornilov and other officers left him without strong allies against the Bolsheviks, who ended up being Kerensky's strongest and most determined adversaries, as opposed to the right wing, which evolved into the White movement.
portrait by Georges Chevalier, 1921]]
October Revolution of 1917
During the Kornilov Affair, Kerensky had distributed arms to the Petrograd workers, and by November most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks. On 1917, the Bolsheviks launched the second Russian revolution of the year. Kerensky's government in Petrograd had almost no support in the city. Only one small force, a subdivision of the 2nd company of the First Petrograd Women's Battalion, also known as The Women's Death Battalion, was willing to fight for the government against the Bolsheviks, but this force was overwhelmed by the numerically superior pro-Bolshevik forces, defeated, and captured. The Bolsheviks overthrew the government rapidly by seizing governmental buildings and the Winter Palace.
Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to re-take the city. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoye Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky narrowly escaped, and he spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country, eventually arriving in France. During the Russian Civil War, he supported neither side, as he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the White Movement. Meanwhile, viewed by Woodrow Wilson as the spokesman for Russian democracy, he strongly influenced Wilson on Russian matters. Kerensky sought to discredit Alexander Kolchak in Western eyes, telling American diplomats that if Kolchak succeeded, he would "inaugurate a regime hardly less sanguinary and repressive than that of the Bolshevists."
Personal life
in 1938]]
Kerensky was married to Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya and they had two sons, Oleg (1905–1984) and Gleb (1907–1990), who both went on to become engineers. Kerensky's grandson (also named Oleg), according to the Internet Movie Database, played his grandfather's role in the 1981 film Reds. Kerensky and Olga were divorced in 1939 soon after he settled in Paris. In 1939, while visiting the United States, he met and secretly married Australian journalist Lydia Ellen "Nell" Tritton (1899–1946), who became his press secretary and translator. The marriage took place in Martins Creek, Pennsylvania.
When Germany invaded France in 1940, they emigrated to the United States. After the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to Joseph Stalin.
When his wife Nell became terminally ill in 1945, Kerensky travelled with her to Brisbane, Australia, and lived there with her family. She suffered a stroke in February 1946, and he remained there until her death on 10 April 1946. Kerensky then returned to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life.
Kerensky eventually settled in New York City, living on the Upper East Side on 91st Street near Central Park but spent much of his time at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in California, where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on Russian history, and where he taught graduate courses. He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian politics and history. His last public lecture was delivered at Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, in October 1967. Death
, London, 2014]]
Kerensky died of arteriosclerotic heart disease at St. Luke's Hospital in New York City on 11 June 1970, after being initially admitted for injuries sustained from a fall. A Serbian Orthodox Church also refused burial rites. Kerensky's body was flown to London, where his two sons resided; he was buried at the non-denominational Putney Vale Cemetery.Works
* [https://archive.org/details/preludetobolshev008537mbp The Prelude to Bolshevism] (1919). .
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.180014 The Catastrophe] (1927)
* The Crucifixion of Liberty (1934)
* ''Russia and History's Turning Point (1965)
* Memoirs'' (1966)
Archives
Papers of the Kerensky family are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.
See also
* Jailbirds of Kerensky
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
* [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kerensky/ Alexander Kerensky Archive] at marxists.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311025735/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s]
*
<!--*[http://www.kerensky.org.uk/ Alexander Kerensky Museum in London]-->
*
</small><br />Lev Kamenev<br /><small></small>}}
Category:1881 births
Category:1970 deaths
Category:20th-century presidents of Russia
Category:Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery
Category:Commanders-in-chief of the Russian Army
Category:Democratic socialists
Category:Heads of government of the Russian Provisional Government
Category:Hoover Institution people
Category:Justice ministers of Russia
Category:Lawyers from the Russian Empire
Category:Leaders ousted by a coup
Category:Members of the 4th State Duma of the Russian Empire
Category:Members of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples
Category:Ministers of defence of Russia
Category:People from Simbirsky Uyezd
Category:People from Ulyanovsk
Category:Revolutionaries of the Russian Revolution
Category:Russian Constituent Assembly members
Category:Russian Freemasons
Category:Russian anti-communists
Category:Russian anti-fascists
Category:Russian democracy activists
Category:Russian nationalists
Category:Russian people of World War I
Category:Russian social democrats
Category:Socialist Revolutionary Party politicians
Category:Stanford University faculty
Category:Trudoviks
Category:White Russian emigrants to Australia
Category:White Russian emigrants to France
Category:White Russian emigrants to the United States
Category:World War I political leaders
Category:World War II political leaders | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.114617 |
2544 | Ansgar | |feast_day=3 February
|venerated_inCatholic Church<br/>Eastern Orthodox Church<br/>Anglican Communion<br/>Lutheranism
|image=Bendixen Ansgar.jpg
|imagesize|captionA depiction of Saint Ansgar by Siegfried Bendixen from the Church Trinitatis, in Hamburg, Germany
|birth_place=Corbie, Frankish Kingdom
|death_place=Bremen, East Francia
|titles=Apostle of the North
|beatified_date|beatified_place
|beatified_by|canonized_date
|canonized_place|canonized_byPope Nicholas I
|attributes=Dressed in archbishop's attire with a model of the church
||suppressed_date|patronageScandinavia, Missionaries|issues|prayer
|prayer_attrib=
}}
Ansgar (8 September 801 – 3 February 865), also known as Anskar, Saint Ansgar, Saint Anschar or Oscar, was Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in the northern part of the Kingdom of the East Franks. Ansgar became known as the "Apostle of the North" because of his travels and the See of Hamburg received the missionary mandate to bring Christianity to Northern Europe.
Life
Ansgar was the son of a noble Frankish family, born near Amiens (present day France). After his mother's early death, Ansgar was brought up in Benedictine monastery of Corbie in Picardy. His pupil, successor, and eventual biographer Rimbert considered the visions (of which this was the first) to have been Ansgar's main life motivator.
Ansgar acted in the context of the phase of Christianization of Saxony (present day Northern Germany) begun by Charlemagne and continued by Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis the Pious. In 822 Ansgar became one of many missionaries sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, where he became a teacher and preacher. A group of monks including Ansgar were sent further north to Jutland with the king Harald Klak, who had received baptism during his exile. With Harald's downfall in 827 and Ansgar's companion Autbert having died, their school for the sons of courtiers closed and Ansgar returned to Germany. Then in 829, after the Swedish king Björn at Hauge requested missionaries for his Swedes, King Louis sent Ansgar, now accompanied by friar Witmar from New Corbie as his assistant. Ansgar preached and made converts, particularly during six months at Birka, on Lake Mälaren, where the wealthy widow Mor Frideborg extended hospitality. Ansgar organized a small congregation with her and the king's steward, Hergeir, as its most prominent members.
In 831 Ansgar returned to Louis' court at Worms and was appointed to the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. This was a new archbishopric, incorporating the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden and with the right to send missions into all the northern lands, as well as to consecrate bishops for them. Ansgar received the mission of evangelizing pagan Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The King of Sweden decided to cast lots as to whether to admit the Christian missionaries into his kingdom. Ansgar recommended the issue to the care of God, and the lot was favorable. Ansgar did not forget the Swedish mission, and spent two years there in person (848–850), averting a threatened pagan reaction. In 854, Ansgar returned to Sweden when king Olof ruled in Birka. According to Rimbert, he was well disposed to Christianity. On a Viking raid to Apuole (current village in Lithuania) in Courland, the Swedes plundered the Curonians.
Death and legacy
Ansgar was buried in Bremen in 865. His successor as archbishop, Rimbert, wrote the Vita Ansgarii. He noted that Ansgar wore a rough hair shirt, lived on bread and water, and showed great charity to the poor. Adam of Bremen attributed the Vita et miracula of Willehad (first bishop of Bremen) to Ansgar in Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ; Ansgar is also the reputed author of a collection of brief prayers Pigmenta (ed. J. M. Lappenberg, Hamburg, 1844). Pope Nicholas I declared Ansgar a saint shortly after the missionary's death. The first actual missionary in Sweden and the Nordic countries (and organizer of the Catholic church therein), Ansgar was later declared "Patron of Scandinavia".
Statues of Bishop Ansgar stand in Hamburg, Copenhagen and Ribe, as well as a stone cross at Birka. His feast day (Lesser Festival) is 3 February, as it is in the Church of England, the Episcopal Church,Visions
Although a historical document and primary source written by a man whose existence can be proven historically, the Vita Ansgarii ("The Life of Ansgar") aims above all to demonstrate Ansgar's sanctity. It is partly concerned with Ansgar's visions, which, according to the author Rimbert, encouraged and assisted Ansgar's remarkable missionary feats.
Through the course of this work, Ansgar repeatedly embarks on a new stage in his career following a vision. According to Rimbert, his early studies and ensuing devotion to the ascetic life of a monk were inspired by a vision of his mother in the presence of Mary, mother of Jesus. Again, when the Swedish people were left without a priest for some time, he begged King Horik to help him with this problem; then after receiving his consent, consulted with Bishop Gautbert to find a suitable man. The two together sought the approval of King Louis, which he granted when he learned that they were in agreement on the issue. Ansgar was convinced he was commanded by heaven to undertake this mission and was influenced by a vision he received when he was concerned about the journey, in which he met a man who reassured him of his purpose and informed him of a prophet that he would meet, the abbot Adalhard, who would instruct him in what was to happen. In the vision, he searched for and found Adalhard, who quoted to him "Islands, listen to me, pay attention, remotest peoples" (Isaiah 49:1). Ansgar interpreted this as showing God's will that he go to the Scandinavian countries as "most of that country consisted of islands, especially when Adalhard added "I will make you the light of the nations so that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth" (Isaiah 49:6), since the end of the world in the north was in Swedish territory.See also
*List of Eastern Orthodox saints
*Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)
* Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar
* Priory of St. Ansgar
* Sankt-Ansgar-Schule
*Vita Ansgarii
References
Further reading
* Jakobsson, Sverrir. Mission Miscarried: The Narrators of the Ninth-Century Missions to Scandinavia and Central Europe. Bulgaria Medievalis 2 (2011), 49–69.
* Palmer, James T., ''Rimbert's Vita Anskarii and the Scandinavian Mission in the Ninth Century. Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55/2 (2004), 235–56.
* Pryce, Mark. Literary Companion to the Festivals: A Poetic Gathering to Accompany Liturgical Celebrations of Commemorations and Festivals. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.
* Tschan, Francis J. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20000309135829/http://www.skolinternet.telia.se/TIS/birka/texteng/hist.htm Ansgar at Birka History of Birka]
*Vita Ansgari, English translation from [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Medieval sourcebook]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051102144454/http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/subject/hd/fak7/hist/c1/de/gen/gen/grmnhist/log.started920201/mail-16.html German History Forum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130313011358/http://www.cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/ANSKAR/Anskar-DOOR.html ANSKAR The Apostle of the North (801–865). Translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert his fellow missionary and successor. BY CHARLES H. ROBINSON. Im BTM format]
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Category:801 births
Category:865 deaths
Category:Diplomats of the Holy See
Category:Danish Roman Catholic saints
Category:Medieval Swedish saints
Category:Bishops in the Carolingian Empire
Category:Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen
Category:9th-century Christian saints
Category:Saints from East Francia
Category:9th-century people from East Francia
Category:Christian missionaries in Denmark
Category:Christian missionaries in Sweden
Category:Medieval Danish saints
Category:9th-century writers in Latin
Category:Writers from the Carolingian Empire
Category:Anglican saints
Category:Lutheran saints | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansgar | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.122418 |
2546 | Automated theorem proving | Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major motivating factor for the development of computer science.
Logical foundations
While the roots of formalized logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalized mathematics. Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic. His Foundations of Arithmetic, published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910–1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.
In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.
However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system, there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions.
First implementations
In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, "Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even". More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the Principia Mathematica, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the Principia. Decidability of the problem
Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, invalid formulas (those that are not entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.
The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).
Related problems
A simpler, but related, problem is proof verification, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.
Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.
Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.
Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).
There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player.
Applications
Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.
Other uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification. Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL.
Applications of theorem provers are also found in natural language processing and formal semantics, where they are used to analyze discourse representations.
First-order theorem proving
In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson's resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society before solutions were formally published.
First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling fully automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.Relationship with SMTThere is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers. Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers. The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.Benchmarks, competitions, and sources The quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.
Some important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.
* E is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.
* Otter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.
* SETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.
* Vampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder. It is now developed by a growing international team. It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.
* Waldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand. It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).
* SPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.
The Theorem Prover Museum is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts. It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above.
Popular techniques
*First-order resolution with unification
*Model elimination
*Method of analytic tableaux
*Superposition and term rewriting
*Model checking
*Mathematical induction
*Binary decision diagrams
*DPLL
*Higher-order unification
*Quantifier elimination
Software systems
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Comparison
|-
! Name !! License type !! Web service !! Library !! Standalone !! Last update
|-
| ACL2 || 3-clause BSD || || || ||
|-
| Prover9/Otter || Public Domain || || || ||
|-
| Jape || GPLv2 || || || ||
|-
| PVS || GPLv2 || || || ||
|-
| EQP || || || || ||
|-
| PhoX || || || || ||
|-
| E || GPL || || || ||
|-
| SNARK || Mozilla Public License 1.1 || || || ||
|-
| Vampire ||Vampire License || || || ||
|-
| Theorem Proving System (TPS) || TPS Distribution Agreement || || || ||
|-
| SPASS || FreeBSD license || || || ||
|-
| IsaPlanner || GPL || || || ||
|-
| KeY || GPL || || || ||
|-
| Z3 Theorem Prover || MIT License || || || ||
|-
|}
Free software
* Alt-Ergo
* Automath
* CVC
* E
* IsaPlanner
* LCF
* Mizar
* NuPRL
* Paradox
* Prover9
* PVS
* SPARK (programming language)
* Twelf
* Z3 Theorem Prover
Proprietary software
* CARINE
* Wolfram Mathematica
* ResearchCyc
See also
* Curry–Howard correspondence
* Symbolic computation
* Ramanujan machine
* Computer-aided proof
* Formal verification
* Logic programming
* Proof checking
* Model checking
* Proof complexity
* Computer algebra system
* Program analysis (computer science)
* General Problem Solver
* Metamath language for formalized mathematics
* De Bruijn factor
Notes
References
*
| orig-year = 1973
}}
*
| orig-year = 1978
}}
*
*
*
*
* II .
*
}}
External links
* [https://github.com/johnyf/tool_lists/blob/master/verification_synthesis.md#theorem-provers A list of theorem proving tools]
Category:Formal methods | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.141918 |
2547 | Agent Orange | Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange over agricultural land during the Vietnam War in its herbicidal warfare campaign|thumb]]
Agent Orange is a chemical herbicide and defoliant, one of the tactical use of Rainbow Herbicides. It was used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. The U.S. was strongly influenced by the British who used Agent Orange during the Malayan Emergency. It is a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D.
Agent Orange was produced in the United States beginning in the late 1940s and was used in industrial agriculture, and was also sprayed along railroads and power lines to control undergrowth in forests. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. military procured over , consisting of a fifty-fifty mixture of 2,4-D and dioxin-contaminated 2,4,5-T. Nine chemical companies produced it: Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto Company, Diamond Shamrock Corporation, Hercules Inc., Thompson Hayward Chemical Co., United States Rubber Company (Uniroyal), Thompson Chemical Co., Hoffman-Taff Chemicals, Inc., and Agriselect.
The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange, while the Vietnamese Red Cross estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange. While the United States government has described these figures as unreliable, it has documented cases of leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and various kinds of cancer in exposed U.S. military veterans. The US Government has not conclusively found either a causal relationship or a plausible biological carcinogenic mechanism for cancers. An epidemiological study done by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed that there was an increase in the rate of birth defects of the children of military personnel who were exposed to Agent Orange. Agent Orange has also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam. Over or of forest were defoliated. Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity is sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.
The use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in numerous legal actions. The United Nations ratified United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention. Lawsuits filed on behalf of both U.S. and Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages.
Agent Orange was first used by British Commonwealth forces in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency. It was also used by the U.S. military in Laos and Cambodia during the Vietnam War because forests near the border with Vietnam were used by the Viet Cong.
Chemical composition
(TCDD)]]
(2,4-D)]]
(2,4,5-T)]]
The active ingredient of Agent Orange was an equal mixture of two phenoxy herbicides – 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) – in iso-octyl ester form, which contained traces of the dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). TCDD was a trace (typically 2–3 ppm, ranging from 50 ppb to 50 ppm) - but significant - contaminant of Agent Orange.
Toxicology
TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins and is classified as a human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The fat-soluble nature of TCDD causes it to accumulate easily in the food chain, and can enter the body readily through physical contact or ingestion. When TCDD binds to cytoplasmic aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor, the protein translocates to the cell nucleus, where it influences gene expression.
According to U.S. government reports, if not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves or grass, Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful.DevelopmentSeveral herbicides were developed as part of efforts by the United States and the United Kingdom to create herbicidal weapons for use during World War II. These included 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN-8 and LN-32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN-33).
In 1943, the United States Department of the Army contracted botanist (and later bioethicist) Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign to study the effects of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops. While a graduate and post-graduate student at the University of Illinois, Galston's research and dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier. He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans.
After the Malayan Emergency ended in 1960, the U.S. considered the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legal tactic of warfare. Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that the British had established a precedent for warfare with herbicides in Malaya.Use in the Vietnam War
taking place from 1965 to 1971]]
In mid-1961, President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam asked the United States to help defoliate the lush jungle that was providing cover to his enemies. In August of that year, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force conducted herbicide operations with American help. Diem's request launched a policy debate in the White House and the State and Defense Departments. Many U.S. officials supported herbicide operations, pointing out that the British had already used herbicides and defoliants in Malaya during the 1950s. In November 1961, Kennedy authorized the start of Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for the United States Air Force's herbicide program in Vietnam. The herbicide operations were formally directed by the government of South Vietnam.
Agent Orange was usually sprayed from helicopters or from low-flying C-123 Provider aircraft, fitted with sprayers and "MC-1 Hourglass" pump systems and chemical tanks. Spray runs were also conducted from trucks, boats, and backpack sprayers. Altogether, over of Agent Orange were applied.
The first batch of herbicides was unloaded at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, on January 9, 1962. U.S. Air Force records show at least 6,542 spraying missions took place over the course of Operation Ranch Hand. By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended U.S. Department of Agriculture application rate for domestic use. In South Vietnam alone, an estimated of agricultural land was ultimately destroyed. In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the EPA.
The campaign destroyed of upland and mangrove forests and thousands of square kilometres of crops. Overall, more than 20% of South Vietnam's forests were sprayed at least once over the nine-year period. 3.2% of South Vietnam's cultivated land was sprayed at least once between 1965 and 1971. 90% of herbicide use was directed at defoliation. arguing that Agent Orange was not a chemical or a biological weapon as it was considered a herbicide and a defoliant and it was used in effort to destroy plant crops and to deprive the enemy of concealment and not meant to target human beings. The U.S. delegation argued that a weapon, by definition, is any device used to injure, defeat, or destroy living beings, structures, or systems, and Agent Orange did not qualify under that definition. It also argued that if the U.S. were to be charged for using Agent Orange, then the United Kingdom and its Commonwealth nations should be charged since they also used it widely during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. In 1969, the United Kingdom commented on the draft Resolution 2603 (XXIV):<blockquote>The evidence seems to us to be notably inadequate for the assertion that the use in war of chemical substances specifically toxic to plants is prohibited by international law. </blockquote>The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.
<gallery mode"packed" caption"Gallery">
File:Agent-Orange--stack-of-55-gallon-drums.jpg|Stacks of drums containing Agent Orange.
File:'Ranch Hand' run.jpg|Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC-123B Provider aircraft.
File:US-Army-APC-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg|U.S. Army armored personnel carrier (APC) spraying Agent Orange over Vietnamese rice fields during the Vietnam War.
File:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|A UH-1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta.
File:VA042083 River Bank Defoliation.jpg|U.S. Army Operations In Vietnam: River bank defoliation
File:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|A U.S. Air Force Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft crop-dusting in Vietnam during Operation Ranch Hand.
File:UC-123B Ranch Hand spraying 1962.jpg|A Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft spraying defoliant in South Vietnam in 1962.
File:Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.JPG|Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.
File:110303-F-XN622-007 U.S. Air Force aircraft spraying defoliant.JPG|U.S. Air Force aircraft spraying defoliant
File:VA002930 Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho.jpg|Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho, 1969
</gallery>
Health effects
There are various types of cancer associated with Agent Orange, including chronic B-cell leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, prostate cancer, respiratory cancer, lung cancer, and soft tissue sarcomas. Some literature claims that neither Agent Orange nor its contaminants are carcinogenic in humans.
Vietnamese people
The government of Vietnam states that 4 million of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; these figures include their children who were exposed. In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women, and in the blood of U.S. military personnel who had served in Vietnam. The most affected zones are the mountainous area along Truong Son (Long Mountains) and the border between Vietnam and Cambodia. The affected residents are living in substandard conditions with many genetic diseases.
In 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta-analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue. Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects/relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange/dioxin "appears" to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese-funded studies, but 1.29 in the rest of the world. There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still-births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect. The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies. The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate.
<gallery mode"packed" widths"200">
File:Agent Orange Deformities (3786919757).jpg|A person with birth deformities associated with prenatal exposure to Agent Orange
File:Agent-Orange-dioxin-skin-damage-Vietnam.jpg|Major Tự Đức Phang was exposed to dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange.
File:A vietnamese Professor is pictured with a group of handicapped children.jpg|A group of handicapped children in Ho Chi Minh, some of them affected by Agent Orange
File:Two Vietnameses pose in front of the billboard.jpg|Kan Lay, 55 years old, and her son, Ke Van Bec, 14 years old, A Luoi Valley, Vietnam, December 2004.
</gallery>
Vietnam veterans
poster in Vietnamese describing how 'safe' Agent Orange is, intended to refute the "communist's propaganda". However, scientists within the United States had been protesting the use of Agent Orange since 1966, on the basis that it was a chemical weapon used indiscriminately, even before its toxic effects to humans were established in print.]]
While in Vietnam, U.S. and Free World Military Assistance Forces soldiers were told not to worry about Agent Orange and were persuaded the chemical was harmless. After returning home, Vietnam veterans from all countries that served began to suspect their ill health or the instances of their wives having miscarriages or children born with birth defects might be related to Agent Orange and the other toxic herbicides to which they had been exposed in Vietnam.
U.S veterans
U.S. Veterans began to file claims in 1977 to the Department of Veterans Affairs for disability payments for health care for conditions they believed were associated with exposure to Agent Orange, or more specifically, dioxin, but their claims were denied unless they could prove the condition began when they were in the service or within one year of their discharge.
In order to qualify for compensation, U.S. veterans must have served on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand during the Vietnam Era, where herbicides were tested and stored outside of Vietnam, veterans who were crew members on C-123 planes flown after the Vietnam War, or were associated with Department of Defense (DoD) projects to test, dispose of, or store herbicides in the U.S.
By April 1993, the Department of Veterans Affairs had compensated only 486 victims, although it had received disability claims from 39,419 soldiers who had been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam.
In a November 2004 Zogby International poll of 987 people, 79% of respondents thought the U.S. chemical companies which produced Agent Orange defoliant should compensate U.S. soldiers who were affected by the toxic chemical used during the war in Vietnam and 51% said they supported compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange victims.
Australian and New Zealand veterans
Several official investigations in Australia failed to prove otherwise even though extant American investigations had already established that defoliants were sprayed at U.S. airbases including Bien Hoa Air Base where Australian and New Zealand forces first served before being given their own Tactical area of responsibility (TAOR.) Even then, Australian and New Zealand non-military and military contributions saw personnel from both countries spread over Vietnam such as the hospitals at Bong Son and Qui Nhon, on secondments at various bases, and as flight crew and ground crew for flights into and out of Da Nang Air Base - all areas that were well-documented as having been sprayed.
It wasn't until a group of Australian veterans produced official military records, maps, and mission data as proof that the TAOR controlled by Australian and New Zealand forces in Vietnam had been sprayed with the chemicals in the presence of personnel that the Australian government was forced to change their stance. Only in 1994 did the Australian government finally admit that it was true that defoliants had been used in areas of Vietnam where Australian forces operated and the effects of these may have been detrimental to some Vietnam veterans and their children.
It was only in 2015 that the official Australian War Memorial accepted rewriting the official history of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War to acknowledge that Australian soldiers were exposed to defoliants used in Vietnam.
New Zealand was even slower to correct their error, with the government going as far as to deny the legitimacy of the Australian reports in a report called the "McLeod Report" published by Veterans Affairs NZ in 2001 thus infuriating New Zealand veterans and those associated with their cause.
In 2006 progress was made in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding signed between the New Zealand government, representatives of New Zealand Vietnam veterans, and the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association (RSA) for monetary compensation for New Zealand Vietnam veterans who have conditions as evidence of association with exposure to Agent Orange, as determined by the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2008 the New Zealand government finally admitted that New Zealanders had in fact been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam and the experience was responsible for detrimental health conditions in veterans and their children. Amendments to the memorandum made in 2021 meant that more veterans were eligible for an ex gratia payment of NZ$40,000.National Academy of Medicine (Institute of Medicine)Starting in the early 1990s, the federal government directed the Institute of Medicine (IOM), now known as the National Academy of Medicine, to issue reports every 2 years on the health effects of Agent Orange and similar herbicides. First published in 1994 and titled Veterans and Agent Orange, the IOM reports assess the risk of both cancer and non-cancer health effects. Each health effect is categorized by evidence of association based on available research data. Limited or suggested evidence of an association was linked with respiratory cancers (lung, bronchus, trachea, larynx); prostate cancer; multiple myeloma; and bladder cancer. Numerous other cancers were determined to have inadequate or insufficient evidence of links to Agent Orange.
At the request of the Veterans Administration, the Institute Of Medicine evaluated whether service in these C-123 aircraft could have plausibly exposed soldiers and been detrimental to their health. Their report Post-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange-Contaminated C-123 Aircraft confirmed it.
U.S. Public Health Service
Publications by the United States Public Health Service have shown that Vietnam veterans, overall, have increased rates of cancer, and nerve, digestive, skin, and respiratory disorders. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that in particular, there are higher rates of acute/chronic leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, throat cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, Ischemic heart disease, soft tissue sarcoma, and liver cancer. With the exception of liver cancer, these are the same conditions the U.S. Veterans Administration has determined may be associated with exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and are on the list of conditions eligible for compensation and treatment.
Military personnel who were involved in storage, mixture and transportation (including aircraft mechanics), and actual use of the chemicals were probably among those who received the heaviest exposures. Military members who served on Okinawa also claim to have been exposed to the chemical, but there is no verifiable evidence to corroborate these claims.
Some studies have suggested that veterans exposed to Agent Orange may be more at risk of developing prostate cancer and potentially more than twice as likely to develop higher-grade, more lethal prostate cancers. However, a critical analysis of these studies and 35 others consistently found that there was no significant increase in prostate cancer incidence or mortality in those exposed to Agent Orange or 2,3,7,8-tetracholorodibenzo-p-dioxin.
U.S. Veterans of Laos and Cambodia
During the Vietnam War, the United States fought the North Vietnamese, and their allies, in Laos and Cambodia, including heavy bombing campaigns. They also sprayed large quantities of Agent Orange in each of those countries. According to one estimate, the U.S. dropped in Laos and in Cambodia. Because Laos and Cambodia were both officially neutral during the Vietnam War, the U.S. attempted to keep secret its military operations in those countries, from the American population and has largely avoided compensating American veterans and CIA personnel stationed in Cambodia and Laos who suffered permanent injuries as a result of exposure to Agent Orange there.
One noteworthy exception, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, is a claim filed with the CIA by an employee of "a self-insured contractor to the CIA that was no longer in business." The CIA advised the Department of Labor that it "had no objections" to paying the claim and Labor accepted the claim for payment:
Ecological impact
About 17.8% or of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium. The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover, and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely. Animal species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were, respectively, 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals.
Dioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas. The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification. The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases.Sociopolitical impactAmerican policy during the Vietnam War was to destroy crops, accepting the sociopolitical impact that that would have.Legal and diplomatic proceedingsInternationalThe extensive environmental damage that resulted from usage of the herbicide prompted the United Nations to pass Resolution 31/72 and ratify the Environmental Modification Convention. Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare, but it does require case-by-case consideration. Article 2(4) of Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons contains the "Jungle Exception", which prohibits states from attacking forests or jungles "except if such natural elements are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or military objectives or are military objectives themselves". This exception voids any protection of any military and civilian personnel from a napalm attack or something like Agent Orange, and it has been argued that it was clearly designed to cover situations like U.S. tactics in Vietnam.
Class action lawsuit
Since at least 1978, several lawsuits have been filed against the companies which produced Agent Orange, among them Dow Chemical, Monsanto, and Diamond Shamrock. In 1978, army veteran Paul Reutershan sued Dow Chemical for $10 million, after he was diagnosed with terminal cancer that he believed was a result of Agent Orange exposure. After Reutershan died in December 1978, his attorneys added additional plaintiffs and refiled the lawsuit as a class action. That lawsuit would eventually represent thousands of veterans, and was considered one of the largest and most complex lawsuits ever brought in the US at that time.}}
Attorney Hy Mayerson was an early pioneer in Agent Orange litigation, working with environmental attorney Victor Yannacone in 1980 on the first class-action suits against wartime manufacturers of Agent Orange. In meeting Dr. Ronald A. Codario, one of the first civilian doctors to see affected patients, Mayerson, so impressed by the fact a physician would show so much interest in a Vietnam veteran, forwarded more than a thousand pages of information on Agent Orange and the effects of dioxin on animals and humans to Codario's office the day after he was first contacted by the doctor. The corporate defendants sought to escape culpability by blaming everything on the U.S. government.
In 1980, Mayerson, with Sgt. Charles E. Hartz as their principal client, filed the first U.S. Agent Orange class-action lawsuit in Pennsylvania, for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to toxic dioxins in the defoliant. Attorney Mayerson co-wrote the brief that certified the Agent Orange Product Liability action as a class action, the largest ever filed as of its filing. Hartz's deposition was one of the first ever taken in America, and the first for an Agent Orange trial, for the purpose of preserving testimony at trial, as it was understood that Hartz would not live to see the trial because of a brain tumor that began to develop while he was a member of Tiger Force, special forces, and LRRPs in Vietnam. The firm also located and supplied critical research to the veterans' lead expert, Dr. Codario, including about 100 articles from toxicology journals dating back more than a decade, as well as data about where herbicides had been sprayed, what the effects of dioxin had been on animals and humans, and every accident in factories where herbicides were produced or dioxin was a contaminant of some chemical reaction.
The chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans' medical problems. However, on May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class-action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin. The companies agreed to pay $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them. Slightly over 45% of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone. Many veterans who were victims of Agent Orange exposure were outraged the case had been settled instead of going to court and felt they had been betrayed by the lawyers. "Fairness Hearings" were held in five major American cities, where veterans and their families discussed their reactions to the settlement and condemned the actions of the lawyers and courts, demanding the case be heard before a jury of their peers. Federal Judge Jack B. Weinstein refused the appeals, claiming the settlement was "fair and just". By 1989, the veterans' fears were confirmed when it was decided how the money from the settlement would be paid out. A totally disabled Vietnam veteran would receive a maximum of $12,000 spread out over the course of 10 years. Furthermore, by accepting the settlement payments, disabled veterans would become ineligible for many state benefits that provided far more monetary support than the settlement, such as food stamps, public assistance, and government pensions. A widow of a Vietnam veteran who died of Agent Orange exposure would receive $3,700.
In 2004, Monsanto spokesman Jill Montgomery said Monsanto should not be liable at all for injuries or deaths caused by Agent Orange, saying: "We are sympathetic with people who believe they have been injured and understand their concern to find the cause, but reliable scientific evidence indicates that Agent Orange is not the cause of serious long-term health effects."
On 22 August 2024, the Court of Appeal of Paris dismissed an appeal filed by Tran To Nga against 14 US corporations that supplied Agent Orange for the US army during the war in Vietnam. The lawyers said that Nga will take her case to France's highest appeals court. Only military veterans from the United States and its allies in the war have won compensation so far. Some of the agrochemical companies in the U.S. have compensated U.S. veterans, but not to Vietnamese victims. During the first phase of the project, commission researchers devised ways to determine trace dioxin levels in blood. Prior to this, such levels could only be found in the adipose (fat) tissue. The project studied dioxin (TCDD) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group; the levels were found to be higher in the exposed group. The second phase of the project continued to examine and compare dioxin levels in various groups of Vietnam veterans, including Soldiers, Marines, and Brownwater Naval personnel.
U.S. Congress
In 1991, Congress enacted the Agent Orange Act, giving the Department of Veterans Affairs the authority to declare certain conditions "presumptive" to exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin, making these veterans who served in Vietnam eligible to receive treatment and compensation for these conditions. The same law required the National Academy of Sciences to periodically review the science on dioxin and herbicides used in Vietnam to inform the Secretary of Veterans Affairs about the strength of the scientific evidence showing association between exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and certain conditions. The authority for the National Academy of Sciences reviews and addition of any new diseases to the presumptive list by the VA expired in 2015 under the sunset clause of the Agent Orange Act of 1991. Through this process, the list of 'presumptive' conditions has grown since 1991, and currently the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes mellitus, Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as conditions associated with exposure to the herbicide. This list now includes B cell leukemias, such as hairy cell leukemia, Parkinson's disease and ischemic heart disease, these last three having been added on August 31, 2010. Several highly placed individuals in government are voicing concerns about whether some of the diseases on the list should, in fact, actually have been included.
In 2011, an appraisal of the 20-year long Air Force Health Study that began in 1982 indicates that the results of the AFHS as they pertain to Agent Orange, do not provide evidence of disease in the Operation Ranch Hand veterans caused by "their elevated levels of exposure to Agent Orange".
The VA initially denied the applications of post-Vietnam C-123 aircrew veterans because as veterans without "boots on the ground" service in Vietnam, they were not covered under VA's interpretation of "exposed". In June 2015, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs issued an Interim final rule providing presumptive service connection for post-Vietnam C-123 aircrews, maintenance staff and aeromedical evacuation crews. The VA now provides medical care and disability compensation for the recognized list of Agent Orange illnesses.
U.S.–Vietnamese government negotiations
In 2002, Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange. Following the conference, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam, and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange. These negotiations broke down in 2005, when neither side could agree on the research protocol and the research project was canceled. More progress has been made on the environmental front. In 2005, the first U.S.-Vietnam workshop on remediation of dioxin was held.
Starting in 2005, the EPA began to work with the Vietnamese government to measure the level of dioxin at the Da Nang Air Base. Also in 2005, the Joint Advisory Committee on Agent Orange, made up of representatives of Vietnamese and U.S. government agencies, was established. The committee has been meeting yearly to explore areas of scientific cooperation, technical assistance and environmental remediation of dioxin.
A breakthrough in the diplomatic stalemate on this issue occurred as a result of United States President George W. Bush's state visit to Vietnam in November 2006. In the joint statement, President Bush and President Triet agreed "further joint efforts to address the environmental contamination near former dioxin storage sites would make a valuable contribution to the continued development of their bilateral relationship." On May 25, 2007, President Bush signed the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 into law for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that included an earmark of $3 million specifically for funding for programs for the remediation of dioxin 'hotspots' on former U.S. military bases, and for public health programs for the surrounding communities; some authors consider this to be completely inadequate, pointing out that the Da Nang Airbase alone will cost $14 million to clean up, and that three others are estimated to require $60 million for cleanup.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated during a visit to Hanoi in October 2010 that the U.S. government would begin work on the clean-up of dioxin contamination at the Da Nang Airbase. In June 2011, a ceremony was held at Da Nang airport to mark the start of U.S.-funded decontamination of dioxin hotspots in Vietnam. Thirty-two million dollars has so far been allocated by the U.S. Congress to fund the program. A $43 million project began in the summer of 2012, as Vietnam and the U.S. forge closer ties to boost trade and counter China's rising influence in the disputed South China Sea.
Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit in U.S. courts
On January 31, 2004, a victim's rights group, the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/dioxin (VAVA), filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn, against several U.S. companies for liability in causing personal injury, by developing, and producing the chemical, and claimed that the use of Agent Orange violated the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, 1925 Geneva Protocol, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Dow Chemical and Monsanto were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the U.S. military and were named in the suit, along with the dozens of other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). On March 10, 2005, Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Eastern District – who had presided over the 1984 U.S. veterans class-action lawsuit – dismissed the lawsuit, ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs' claims. He concluded Agent Orange was not considered a poison under international humanitarian law at the time of its use by the U.S.; the U.S. was not prohibited from using it as a herbicide; and the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government. In the dismissal statement issued by Weinstein, he wrote "The prohibition extended only to gases deployed for their asphyxiating or toxic effects on man, not to herbicides designed to affect plants that may have unintended harmful side-effects on people."
Author and activist George Jackson had written previously that:<blockquote>If the Americans were guilty of war crimes for using Agent Orange in Vietnam, then the British would be also guilty of war crimes as well since they were the first nation to deploy the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare and used them on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency. Not only was there no outcry by other states in response to the United Kingdom's use, but the U.S. viewed it as establishing a precedent for the use of herbicides and defoliants in jungle warfare.</blockquote>The U.S. government was also not a party in the lawsuit because of sovereign immunity, and the court ruled the chemical companies, as contractors of the U.S. government, shared the same immunity. The case was appealed and heard by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan on June 18, 2007. Three judges on the court upheld Weinstein's ruling to dismiss the case. They ruled that, though the herbicides contained a dioxin (a known poison), they were not intended to be used as a poison on humans. Therefore, they were not considered a chemical weapon and thus not a violation of international law. A further review of the case by the entire panel of judges of the Court of Appeals also confirmed this decision. The lawyers for the Vietnamese filed a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case. On March 2, 2009, the Supreme Court denied certiorari and declined to reconsider the ruling of the Court of Appeals.
Help for those affected in Vietnam
To assist those who have been affected by Agent Orange/dioxin, the Vietnamese have established "peace villages", which each host between 50 and 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, there were 11 such villages, thus granting some social protection to fewer than a thousand victims. U.S. veterans of the war in Vietnam and individuals who are aware and sympathetic to the impacts of Agent Orange have supported these programs in Vietnam. An international group of veterans from the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War working with their former enemy—veterans from the Vietnam Veterans Association—established the Vietnam Friendship Village outside of Hanoi.
The center provides medical care, rehabilitation and vocational training for children and veterans from Vietnam who have been affected by Agent Orange. In 1998, The Vietnam Red Cross established the Vietnam Agent Orange Victims Fund to provide direct assistance to families throughout Vietnam that have been affected. In 2003, the Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange (VAVA) was formed. In addition to filing the lawsuit against the chemical companies, VAVA provides medical care, rehabilitation services and financial assistance to those injured by Agent Orange.
The Vietnamese government provides small monthly stipends to more than 200,000 Vietnamese believed affected by the herbicides; this totaled $40.8 million in 2008. The Vietnam Red Cross has raised more than $22 million to assist the ill or disabled, and several U.S. foundations, United Nations agencies, European governments and nongovernmental organizations have given a total of about $23 million for site cleanup, reforestation, health care and other services to those in need.
Vuong Mo of the Vietnam News Agency described one of the centers:
<blockquote>May is 13, but she knows nothing, is unable to talk fluently, nor walk with ease due to for her bandy legs. Her father is dead and she has four elder brothers, all mentally retarded ... The students are all disabled, retarded and of different ages. Teaching them is a hard job. They are of the 3rd grade but many of them find it hard to do the reading. Only a few of them can. Their pronunciation is distorted due to their twisted lips and their memory is quite short. They easily forget what they've learned ... In the Village, it is quite hard to tell the kids' exact ages. Some in their twenties have a physical statures as small as the 7- or 8-years-old. They find it difficult to feed themselves, much less have mental ability or physical capacity for work. No one can hold back the tears when seeing the heads turning round unconsciously, the bandy arms managing to push the spoon of food into the mouths with awful difficulty ... Yet they still keep smiling, singing in their great innocence, at the presence of some visitors, craving for something beautiful.</blockquote>
On June 16, 2010, members of the U.S.-Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange/Dioxin unveiled a comprehensive 10-year Declaration and Plan of Action to address the toxic legacy of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam. The Plan of Action was released as an Aspen Institute publication and calls upon the U.S. and Vietnamese governments to join with other governments, foundations, businesses, and nonprofits in a partnership to clean up dioxin "hot spots" in Vietnam and to expand humanitarian services for people with disabilities there. On September 16, 2010, Senator Patrick Leahy acknowledged the work of the Dialogue Group by releasing a statement on the floor of the United States Senate. The statement urges the U.S. government to take the Plan of Action's recommendations into account in developing a multi-year plan of activities to address the Agent Orange/dioxin legacy.
Use outside of Vietnam
Australia
In 2008, Australian researcher Jean Williams claimed that cancer rates in Innisfail, Queensland, were 10 times higher than the state average because of secret testing of Agent Orange by the Australian military scientists during the Vietnam War. Williams, who had won the Order of Australia medal for her research on the effects of chemicals on U.S. war veterans, based her allegations on Australian government reports found in the Australian War Memorial's archives. A former soldier, Ted Bosworth, backed up the claims, saying that he had been involved in the secret testing. Neither Williams nor Bosworth have produced verifiable evidence to support their claims. The Queensland health department determined that cancer rates in Innisfail were no higher than those in other parts of the state.
Canada
The U.S. military, with the permission of the Canadian government, tested herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the forests near Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick.<!-- for three days in 1966 and four days in 1967.--> In 2007, the government of Canada offered a one-time ex gratia payment of $20,000 as compensation for Agent Orange exposure at CFB Gagetown. On July 12, 2005, Merchant Law Group, on behalf of over 1,100 Canadian veterans and civilians who were living in and around CFB Gagetown, filed a lawsuit to pursue class action litigation concerning Agent Orange and Agent Purple with the Federal Court of Canada. On August 4, 2009, the case was rejected by the court, citing lack of evidence.
In 2007, the Canadian government announced that a research and fact-finding program initiated in 2005 had found the base was safe. A legislative commission in the State of Maine found in 2024 that the Canadian investigation was "incorrect, biased, and based upon, in some cases, incomplete data and poor study design—at times exacerbated by the rapid period in which these reports were required to be conducted and issued."
On February 17, 2011, the Toronto Star revealed that Agent Orange had been employed to clear extensive plots of Crown land in Northern Ontario. The Toronto Star reported that, "records from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s show forestry workers, often students and junior rangers, spent weeks at a time as human markers holding red, helium-filled balloons on fishing lines while low-flying planes sprayed toxic herbicides including an infamous chemical mixture known as Agent Orange on the brush and the boys below."
Guam
An analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around Andersen Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Agana. Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was stored or used on Guam. Several Guam veterans have collected evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.
South Korea
Agent Orange was used in South Korea in the late 1960s and in 1999, about 20,000 South Koreans filed two separated lawsuits against U.S. companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they filed an appeal. In January 2006, the South Korean Appeals Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. The ruling acknowledged that "the defendants failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendants had higher levels of dioxins than standard", and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a "causal relationship" between Agent Orange and a range of diseases, including several cancers. The judges failed to acknowledge "the relationship between the chemical and peripheral neuropathy, the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims".
In 2011, the United States local press KPHO-TV in Phoenix, Arizona, alleged that in 1978 that the United States Army had buried 250 55-gallon drums () of Agent Orange in Camp Carroll, the U.S. Army base located in Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea.
Currently, veterans who provide evidence meeting VA requirements for service in Vietnam and who can medically establish that anytime after this 'presumptive exposure' they developed any medical problems on the list of presumptive diseases, may receive compensation from the VA. Certain veterans who served in South Korea and are able to prove they were assigned to certain specified around the Korean Demilitarized Zone, during a specific time frame are afforded similar presumption.
New Zealand
, New Zealand, 1968]]
The use of Agent Orange has been controversial in New Zealand, because of the exposure of New Zealand troops in Vietnam and because of the production of herbicide used in Agent Orange which has been alleged at various times to have been exported for use in the Vietnam War and to other users by the Ivon Watkins-Dow chemical plant in Paritutu, New Plymouth. What is fact is that from 1962 until 1987, 2,4,5T herbicide was manufactured at the Ivon Watkins-Dow plant for domestic use in New Zealand. It was widely used by farmers and in New Zealand agriculture as a weed killer. This fact was the basis of a 2005 New Zealand Media story that claimed that the herbicide had been allegedly exported to U.S. military bases in South East Asia. However the claim was not proven, a fact which the Media did not subsequently report. There have been continuing claims, as yet unproven, that the suburb of Paritutu has also been polluted. However, the agriscience company Corteva (which split from DowDupont in 2019) agreed to clean up the Paritutu site in September 2022.
Philippines
Herbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines.Johnston Atoll
circa 1973.]]
, circa 1976.]]
The U.S. Air Force operation to remove Herbicide Orange from Vietnam in 1972 was named Operation Pacer IVY, while the operation to destroy the Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1977 was named Operation Pacer HO. Operation Pacer IVY collected Agent Orange in South Vietnam and removed it in 1972 aboard the ship MV Transpacific for storage on Johnston Atoll. The EPA reports that of Herbicide Orange was stored at Johnston Island in the Pacific and at Gulfport, Mississippi.
Research and studies were initiated to find a safe method to destroy the materials, and it was discovered they could be incinerated safely under special conditions of temperature and dwell time.
As of 2004, some records of the storage and disposition of Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll have been associated with the historical records of Operation Red Hat.
Okinawa, Japan
There have been dozens of reports in the press about use and/or storage of military formulated herbicides on Okinawa that are based upon statements by former U.S. service members that had been stationed on the island, photographs, government records, and unearthed storage barrels. The U.S. Department of Defense has denied these allegations with statements by military officials and spokespersons, as well as a January 2013 report authored by Dr. Alvin Young that was released in April 2013.
included a statement confirming records of Agent Orange storage in Okinawa. The 2013 report states: "The authors of the [2003] report were not DoD employees, nor were they likely familiar with the issues surrounding Herbicide Orange or its actual history of transport to the Island." and detailed the transport phases and routes of Agent Orange from Vietnam to Johnston Atoll, none of which included Okinawa.]]
Further official confirmation of restricted (dioxin containing) herbicide storage on Okinawa appeared in a 1971 Fort Detrick report titled "Historical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program", which mentions that the environmental statement should consider "Herbicide stockpiles elsewhere in PACOM (Pacific Command) U.S. Government restricted materials Thailand and Okinawa (Kadena AFB)." The 2013 DoD report says that the environmental statement urged by the 1971 report was published in 1974 as "The Department of Air Force Final Environmental Statement", and that the latter did not find Agent Orange was held in either Thailand or Okinawa. Workers who uncovered the drums fell ill while upgrading the airport near Hua Hin District, 100 km south of Bangkok. Vietnam-era veterans whose service involved duty on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand anytime between February 28, 1961, and May 7, 1975, may have been exposed to herbicides and may qualify for VA benefits.
A declassified Department of Defense report written in 1973, suggests that there was a significant use of herbicides on the fenced-in perimeters of military bases in Thailand to remove foliage that provided cover for enemy forces.
In 1971, the C-123 aircraft used for spraying Agent Orange were returned to the United States and assigned various East Coast USAF Reserve squadrons, and then employed in traditional airlift missions between 1972 and 1982. In 1994, testing by the Air Force identified some former spray aircraft as "heavily contaminated" with dioxin residue. Inquiries by aircrew veterans in 2011 brought a decision by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs opining that not enough dioxin residue remained to injure these post-Vietnam War veterans. On 26 January 2012, the U.S. Center For Disease Control's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry challenged this with their finding that former spray aircraft were indeed contaminated and the aircrews exposed to harmful levels of dioxin. In response to veterans' concerns, the VA in February 2014 referred the C-123 issue to the Institute of Medicine for a special study, with results released on January 9, 2015.
Agent Orange was sprayed on thousands of acres of brush in the Tennessee Valley for 15 years before scientists discovered the herbicide was dangerous. Monroe County, Tennessee, is one of the locations known to have been sprayed according to the Tennessee Valley Authority. Forty-four remote acres were sprayed with Agent Orange along power lines throughout the National Forest.
In 1983, New Jersey declared a Passaic River production site to be a state of emergency. The dioxin pollution in the Passaic River dates back to the Vietnam era, when Diamond Alkali manufactured it in a factory along the river. The tidal river carried dioxin upstream and down, contaminating a stretch of riverbed in one of New Jersey's most populous areas.
A December 2006 Department of Defense report listed Agent Orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the United States, Canada, Thailand, Puerto Rico, Korea, and in the Pacific Ocean. The Veteran Administration has also acknowledged that Agent Orange was used domestically by U.S. forces in test sites throughout the United States. Eglin Air Force Base in Florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s.
Cleanup programs
In February 2012, Monsanto agreed to settle a case covering dioxin contamination around a plant in Nitro, West Virginia, that had manufactured Agent Orange. Monsanto agreed to pay up to $9 million for cleanup of affected homes, $84 million for medical monitoring of people affected, and the community's legal fees.
On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time the U.S. government has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. Danang was the primary storage site of the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai is a hotspot for dioxin and so is Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to the Vietnamese newspaper Nhân Dân, the U.S. government provided $41 million to the project. As of 2017, some of soil have been cleaned.
The Naval Construction Battalion Center at Gulfport, Mississippi was the largest storage site in the United States for Agent Orange.
In 2016, the EPA laid out its plan for cleaning up an stretch of the Passaic River in New Jersey, with an estimated cost of $1.4 billion. The contaminants reached to Newark Bay and other waterways, according to the EPA, which has designated the area a Superfund site.
See also
* Environmental impact of war
* Orange Crush (song)
* Rainbow herbicides
* Scorched earth
* Teratology
* Vietnam Syndrome
References
Citations
General and cited references
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* NTP (National Toxicology Program); [https://web.archive.org/web/20100528114626/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/files/521_Web.pdf "Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Female Harlan Sprague-Dawley Rats (Gavage Studies)"], CASRN 1746–01–6, April 2006.
*
*
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* – both of Young's books [https://books.google.com/books?id1iCHpk2fZksC were commissioned] by the U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment)
Further reading
Books
* see pages 245–252.
* with a foreword by Howard Zinn.
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Government/NGO reports
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/congress/tran-thi-hoan-testimony-7-15-10.pdf "Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Ms. Tran Thi Hoan"], Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/congress/testimony-dr-phuong-house-2010.pdf "Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Dr. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong"], Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929054634/http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1363 Agent Orange Policy], American Public Health Association, 2007
* [https://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/en/exe-sum-final.pdf "Assessment of the health risk of dioxins"], World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130222170309/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1983/Jul-Aug/buckingham.html Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia] History of Operation Ranch Hand, 1983
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111023070436/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADW139.pdf "Agent Orange Dioxin Contamination in the Environment and Food Chain at Key Hotspots in Viet Nam"] Boivin, TG, et al., 2011
* News
* Fawthrop, Tom; [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/feb/10/agentofsuffering Agent of suffering], Guardian, February 10, 2008
* Cox, Paul; [http://www.vvaw.org/veteran/article/?id=949 "The Legacy of Agent Orange is a Continuing Focus of VVAW"], The Veteran, Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Volume 38, Number 2, Fall 2008.
* Barlett, Donald P. and Steele, James B.; [https://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2008/05/monsanto200805?currentPage=1 "Monsanto's Harvest of Fear"], Vanity Fair May 2008
* Quick, Ben [http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/2862 "The Boneyard"] Orion Magazine, March/April 2008
* Cheng, Eva; [http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/35957 "Vietnam's Agent Orange victims call for solidarity"], Green Left Weekly, September 28, 2005
* [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-02/05/content_303315.htm Children and the Vietnam War 30–40 years after the use of Agent Orange]
* Tokar, Brian; [http://www.zcommunications.org/monsanto-a-checkered-history-by-brian-tokar "Monsanto: A Checkered History"], Z Magazine, March 1999
Video
* Agent Orange: The Last Battle. Dir. Stephanie Jobe, Adam Scholl. DVD. 2005
* [http://bellanova.it/MKP/AgenteNaranja.html HADES]. Dir. Caroline Delerue, screenplay by Mauro Bellanova, 2011
* Short film by James Nguyen.
* [https://www.vietnamthesecretagent.com Vietnam: The Secret Agent]. Dir. Jacki Ochs, 1984
Photojournalism
* [http://cnnphotos.blogs.cnn.com/2013/01/30/effects-of-agent-orange-ongoing-silently-in-children/ CNN]
* [http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/photo-gallery/2015/4/photos-in-vietnam-the-after-effects-of-agent-orange-persist.html Al Jazeera America]
External links
* [http://www.epa.gov/dioxin U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Dioxin Web site]
* [http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/ Agent Orange] Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards, U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs
* [http://www.birthdefects.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/2017-Vietnam-Veterans-004.pdf Report from the National Birth Defects Registry - Birth Defects in Vietnam Veterans' Children]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120915235915/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003673775 "An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll"]
Category:1961 introductions
Category:Aftermath of the Vietnam War
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Auxinic herbicides
Category:Canada and the Vietnam War
Category:Carcinogens
Category:Defoliants
Category:Dioxins
Category:Environmental controversies
Category:Environmental impact of war
Category:Environmental racism
Category:Imperial Chemical Industries
Category:Malayan Emergency
Category:Medical controversies
Category:Military equipment of the Vietnam War
Category:Monsanto
Category:Operation Ranch Hand
Category:Teratogens | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.247015 |
2551 | Astronomical year numbering | Astronomical year numbering is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).
The prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled ante Christum (BC), and immediately before years labeled post Christum (AD) on the mean motion pages in his Tabulæ Astronomicæ, thus adding the designation 0 to Kepler's Christi. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his Tables astronomiques, simply labeling this year 0, which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled avant Jesus-Christ (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled après Jesus-Christ (after Jesus Christ or AD).
Fred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time.
Signed years without the year zero
Although he used the usual French terms "avant J.-C." (before Jesus Christ) and "après J.-C." (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel (1890–1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.
Version 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes date and dateTime. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility.
See also
Julian day, another calendar commonly used by astronomers
Astronomical chronology
Holocene calendar
ISO 8601
References
Category:Calendar eras
Category:Chronology
Category:Specific calendars
Year numbering | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.258563 |
2552 | Adam of Bremen | thumb|A facsimile of Adam of Bremen's magnum opus.
Adam of Bremen (; ; before 1050 – 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church). He was "one of the foremost historians and early ethnographers of the medieval period".
In his chronicle, he included a chapter mentioning the Norse outpost of Vinland, and was thus the first European to write about the New World.
Life
Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen, then its own margravate. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085). From his chronicles, it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of Magister Adam shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the Magdeburger Domschule.
In 1066 or 1067, he was invited by Archbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the Bremen Cathedral's school.
References
Further reading
Chłopacka Hanna: Adam Bremeński. In: Słownik Starożytności Słowiańskich. Vol. 1. 1961, p. 3-4.
External links
Adamus Bremensis: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (Lat.)
Category:11th-century German historians
Category:11th-century writers in Latin
Category:11th-century births
Category:1080s deaths
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:Chroniclers from the Holy Roman Empire
Category:History of Bremen (city)
Category:History of Hamburg
Category:People from Meissen
Category:History of Uppsala | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_of_Bremen | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.265680 |
2553 | Ab urbe condita | of Pacatian, usurper of Roman emperor Philip in 248. It reads ROMAE AETER[NAE] AN[NO] MIL[LESIMO] ET PRIMO, 'To eternal Rome, in its one thousand and first year.']]
and with a decorated initial, from the medieval Chronicle of Saint Pantaleon]]
Ab urbe condita (; 'from the founding of the City'), or (; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to a given year in Ancient Rome. In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1 BC would be written AUC 753, whereas AD 1 would be AUC 754. The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC would be AUC 727. The current year AD would be AUC |753}}.
Usage of the term was more common during the Renaissance, when editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the false impression that the convention was commonly used in antiquity. In reality, the dominant method of identifying years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year. In late antiquity, regnal years were also in use, as in Roman Egypt during the Diocletian era after AD 293, and in the Byzantine Empire from AD 537, following a decree by Justinian.Use
Prior to the Roman state's adoption of the Varronian chronology – created by Titus Pomponius Atticus and Marcus Terentius Varro – there were many different dates posited for when the city was founded. This state of confusion required picking a canonical founding date for one to use an AUC date. The Varronian chronology, constructed from fragmentary sources and demonstrably about four years off of absolute events , placed the founding of the city on 21 April 753 BC. This date, likely arrived at by mechanical calculation but accepted with a variance of one year by the Augustan-era , has become the traditional date.
From the time of Claudius () onward, this calculation superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the anniversary of the city, in AD 47, the eight hundredth year from the founding of the city. Hadrian, in AD 121, and Antoninus Pius, in AD 147 and AD 148, held similar celebrations respectively.
In AD 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states "[y]ear one thousand and first", which is an indication that the citizens of the empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Sæculum Novum.
Calendar era
The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in , as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter. Dionysius did not use the AUC convention, but instead based his calculations on the Diocletian era. This convention had been in use since AD 293, the year of the tetrarchy, as it became impractical to use regnal years of the current emperor. In his Easter table, the year was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284 or, as stated by Dionysius: "sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare" ("but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ"). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1.
The year AD 1 corresponds to AUC 754, based on the epoch of Varro. Thus:
{| class=wikitable
|-
! colspan=2 | Year
! colspan1 rowspan2 | Event
|-
! AUC !! BC/AD
|-
| 1 || 753 BC || Foundation of the Kingdom of Rome
|-
| 244 || 510 BC || Overthrow of the Roman monarchy
|-
| 259 || 495 BC || Death in exile of King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
|-
| 490 || 264 BC || Punic Wars
|-
| 709 || 45 BC || First year of the Julian calendar
|-
| 710 || 44 BC || The assassination of Julius Caesar
|-
| 727 || 27 BC || Augustus became the first Roman emperor, starting the Principate
|-
| 753 || 1 BC || Astronomical Year 0
|-
| 754 || AD 1 || Approximate birth date of Jesus, approximated by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525 (AUC 1278)
|-
| 1000 || AD 247 || 1,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome
|-
| 1037 || AD 284 || Diocletian became Roman emperor, starting the Dominate
|-
| 1229 || AD 476 || Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the armies of Odoacer
|-
| 1246 || AD 493 || Establishment of the Ostrogothic Kingdom
|-
| 1306 || AD 553 || Italy under Eastern Roman control
|-
| 1507 || AD 754 || Foundation of the Papal States
|-
| 1553 || AD 800 || Creation of the Holy Roman Empire
|-
| 1824 || AD 1071 || Defeat of the Eastern Romans at the Battle of Manzikert
|-
| 1957 || AD 1204 || Sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders
|-
| 2000 || AD 1247 || 2,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome
|-
| 2206 || AD 1453 || Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire
|-
|2336
|AD 1582
|First year of the Gregorian calendar
|-
| 2559 || AD 1806 || Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
|-
| 2667-2671 || AD 1914-1918 || World War I
|-
| 2675 || AD 1922 || End of the Ottoman Sultanate
|-
| 2692-2698 || AD 1939-1945 || World War II
|-
| +753}} || AD || Last year
|-
| +753}} || AD || Current year
|-
| +753}} || AD || Next year
|-
|}
See also
* Calendar era
* History of Italy
* List of Latin phrases
* Roman calendar
References
External links
*
Category:1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Empire
Category:8th century BC in the Roman Kingdom
Category:Calendar eras
Category:Chronology
Category:Latin words and phrases
Category:Roman calendar
Category:Diocletian | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.275497 |
2559 | Arapaoa Island | | map_caption | nickname
| location = Marlborough Sounds
| archipelago | total_islands
| major_islands | area_km2 75
| length_km = 28
| width_km = 4
| highest_mount = Narawhia
| elevation_m = 559.4
| population = 50
| population_as_of | density_km2
| ethnic_groups | country New Zealand
| country_admin_divisions_title = Region
| country_admin_divisions = Marlborough District
| additional_info =
}}
Arapaoa Island (formerly spelled Arapawa Island) is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north-east tip of the South Island of New Zealand. The island has a land area of . Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route between Wellington in the North Island to Picton. Cook Strait's narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island's Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island.HistoryAccording to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.
It was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, and confirmed that what the indigenous people had told him was correct – Aotearoa is composed of two main islands. Cook is not known for naming places after himself, and it is speculated that Joseph Banks bestowed the name Cook Strait. This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis. A monument at Cook's Lookout was erected in 1970.
From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827, however initially could only salvage baleen until the station was equipped to process whale oil from 1830 onwards, targeting right whales. Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand). The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation. In the 2000s the former whalers from the Perano and Heberley families, who live on Arapawa, joined a Department of Conservation whale spotting programme to assess how the humpback whale population has recovered since the end of whaling.
An Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft struck the 11,000-volt power lines linking the island and the mainland over Tory Channel in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family died, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other family from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.
In August 2014, the spelling of the island's name was officially changed from Arapawa to Arapaoa.
Conservation
Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island. Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow. About at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.
Arapaoa Island is known for the breeds of domestic animals found only on the island – the Arapawa pig, Arapawa sheep and Arapawa goat. They became established in the 19th century, but the origin of the breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers. These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.
The small Brothers Islands, which lie off the northeast coast of Arapaoa Island, are a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara.
See also
* List of islands of New Zealand
References
Further reading
* Philp, Matt. 2011. [https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/the-sound-of-the-sea/ The Sound of the Sea.] New Zealand Geographic, 110.
* Heberley, Heather. 1996. Weather permitting. Whatamango Bay, N.Z. : Cape Catley.
* Heberley, Heather. 1997. Flood tide. Whatamango Bay, N.Z. : Cape Catley.
Category:Islands of the Marlborough Sounds
Category:Whaling stations in New Zealand
Category:Whaling in New Zealand
Category:Cook Strait Ferry
Category:Populated places in the Marlborough Sounds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaoa_Island | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.280792 |
2560 | Administrative law | }}
Administrative law is a division of law governing the activities of executive branch agencies of government. Administrative law includes executive branch rulemaking (executive branch rules are generally referred to as "regulations"), adjudication, and the enforcement of laws. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law.
Administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government that are part of the executive branch in such areas as international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration, and transport.
Administrative law expanded greatly during the 20th century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.
Civil law countries often have specialized administrative courts that review these decisions.
In the last fifty years, administrative law, in many countries of the civil law tradition, has opened itself to the influence of rules posed by supranational legal orders, in which judicial principles have strong importance: it has led, for one, to changes in some traditional concepts of the administrative law model, as has happened with the public procurements or with judicial control of administrative activity and, for another, has built a supranational or international public administration, as in the environmental sector or with reference to education, for which, within the United Nations' system, it has been possible to assist to a further increase of administrative structure devoted to coordinate the States' activity in that sector.
In civil law countries
Unlike most common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases that as a rule apply procedural rules that are specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.
Brazil
In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States). In 1998 a constitutional reform led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (Art. 37 of the Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.
Chile
In Chile, the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each ministry has one or more under-secretaries that act through public service to meet public needs. There is no single specialized court to deal with actions against the administrative entities, but there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.
China
Administrative law in China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy, and disciplinary committees for the Chinese Communist Party.
In 1989, China established its Administrative Litigation Law, which provides and avenue for people to challenge government action. In 2014, it was amended to lower the burdens on those challenging administrative actions.
Most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the ''Conseil d'État (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts. The main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives d'appel. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called "droit administratif''".
Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (jurisprudence constante) and legal doctrine ( and ), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include:
*Right to fair trial (droit à la défense), including for internal disciplinary bodies
*Right to challenge any administrative decision before an administrative court (droit au recours)
*Equal treatment of public service users (égalité devant le service public)
*Equal access to government employment (égalité d'accès à la fonction publique) without regard for political opinions
*Freedom of association (liberté d'association)
*Right to entrepreneurship (Liberté du Commerce et de l'industrie, lit. freedom of commerce and industry)
*Right to legal certainty (Droit à la sécurité juridique)
French administrative law, the basis of continental administrative law, has had a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.
Germany In Germany, administrative law () includes all law that specifically governs the legal relationships between public authorities and private persons, and that is not more precisely described as constitutional law. It sets out the tasks, aims and powers, as well as the organization and procedure, for all public authorities (). As a field of legal study, administrative law has been differentiated from other branches of public law since the late 19th century in Germany; the precise delimitations of "administration" as a concept, however, are in contention. Administrative law defines all aspects of public administration in the modern German state, whose legal culture emphasizes private persons' subjective rights (also, pursuant to art. 19 of the current German Constitution of 1949, such rights must be fully justiciable). The final say on the interpretation of the law lies with the courts of administrative jurisdiction (), and the law usually permits close judicial scrutiny of public authorities' exercise of discretion.
Constitutional context
Central legal principles of the Rechtsstaat (rule of law) that pervade administration ‒ mostly developed before the adoption of the modern 1949 Constitution, but strengthened and expanded after its advent by their new conceptual foundation ‒ include:
* The principle of the lawfulness of the executive (): administrative authorities are bound to act where a law (of parliament, or of delegated legislation) prescribes it, and to not violate any laws (artt. 1 and 20 of the Constitution). Where its actions may burden or comparatively disadvantage a person, they must rest on a grant of authority by the legislature: this concept is called the or , meaning that limiting interference with (fundamental) rights is a sphere of action that is reserved to statute.
* The principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of non-retroactivity.
* The principle of proportionality, which means that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate.
The vast majority of public administration in Germany is performed by its component federal entities (), which are responsible for the execution both of federal laws and their own laws (execution of the laws directly by authorities of the Federal Republic being the exceptional case, as established by artt. 83 et seqq. of the Constitution).
Scope of administrative law
German legal scholarship does not have an agreed-upon definition for public administration.
In one sense, administration – more precisely, everything that is subject to administrative law – is conceptualized as being all state activity of a certain type (material definition of public administration). This approach leads to disputes about whether to treat acts of public authority as acts of administration (and therefore executive) even when they are performed by component parts of the state (that is to say, the government) that the law formally classifies as a legislative or a judicial body: For instance, the parliament may impose a fine on one of its members for misbehavior, or a presiding judge may direct a disruptive member of the public to be removed from the viewing gallery.
The opposite approach – the formalist definition of public administration – begins its examination by considering all those public authorities intended (judging by their lawful charter, organizational context, internal structure, and performed tasks) to do the work of public administration, and equates their functioning with public administration. There is some danger of circular reasoning, since the formal categorization of the organizational unit may, in turn, derive from some material conception of its function. Some functions that might, in the material view, be seen as not of the executive type, and thus not as belonging to the field of administration (such as the creation of rules with the force of law, which are usually thought of as legislative), would then be held to the standards of administrative law, and not another field of law.
This discussion is of seen as being of particular importance when considering the role of administrative law in maintaining the division of government powers. For this purpose, a traditional approach tries negatively to define administration by subtracting those operations of the state which cannot be called administration, namely law-making and adjudication. Using this negative definition, though, requires law-making and adjudication to be defined first, and leaves some activities that are a poor fit for the term "administration", such as the cabinet government's political leadership decisions, within the bounds of the definition.
Positive definitions abound, but none has won out over the others, or been entirely convincing to scholars of German administrative law. Nevertheless, certain features may be seen as being characteristic of administration: According to Maurer and Waldhoff, administration is social engineering (exerting influence on the non-state, societal domain) (1), oriented towards some conception of the (ever-changing) public interest (2), that consists of taking action in the present, with a view to engineering the future (3), and that comprises concrete measures to regulate individual cases and to realize particular plans (4).
Scholarly treatises of German administrative law are almost always split into two parts: doctrines and rules that can be found across-the-board (); and doctrines and rules that exist only in certain parts of administrative law () – e.g. police law, urban planning law, or local government law. General administrative law Germany's principal piece of legislation concerning the legal forms and principles common to most fields), the VwVfG is supplanted by Volume X of the Social Law Code (, abbreviated SGB X), and other general rules for administration in this area may be found in parts of Volume I and IV; the Revenue Code (, abbreviated AO) also supersedes the VwVfG with respect to the procedures of the tax authorities.}} of its public administration is the Law on Administrative Procedure (, abbreviated VwVfG); before the enactment of this law in 1977, these rules had only been general principles developed in the scholarly literature and the courts. The VwVfG is not a full codification of the generally applicable ground rules of German administrative law, since it mostly only determines the procedure to be followed by public authorities in the fulfillment of their tasks, rather than mandating the substance of public administration. The VwVfG is a federal law that only applies to administration carried out by the German federal authorities. All 16 German have, however, enacted a Law on Administrative Procedure of their own that is nearly word-for-word identical with the federal VwVfG.
The standard form of administrative action is the (administrative ordinance). Pursuant to VwVfG § 35, an administrative ordinance exists where: a public authority (1) issues any decree, decision, or other official measure (2), in a matter of public law (3), with immediate legal effects outside the administration (4), to put in place a rule for an individual case (5).
Specialized administrative law
German legal scholarship traditionally organizes the body of German administration-related law into the following fields, each with its particular legal doctrines and written rules:
* the law governing preventative measures against hazards to common goods (or, if civil process cannot be timely availed to remedy the hazard, against individual goods), especially public safety and order ( or );
* environmental protection law (, including protection against emissions () and wildlife protection ());
* Urban and land use planning law ( and );
* the law regulating commerce and trades ().
Judicial application The law governing the adjudication of questions of administrative law before the courts of general administrative jurisdiction () is the Code on Administrative Courts (, abbreviated VwGO), which was enacted in 1960. Though the VwGO was not conceived as a full codification of court process for the courts of general administrative jurisdiction, and VwGO § 173 directs these courts to apply Germany's Code of Civil Procedure wherever the VwGO lacks special rules, proceedings before the courts of general administrative jurisdiction are mostly distinct from civil proceedings before the courts of general jurisdiction. The VwGO also does not apply to the courts of special administrative jurisdiction over tax disputes () or over social benefits disputes ().
Italy
In Italy, administrative law is known as , a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens.
Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law. Netherlands In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations. There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act ( or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe. It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. Another act about judicial procedures in general is the (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures.
On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision () made by an administrative agency () within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body that made it. This is called . This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of , a different system is used called (administrative appeal). The difference with is that is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (), after which the decision can be appealed in court.
Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, (for instance the Central Appeals Tribunal for social security or Trade and Industry Appeals Tribunal for social-economic administrative law.) but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).
Sweden
.]]
In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases and is completely separate from the system of general courts. This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts () as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal () as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden () as the third tier.
Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system of general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts () with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal ().
Taiwan (ROC)
In Taiwan the recently enacted Constitutional Procedure Act (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993), the Justices of the Constitutional Court of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation. As of 2019, this council has made 757 interpretations.
Turkey
In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.
Ukraine
Administrative law in Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.
In common law countries
Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to the review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.
While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal, the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.
The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality.
The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.
Australia
Canada
Singapore
United Kingdom
United States
, whose headquarters is shown above.]]
In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.
In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.
Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.
The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA.
At the state level, the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted. It incorporates basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a "model", and not a "uniform", act. A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states. Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981. The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act (MSAPA) which maintains the continuity with earlier ones. The reason for the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure.
The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the Administrative Law Review, a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.
Historical development
Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice from 1994 to 2022, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy (3d Ed., 1992):
* English antecedents & the American experience to 1875
* 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law
* 1930 – 1945: the New Deal
* 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law
* 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process
* 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation
Agriculture
The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.
See also
* Constitutionalism
* Rule of law
* Rechtsstaat
References
Literature
*
*
*
*
*
* <small>Please note that the year of publication given is inferred from the metadata; the report does not give its publication date.</small>
*
*
*
Cases
*
| litigants = New York v. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
| vol = 535
| reporter = U.S.
| opinion = 1
| pinpoint = 18
| court | date 2002
| url | quote
| postscript = .
}}
Further reading
*
*.
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citation footnotes
}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_law | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.298063 |
2563 | Arthur Phillip | | birth_place = Cheapside, London, England
| death_date
| death_place = Bath, Somerset, England
| allegiance =
| branch =
| rank = Admiral of the Blue
| battles =
* Seven Years' War
** Battle of Minorca
** Raid on St Malo
** Siege of Havana
* Spanish-Portuguese War
* American Revolutionary War
}}
Arthur Phillip (11 October 1738 – 31 August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales.
Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753. He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship Fortune. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War against France, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant to Michael Everitt aboard . With Everitt, Phillip also served on and . Phillip was promoted to lieutenant on 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763. Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, he served in the war against Spain. Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip, in command of , was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before he reached his destination. In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe.
In 1786, Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales. On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson – the site of Sydney, Australia, today. Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts. However, his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet's voyage had been rejected. Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply. Phillip wanted harmonious relations with the local indigenous peoples, in the belief that everyone in the colony was a British citizen and was protected by the law as such, therefore the indigenous peoples had the same rights as everyone under Phillip's command. Eventually, cultural differences between the two groups of people led to conflict. The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources. By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place.
On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones. He had planned to return to Australia, but medical advisors recommended he resign from the governorship. His health recovered and he returned to active duty in the Navy in 1796, holding a number of commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles. He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805. He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814. As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools.
Early life
Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London. He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman. His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.
There are no surviving records of Phillip's early childhood. His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income. Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel aged nine. On 22 June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In accordance with the school's curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography. His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was "unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes".
Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year. At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune, a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead. Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1 December, and spent the next few months aboard the Fortune, awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season.
Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes. A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his "smooth pear of a skull" as quoted by Robert Hughes.
Early maritime career
Whaling and merchant expeditions
In April 1754 Fortune headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice Phillip's responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce, and Fortunes 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird's eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year's whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July.Royal Navy and the Seven Years' War
Dockyard on the River Thames, c. 1751. Painting by John Cleveley the Elder. National Maritime Museum, London.]]
On 16 October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant aboard the 68-gun , commanded by his mother's cousin, Captain Michael Everitt. As a member of Buckinghams crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng's Mediterranean fleet. The Buckingham was Rear-Admiral Temple West's flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20 May 1756.
Phillip moved on 1 August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun , which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5–12 June 1758. Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28 December 1758 to the 64-gun , which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana. On 7 June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service. With the coming of peace on 25 April 1763, he was retired on half-pay.Retirement and the Portuguese NavyIn July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison (), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. Margaret Phillip died in August 1792 and is buried at Llanycil, Bala, North Wales with her companion, Mrs Cane. The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard , a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.
In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, Nossa Senhora do Pilar. On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship San Agustín, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the Santo Agostinho, under Phillip's command. The action was reported in the English press:
<blockquote>
Madrid, 28 Aug. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.
</blockquote>
Recommissioned into Royal Navy
... he is very clean-handed; is an officer of great truth and very brave; and is no flatterer, saying what he thinks but without temper or want of respect.|sourceCorrespondence of Luís, 2nd Marquis Lavradio, Viceroy of Brazil, 1778.}}
In 1778, with Britain again at war, Phillip was recalled to Royal Navy service and on 9 October was appointed first lieutenant of the 74-gun as part of the Channel fleet. Promoted to commander on 2 September 1779 and given command of the 8-gun fireship HMS Basilisk. With Spain's entry into the conflict, Phillip had a series of private meetings with the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich, sharing his charts and knowledge about the South American coastlines.
Phillip was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun . Ariadne was sent to the Elbe to escort a transport ship carrying a detachment of Hanoverian troops, arriving at the port of Cuxhaven on 28 December, the estuary froze over trapping Ariadne in the harbour. In March 1782, Phillip arrived in England with the Hanoverian troops. In the following months Ariadne got a new lieutenant, Philip Gidley King, whom Phillip took under his wing. Ariadne was used to patrol the Channel where on 30 June, she captured the French frigate Le Robecq.
With a change of government on 27 March 1782, Sandwich retired from the Admiralty, Lord Germain was replaced as Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs by Earl of Shelburne, before 10 July 1782, in another change of government Thomas Townshend replaced him, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like Sandwich and Germain, he turned to Phillip for planning advice. The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy's East India squadron for an attack on Manila. On 27 December 1782, Phillip, took charge of the 64-gun . The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun , the 74-gun , Europa, and the 32-gun frigate , sailed on 16 January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Shortly after the ships' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.Survey work in EuropeAfter his return to England in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France, and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.
Colonial service
Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales. Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Under Banks' guidance, Matra rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia. This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion.
In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet. His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay. Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island's native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes.
Voyage to Colony of New South Wales
On 25 October 1786, the 20-gun , lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip. The armed tender HMAT Supply (also known as ), under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition. On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to Sirius to command in the absence of Phillip, who as governor of the colony, would be where the seat of government was to be fixed.
The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip's command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787; provided an escort out of British waters. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month to resupply. The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay. On 25 November, Phillip transferred from the Sirius to the faster Supply, and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet. However, this "flying squadron", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. Supply reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20 January.
, Australia in 1788]]
Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source. Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip's differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, "custodian of over a thousand convicts" for whom he was responsible. After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7 February 1788 in Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: "being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security."Establishing a settlement
, 1937.]]
On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George III. The next day, sailors from Sirius, a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents. The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days. Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp. His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west. During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement's provisions. On 29 January, the governor's portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day. The female convicts disembarked on 6 February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor's house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins. On 7 February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated.
On 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of 23, including 15 convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony.
Governor of New South Wales
When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent. Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately.
Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the Alexander, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables' possessions.
Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: "The laws of this country [England] will of course, be introduced in [New] South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves." Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences. The settlement's supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males' rations. In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies. They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day. Phillip gave the rest a reprieve. They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water.
The governor also expanded the settlement's knowledge of the landscape. Two officers from Sirius, Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove. Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay.
The fleet's ships left over the next months, with Sirius and Supply remaining in the colony under command of the governor. They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways. Scurvy broke out, so Sirius left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies. The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony.
]]
As an experienced farmhand, Phillip's appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better. James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791. When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony's first land grant.
In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but , carrying more supplies, was disabled en route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again. Supply, the only ship left under colonial command after Sirius was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies. The colony's isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London.
In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps. On 11 December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the Atlantic, which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet. Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23 July 1793.
Military personnel in colony
The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps. As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition. Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen.
Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO's, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship's Complement of Marines aboard Sirius and Supply, bringing the total to 246 who departed England.
Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor's actions to the Home Office. Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities. Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect. In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there.
Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps. On 18 December 1791, Gorgon left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines. There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip's aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps. Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers. The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, with Governor Phillip on Atlantic.
Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain.
Relations with indigenous peoples
Phillip's official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to "conciliate their affections", to "live in amity and kindness with them", and to punish anyone who should "wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations". The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay. When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do. Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished.
After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement. Part of Phillip's early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora's language, beliefs, and customs.
By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors. The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs. Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population. Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained. Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped.
Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly. Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way. Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering. He ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it. Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family.
Even though there were now friendly relations with the Indigenous people around Sydney Cove, the same couldn't be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists. Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, "to put to death ten... [and] cut off the heads of the slain... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief". Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended.
On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the Atlantic.Later life and deathPhillip's estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Parish Church, in the Church of England on 8 May 1794.
His health recovered, he was recommissioned in March 1796 to the 74-gun as part of the Channel fleet. In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun . In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun , command of which he held until December of that year. During 1798–99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts.
In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801. Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814.
Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed. He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath. He was buried nearby at St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton. His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location. An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip's birthdate by the Britain–Australia Society.
In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson alleged that Phillip's remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: "Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies."
Legacy
, near Bath, England. The memorial to the first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, is on the right hand wall]]
]]
A number of places in Australia bear Phillip's name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, and St Phillip's Church, Sydney.
A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow. There is a memorial fountain honouring him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney. There is a 1786 portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London, and another by the same painter painted in 1787 in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his Dictionary of Australian Biography:
}}
200th anniversary
As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: "This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton." A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014. A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney, and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.
In popular culture
Phillip has been played by a number of actors in movies and television programs, including:
*Sir Cedric Hardwicke in Botany Bay (1953)
*Edward Hepple in The Hungry Ones (1963)
*Wynn Roberts in Prelude to Harvest (1963)
*Peter Collingwood in The Timeless Land (1980)
*Sam Neill in The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant (2005)
*David Wenham in Banished (2015)
He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play ''Our Country's Good, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of The Recruiting Officer. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers.
His life was the focus of I'll Meet You in Botany Bay, a 1945 radio play. See also
* Historical Records of Australia''
* Journals of the First Fleet
* History of smallpox in Australia
References
Citations
Sources
*
* Governor Phillip 17831789|urlhttp://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks12/1204171h.html|publisherCharles Potter, Government Printer|date1889|isbn978-0-908094-63-9|via=Project Gutenberg Australia}}
*
* Phillip and Grose 17891794|lastBritton|firstAlexander|year1894|urlhttps://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks12/1204371h.html|publisherCharles Potter, Government Printer|viaProject Gutenberg Australia|isbn978-93-5415-443-0}}
* |date1 April 1815 |urlhttp://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/629090 |access-date11 August 2007}}
*
*
*
* |titleRuse, James (1759–1837) |chapterJames Ruse (1759–1837) |publisherAustralian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/ruse-james-2616 |access-date=10 October 2021}}
* |titlePhillip, Arthur (1738–1814)|chapterArthur Phillip (1738–1814) |access-date=18 October 2021}}
* New Perspectives on Arthur Phillip, First Governor of New South Wales|publisherUTS ePRESS|journalSydney Journal|issue1|volume5|pages3–19|doi10.5130/sj.v5i1.5724|doi-access=free}}
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* |collection19: Letter from Arthur Phillip to the Marquis of Lansdowne, 3 July 1788|institutionMitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales|item-urlhttps://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110320991 |item-idSAFE/MLMSS 7241 (Safe 1/234)|firstArthur|lastPhillip|itemDigitised Letter}}
*
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* |title Botany Bay|quote=Mr. Philip, who has this command, has the aid of experience. He had a similar expedition entrusted him by PORTUGUL, to carry convicts to South America.}}
* |titleMonday's Post}}
* }}
* |access-date31 August 2014}}
* | publisher Project Gutenberg | access-date 2 October 2021}}
* |access-date19 October 2021}}
* |access-date=29 April 2022}}
* |access-date=29 April 2022}}
* |date2017|urlhttp://www.discoversydney.com.au/sydney/history.html|websiteDiscoversydney.com.au|access-date20 October 2021}}
* |access-date1 July 2015 |archive-date22 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201022093716/http://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/colonial_case_law/nsw/cases/case_index/1788/cable_v_sinclair/ |url-statusdead }}
* |access-date26 September 2012}}
* |websiteSpanglefish.com|access-date=11 July 2019}}
* |titleLost the plot – story transcript |urlhttp://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id262243&_cobroptus |website60 Minutes |publisherNinemsn |access-date25 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080130050212/http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id262243&_cobroptus |archive-date30 January 2008 |date=22 April 2007}}
Further reading
*
External links
*
*
* [http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020292b.htm B. H. Fletcher, "Phillip, Arthur (1738–1814)"], Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333.
Category:Governors of New South Wales
Category:Australian city founders
Category:National founders
Category:Royal Navy admirals
Category:1738 births
Category:1814 deaths
Category:Australian penal colony administrators
Category:Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War
Category:Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Category:People from the City of London
Category:English people of German descent
Category:Port Phillip
Category:18th-century Australian people
Category:People educated at the Royal Hospital School
Category:Colony of New South Wales people
Category:Sea captains
Category:Military personnel from the City of Westminster
Category:First Fleet
Category:People from Marylebone
Category:British people in whaling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Phillip | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.340392 |
2564 | April 10 | Events
Pre-1600
* 428 – Nestorius becomes the Patriarch of Constantinople.
* 837 – Halley's Comet makes its closest approach to Earth at a distance equal to 0.0342 AU (5.1 million kilometres/3.2 million miles).
*1407 – Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama visits the Ming dynasty capital at Nanjing and is awarded the title "Great Treasure Prince of Dharma".
*1500 – Ludovico Sforza is captured by Swiss troops at Novara and is handed over to the French.
*1545 – The settlement of Villa Imperial de Carlos V (now the city of Potosí) in Bolivia is founded after the discovery of huge silver deposits in the area.1601–1900
*1606 – The Virginia Company of London is established by royal charter by James I of England with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America.
*1710 – The Statute of Anne, the first law regulating copyright, comes into force in Great Britain.
*1717 – Robert Walpole resigns from the British government, commencing the Whig Split which lasts until 1720.
*1724 – Bach leads the first performance of his cantata Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen, BWV 66, his first cantata composed for Easter in Leipzig.
*1741 – War of the Austrian Succession: Prussia gains control of Silesia at the Battle of Mollwitz.
*1809 – Napoleonic Wars: The War of the Fifth Coalition begins when forces of the Austrian Empire invade Bavaria.
*1815 – The Mount Tambora volcano begins a three-month-long eruption, lasting until July 15. The eruption ultimately kills 71,000 people and affects Earth's climate for the next two years.
*1816 – The Federal government of the United States approves the creation of the Second Bank of the United States.
*1821 – Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople is hanged by the Ottoman government from the main gate of the Patriarchate and his body is thrown into the Bosphorus.
* 1821 – Greek War of Independence: the island of Psara joins the Greek struggle for independence.
*1826 – The 10,500 inhabitants of the Greek town of Missolonghi begin leaving the town after a year's siege by Turkish forces. Very few of them survive.
*1858 – After the original Big Ben, a bell for the Palace of Westminster, had cracked during testing, it is recast into the current bell by Whitechapel Bell Foundry.
*1864 – Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg is proclaimed emperor of Mexico during the French intervention in Mexico.
*1865 – American Civil War: A day after his surrender to Union forces, Confederate General Robert E. Lee addresses his troops for the last time.
*1866 – The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh.
*1900 – British suffer a sharp defeat by the Boers south of Brandfort. 600 British troops are killed and wounded and 800 taken prisoner.
1901–present
*1912 – RMS Titanic sets sail from Southampton, England on her maiden and only voyage.
*1916 – The Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA) is created in New York City.
*1919 – Mexican Revolution leader Emiliano Zapata is ambushed and shot dead by government forces in Morelos.
* 1919 – The Third Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents is held by the Makhnovshchina at Huliaipole.
*1925 – The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is first published in New York City, by Charles Scribner's Sons.
*1938 – The 1938 German parliamentary election and referendum seeks approval for a single list of Nazi candidates and the recent annexation of Austria.
*1939 – Alcoholics Anonymous, A.A.'s "Big Book", is first published.
*1941 – World War II: The Axis powers establish the Independent State of Croatia.
*1944 – Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler escape from Birkenau death camp.
*1963 – One hundred twenty-nine American sailors die when the submarine sinks at sea.
*1968 – The TEV Wahine, a New Zealand ferry sinks in Wellington harbour due to a fierce storm – the strongest winds ever in Wellington. Out of the 734 people on board, fifty-three died.
*1970 – Paul McCartney announces that he is leaving The Beatles for personal and professional reasons.
*2009 – President of Fiji Ratu Josefa Iloilo announces the abrogation of the constitution and assumes all governance in the country, creating a constitutional crisis.
*2010 – Polish Air Force Tu-154M crashes near Smolensk, Russia, killing 96 people, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and dozens of other senior officials and dignitaries.
*2016 – The Paravur temple accident in which a devastating fire caused by the explosion of firecrackers stored for Vishu, kills more than one hundred people out of the thousands gathered for seventh day of Bhadrakali worship.
* 2016 – An earthquake of 6.6 magnitude strikes 39 km west-southwest of Ashkasham, impacting India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Srinagar and Pakistan.
*2019 – Scientists from the Event Horizon Telescope project announce the first ever image of a black hole, which was located in the centre of the M87 galaxy.
*2023 – A mass shooting occurs at the Old National Bank in Louisville, Kentucky that leaves five victims dead and eight wounded.Births<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->Pre-1600
* 401 – Theodosius II, Roman emperor (d. 450)
*1018 – Nizam al-Mulk, Persian scholar and vizier (d. 1092)
*1472 – Margaret of York, English princess (d. 1472)
*1480 – Philibert II, duke of Savoy (d. 1504)
*1487 – William I, count of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1559)
*1512 – James V, king of Scotland (d. 1542)
*1579 – Augustus II, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1666)
*1583 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher and jurist (d. 1645)
*1877 – Alfred Kubin, Austrian author and illustrator (d. 1959)
*1879 – Coenraad Hiebendaal, Dutch rower and physician (d. 1921)
*1880 – Frances Perkins, American sociologist, academic, and politician, United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1965)
* 1903 – Clare Turlay Newberry, American author and illustrator (d. 1970)
*1906 – Steve Anderson, American hurdler (d. 1988)
*1910 – Margaret Clapp, American scholar and academic (d. 1974)
* 1910 – Helenio Herrera, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1997)
* 1910 – Paul Sweezy, American economist and publisher, founded the Monthly Review (d. 2004)
*1911 – Martin Denny, American pianist and composer (d. 2005)
* 1911 – Maurice Schumann, French journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign and European Affairs for France (d. 1998)
*1912 – Boris Kidrič, Austrian-Slovenian politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovenia (d. 1953)
*1913 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (d. 2001)
*1914 – Jack Badcock, Australian cricketer (d. 1982)
*1915 – Harry Morgan, American actor and director (d. 2011)
* 1915 – Leo Vroman, Dutch-American hematologist, poet, and illustrator (d. 2014)
*1916 – Lee Jung-seob, Korean painter (d. 1956)
*1917 – Jagjit Singh Lyallpuri, Indian politician (d. 2013)
* 1917 – Robert Burns Woodward, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
*1919 – John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (d. 2014)
*1921 – Chuck Connors, American baseball player and actor (d. 1992)
* 1923 – John Watkins, South African cricketer (d. 2021)
*1924 – Kenneth Noland, American soldier and painter (d. 2010)
*1925 – Angelo Poffo, American wrestler and promoter (d. 2010)
*1926 – Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (d. 2014)
* 1926 – Junior Samples, American comedian (d. 1983)
*1927 – Norma Candal, Puerto Rican actress (d. 2006)
* 1927 – Marshall Warren Nirenberg, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010)
*1929 – Mike Hawthorn, English race car driver (d. 1959)
* 1929 – Liz Sheridan, American actress (d. 2022)
* 1929 – Max von Sydow, Swedish-French actor (d. 2020)
*1930 – Claude Bolling, French pianist, composer, and actor (d. 2020)
* 1930 – Dolores Huerta, American activist, co-founded the United Farm Workers
*1931 – Kishori Amonkar, Indian classical vocalist (d. 2017)
*1932 – Delphine Seyrig, Swiss/Alsatian French actress (d. 1990)
* 1932 – Omar Sharif, Egyptian actor and screenwriter (d. 2015)
*1933 – Rokusuke Ei, Japanese composer and author (d. 2016)
* 1933 – Helen McElhone, Scottish politician (d. 2013)
*1934 – David Halberstam, American journalist and author (d. 2007)
*1935 – Patrick Garland, English actor and director (d. 2013)
* 1935 – Peter Hollingworth, Australian bishop, 23rd Governor General of Australia
* 1935 – Christos Yannaras, Greek philosopher, theologian and author (d. 2024)
*1936 – John A. Bennett, American soldier (d. 1961)
* 1936 – David A. Hardy, British artist
* 1936 – John Howell, English long jumper
* 1936 – John Madden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021)
* 1936 – Bobby Smith, American singer (d. 2013)
*1937 – Bella Akhmadulina, Soviet and Russian poet, short story writer, and translator (d. 2010)
*1938 – Don Meredith, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2010)
*1939 – Claudio Magris, Italian scholar, author, and translator
*1940 – Gloria Hunniford, British radio and television host
*1941 – Chrysostomos II of Cyprus, (d. 2022)
* 1941 – Harold Long, Canadian politician (d. 2013)
* 1941 – Paul Theroux, American novelist, short story writer, and travel writer
*1949 – Daniel Mangeas, French banker and sportscaster
* 1949 – Eric Troyer, American singer-songwriter, keyboardist and guitarist
*1950 – Ken Griffey, Sr., American baseball player and manager
* 1950 – Eddie Hazel, American guitarist (d. 1992)
*1951 – David Helvarg, American journalist and activist
*1952 – Narayan Rane, Indian politician, 16th Chief Minister of Maharashtra
* 1952 – Masashi Sada, Japanese singer, lyricist, composer, novelist, actor, and producer
* 1952 – Steven Seagal, American actor, producer, and martial artist
*1953 – David Moorcroft, English runner and businessman
* 1953 – Pamela Wallin, Swedish-Canadian journalist, academic, and politician
*1954 – Paul Bearer, American wrestler and manager (d. 2013)
* 1954 – Anne Lamott, American author and educator
* 1954 – Peter MacNicol, American actor
* 1955 – Lesley Garrett, English soprano and actress
* 1955 – Mike Rinder, Australian-American former Scientologist, critic (d. 2025)
*1956 – Carol V. Robinson, English chemist and academic
*1957 – Aliko Dangote, Nigerian businessman, founded Dangote Group
* 1957 – John M. Ford, American author and poet (d. 2006)
* 1957 – Steve Gustafson, Spanish-American bass player
* 1957 – Rosemary Hill, English historian and author
*1958 – Bob Bell, Northern Irish engineer
* 1958 – Yefim Bronfman, Uzbek-American pianist
* 1958 – Brigitte Holzapfel, German high jumper
*1959 – Babyface, American singer-songwriter and producer
* 1959 – Yvan Loubier, Canadian economist and politician
* 1959 – Brian Setzer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1960 – Steve Bisciotti, American businessman, co-founded Allegis Group
* 1960 – Katrina Leskanich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1960 – Terry Teagle, American basketball player
*1961 – Nicky Campbell, Scottish broadcaster and journalist
* 1961 – Carole Goble, English computer scientist and academic
* 1961 – Mark Jones, American basketball player
*1962 – Steve Tasker, American football player and sportscaster
*1963 – Warren DeMartini, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1963 – Jeff Gray, American baseball player and coach
* 1963 – Doris Leuthard, Swiss lawyer and politician, 162nd President of the Swiss Confederation
*1965 – Tim Alexander, American drummer and songwriter
* 1965 – Anna-Leena Härkönen, Finnish author
* 1966 – Brad William Henke, American football player and actor (d. 2022)
*1966 – Steve Claridge, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster
*1967 – Donald Dufresne, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1967 – David Rovics, American singer-songwriter
*1968 – Metin Göktepe, Turkish photographer and journalist (d. 1996)
* 1968 – Orlando Jones, American actor, producer, and screenwriter
*1969 – Steve Glasson, Australian lawn bowler
* 1969 – Ekaterini Koffa, Greek sprinter
*1970 – Enrico Ciccone, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1970 – Leonard Doroftei, Romanian-Canadian boxer
* 1970 – Kenny Lattimore, American singer-songwriter
* 1970 – Q-Tip, American rapper, producer, and actor
* 1971 – Indro Olumets, Estonian footballer and coach
* 1971 – Al Reyes, Dominican-American baseball player
*1972 – Ian Harvey, Australian cricketer
* 1972 – Priit Kasesalu, Estonian computer programmer, co-created Skype
* 1972 – Gordon Buchanan, Scottish film maker
*1973 – Guillaume Canet, French actor and director
* 1973 – Roberto Carlos, Brazilian footballer and manager
* 1973 – Aidan Moffat, Scottish singer-songwriter
* 1973 – Christopher Simmons, Canadian-American graphic designer, author, and academic
*1974 – Eric Greitens, American soldier, author and politician
* 1974 – Petros Passalis, Greek footballer
*1975 – Chris Carrabba, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1975 – Terrence Lewis, Indian dancer and choreographer
* 1975 – David Harbour, American actor
*1976 – Clare Buckfield, English actress
* 1976 – Yoshino Kimura, Japanese actress and singer
* 1976 – Sara Renner, Canadian skier
*1977 – Stephanie Sheh, Taiwanese-American voice actress, director, and producer
*1978 – Sir Christus, Finnish guitarist (d. 2017)
*1979 – Iván Alonso, Uruguayan footballer
* 1979 – Kenyon Coleman, American football player
* 1979 – Rachel Corrie, American author and activist (d. 2003)
* 1979 – Tsuyoshi Domoto, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor
* 1979 – Sophie Ellis-Bextor, English singer-songwriter
* 1979 – Pavlos Fyssas, Greek rapper (d. 2013)
* 1979 – Peter Kopteff, Finnish footballer
*1980 – Sean Avery, Canadian ice hockey player and model
* 1980 – Charlie Hunnam, English actor
* 1980 – Shao Jiayi, Chinese footballer
* 1980 – Kasey Kahne, American race car driver
* 1980 – Andy Ram, Israeli tennis player
* 1980 – Bryce Soderberg, American singer-songwriter and bass player
*1981 – Laura Bell Bundy, American actress and singer
* 1981 – Liz McClarnon, English singer and dancer
* 1981 – Michael Pitt, American actor, model and musician
* 1987 – Shay Mitchell, Canadian actress and model
* 1987 – Hayley Westenra, New Zealand soprano
*1988 – Chris Heston, American baseball pitcher
* 1988 – Kareem Jackson, American football player
* 1988 – Haley Joel Osment, American actor
*1990 – Ben Amos, English footballer
* 1990 – Andile Jali, South African footballer
* 1990 – Ricky Leutele, Australian-Samoan rugby league player
* 1990 – Maren Morris, American singer
* 1990 – Alex Pettyfer, English actor
*1991 – AJ Michalka, American actress and singer
*1992 – Jack Buchanan, Australian rugby league player
* 1992 – Sadio Mané, Senegalese footballer
* 1992 – Chaz Mostert, Australian racing driver
* 1992 – Daisy Ridley, English actress
*1995 – Ian Nelson, American actor
*1996 – Thanasi Kokkinakis, Australian tennis player
* 1996 – Audrey Whitby, American actress
*1997 – Claire Wineland, American activist and author (d. 2018)
*1998 – Anna Pogorilaya, Russian figure skater
*2000 – Fidias Panayiotou, Cypriot internet celebrity and politician
*2001 – Ky Baldwin, Australian singer and actor
* 2001 – Noa Kirel, Israeli singer
<!--No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 879 – Louis the Stammerer, king of West Francia (b. 846)
* 943 – Landulf I, prince of Benevento and Capua
* 948 – Hugh of Arles, king of Italy
*1008 – Notker of Liège, French bishop (b. 940)
*1216 – Eric X, king of Sweden (b. 1180)
*1282 – Ahmad Fanakati, chief minister under Kublai Khan
*1309 – Elisabeth von Rapperswil, Swiss countess (b. 1261)
*1362 – Maud, English noblewoman (b. 1339)
*1500 – Michael Tarchaniota Marullus, Greek scholar and poet
*1533 – Frederick I, king of Denmark and Norway (b. 1471)
*1545 – Costanzo Festa, Italian composer
*1585 – Gregory XIII, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1502)
*1598 – Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (b. 1548)
*1599 – Gabrielle d'Estrées, French mistress of Henry IV of France (b. 1571)
1601–1900
*1601 – Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish soldier and poet (b. 1562)
*1619 – Thomas Jones, English-Irish archbishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b. 1550)
*1640 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1578)
*1644 – William Brewster, English official and pilgrim leader (b. 1566)
*1646 – Santino Solari, Swiss architect and sculptor (b. 1576)
*1667 – Jan Marek Marci, Czech physician and author (b. 1595)
*1704 – Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, German cardinal (b. 1629)
*1756 – Giacomo Antonio Perti, Italian composer (b. 1661)
*1760 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian and author (b. 1687)
*1786 – John Byron, English admiral and politician, 24th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1723)
*1806 – Horatio Gates, English-American general (b. 1727)
*1813 – Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1736)
*1821 – Gregory V of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (b. 1746)
*1823 – Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Austrian philosopher and academic (b. 1757)
*1871 – Lucio Norberto Mansilla, Argentinian general and politician (b. 1789)
*1889 – William Crichton, Scottish engineer and shipbuilder (b. 1827)
1901–present
*1909 – Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic (b. 1837)
*1919 – Emiliano Zapata, Mexican general (b. 1879)
*1920 – Moritz Cantor, German mathematician and historian (b. 1829)
*1931 – Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American poet, painter, and philosopher (b. 1883)
*1935 – Rosa Campbell Praed, Australian novelist (b. 1851)
*1938 – King Oliver, American cornet player and bandleader (b. 1885)
*1942 – Carl Schenstrøm, Danish actor and director (b. 1881)
*1943 – Andreas Faehlmann, Estonian-German sailor and engineer (b. 1898)
*1945 – Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer and typographer (b. 1882)
*1947 – Charles Nordhoff, English-American lieutenant and author (b. 1887)
*1950 – Fevzi Çakmak, Turkish field marshal and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1876)
*1954 – Auguste Lumière, French director and producer (b. 1862)
* 1954 – Oscar Mathisen, Norwegian speed skater (b. 1888)
*1955 – Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, French priest, theologian, and philosopher (b. 1881)
*1958 – Chuck Willis, American singer-songwriter (b. 1928)
*1960 – André Berthomieu, French director and screenwriter (b. 1903)
*1962 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1886)
* 1962 – Stuart Sutcliffe, Scottish artist and musician (b. 1940)
*1965 – Lloyd Casner, American race car driver, founded Casner Motor Racing Division (b. 1928)
* 1965 – Linda Darnell, American actress (b. 1923)
*1966 – Evelyn Waugh, English soldier, novelist, journalist and critic (b. 1903)
*1968 – Gustavs Celmiņš, Latvian lieutenant and politician (b. 1899)
*1969 – Harley Earl, American businessman (b. 1893)
*1975 – Walker Evans, American photographer (b. 1903)
* 1975 – Marjorie Main, American actress (b. 1890)
*1978 – Hjalmar Mäe, Estonian politician (b. 1901)
*1979 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1911)
*1980 – Kay Medford, American actress and singer (b. 1919)
*1981 – Howard Thurman, American author, philosopher and civil rights activist (b. 1899)
*1983 – Issam Sartawi, Palestinian activist (b. 1935)
*1985 – Zisis Verros, Greek chieftain of the Macedonian Struggle (b. 1880)
*1986 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (b. 1948)
*1988 – Ezekias Papaioannou, Greek Cypriot politician (b. 1908)
*1991 – Kevin Peter Hall, American actor (b. 1955)
* 1991 – Martin Hannett, English guitarist and producer (b. 1948)
* 1991 – Natalie Schafer, American actress (b. 1900)
*1992 – Sam Kinison, American comedian and actor (b. 1953)
*1993 – Chris Hani, South African activist and politician (b. 1942)
*1994 – Sam B. Hall, Jr., American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1924)
*1995 – Morarji Desai, Indian politician, 4th Prime Minister of India (b. 1896)
*1997 – Michael Dorris, American author and academic (b. 1945)
* 1998 – Seraphim of Athens, Greek archbishop (b. 1913)
*1999 – Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, German-American biochemist and physician (b. 1910)
* 1999 – Jean Vander Pyl, American actress and voice artist (b. 1919)
*2000 – Peter Jones, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1920)
* 2000 – Larry Linville, American actor (b. 1939)
*2003 – Little Eva, American singer (b. 1943)
*2004 – Jacek Kaczmarski, Polish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and poet (b. 1957)
* 2004 – Sakıp Sabancı, Turkish businessman and philanthropist, founded Sabancı Holding (b. 1933)
*2005 – Norbert Brainin, Austrian violinist (b. 1923)
* 2005 – Scott Gottlieb, American drummer (b. 1970)
* 2005 – Archbishop Iakovos of America (b. 1911)
* 2005 – Al Lucas, American football player (b. 1978)
* 2005 – Wally Tax, Dutch singer-songwriter (b. 1948)
*2006 – Kleitos Kyrou, Greek poet and translator (b. 1921)
*2007 – Charles Philippe Leblond, French-Canadian biologist and academic (b. 1910)
* 2007 – Dakota Staton, American singer (b. 1930)
*2009 – Deborah Digges, American poet and educator (b. 1950)
* 2009 – Ioannis Patakis, Greek politician (b. 1940)
*2010 – Casualties in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash included:
** Ryszard Kaczorowski, Polish soldier and politician, 6th President of the Republic of Poland (b. 1919)
** Maria Kaczyńska, Polish economist, First Lady of Poland (b. 1942)
** Lech Kaczyński, Polish lawyer and politician, 4th President of Poland (b. 1949)
** Anna Walentynowicz, Ukrainian-Polish journalist and activist (b. 1929)
* 2010 – Dixie Carter, American actress and singer (b. 1939)
*2012 – Raymond Aubrac, French engineer and activist (b. 1914)
* 2012 – Barbara Buchholz, German theremin player and composer (b. 1959)
* 2012 – Lili Chookasian, Armenian-American operatic singer (b. 1921)
* 2012 – Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (b. 1922)
* 2012 – Akin Omoboriowo, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b. 1932)
*2013 – Lorenzo Antonetti, Italian cardinal (b. 1922)
* 2013 – Raymond Boudon, French sociologist and academic (b. 1934)
* 2013 – Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Bangladeshi activist (b. 1911)
* 2013 – Robert Edwards, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Olive Lewin, Jamaican anthropologist, musicologist, and author (b. 1927)
* 2013 – Gordon Thomas, English cyclist (b. 1921)
* 2013 – Angela Voigt, German long jumper (b. 1951)
*2014 – Dominique Baudis, French journalist and politician (b. 1947)
* 2014 – Jim Flaherty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Canadian Minister of Finance (b. 1949)
* 2014 – Richard Hoggart, English author and academic (b. 1918)
* 2014 – Sue Townsend, English author and playwright (b. 1946)
*2015 – Richie Benaud, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1930)
* 2015 – Raúl Héctor Castro, Mexican-American politician and diplomat, 14th Governor of Arizona (b. 1916)
* 2015 – Judith Malina, German-American actress and director, co-founded The Living Theatre (b. 1926)
* 2015 – Rose Francine Rogombé, Gabonese lawyer and politician, President of Gabon (b. 1942)
* 2015 – Peter Walsh, Australian farmer and politician, 6th Australian Minister for Finance (b. 1935)
*2016 – Howard Marks, Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer, and legalisation campaigner (b. 1945)
*2023 – Al Jaffee, American cartoonist (b. 1921)
*2024 – O. J. Simpson, American football player, actor, and broadcaster (b. 1947)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Fulbert of Chartres
**James, Azadanus and Abdicius
**Mikael Agricola (Lutheran)
**Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (Episcopal Church)
**William of Ockham (Anglicanism)
**William Law (Anglicanism)
**April 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan)
*Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
*Siblings Day (International observance)<ref nameChase2017 /> References External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/10 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/10 Historical Events on April 10]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_10 | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.425028 |
2573 | Angus, Scotland | | settlement_type = Lieutenancy and council area
| image_skyline | imagesize
| image_alt | image_caption
| image_flag | flag_alt
| image_shield = Coat of arms of the Angus Area Council.svg
| shield_alt | shield_link
| image_blank_emblem | blank_emblem_size
| blank_emblem_type | blank_emblem_link
| etymology | nickname
| motto | image_map Angus UK location map.svg
| map_alt | map_caption Angus shown within Scotland
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Sovereign state
| subdivision_name = United Kingdom
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = Scotland
| subdivision_type2 | subdivision_name2
| subdivision_type3 = Lieutenancy area
| subdivision_name3 | subdivision_type4
| subdivision_name4 | established_title Unitary authority
| established_date = 1 April 1996
| established_title1 | established_date1
| established_title2 | established_date2
| named_for | seat_type AdministrativeHQ
| seat = Forfar Town and County Hall
| parts_type | parts
<!-- Government -->
| government_footnotes
| government_type = Council
| governing_body = Angus Council
| leader_title = Control
| leader_name
| leader_title1 | leader_name1
| leader_title2 | leader_name2
| leader_title3 = MPs
| leader_name3
| leader_title4 = MSPs
| leader_name4
<!-- Area -->
<!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion -->
| area_footnotes
| area_total_km2
| area_land_km2 | area_water_km2
| area_rank
<!-- Population -->
| population_footnotes PrehistoryThe area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period. Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.
Bronze Age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town. These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet. Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan, as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.Medieval and later history
The county is traditionally associated with the Pictish territory of Circin, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Cé (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South. The most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.
Angus is first recorded as one of the provinces of Scotland in 937, when Dubacan, the Mormaer of Angus, is recorded in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba as having died at the Battle of Brunanburh.
The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotland's establishment as an independent nation. Partly on this basis, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland. It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Lighthouse, described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World.Administrative historyAngus was one of the ancient provinces of Scotland, under the authority of the Mormaer or Earl of Angus. From at least the thirteenth century the area formed the basis for a shire (the area administered by a sheriff) based in Forfar: the Sheriff of Forfar.
Over time, Scotland's shires became more significant than the old provinces, with more administrative functions being given to the sheriffs. The older territory called Angus was therefore gradually eclipsed in legal importance by the shire of Forfar (or Forfarshire) which covered the same area. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were established for each shire, which would serve as the main administrative body for the area until the creation of county councils in 1890. Following the Acts of Union in 1707, the English term 'county' came to be used interchangeably with the older term 'shire'.
, built 1871 as the county's main courthouse, also served as the first meeting place of the county council in 1890]]
Elected county councils were established in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, taking most of the functions of the commissioners (which were eventually abolished in 1930). The county's five largest burghs, being Arbroath, Brechin, Dundee, Forfar, and Montrose, were deemed capable of managing their own affairs and so were excluded from the administrative area of the county council. The county council held its first official meeting on 22 May 1890 at the County Buildings (now known as Forfar Sheriff Court), the county's main courthouse, which also served as the meeting place for the commissioners of supply. Robert Haldane-Duncan, 3rd Earl of Camperdown, a Liberal peer, was appointed the first chairman of the county council.
The 1889 Act also led to a review of boundaries, with exclaves being transferred to a county they actually bordered, and parishes which straddled more than one county being adjusted such that each parish was entirely in a single county. There were several such changes affecting the boundaries of Forfarshire.
Dundee was subsequently made a county of itself in 1894, also removing the city from Forfarshire for judicial and lieutenancy purposes. Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose were brought within the administrative area of the county council in 1930, although Arbroath was classed as a large burgh, allowing its council to continue to deliver most local government functions itself.
In May 1928 the county council resolved to use the name 'Angus' for the area rather than the 'County of Forfar'. The council petitioned the government to officially change the name too. The government responded by directing all departments to use Angus, but noted that the legal name would remain Forfar until such time as it could be changed by statute. The statutory change of name from Forfar to Angus eventually took place in 1947 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1947.
Angus County Council was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland's counties, burghs and landward districts with a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. A new Angus district was created covering most of the pre-1975 county, with the exceptions being that Monifieth and a number of villages immediately north of Dundee were transferred to an enlarged City of Dundee district, and Kettins was transferred to Perth and Kinross. Angus District Council was a lower-tier district level authority subordinate to the Tayside Regional Council. A lieutenancy area covering the same area as the new district was created at the same time.
Further local government reforms in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 saw the regions and districts created in 1975 abolished and replaced with council areas providing all local government services. Angus district became one of the new council areas, taking on the functions of the abolished Tayside Regional Council. The council area regained Monifieth and the villages north of Dundee as part of the same reforms. The Angus lieutenancy area was adjusted to match the new council area in 1996. The Lord Lieutenant of Angus is appointed by the monarch. The boundaries of the historic county of Angus (as it was prior to the removal of Dundee in 1894) are still used for some limited official purposes connected with land registration, being a registration county.Geography
, highest of the Sidlaws, in southern Angus]]
Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the Grampian Mountains, Mounth hills and Five Glens of Angus, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill farming. Glas Maol – the highest point in Angus at – can be found here, on the tripoint boundary with Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills (such as the Sidlaws) bordering the sea; this area is well populated, with the larger towns. In between lies Strathmore (the Great Valley), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Aberdeen Angus cattle.
Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin and wildlife. Angus's coast is fairly regular, the most prominent features being the headlands of Scurdie Ness and Buddon Ness. The main bodies of water in the county are Loch Lee, Loch Brandy, Carlochy, Loch Wharral, Den of Ogil Reservoir, Loch of Forfar, Loch Fithie, Rescobie Loch, Balgavies Loch, Crombie Reservoir, Monikie Reservoirs, Long Loch, Lundie Loch, Loch of Kinnordy, Loch of Lintrathen, Backwater Reservoir, Auchintaple Loch, Loch Shandra.
Demography
Population structure
In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.
Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to 'O' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.
Language in Angus
The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%. These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category !! Number !! Percentage
|-
| All people || 108,400 || 100
|-
| Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it || 351 || 0.32
|-
| Speaks reads and writes Gaelic || 238 || 0.22
|-
| Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic || 188 || 0.17
|-
| Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic || 59 ||0.05
|-
| Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic || 61 || 0.06
|-
| Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic || 13 || 0.01
|-
| Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic || 22 || 0.02
|-
| Other combination of skills in Gaelic || 7 || 0.01
|-
| No knowledge of Gaelic || 107,461 || 99.13
|}
Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%. This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.
Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century. Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.
Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.
Government
Community council areas
Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council. The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing.
Parliamentary representation
UK Parliament
Angus is represented by two MPs for the UK Parliament.
*Angus and Perthshire Glens – covers the following wards: Kirriemuir and Dean, Brechin and Edzell, Forfar and District, and Montrose and District, and parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw; currently represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party, who was also the MP for the old Angus constituency.
*Arbroath and Broughty Ferry – cover parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw and Carnoustie and District from the old Dundee East constituency, and Arbroath East and Lunan, Arbroath West, Letham and Friockheim, and Monifieth and Sidlaw, and a part of Carnoustie and District from the now-abolished Angus constituency; currently represented by Stephen Gethins of the Scottish National Party.
Scottish Parliament
Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.
*Angus North and Mearns – covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.
*Angus South – covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.
In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region.
Transport
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.
There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast.
Settlements
|float=right
|width=500
|places |positionright|labelArbroath|label_size=}}
|positionright|labelForfar|label_size}}
|positiontop|labelMontrose|label_size}}
|positionright|labelCarnoustie|label_size}}
|positionright|labelMonifieth|label_size}}
|positionright|labelBrechin|label_size}}
|positionright|labelKirriemuir|label_size}}
|positiontop|labelBirkhill|label_size}}
|positionright|labelLetham|label_size}}
|positionbottom|labelFerryden|label_size}}
<!-- Bordering council areas -->
|positionright|labelAberdeenshire|marksize0|label_size=120}}
|positionleft|labelDundee City|marksize0|label_size=120}}
|positionleft|labelFife|marksize0|label_size=120}}
|positionright|labelPerth and Kinross|marksize0|label_size=120}}
}}
Arbroath is the largest town in the modern county, followed by Forfar, the county town and administrative centre, and Montrose.
Largest settlements by population:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Settlement
!Population ()
|-
|Arbroath
|
|-
|Forfar
|
|-
|Montrose
|
|-
|Carnoustie
|
|-
|Monifieth
|
|-
|Brechin
|
|-
|Kirriemuir
|
|-
|Birkhill
|
|-
|Letham
|
|-
|Ferryden
|
|-
|}
Historic parishes
Forfarshire was divided into parishes, some of which share the name with current settlements:
Education
Secondary schools in Angus:
* Arbroath Academy
* Arbroath High School
* Brechin High School
* Carnoustie High School
* Forfar Academy
* Monifieth High School
* Montrose Academy
* Webster's High School
Places of interest
* Aberlemno Sculptured Stones
* Arbroath Abbey
* Barry Mill
* Brechin Cathedral
* Brechin Castle
* Brechin Round Tower
* Caledonian Railway (Brechin)
* Cairngorms National Park
* Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve
* Eassie Stone
* Edzell Castle
* Glamis Castle
* Glenesk Folk Museum
* House of Dun
* Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve
* Meffan Institute
* Monboddo House
* Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
* Montrose Basin Nature Reserve
* Montrose Museum
Sister areas
* – Yantai, Shandong, China.SurnamesMost common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the 1881 United Kingdom census:
# Smith
# Robertson
# Anderson
# Stewart
# Scott
# Mitchell
# Brown
# Duncan
# Milne
# Thomson
See also
*Earl of Angus
*List of places in Angus
*List of counties of Scotland 1890–1975
*Medieval Diocese of Angus
*Scheduled monuments in Angus
*List of Category A listed buildings in Angus
References
External links
}}
Category:Council areas of Scotland
Category:Provinces of Scotland
Category:Counties of Scotland
Category:Lieutenancy areas of Scotland
Category:Counties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Category:Districts of Scotland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus,_Scotland | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.468338 |
2575 | André the Giant | André the Giant (film)}}
<br />Giant Machine<br />Jean Ferré<br />Monster Eiffel Tower<br />Monster Roussimoff<br />The Polish Giant
| children 1
| death_place = Paris, France
| billed = "Grenoble in the French Alps"
| trainer Michel Saulnier
| debut 25 January 1966
}}
André René Roussimoff (; 19 May 1946 – 28 January 1993), better known by his ring name André the Giant, was a French professional wrestler and actor. Dubbed "the Eighth Wonder of the World", Roussimoff was known for his great size, which was a result of gigantism caused by excess human growth hormone. in Coulommiers, Seine-et-Marne, the son of immigrants Boris Roussimoff (1907–1993) and Mariann Roussimoff Stoeff (1910–1997); his father was Bulgarian and his mother was Polish. He was raised Catholic. He had two older siblings and two younger. His childhood nickname was Dédé (, ). At birth, André weighed ; as a child, he displayed symptoms of gigantism, and was noted as "a good head taller than other kids", with abnormally long hands. In a 1970s television interview, Roussimoff stated that his mother was tall and his father tall, and that according to his father his grandfather was tall. By the time he was 12, Roussimoff stood .
Roussimoff was an average student, though good at mathematics. When he was 14, Rousimoff decided against further schooling and joined the workforce, believing what he learned was sufficient for a career as a farmhand. He did not drop out of school, as compulsory education laws in France were no longer applicable to those aged 14 or older.
Roussimoff spent years working on his father's farm in Molien, where, according to his brother Jacques, he could perform the work of three men. He also completed an apprenticeship in woodworking, and next worked in a factory that manufactured engines for hay balers. None of these brought him any satisfaction. While Roussimoff was growing up in the 1950s, the Irish playwright Samuel Beckett was one of several adults who sometimes drove local children to school, including Roussimoff and his siblings. They had a surprising amount of common ground and bonded over their love of cricket, with Roussimoff recalling that the two rarely talked about anything else.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (1964–1973)
At the age of 18, Roussimoff moved to Paris and was taught professional wrestling by a local promoter, Robert Lageat, who recognized the earning potential of Roussimoff's size. He trained at night and worked as a mover during the day to pay living expenses. In 1968 he defeated Franz van Buyten for the FFCP World Heavyweight Championship Roussimoff also began making a name for himself wrestling in Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa. During his time in Japan, doctors first informed Roussimoff that he suffered from acromegaly. Promoters eventually ran out of plausible opponents for him and, as the novelty of his size wore off, the gate receipts dwindled. and wrestled numerous times in 1971 for Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association (AWA) as a special attraction. Touring special attraction (1973–1984) In 1973, Vincent J. McMahon, founder of the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), became Rousimoff's agent. to keep him from becoming overexposed in any area.
Roussimoff was one of professional wrestling's most beloved babyfaces throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. As such, Gorilla Monsoon often stated that Roussimoff had not been defeated in 15 years by pinfall or submission prior to WrestleMania III. He had lost matches outside of the WWF: a loss to Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad, Iraq in 1971, two draws and a countout loss to The Sheik in Toronto in 1974 after a fireball was thrown in Andre's face, knockout to Jerry Lawler in Memphis in 1975 and a count out to Lawler in Louisville in 1977, draw with Bobo Brazil at a battle royal in Detroit in 1976, Ronnie Garvin in Knoxville in 1978, Stan Hansen by disqualification in Japan in 1981, Kamala by countout in Toronto in 1984 and Canek in Mexico in 1984 and submission losses in Japan to Strong Kobayashi in 1972 and Antonio Inoki in 1986. He also had sixty-minute time-limit draws with two of the three major world champions of the day, Harley Race in Houston in 1979 and Nick Bockwinkel in Chicago in 1976.
(top) and André the Giant during the Superdome Showdown professional wrestling event on 2 August 1980, in New Orleans]]
In 1976, at the second Showdown at Shea, Roussimoff fought professional boxer Chuck Wepner in an unscripted boxer-versus-wrestler fight. The wild fight was shown via telecast as part of the undercard of the Muhammad Ali versus Antonio Inoki fight and ended when he threw Wepner over the top rope and outside the ring and won via count-out.
In 1980, he feuded with Hulk Hogan, when, unlike their more famous matches in the late 1980s, Hogan was the villain and Roussimoff was the hero, wrestling him at Shea Stadium's third Showdown at Shea event and in Pennsylvania, where after Roussimoff pinned Hogan to win the match, Hogan bodyslammed him much like their legendary WrestleMania III match in 1987. The feud continued in Japan in 1982 and 1983 with their roles reversed and with Antonio Inoki also involved.
One of Roussimoff's feuds pitted him against the "Mongolian Giant" Killer Khan. According to the storyline, Khan snapped Roussimoff's ankle during a match on 2 May 1981 in Rochester, New York by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his knee-drop. In reality, he had broken his ankle getting out of bed the morning before the match. Their feud continued as fans filled arenas up and down the east coast to witness their matches. On 14 November 1981 at the Philadelphia Spectrum, he decisively defeated Khan in what was billed as a "Mongolian stretcher match", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher. The same type of match was also held in Toronto. In early 1982 the two also fought in a series of matches in Japan with Arnold Skaaland in Roussimoff's corner. World Wrestling Federation (1984–1991) Feud with the Heenan Family (1984–1987)
versus King Kong Bundy and Big John Studd in tag team match at Madison Square Garden in October 1985]]
In 1982, Vincent J. McMahon sold the World Wide Wrestling Federation to his son, Vince McMahon As McMahon began to expand his newly acquired promotion to the national level, he required his wrestlers to appear exclusively for him. McMahon signed Roussimoff to these terms in 1984, although he still allowed him to work in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).
Roussimoff feuded with Big John Studd over which of the two men was the "true giant" of wrestling. Roussimoff slammed Studd to win the match and collect the $15,000 prize, then proceeded to throw cash to the fans before having the bag taken from him by Studd's manager, Bobby "The Brain" Heenan.
At WrestleMania 2 on 7 April 1986, Roussimoff continued to display his dominance by winning a twenty-man battle royal which featured top National Football League stars and wrestlers. He last eliminated Bret Hart to win the contest.
Following a final tour with New Japan Pro-Wrestling in mid-1986, and a win in Austria over CWA World champion Otto Wanz, Roussimoff began appearing exclusively with the World Wrestling Federation.
After WrestleMania 2, Roussimoff continued his feud with Studd and King Kong Bundy. Around this time, Roussimoff requested a leave of absence to tend to his health, since the effects from his acromegaly were beginning to take their toll, as well as to tour Japan. He had also been cast in the film The Princess Bride. To explain his absence, a storyline was developed in which Heenan—suggesting that Roussimoff was secretly afraid of Studd and Bundy, whom Heenan bragged were unbeatable—challenged Roussimoff and a partner of his choosing to wrestle Studd and Bundy in a televised tag-team match. When Roussimoff failed to show, WWF president Jack Tunney indefinitely suspended him. Later in the summer of 1986, upon Roussimoff's return to the United States, he began wearing a mask and competing as the "Giant Machine" in a stable known as the Machines. —as "a new tag-team from Japan" and claimed not to know the identities of the wrestlers, even though it was obvious to fans that it was Roussimoff competing as the Giant Machine. Heenan, Studd, and Bundy complained to Tunney, who eventually told Heenan that if it could be proven that Roussimoff and the Giant Machine were the same person, Roussimoff would be fired. Roussimoff thwarted Heenan, Studd, and Bundy at every turn. Then, in late 1986, the Giant Machine "disappeared" and Roussimoff was reinstated. Foreshadowing Roussimoff's heel turn, Heenan expressed his approval of the reinstatement but did not explain why. Alliance with Bobby Heenan and Ted DiBiase (1987–1989)
(foreground) during parts of his feud with Hulk Hogan.]]
Roussimoff agreed to turn heel in early 1987 to be the counter to the biggest "babyface" in professional wrestling at that time, Hulk Hogan. On an edition of ''Piper's Pit'' in 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three years; Roussimoff came out to congratulate him, shaking Hogan's hand with a strong grip, which surprised the Hulkster. On the following week's ''Piper's Pit'', Roussimoff was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "the only undefeated wrestler in wrestling history." Although he had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in WWF, he had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate him and ended up being the focal point of the interview. Apparently annoyed, Roussimoff walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. A discussion between Roussimoff and Hogan was scheduled, and on a ''Piper's Pit'' that aired 7 February 1987, the two met. Hogan was introduced first, followed by Roussimoff, who was led by longtime rival Bobby Heenan.
Speaking on behalf of his new protégé, Heenan accused Hogan of being Roussimoff's friend only so he would not have to defend his title against him. Hogan tried to reason with Roussimoff, but his pleas were ignored as he challenged Hogan to a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania III. Hogan was still seemingly in disbelief as to what Roussimoff was doing, prompting Heenan to say "You can't believe it? Maybe you'll believe this, Hogan" before Roussimoff ripped off the T-shirt and crucifix from Hogan, with the crucifix scratching Hogan's chest, causing him to bleed.
Following Hogan's acceptance of his challenge on a later edition of ''Piper's Pit, the two were part of a 20-man over-the-top-rope battle-royal on 14 March edition of Saturday Night's Main Event X'' at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit. Although the battle royal was won by Hercules, Roussimoff claimed to have gained a psychological advantage over Hogan when he threw the WWF World Heavyweight Champion over the top rope. The match, which was actually taped on 21 February 1987,
At WrestleMania III, he was billed at , and the stress of such immense weight on his bones and joints resulted in constant pain. This took place in the territorial days of American wrestling three years before WWF began national expansion, so many of those who watched WrestleMania III had never seen the Giant slammed (Roussimoff had also previously allowed Harley Race, El Canek and Stan Hansen, among others, to slam him).
By the time of WrestleMania III, the WWF went national, giving more meaning to the Roussimoff–Hogan match that took place then. The feud between Roussimoff and Hogan simmered during the summer of 1987, as Roussimoff's health declined. The feud began heating up again when wrestlers were named the captains of rival teams at the inaugural Survivor Series event. During their approximately one minute of battling each other during the match, Hogan dominated Roussimoff and was on the brink of knocking him from the ring, but was tripped up by his partners, Bundy and One Man Gang, and would be counted out. Roussimoff went on to be the sole survivor of the match, pinning Bam Bam Bigelow before Hogan returned to the ring to attack André and knock him out of the ring. Roussimoff later got revenge when, after Hogan won a match against Bundy on ''Saturday Night's Main Event, he snuck up from behind and began choking Hogan to the brink of unconsciousness, not letting go even after an army of seven face-aligned wrestlers ran to the ring to try to pull him away; it took Hacksaw Jim Duggan breaking a piece of wood over his back (which he no-sold) for him to let go, after which Hogan was pulled to safety. As was the case with the SNME'' battle royal a year earlier, the series of events was one of the pieces that helped build interest in a possible one-on-one rematch between Hogan and Roussimoff, and to make it seem that Roussimoff was certain to win easily when they did meet. Meanwhile, Rousimoff returned to Germany in December 1987 for another match with Wanz, which he lost by countout.
In the meantime, the "Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase failed to persuade Hogan to sell him the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. After failing to defeat Hogan in a subsequent series of matches, DiBiase turned to Roussimoff to win it for him. He and DiBiase had teamed several times in the past, including in Japan and in the WWF in the late 1970s and early 1980s when both were faces at the time, but this was not acknowledged during this new storyline. The earlier attack and DiBiase's insertion into the feud set up the Hogan-Roussimoff rematch on The Main Event, to air 5 February 1988, on a live broadcast on NBC. Acting as his hired gun, Roussimoff won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Hogan (his first singles title) in a match where it was later revealed that appointed referee Dave Hebner was "detained backstage", and a replacement (whom Hogan afterwards initially accused of having been paid by DiBiase to get plastic surgery to look like Dave, but was revealed to have been his evil twin brother, Earl Hebner), who made a three-count on Hogan while Hogan's left shoulder was off the mat.
After winning, Roussimoff "sold" the title to DiBiase; the transaction was declared invalid by then-WWF president Jack Tunney and the title was declared vacant. This was shown on WWF's NBC program The Main Event. At WrestleMania IV, Roussimoff and Hulk Hogan fought to a double disqualification in a WWF title tournament match (with the idea in the storyline saying that Roussimoff was again working on DiBiase's behalf in giving DiBiase a clearer path in the tournament). Afterward, Roussimoff and Hogan's feud died down after a steel cage match held at WrestleFest on 31 July 1988, in Milwaukee. Hogan was the winner.
derived from Roussimoff's fear of snakes.]]
At the inaugural SummerSlam pay-per-view held at Madison Square Garden, Roussimoff and DiBiase (billed as The Mega Bucks) faced Hogan and WWF World Heavyweight Champion "Macho Man" Randy Savage (known as The Mega Powers) in the main event, with Jesse "The Body" Ventura as the special guest referee. During the match, the Mega Powers' manager, Miss Elizabeth, distracted the Mega Bucks and Ventura when she climbed up on the ring apron, removed her yellow skirt and walked around in a pair of red panties. This allowed Hogan and Savage time to recover and eventually win the match with Hogan pinning DiBiase. Savage forced Ventura's hand down for the final three-count, due to Ventura's character historically being at odds with Hogan, and his unwillingness to count the fall.
Concurrent with the developing feud with the Mega Powers, Roussimoff was placed in a feud with Jim Duggan, which began after Duggan knocked out Roussimoff with a two-by-four board during a television taping. Despite Duggan's popularity with fans, Roussimoff regularly got the upper hand in the feud.
Roussimoff's next major feud was against Jake "The Snake" Roberts. In this storyline, it was said Roussimoff was afraid of snakes, something Roberts exposed on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'' when he threw his snake, Damien, on the frightened Roussimoff; as a result, he suffered a kayfabe mild heart attack and vowed revenge. During the next few weeks, Roberts frequently walked to ringside carrying his snake in its bag during Roussimoff's matches, causing the latter to run from the ring in fright. Throughout their feud (which culminated at WrestleMania V), Roberts constantly used Damien to gain a psychological edge over the much larger and stronger Roussimoff.
In 1989, Roussimoff and the returning Big John Studd briefly reprised their feud, beginning at WrestleMania V, when Studd was the referee in the match with Roberts, this time with Studd as a face and Roussimoff as the heel.
During the late summer and autumn of 1989, Roussimoff engaged in a brief feud, consisting almost entirely of house shows (non-televised events), and one televised match on 28 October 1989, at Madison Square Garden with then-WWF Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior. Roussimoff began to wear face paint with a similar design to The Warrior and began called himself "The Ultimate Giant" when he appeared on The Brother Love Show. The younger Warrior, the WWF's rising star, regularly squashed the aging Roussimoff in an attempt to showcase his star quality and promote him as the "next big thing".
Colossal Connection (1989–1990)
In late 1989, Roussimoff was joined with fellow Heenan Family member Haku to form a new tag team called the Colossal Connection, in part to fill a void left by the departure of Tully Blanchard and Arn Anderson (the Brain Busters, who were also members of Heenan's stable) from the WWF, and also to continue to keep the aging Roussimoff in the main event spotlight. His last singles match was a loss to The Ultimate Warrior in 20 seconds at a house show in Cape Girardeau, Missouri on 11 December 1989. The Colossal Connection immediately targeted WWF Tag Team Champions Demolition (who had recently won the belts from the Brain Busters). At a television taping on 13 December 1989, the Colossal Connection defeated Demolition to win the titles. Roussimoff and Haku successfully defended their title, mostly against Demolition, until WrestleMania VI on 1 April 1990, when Demolition took advantage of a mistimed move by the champions to regain the belts. After the match, a furious Heenan blamed him for the title loss and after shouting at him, before Heenan slapped him in the face; an angry Roussimoff responded with a slap of his own that sent Heenan staggering from the ring. Roussimoff also caught Haku's kick attempt, sending him reeling from the ring as well, prompting support and turning Roussimoff face for the first time since 1987. Due to his ongoing health issues, Roussimoff was unable to wrestle at the time of WrestleMania VI and Haku actually wrestled the entire match against Demolition without tagging him in.
On weekend television shows following WrestleMania VI, Bobby Heenan vowed to spit in Roussimoff's face when he came crawling back to the Heenan Family. He wrestled one more time with Haku, teaming up to face Demolition on a house show in Honolulu on 10 April, Roussimoff was knocked out of the ring and The Colossal Connection lost via count-out. After the match, Roussimoff and Haku would fight each other, marking the end of the team. His final WWF match of 1990 came at a combined WWF/All Japan/New Japan show on 13 April in Tokyo, Japan when he teamed with Giant Baba to defeat Demolition in a non-title match. Roussimoff won by pinning Smash.
Sporadic appearances (1990–1991)
Roussimoff returned in the winter of 1990, but it was not to the World Wrestling Federation. Instead, Roussimoff made an interview appearance for Herb Abrams' fledgling Universal Wrestling Federation on 11 October in Reseda, California. (the segment aired in 1991). He appeared in an interview segment with Captain Lou Albano and put over the UWF. The following month on 30 November at a house show in Miami, Florida, the World Wrestling Federation announced his return as a participant in the 1991 Royal Rumble (to be held in Miami two months later). Roussimoff was also mentioned as a participant on television but would ultimately back out due to a leg injury.
His on-air return finally took place at the WWF's Super-Stars & Stripes Forever USA Network special on 17 March 1991, when he came out to shake the hand of Big Boss Man after an altercation with Mr. Perfect. The following week at WrestleMania VII, he came to the aid of the Boss Man in his match against Mr. Perfect. Roussimoff finally returned to action on 26 April 1991, in a six-man tag-team matchup when he teamed with The Rockers in a winning effort against Mr. Fuji and The Orient Express at a house show in Belfast, Northern Ireland. On 11 May 1991 he participated in a 17-man battle-royal at a house show in Detroit, which was won by Kerry Von Erich. This was Andre's final WWF match, although he was involved in several subsequent storylines. His last major WWF storyline following WrestleMania VII had the major heel managers (Bobby Heenan, Sensational Sherri, Slick, and Mr. Fuji) trying to recruit Roussimoff one-by-one, only to be turned down in various humiliating ways (e.g. Heenan had his hand crushed, Sherri received a spanking, Slick got locked in the trunk of the car he was offering to Roussimoff, and Mr. Fuji got a pie in his face). Finally, Jimmy Hart appeared live on WWF Superstars to announce that he had successfully signed Roussimoff to tag-team with Earthquake. When asked to confirm this by Gene Okerlund, Roussimoff denied the claims. This led to Earthquake's attacking Roussimoff from behind (injuring his knee). Jimmy Hart would later get revenge for the humiliation by secretly signing Tugboat and forming the Natural Disasters. This led to Roussimoff's final major WWF appearance at SummerSlam 1991, where he seconded the Bushwhackers in their match against the Disasters. Roussimoff was on crutches at ringside, and after the Disasters won the match, they set out to attack him, but the Legion of Doom made their way to ringside and got in between them and the Giant, who was preparing to defend himself with one of his crutches. The Disasters left the ringside area as they were outnumbered by the Legion of Doom, the Bushwhackers and Roussimoff, who struck both Earthquake and Typhoon (the former Tugboat) with the crutch as they left. His final WWF appearance came at a house show in Paris, France, on 9 October 1991. He was in Davey Boy Smith's corner as the Bulldog faced Earthquake; Smith hit Earthquake with Roussimoff's crutch, allowing Smith to win. All Japan Pro Wrestling; Universal Wrestling Association (1990–1992) After WrestleMania VI, Roussimoff spent the rest of his in-ring career in All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) and Mexico's Universal Wrestling Association (UWA), where he performed under the name "André el Gigante". He toured with AJPW three times per year, from 1990 to 1992, usually teaming with Giant Baba in tag-team matches.
Roussimoff made a couple of guest appearances for Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation, in 1991, feuding with Big John Studd, though he never had a match in the promotion.
In his last U.S. television appearance, Andre appeared on World Championship Wrestling's (WCW) Clash of the Champions XX special that aired on TBS on 2 September 1992, where he gave a brief interview. During the same event, he appeared alongside Gordon Solie and was later seen talking with him during the gala celebrating the 20th anniversary of wrestling on TBS.
He did his final tour of Mexico in 1992 in a selection of six-man tag matches alongside Bam Bam Bigelow and a variety of Lucha Libre stars facing among others Bad News Allen and future WWF Champions Mick Foley and Yokozuna. Roussimoff made his final tour with AJPW from October to December 1992; he wrestled what became the final match of his career on 4 December 1992, teaming with Giant Baba and Rusher Kimura to defeat Haruka Eigen, Masanobu Fuchi, and Motoshi Okuma. Both the film and his performance retain a devoted following. In a short interview with Lanny Poffo, he stated that the movie meant so much to André that he made his wrestling pals watch an advanced copy of the VHS with him over and over again while supplying dinner, drinks, and sweetly asking each time, "Did you like my performance?".
In his last film, he had a cameo role as a circus giant in the comedy Trading Mom, which was released in 1994, a year after his death.
Filmography
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1967
| Casse-tête chinois pour le judoka
| Fighter
| Film
|-
| 1976
| The Six Million Dollar Man
| Sasquatch
| Television (episodes: "The Secret of Bigfoot, Part 1" and "The Secret of Bigfoot Part 2")
|-
| 1981
| B. J. and the Bear
| Manny Felcher
| Television (episode: "Snow White and the Seven Lady Truckers, Part 1")
|-
| rowspan=2| 1982
| The Fall Guy
| Killer Typhoon (uncredited)
| Television (episode: "Ladies on the Ropes")
|-
| Les Brillant
| Jean Petit
| Television
|-
| 1983
| The Greatest American Hero
| Monster
| Television (episode: "Heaven Is in Your Genes")
|-
| rowspan=2| 1984
| Conan the Destroyer
| Dagoth (uncredited)
| rowspan=3|Film
|-
| Micki & Maude
| Himself
|-
| rowspan=2| 1985
| I Like to Hurt People
| Himself
|-
| ''The Goonies 'R' Good Enough
| Himself (uncredited)
| Music video
|-
| 1987
| The Princess Bride
| Fezzik
William Goldman, the author of the novel and the screenplay of The Princess Bride, wrote in his nonfiction work Which Lie Did I Tell? that Roussimoff was one of the gentlest and most generous people he ever knew. Whenever Roussimoff ate with someone in a restaurant, he would pay, but he would also insist on paying when he was a guest. On one occasion, after Roussimoff attended a dinner with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Wilt Chamberlain, Schwarzenegger had quietly moved to the cashier to pay before Roussimoff could, but then found himself being physically lifted, carried from his table and deposited on top of his car by Roussimoff and Chamberlain.
Roussimoff owned a ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina, looked after by two of his close friends. When he was not on the road, he loved spending time at the ranch, where he tended to his cattle, played with his dogs, and entertained friends. While there were custom-made chairs and a few other modifications in his home to accommodate his size, tales that everything in his home was custom-made for a large man are said to be exaggerated. Since Roussimoff could not easily go shopping due to his fame and size, he was known to spend hours watching and purchasing items from the shopping channel QVC. In an appearance on Late Night with David Letterman on 23 January 1984, Roussimoff told David Letterman he once drank 117 beers. When Letterman asked if he was drunk, Roussimoff said he couldn't remember because he passed out. He also said he quit drinking beer 14 months prior to this appearance on Letterman.
On an episode of WWE's Legends of Wrestling, Mike Graham said Roussimoff once drank 156 beers (over or 19.5 gallons) in one sitting, which was confirmed by Dusty Rhodes. The Fabulous Moolah wrote in her autobiography that Roussimoff drank 127 beers at the bar of the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading, Pennsylvania and later passed out in the lobby. The staff could not move him and had to leave him there until he awoke.
In a shoot interview, Ken Patera recalled an occasion where Roussimoff was challenged by Dick Murdoch to a beer drinking contest. After nine or so hours, Roussimoff had drunk 116 beers. A tale recounted by Cary Elwes in his book about the making of The Princess Bride has Roussimoff falling on top of somebody while drunk, after which the NYPD sent an undercover officer to follow Roussimoff around whenever he went out drinking in their city to make sure he did not fall on anyone again.
Another story also says prior to his famous WrestleMania III match, Roussimoff drank 14 bottles of wine. Hulk Hogan stated that Roussimoff drank a case of 12 bottles of Pouilly-Fuissé during a three-hour bus journey.
An urban legend exists surrounding Roussimoff's 1987 surgery in which his size made it impossible for the anesthesiologist to estimate a dosage via standard methods; consequently, his alcohol tolerance was used as a guideline instead. Some reports claim this is true.
While some stories of Rousimoff's eating have circulated, such as one dinner where he ate twelve 16-ounce steaks and fifteen lobsters in one sitting, according to his usual traveling partner, Tim White, Rousimoff only ate so much on occasion to show off, saying, "He had a substantial appetite, but for his size, it was completely normal."
Roussimoff had severe pericardial effusion and underwent pericardiocentesis at Duke University Hospital in the 1980s.DeathOn the morning of 28 January 1993, Roussimoff died of congestive heart failure and an apparent heart attack in his sleep, likely associated with his untreated acromegaly, at a Paris hotel, at the age of 46. After he visited and played cards in Molien with some of his oldest friends on the night of 27 January 1993, he returned to his hotel room around 1 a.m. CET on 28 January. That afternoon, Roussimoff was found dead in his room by hotel management and his chauffeur. He was in Paris at the time to attend his father's funeral. While there, he decided to extend his stay there to be with his mother on her birthday. Additionally, in accordance with his will, he left his estate to his sole beneficiary: his daughter Robin. Other media Roussimoff made numerous appearances as himself in video games, starting with WWF WrestleMania. He also appears posthumously in Virtual Pro Wrestling 64, WWF No Mercy, Legends of Wrestling, Legends of Wrestling II, Showdown: Legends of Wrestling, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006, WWE Legends of WrestleMania, WWE All Stars, WWE 2K14, WWE 2K15, WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19, WWE 2K20, WWE 2K Battlegrounds, WWE 2K22, WWE 2K23, WWE 2K24, and many others.
In January 2005, WWE released André The Giant, a DVD focusing on the life and career of Roussimoff. The DVD is a reissue of the out-of-print André The Giant VHS made by Coliseum Video in 1985, with commentary by Michael Cole and Tazz replacing Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse Ventura's commentary on his WrestleMania match with Big John Studd. The video is hosted by Lord Alfred Hayes. Later matches, including his battles against Hulk Hogan while a heel, are not included on this VHS.
Legacy
—a wrestler often compared with Roussimoff due to his size—was the winner of the 2015 "André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal" at WrestleMania 31, and is posing alongside the André the Giant Memorial Trophy, which goes to the winner of the annual match.]]
* In 1993, when the then-World Wrestling Federation created the WWF Hall of Fame, André the Giant was the inaugural and sole inductee in the class of 1993.
* Roussimoff was the inspiration for the 1998 film My Giant, written by his friend Billy Crystal, whom he had met during the filming of The Princess Bride.
* Paul Wight, better known as Big Show, is more similar in body structure to Roussimoff than any other wrestler since Roussimoff's death. He was originally billed as the son of André during his stint in WCW (when he was known as simply "the Giant") despite there being no biological relationship. While also suffering from acromegaly, unlike Roussimoff, Wight did get surgery on his pituitary gland in the early 1990s, which successfully halted the progress of his condition. The former wrestler Giant González suffered from problems similar to those that Roussimoff had near the end of his life and died in 2010 due to diabetes complications.
* In 1999, he was the subject of an episode of A&E Biography, titled André the Giant: Larger Than Life. The documentary covered his childhood and early life in France, as well as the beginning of his wrestling career, his struggles with acromegaly, his personal life, and his final years. His brother, Jacques Roussimoff, was interviewed for the documentary, as were fellow wrestling personalities Gorilla Monsoon, Tim White, Arnold Skaaland, Vince McMahon, Freddie Blassie, Killer Kowalski, Rene Goulet, and Frenchy Bernard, as well as wrestling historian Sheldon Goldberg. Several of his longtime hometown friends were interviewed as well. The documentary described Roussimoff as pro wrestling's "first and only international attraction" and that "on his broad shoulders, wrestling rose from its status as a questionable sport to become big business, and some might argue, performance art."
* The Obey brand icon originated from wheatpaste posters that artist Shepard Fairey created based upon a photo of André the Giant that he had found in a newspaper.
* Capcom's video game character Hugo, from the Street Fighter series (known as Andore in the Final Fight series) is based on him.
* The 2014 graphic novel André The Giant: The Life and The Legend (First Second Books), written and drawn by Box Brown, tells the story of his life and career. Research for the book included interviews with his fellow wrestlers and actors such as Christopher Guest, Mandy Patinkin and others.
* In 2017, Showtime released Waiting for Andre, a semi-fictional movie about the friendship between playwright Samuel Beckett and Roussimoff during the time Beckett lived in Ussy-sur-Marne, outside of Paris. A novel of the movie was published the following year by Steffan Piper ( / 198075621X from Amazon print on demand).
* On 10 March 2014, episode of Raw, WrestleMania XXX host Hulk Hogan announced that in honor of Roussimoff's legacy, WWE was establishing the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, that would take place at the event, with the winner receiving the André the Giant Memorial Trophy (made in the likeness of Roussimoff). On 6 April 2014, at WrestleMania XXX, Cesaro won the match after eliminating Big Show using a body slam similar to the body slam Hulk Hogan used on Roussimoff at WrestleMania III. The battle royal has since become a yearly WrestleMania Weekend tradition. Biopics * In 1999, Biography produced and aired a documentary called Andre The Giant: Larger Than Life.
* On 9 May 2016, it was announced that a movie based on the 2015 authorized graphic novel biography André the Giant: Closer to Heaven was in the plans made by Lion Forge Comics along with producers Scott Steindorff, Dylan Russell and consulted by Roussimoff's daughter, Robin Christensen-Roussimoff.
* On 10 April 2018, HBO aired a documentary film called André the Giant.
Championships and accomplishments
* 50th State Big Time Wrestling
** Texas Battle Royal (1977)
* All Japan Pro Wrestling
** World's Strongest Tag Determination League East Sports Special Award (1991) – with Giant Baba
* Championship Wrestling from Florida
** NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes
* Fédération Française de Catch Professionnel
** World Heavyweight Championship (France) (1 time)
* Houston Wrestling
** Two-Ring Battle Royal (1974, 1975)
* International Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
** Class of 2021
* International Wrestling Enterprise
** IWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Michael Nador
* NWA Hollywood Wrestling
** Los Angeles Battle Royal (1975, 1980)
* NWA San Francisco
** Cow Palace Battle Royal (1977)
** MSG League (1982)
** MSG Tag League (1981) – with Rene Goulet
** Sagawa Express Cup (1986)
** Greatest 18 Club inductee
* NWA Tri-State
** NWA United States Tag Team Championship (Tri-State version) (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes
* Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
** Class of 2002
* Pro Wrestling Illustrated
** Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1977, 1982)
** Match of the Year (1981) <small>vs. Killer Khan on 2 May</small>
** Match of the Year (1988) <small>vs. Hulk Hogan at The Main Event</small>
** Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1988)
** Editor's Award (1993)
** Ranked No. 3 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
*Sports Illustrated
**Ranked No. 16 of the 20 Greatest WWE Wrestlers Of All Time
* Stampede Wrestling
** Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)
* World Championship Wrestling (Australia)
** NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Miller
* World Wrestling Federation/WWE
** WWF World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
** Slammy Award (1 time)
*** Bobby "The Brain" Heenan Scholarship Award (1987)
** WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1993)
See also
* List of tallest people
* List of premature professional wrestling deaths
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
*
*
*
*
}}
Category:1946 births
Category:1993 deaths
Category:20th-century French male actors
Category:20th-century male professional wrestlers
Category:Deaths from congestive heart failure
Category:French expatriate male actors in the United States
Category:French expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Category:French male film actors
Category:French male professional wrestlers
Category:Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan
Category:French male television actors
Category:French people of Bulgarian descent
Category:French people of Polish descent
Category:Male actors from Grenoble
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Category:NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Champions
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Category:People from Coulommiers
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Category:People from Ellerbe, North Carolina
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Category:Professional wrestlers from North Carolina
Category:Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
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Category:World Tag League (NJPW) winners
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Category:World Tag Team Champions (WWE, 1971–2010)
Category:20th-century French sportsmen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_the_Giant | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.519324 |
2577 | Adrastea (moon) | | adjectives = Adrastean <!--also 'Adrastæan Nemesis' from 1809 is the same name-->
| named_after = Ἀδράστεια Adrasteia
| image = File:adrastea.jpg
| image_scale | caption Image of Adrastea taken by Galileo spacecraft between November 1996 and June 1997
| discoverer =
| discovered = 8 July 1979
| mean_orbit_radius
| eccentricity =
| period <br> (7 h, 9.5 min)
| avg_speed 31.378 km/s
| inclination = 0.03° <br> (to Jupiter's equator)
| satellite_of = Jupiter
| mean_radius
| dimensions = 20 × 16 × 14 km
| volume
| mass | density
| surface_grav | escape_velocity
| rotation = synchronous
| axial_tilt = zero
| albedo =
| single_temperature = ≈ 122 K
}}
Adrastea (), also known as , is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by Voyager 2 in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus—the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.
Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter's main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the Galileo spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.
Discovery and observations
Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in Voyager 2 probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation . Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by Voyager 1. The Galileo spacecraft was able to determine the moon's shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.
Although the Juno orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea.
Physical characteristics
Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (~1,200) km<sup>2</sup>. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, its mass can be estimated at 2 kg. Amalthea's density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10–15%, and Adrastea may be similar.
No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.
Orbit
Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at 70,200 mph at a radius of about (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet's main ring. Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter's equator of 0.03°, respectively.
Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.
The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis's), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea's then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.
Relationship with Jupiter's rings
Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter's rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.
It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea's orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter's main ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea's orbit.
Notes
}}
References
Cited sources
* }}
* }}
*
}}
*
}}
* }}
*
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725035158/http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/03400/03454.html
|archive-date=2011-07-25
}} (discovery)
*
}} (naming the moon)
* | doi-access free}}
* | doi-access free}}External links* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130317224600/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?ObjectJup_Adrastea Adrastea Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
Category:Moons of Jupiter
19790708
Category:Discoveries by David C. Jewitt
Category:Discoveries by G. Edward Danielson
Category:Moons with a prograde orbit | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrastea_(moon) | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.531861 |
2578 | Amalthea | Amalthea may refer to:
Amalthea (mythology), the foster-mother of Zeus in Greek mythology
Amalthea (moon), a moon of Jupiter
113 Amalthea, a main-belt asteroid
Cumaean Sibyl or Amalthea, a priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Cumae, a Greek colony near Naples, Italy
Lady Amalthea, a character in The Last Unicorn
Amalthea Cellars, a winery in New Jersey, United States
Ships
Amalthea (1863), a barquentine bombed by Anton Nilson in 1908
Amalthea (1881), a steam yacht built as Iolanthe, renamed Amalthæa, and later renamed
(1985), a cargo ship | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalthea | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.533729 |
2580 | Ananke (disambiguation) | Ananke is a deity in Greek mythology. Ananke may also refer to:
Ananke (moon), a moon of Jupiter
Ananke group, a group of satellites of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Ananke
"Ananke", a short story by Stanisław Lem from Tales of Pirx the Pilot
Cosmopterix ananke, a moth of family Cosmopterigidae | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ananke_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.535062 |
2581 | Apache HTTP Server | | latest release version
| latest release date = }}|}}|}}}}
| latest preview version
| latest preview date
| operating system Unix-like, Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS
| programming language C
| genre = Web server
| license = Apache-2.0
| website =
}}
The Apache HTTP Server ( ) is a free and open-source cross-platform web server, released under the terms of Apache License 2.0. It is developed and maintained by a community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation.
The vast majority of Apache HTTP Server instances run on a Linux distribution, but current versions also run on Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, and a wide variety of Unix-like systems. Past versions also ran on NetWare, OS/2 and other operating systems,
Originally based on the NCSA HTTPd server, development of Apache began in early 1995 after work on the NCSA code stalled. Apache played a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web, quickly overtaking NCSA HTTPd as the dominant HTTP server<!--
it's unclear what graphs is best representation of popularity but Microsoft topped out at 53% share (now down to 13%) in 2017 for "Web server developers: Market share for all sites" (but see also https://www.netcraft.com/active-sites/ ), so I'm commenting out:
, and has remained most popular since April 1996-->. In 2009, it became the first web server software to serve more than 100 million websites.
, Netcraft estimated that Apache served 23.04% of the million busiest websites, while Nginx served
22.01%; Cloudflare at 19.53% and Microsoft Internet Information Services at 5.78% rounded out the top four. For some of Netcraft's other stats, Nginx is ahead of Apache. According to W3Techs' review of all web sites, in June 2022 Apache was ranked second at 31.4% and Nginx first at 33.6%, with Cloudflare Server third at 21.6%.
Name
According to The Apache Software Foundation, its name was chosen "from respect for the various Native American nations collectively referred to as Apache, well-known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance". This was in a context in which it seemed that the open internet—based on free exchange of open source code—appeared to be soon subjected to a kind of conquer by proprietary software vendor Microsoft; Apache co-creator Brian Behlendorf—originator of the name—saw his effort somewhat parallel that of Geronimo, Chief of the last of the free Apache peoples. But it conceded that the name "also makes a cute pun on 'a patchy web server'—a server made from a series of patches".
There are other sources for the "patchy" software pun theory, including the project's official documentation in 1995, which stated: "Apache is a cute name which stuck. It was based on some existing code and a series of software patches, a pun on 'A PAtCHy' server."
But in an April 2000 interview, Behlendorf asserted that the origins of Apache were not a pun, stating:
In January 2023, the US-based non-profit Natives in Tech accused the Apache Software Foundation of cultural appropriation and urged them to change the foundation's name, and consequently also the names of the software projects it hosts.
When Apache is running under Unix, its process name is , which is short for "HTTP daemon".Feature overview
Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from authentication schemes to supporting server-side programming languages such as <!-- ATTENTION AUTO-EDITORS, THESE UNDERSCORES ARE INTENTIONAL -->Perl, Python, Tcl and PHP. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support (mod_ssl), a proxy module (mod_proxy), a URL rewriting module (mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).
Popular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip<!-- redirects to here -->, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of web pages served over HTTP. ModSecurity is an open source intrusion detection and prevention engine for Web applications. Apache logs can be analyzed through a Web browser using free scripts, such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors.
Virtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different websites. For example, one computer with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve <code>example.com</code>, <code>example.org</code>, <code>test47.test-server.example.edu</code>, etc.
Apache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, content negotiation and supports several graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
It supports password authentication and digital certificate authentication. Because the source code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large public library of Apache add-ons.
A more detailed list of features is provided below:
* Loadable Dynamic Modules
* Multiple Request Processing modes (MPMs) including Event-based/Async, Threaded and Prefork.
* Highly scalable (easily handles more than 10,000 simultaneous connections)
* Handling of static files, index files, auto-indexing and content negotiation
* <kbd>.htaccess</kbd> per-directory configuration support
* Reverse proxy with caching
** Load balancing with in-band health checks
** Multiple load balancing mechanisms
** Fault tolerance and Failover with automatic recovery
** WebSocket, FastCGI, SCGI, AJP and uWSGI support with caching
** Dynamic configuration
* TLS/SSL with SNI and OCSP stapling support, via OpenSSL or wolfSSL.
* Name- and IP address-based virtual servers
* IPv6-compatible
* HTTP/2 support
* Fine-grained authentication and authorization access control
* gzip compression and decompression
* URL rewriting
* Headers and content rewriting
* Custom logging with rotation
* Concurrent connection limiting
* Request processing rate limiting
* Bandwidth throttling
* Server Side Includes
* IP address-based geolocation
* User and Session tracking
* WebDAV
* Embedded Perl, PHP and Lua scripting
* CGI support
* <code>public_html</code> per-user web-pages
* Generic expression parser
* Real-time status views
* FTP support (by a separate module)PerformanceInstead of implementing a single architecture, Apache provides a variety of MultiProcessing Modules (MPMs), which allow it to run in either a process-based mode, a hybrid (process and thread) mode, or an event-hybrid mode, in order to better match the demands of each particular infrastructure. Choice of MPM and configuration is therefore important. Where compromises in performance must be made, Apache is designed to reduce latency and increase throughput relative to simply handling more requests, thus ensuring consistent and reliable processing of requests within reasonable time-frames.<!--It isn't clear to a non-specialist like me why increasing throughput is different from handling more requests or why reducing latency (which sounds like increasing speed) wouldn't enable you to handle more requests. It also isn't clear how either of these represent a compromise in performance. Also, is Apache doing something that decreases latency and increases throughput _relative_ to what you would get by handling more requests, or is it decreasing latency and increasing throughput _rather_ than handling more requests? If the latter, "rather than" should replace "relative to" in that sentence.-->
For delivering static pages, Apache 2.2 series was considered significantly slower than nginx and varnish. To address this issue, the Apache developers created the Event MPM, which mixes the use of several processes and several threads per process in an asynchronous event-based loop. This architecture as implemented in the Apache 2.4 series performs at least as well as event-based web servers, according to Jim Jagielski and other independent sources. However, some independent but significantly outdated benchmarks show that it is still half as fast as nginx, e.g.LicensingThe Apache HTTP Server codebase was relicensed to the Apache 2.0 License (from the previous 1.1 license) in January 2004, and Apache HTTP Server 1.3.31 and 2.0.49 were the first releases using the new license.
The OpenBSD project did not like the change and continued the use of pre-2.0 Apache versions, effectively forking Apache 1.3.x for its purposes. They initially replaced it with Nginx, and soon after made their own replacement, OpenBSD Httpd, based on the Relayd project.Versions
Version 1.1:
The Apache License 1.1 was approved by the ASF in 2000: The primary change from the 1.0 license is in the 'advertising clause' (section 3 of the 1.0 license); derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation.
Version 2.0:
The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004. The stated goals of the license included making the license easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.
Development
{|class"wikitable" style"float: right; margin-left: 1em;"
|+Versions of Apache HTTP Server
|-
!scope="col"|Version
!scope="col"|Initial release
!scope="col"|Latest release
|-
!scope="row"
|1998-06-06
|2010-02-03 (1.3.42)
|-
!scope="row"
|2002-04-06
|2013-07-10 (2.0.65)
|-
!scope="row"
|2005-12-01
|2017-07-11 (2.2.34)
|-
!scope="row"
|2012-02-21
|2025-01-23 (2.4.63)
|-
|colspan"3"|
|}
The Apache HTTP Server Project is a collaborative software development effort aimed at creating a robust, commercial-grade, feature-rich and freely available source code implementation of an HTTP (Web) server. The project is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet and the Web to communicate, plan, and develop the server and its related documentation. This project is part of the Apache Software Foundation. In addition, hundreds of users have contributed ideas, code, and documentation to the project.
Apache 2.4 dropped support for BeOS, TPF, A/UX, NeXT, and Tandem platforms.
Security
Apache, like other server software, can be hacked and exploited. The main Apache attack tool is Slowloris, which exploits a bug in Apache software. It creates many sockets and keeps each of them alive and busy by sending several bytes (known as "keep-alive headers") to let the server know that the computer is still connected and not experiencing network problems. The Apache developers have addressed Slowloris with several modules to limit the damage caused; the Apache modules mod_limitipconn, mod_qos, mod_evasive, mod security, mod_noloris, and mod_antiloris have all been suggested as means of reducing the likelihood of a successful Slowloris attack. Since Apache 2.2.15, Apache ships the module mod_reqtimeout as the official solution supported by the developers.See also
* .htaccess
* .htpasswd
* ApacheBench
* Comparison of web server software
* IBM HTTP Server
* LAMP (software bundle)
* XAMPP
* List of Apache modules
*List of free and open-source software packages
* POSSE project
* suEXEC
* Apache Tomcat - another web server developed by the Apache Software Foundation
References
External links
*
Category:1995 software
Category:Cross-platform free software
Category:Free software programmed in C
Category:Free web server software
Category:Reverse proxy
Category:Software using the Apache license
Category:Unix network-related software
Category:Web server software for Linux | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.575800 |
2582 | Alph | Alph may refer to:
Alpheus River, a river on the Peloponnese
Alph River, a river in Antarctica
Alph Lake, a lake in Antarctica
Alph, a fictional river in the poem Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Alph, a character from Luminous Arc
Alph, a character from the game Pikmin 3
See also
ALF (disambiguation)
Alph Lyla, the in-house band of video game developer Capcom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alph | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.577882 |
2583 | Arbroath Abbey | | founded date = 1178
| founder = King William the Lion
}}
Arbroath Abbey, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. It was William's only personal foundation — he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.
The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
History
, depicting the murder of St Thomas]]
King William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free. The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland's most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath. Campaigners believe that the Abbey's historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote "Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining "We're simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it."Architectural descriptionThe Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly 'Early English' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured long by wide.<ref name"EB1911"/> What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway.
The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland.
of Arbroath Abbey, as observed from the west]]
In the summer of 2001, a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built.
See also
*Abbot of Arbroath, for a list of abbots and commendators
*1950 removal of the Stone of Scone
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205005029/http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/arbroath/arbroathabbey/ ''Undiscovered Scotland's'' detailed history]
* https://web.archive.org/web/20140220180351/http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm
* http://www.arbroathabbeypageant.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716201840/http://www.angus.gov.uk/new/releases-archive/2003/2003-02-07a.html 2002 Angus Design Award]
Category:1178 establishments
Category:12th century in Scotland
Category:Christian monasteries established in the 1170s
Category:Buildings and structures in Angus, Scotland
Category:History of Angus, Scotland
Category:Tironensian monasteries
Category:Category A listed buildings in Angus, Scotland
Category:Listed monasteries in Scotland
Category:Former Christian monasteries in Scotland
Category:Arbroath
Category:Thomas Becket | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbroath_Abbey | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.582048 |
2593 | Accounting | Accounting (video game)}}
Accounting, also known as accountancy, is the process of recording and processing information about economic entities, such as businesses and corporations. Accounting measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators. Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used interchangeably.
Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, tax accounting and cost accounting. Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities.
Accounting has existed in various forms and levels of sophistication throughout human history. The double-entry accounting system in use today was developed in medieval Europe, particularly in Venice, and is usually attributed to the Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli. Today, accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms,
History
'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495 (Museo di Capodimonte)]]
Accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. One early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money; and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.
Many concepts related to today's accounting seem to be initiated in medieval's Middle East. For example, Jewish communities used double-entry bookkeeping in the early-medieval period and Muslim societies, at least since the 10th century also used many modern accounting concepts.
The spread of the use of Arabic numerals, instead of the Roman numbers historically used in Europe, increased efficiency of accounting procedures among Mediterranean merchants, who further refined accounting in medieval Europe. With the development of joint-stock companies, accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting.
The first published work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was the Summa de arithmetica, published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli (the "Father of Accounting"). Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century, with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880.
Etymology
]]
Both the words "accounting" and "accountancy" were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s and are derived from the words accompting and accountantship used in the 18th century. In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century), the verb "to account" had the form accounten, which was derived from the Old French word aconter, which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word computare, meaning "to reckon". The base of computare is putare, which "variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think".
Terminology
Accounting has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of transactions of the firm, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and "the principles and procedures of accounting"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant.
Accountancy refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English.Financial accounting
Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and changes over time to meet the needs of decision-makers.
Management accounting produces past-oriented reports with time spans that vary widely, but it also encompasses future-oriented reports such as budgets. Management accounting reports often include financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments.
Auditing
Auditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff, and in the context of accounting it is the "unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization". Audit is a professional service that is systematic and conventional.
An audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an independent opinion on the financial statements. The auditor expresses an independent opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and "in all material respects". An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have not been consistently observed.Information systems
An accounting information system is a part of an organization's information system used for processing accounting data.
Many corporations use artificial intelligence-based information systems. The banking and finance industry uses AI in fraud detection. The retail industry uses AI for customer services. AI is also used in the cybersecurity industry. It involves computer hardware and software systems using statistics and modeling.
Many accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software. An enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources. These systems can be cloud based and available on demand via application or browser, or available as software installed on specific computers or local servers, often referred to as on-premise.
Tax accounting
Tax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns. The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting. U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company. Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income). "Forensic" means "suitable for use in a court of law", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that forensic accountants generally have to work.
Political campaign accounting
Political campaign accounting deals with the development and implementation of financial systems and the accounting of financial transactions in compliance with laws governing political campaign operations. This branch of accounting was first formally introduced in the March 1976 issue of The Journal of Accountancy. Organizations Professional bodies
Professional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), including Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP), CPA Australia, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW). Some countries have a single professional accounting body and, in some other countries, professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) in the UK and Institute of management accountants in the United States. Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant (AICPA) and chartered accountant. Firms
Depending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms.
Accounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century. Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance of the auditing market by the "Big Five" accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four.
Standard-setters
Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies. In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries. sets the internationally appropriate principles-based Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants; the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards; and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards. However, as of 2012 "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS. A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies. For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement, and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting.
A doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example, to work as a university professor in accounting. The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees. The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications.
In Scotland, chartered accountants of ICAS undergo Continuous Professional Development and abide by the ICAS code of ethics. In England and Wales, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures.
In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws.
The ACCA is the largest global accountancy body with over 320,000 members, and the organisation provides an 'IFRS stream' and a 'UK stream'. Students must pass a total of 14 exams, which are arranged across three levels.
Research
Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society. It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.
Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants. Methodologies in academic accounting research include archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research.
Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles than comparable journals in economics and other business disciplines, and consequently, accounting scholars are relatively less successful in academic publishing than their business school peers. Due to different publication rates between accounting and other business disciplines, a recent study based on academic author rankings concludes that the competitive value of a single publication in a top-ranked journal is highest in accounting and lowest in marketing.Scandals
The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk.
The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms. causing the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.
One consequence of these events was the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders.
Fraud and error
Accounting fraud is an intentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records by management or employees which involves the use of deception. It is a criminal act and a breach of civil tort. It may involve collusion with third parties.
An accounting error is an unintentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records, for example misinterpretation of facts, mistakes in processing data, or oversights leading to incorrect estimates.<ref name="IAASB-ISA240"/> Acts leading to accounting errors are not criminal but may breach civil law, for example, the tort of negligence.
The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud and errors rests with the entity's management.<ref name"IAASB-ISA240"/>See also
* Accounting information system
* Accounting records
* Outline of accounting
References
External links
*
* [https://www.informs.org/About-INFORMS/History-and-Traditions/OR-Application-Areas/Accounting Operations Research in Accounting] on the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences website
Category:Administrative theory
fi:Laskentatoimi | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.606845 |
2594 | Ant | , of Middle English, which come from of Old English; these are all related to Low Saxon , and varieties (Old Saxon ) and to German (Old High German ). All of these words come from West Germanic *, and the original meaning of the word was "the biter" (from Proto-Germanic , "off, away" + "cut").
The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin ("ant") from which the words in other Romance languages, such as the Portuguese , Italian , Spanish , Romanian , and French are derived.
The study of ants is called myrmecology, from Ancient Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx ("ant"). It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-European word *morwi- was the root for Sanskrit vamrah, Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx, Latin , Old Church Slavonic mraviji, Old Irish moirb, Old Norse maurr, Dutch mier, Swedish myra, Danish myre, Middle Dutch miere, and Crimean Gothic miera.Taxonomy and evolutionThe family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the stinging wasps, and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea. A more detailed basic taxonomy was proposed in 2020. Three species of the extinct mid-Cretaceous genera Camelomecia and Camelosphecia were placed outside of the Formicidae, in a separate clade within the general superfamily Formicoidea, which, together with Apoidea, forms the higher-ranking group Formicapoidina. Fernández et al. (2021) suggest that the common ancestors of ants and apoids within the Formicapoidina probably existed as early as in the end of the Jurassic period, before divergence in the Cretaceous.
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Cerapachyinae is paraphyletic<br />
‡ The previous dorylomorph subfamilies – Ecitoninae, Aenictinae, Aenictogitoninae, Cerapachyinae, Leptanilloidinae – were synonymized under Dorylinae by Brady et al. in 2014
}}
]]
In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma) that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago, has features found in some wasps, but not found in modern ants. The oldest fossils of ants date to the mid-Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, which belong to extinct stem-groups such as the Haidomyrmecinae, Sphecomyrminae and Zigrasimeciinae, with modern ant subfamilies appearing towards the end of the Cretaceous around 80–70 million years ago. Ants diversified extensively during the Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago. Some groups, such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae, are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.
During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent (the Northern Hemisphere). Their representation in the fossil record is poor, in comparison to the populations of other insects, representing only about 1% of fossil evidence of insects in the era. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period. By the Oligocene and Miocene, ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, around one in 10 genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).
Termites live in colonies and are sometimes called "white ants", but termites are only distantly related to ants. They are the sub-order Isoptera, and together with cockroaches, they form the order Blattodea. Blattodeans are related to mantids, crickets, and other winged insects that do not undergo complete metamorphosis. Like ants, termites are eusocial, with sterile workers, but they differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction. The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.
Distribution and diversity
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"float:right; margin:10px;"
|-
! Region !! Number of<br />species
|-
| Neotropics ||align="right"| 2,162
|-
| Nearctic ||align="right"| 580
|-
| Europe ||align="right"| 180
|-
| Africa ||align="right"| 2,500
|-
| Asia ||align="right"| 2,080
|-
| Melanesia ||align="right"| 275
|-
| Australia ||align="right"| 985
|-
| Polynesia ||align="right"| 42
|}
Ants have a cosmopolitan distribution. They are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most ant species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. There is considerable variation in ant abundance across habitats, peaking in the moist tropics to nearly six times that found in less suitable habitats. Their ecological dominance has been examined primarily using estimates of their biomass: myrmecologist E. O. Wilson had estimated in 2009 that at any one time the total number of ants was between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e., between 10<sup>15</sup> and 10<sup>16</sup>) and using this estimate he had suggested that the total biomass of all the ants in the world was approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race. More careful estimates made in 2022 which take into account regional variations puts the global ant contribution at 12 megatons of dry carbon, which is about 20% of the total human contribution, but greater than that of the wild birds and mammals combined. This study also puts a conservative estimate of the ants at about 20 × 10<sup>15</sup> (20 quadrillion).
Ants range in size from , the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum, the queen of which was long with a wingspan of . Ants vary in colour; most ants are yellow to red or brown to black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre. More than 13,800 species are currently known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000; see the article List of ant genera), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntWeb and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species.
Morphology
)]]
Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having geniculate (elbowed) antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole. The body is divided into three distinct sections (formally known as tagmata''): the head, mesosoma, and metasoma. The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments). Tergosternal fusion, when the tergite and sternite of a segment fuse together, can occur partly or fully on the second, third and fourth abdominal segment and is used in identification. Fourth abdominal tergosternal fusion was formerly used as character that defined the poneromorph subfamilies, Ponerinae and relatives within their clade, but this is no longer considered a synapomorphic character.
Like other arthropods, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.Head
showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent vision]]
An ant's head contains many sensory organs. Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together. Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection, but do not offer a high resolution image. They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization. Compared to vertebrates, ants tend to have blurrier eyesight, particularly in smaller species, and a few subterranean taxa are completely blind. Based on experiments conducted to test their ability to differentiate between selected wavelengths of light, some ant species such as Camponotus blandus, Solenopsis invicta, and Formica cunicularia are thought to possess a degree of colour vision.
Two antennae ("feelers") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch. The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence.
Mesosoma
Both the legs and wings of the ant are attached to the mesosoma ("thorax"). The legs terminate in a hooked claw which allows them to hook on and climb surfaces. Only reproductive ants (queens and males) have wings. Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens. In a few species, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur. Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution. Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in Carebara diversa show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry weights.
Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile, haploid males. The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels. These food storage workers are called repletes. For instance, these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant Myrmecocystus mexicanus. Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes; and, if repletes are removed from the colony, other workers become repletes, demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism. This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp. These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens. The Australian jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) has only a single pair of chromosomes (with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.Genome sizeGenome size is a fundamental characteristic of an organism. Ants have been found to have tiny genomes, with the evolution of genome size suggested to occur through loss and accumulation of non-coding regions, mainly transposable elements, and occasionally by whole genome duplication. This may be related to colonisation processes, but further studies are needed to verify this.
The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa. The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research. Winged male ants, called drones (termed "aner" in old literature), emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females. Some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony.
A new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. Such age-based task-specialization or polyethism has been suggested as having evolved due to the high casualties involved in foraging and defence, making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and likely to die sooner from natural causes. In the Brazilian ant Forelius pusillus, the nest entrance is closed from the outside to protect the colony from predatory ant species at sunset each day. About one to eight workers seal the nest entrance from the outside and they have no chance of returning to the nest and are in effect sacrificed. Whether these seemingly suicidal workers are older workers has not been determined.
Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks. Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size.
Ants are active all year long in the tropics; however, in cooler regions, they survive the winter in a state of dormancy known as hibernation. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.Reproduction
) mating, the drone is much smaller than the queen]]
A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis. Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating. Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamergates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.
Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony, such as in army ants. When the drone is initially attacked by the workers, it releases a mating pheromone. If recognized as a mate, it will be carried to the queen to mate. Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles, piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone. The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed.
Most ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year. During the species-specific breeding period, winged females and winged males, known to entomologists as alates, leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid. Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests. Males typically take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Males will mount females in the air, but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground. Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the sperm in their spermathecae. The genus Cardiocondyla have species with both winged and wingless males, where the latter will only mate with females living in the same nest. Some species in the genus have lost winged males completely, and only produce wingless males. In C. elegans, workers may transport newly emerged queens to other conspecific nests where the wingless males from unrelated colonies can mate with them, a behavioural adaptation that may reduce the chances of inbreeding.
Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings using their tibial spurs and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones. The first workers to hatch, known as nanitics, are weaker and smaller than later workers but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, Membership to a colony is identified by the response of worker ants which identify whether another individual belongs to their own colony or not. A signature cocktail of body surface chemicals (also known as cuticular hydrocarbons or CHCs) forms the so-called colony odor which other members can recognize. Some ant species appear to be less discriminating and in the Argentine ant Linepithema humile, workers carried from a colony anywhere in the southern US and Mexico are acceptable within other colonies in the same region. Similarly workers from colonies that have established in Europe are accepted by any other colonies within Europe but not by the colonies in the Americas. The interpretation of these observations has been debated and some have been termed these large populations as supercolonies while others have termed the populations as unicolonial.
Behaviour and ecology
Communication
workers communicating through touch and pheromones]]
larvae that parasitoid wasps larvae exited two days earlier.]]
Ants communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path.
Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves. Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia. This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to. In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony.
Some ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species.
Defence <!-- Note this spelling is correct in UK English, if you came here to change this to Defense, please note that articles on Wikipedia choose between US and UK spelling based on priority-->
sp. attacks another of its kind to protect its territory.]]
Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging often injecting or spraying chemicals. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt sting pain index.
The sting of jack jumper ants can be lethal for humans, and an antivenom has been developed for it. Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids. Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people. Formicine ants secrete a poison from their glands, made mainly of formic acid.
in fighting position, mandibles wide open]]
Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom. One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between , with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat. which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.
A Malaysian species of ant in the Camponotus cylindricus group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster. If combat takes a turn for the worse, a worker may perform a final act of suicidal altruism by rupturing the membrane of its gaster, causing the content of its mandibular glands to burst from the anterior region of its head, spraying a poisonous, corrosive secretion containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers. The worker subsequently dies.
In addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Secretions from the metapleural gland, unique to the ants, produce a complex range of chemicals including several with antibiotic properties. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophoresis, the disposal of dead nest-mates. Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in Atta mexicana while workers of Linepithema humile react to the absence of characteristic chemicals (dolichodial and iridomyrmecin) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour. In Megaponera analis, injured ants are treated by nestmastes with secretions from their metapleural glands which protect them from infection. Camponotus ants do not have a metapleural gland
Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture. Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside. Camponotus anderseni, which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration.Learning
]]
Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation, but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed. A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis can lead a naïve nest-mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running. The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor. The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close.
Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times. A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care.
Nest construction
, Pamalican, Philippines]]
Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,
The army ants of South America, such as the Eciton burchellii species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together.
Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis.
Formica polyctena, among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae. The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials.
Some ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures.Cultivation of food
, honeypot ants, store food to prevent colony famine.]]
Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores, to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rainforest canopies. Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Ergates specialise in related tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi.Navigation
]]
Foraging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark. In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants of the genus Cataglyphis such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled. Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow). Directions are measured using the position of the sun.
They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest.
Like all ants, they can also make use of visual landmarks when available as well as olfactory and tactile cues to navigate. Some species of ant are able to use the Earth's magnetic field for navigation. The compound eyes of ants have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction.
These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum. In some army ant species, a group of foragers who become separated from the main column may sometimes turn back on themselves and form a circular ant mill. The workers may then run around continuously until they die of exhaustion.
Locomotion
The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs. There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among arboreal ants with small colonies. Ants with this ability are able to control their horizontal movement so as to catch tree trunks when they fall from atop the forest canopy.
Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands. Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe.Cooperation and competition
feeding on a cicada: social ants cooperate and collectively gather food]]
Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants. Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey.
Some species attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive. Captured workers of enslaved Temnothorax species have evolved a counter-strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making Temnothorax americanus, but sparing the males (who do not take part in slave-raiding as adults).
'' (a jumping ant) engaged in battle with a rival colony's queen (on top)]]
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked.
Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species such as Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead, rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts. This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest.
A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.
Relationships with other organisms
(female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.]]
Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators. These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines.
from an aphid]]
s collecting honeydew from Calico scales (Eulecanium cerasorum) then played at 30 times speed to show the pumping action of the scale.]]
Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect. In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies.
Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. The chemicals in the secretions of Narathura japonica alter the behavior of attendant Pristomyrmex punctatus workers, making them less aggressive and stationary. The relationship, formerly characterized as "mutualistic", is now considered as possibly a case of the ants being parasitically manipulated by the caterpillars. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants. A similar adaptation can be seen in Grizzled skipper butterflies that emit vibrations by expanding their wings in order to communicate with ants, which are natural predators of these butterflies. Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae. A number of specialized bacteria have been found as endosymbionts in ant guts. Some of the dominant bacteria belong to the order Hyphomicrobiales whose members are known for being nitrogen-fixing symbionts in legumes but the species found in ant lack the ability to fix nitrogen. Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the genera Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus of the family Agaricaceae. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.
, but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers.]]
s and collecting honeydew secreted. A wrinkled solder beetle flies in and eats an aphid before being chased away by the ants.]]Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees, (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees. Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare, one example being of the pollination of the orchid Leporella fimbriata which induces male Myrmecia urens to pseudocopulate with the flowers, transferring pollen in the process. One theory that has been proposed for the rarity of pollination is that the secretions of the metapleural gland inactivate and reduce the viability of pollen. Some plants, mostly angiosperms but also some ferns, have special nectar exuding structures, extrafloral nectaries, that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects. Species such as the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) who defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants. In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies. In Fiji Philidris nagasau (Dolichoderinae) are known to selectively grow species of epiphytic Squamellaria (Rubiaceae) which produce large domatia inside which the ant colonies nest. The ants plant the seeds and the domatia of young seedling are immediately occupied and the ant faeces in them contribute to rapid growth. Similar dispersal associations are found with other dolichoderines in the region as well. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants.
Many plant species have seeds that are adapted for dispersal by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread, and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations. Some plants in arid, fire-prone systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food. Ants can substantially alter rate of decomposition and nutrient cycling in their nest. By myrmecochory and modification of soil conditions they substantially alter vegetation and nutrient cycling in surrounding ecosystem.
A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch.
tending a common leafhopper nymph]]
) with a cutworm (tribe Noctuini) and then lost to ants (Family Formicidae)]]
s from different colonies steal the cranefly that a pair of Long-jawed orb weaver spiders were consuming.]]
Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellent chemical. It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other wasps, such as A. multipicta, defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing. Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defences against ants. Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants. in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus. Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates.
A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as Hyeronima alchorneoides, and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode.
jumping spider) sometimes feed on ants|right]]
A study of Temnothorax nylanderi colonies in Germany found that workers parasitized by the tapeworm Anomotaenia brevis (ants are intermediate hosts, the definitive hosts are woodpeckers) lived much longer than unparasitized workers and had a reduced mortality rate, comparable to that of the queens of the same species, which live for as long as two decades.
South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in the skin of some species come from the ants. Formicine ants in the genera Brachymyrmex and Paratrechina have been found to contain pumiliotoxin found in Dendrobates pumilio. The West African frog Phrynomantis microps is able to move within the nests of Paltothyreus tarsatus'' ants, producing peptides on its skin that prevent the ants from stinging them.
Army ants which is the toxin found in forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape. In Central and South America, Eciton burchellii is the swarming ant most commonly attended by "ant-following" birds such as antbirds and woodcreepers. This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies found the birds to be parasitic. Direct kleptoparasitism (birds stealing food from the ants' grasp) is rare and has been noted in Inca doves which pick seeds at nest entrances as they are being transported by species of Pogonomyrmex. Birds that follow ants eat many prey insects and thus decrease the foraging success of ants. Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds.
Anteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants. About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants.Relationship with humans
s are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China.]]
Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control. On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings or cause economic losses.
In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound. The large heads of the dinergates (soldiers) of the leafcutting ant Atta cephalotes are also used by native surgeons in closing wounds.
Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false tocandiras) of South America and the Myrmecia ants of Australia.
In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest the seeds of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), a plant used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap.
Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered. These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species. Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (Aneuretus simoni) and Adetomyrma venatrix of Madagascar.As food
, Thailand]]
Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$50 per kg going up to US$200 per kg (as of 2006) because they are seasonal and hard to find. In the Colombian department of Santander, hormigas culonas (roughly interpreted as "large-bottomed ants") Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten. In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry. Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, yam (), in a dish called yam khai mot daeng () or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates". Ants or their pupae are used as starters for yogurt making in parts of Bulgaria and Turkey.
In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the repletes, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Myrmecocystus). The adaptive nature of ant colonies make it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions. Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Management is based on the species and techniques may vary according to the location and circumstance. Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies. Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria'', specially constructed glass framed enclosures. Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with dots of colours.
The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms.As pets
From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States. Some later commercial versions use transparent gel instead of soil, allowing greater visibility at the cost of stressing the ants with unnatural light.
In culture
's ants]]
Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables, children's stories, and religious texts to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, such as in the Aesop fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. In the Quran, Sulayman is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army., In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the first animals. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief. Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance. In Greek mythology, the goddess Athena turned the maiden Myrmex into an ant when the latter claimed to have invented the plough, when in fact it was Athena's own invention.
, a town in Finland]]
Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his 1880 book A Tramp Abroad. Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem "Departmental" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King''. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's Les Fourmis science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour are described using contemporary scientific knowledge. H. G. Wells wrote about intelligent ants destroying human settlements in Brazil and threatening human civilization in his 1905 science-fiction short story, The Empire of the Ants. A similar German story involving army ants, Leiningen Versus the Ants, was written in 1937 and recreated in movie form as The Naked Jungle in 1954. In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3-D animated films featuring ants have been produced including Antz, ''A Bug's Life, The Ant Bully, The Ant and the Aardvark, Ferdy the Ant and Atom Ant. Renowned myrmecologist E. O. Wilson wrote a short story, "Trailhead" in 2010 for The New Yorker'' magazine, which describes the life and death of an ant-queen and the rise and fall of her colony, from an ants' point of view.
Ants also are quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction insectoids, such as the Formics of ''Ender's Game, the Bugs of Starship Troopers, the giant ants in the films Them! and Empire of the Ants,'' Marvel Comics' super hero Ant-Man, and ants mutated into super-intelligence in Phase IV. In computer strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies. In the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for "Best Simulation Program". See also
* Glossary of ant terms
* International Union for the Study of Social Insects
* Myrmecological News (journal)
* Task allocation and partitioning in social insects
References
Cited texts
*
* Further reading
*
*
*
External links
* [http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Welcome_to_AntWiki AntWiki – Bringing Ants to the World]
*
* [http://www.antweb.org/ AntWeb from The California Academy of Sciences]
* [http://www.pestworld.org/pest-guide/ants/ Ant Species Fact Sheets] from the National Pest Management Association on Argentine, Carpenter, Pharaoh, Odorous, and other ant species
* [http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Category:Genus_Distribution_Map Ant Genera of the World – distribution maps]
* [http://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermReviews/Myrmecophytes.html The super-nettles. A dermatologist's guide to ants-in-the-plants]
Category:Symbiosis
Category:Extant Albian first appearances
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Insects in culture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.720116 |
2597 | Arbitration in the United States | Arbitration, in the context of the law of the United States, is a form of alternative dispute resolution. Specifically, arbitration is an alternative to litigation through which the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective evidence and legal arguments to a third party (i.e., the arbitrator) for resolution. In practice, arbitration is generally used as a substitute for litigation. In some contexts, an arbitrator has been described as an umpire. Arbitration is broadly authorized by the Federal Arbitration Act. State regulation of arbitration is significantly limited by federal legislation and judicial decisions applying that law.
The practice of arbitration, especially forced arbitration clauses between workers or consumers and large companies or organizations, has been gaining a growing amount of scrutiny from both the general public and trial lawyers. Arbitration clauses face various challenges to enforcement, and clauses are unenforceable in the United States when a dispute which falls under the scope of an arbitration clause pertains to sexual harassment or assault.
History
Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law. This rule has been traced back to dictum by Lord Coke in Vynor’s Case, 8 Co. Rep. 81b, 77 Eng. Rep. 597 (1609), that agreements to arbitrate were revocable by either party.
During the Industrial Revolution, merchants became increasingly opposed to this rule. They argued that too many valuable business relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial litigation, in courts whose rules differed significantly from the informal norms and conventions of businesspeople. Arbitration was promoted as being faster, less adversarial, and cheaper.
The result was the New York Arbitration Act of 1920, followed by the United States Arbitration Act of 1925 (now known as the Federal Arbitration Act). Both made agreements to arbitrate valid and enforceable (unless one party could show fraud or unconscionability or some other ground for rescission which undermined the validity of the entire contract). Due to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of interstate commerce, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the 1980s and 1990s to cover almost the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state legislatures to protect their workers and consumers against powerful business interests. Starting in 1991 with the Gilmer decision arbitration expanded dramatically in the employment context, growing from 2.1 percent of employees subject to mandatory arbitration clauses in 1992 to 53.9% in 2017.
Types of Arbitration
Commercial and contract
Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract. All arbitral decisions are considered to be "final and binding". This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (for example, criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.
Furthermore, arbitration agreements can only bind parties who have agreed, expressly or implicitly, to arbitrate, and parties cannot be required to submit to an arbitration process if they have not previously agreed so to submit. It is only through the advance agreement of the parties that the arbitrator derives any authority to resolve disputes. Arbitration cannot bind non-signatories to an arbitration contract, even if those non-signatories later become involved with a signatory to a contract by accident (usually through the commission of a tort). However, third-party non-signatories can be bound by arbitration agreements based on theories of estoppel, agency relationships with a party, assumption of the contract containing the arbitration agreement, third-party beneficiary status under the contract, or piercing the corporate veil.
The question of whether two parties have actually agreed to arbitrate any disputes is one for judicial determination, because if the parties have not agreed to arbitrate then the arbitrator would have no authority. but issues regarding whether a claim falls within the scope of arbitrable issues is a judicial matter, unless the parties have expressly agreed that the arbitrator may decide the scope of his or her own authority. Most courts hold that general arbitration clauses, such as an agreement to refer to arbitration any dispute "arising from" or "related to" a particular contract, do not authorize an arbitrator to determine whether a particular issue arises from or relates to the contract concerned.
Labor
Arbitration may be used as a means of resolving labor disputes, an alternative to strikes and lockouts. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties:
#interest arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and
#grievance arbitration, which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a collective bargaining agreement.
Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the United States, such as the National Labor Union, called for arbitration as early as 1866 as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy.
Interest arbitration
Governments have relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the Coal Strike of 1902. This type of arbitration, wherein a neutral arbitrator decides the terms of the collective bargaining agreement, is commonly known as interest arbitration. The United Steelworkers of America adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. Major League Baseball uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency. Interest arbitration is now most frequently used by public employees who have no right to strike (for example, law enforcement and firefighters).
Grievances
Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee and union grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America made arbitration a central element of the Protocol of Peace it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during World War II, when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The War Labor Board, which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy in three cases which came to be known as the Steelworkers' Trilogy. The Court held that grievance arbitration was a preferred dispute resolution technique and that courts could not overturn arbitrators' awards unless the award does not draw its essence from the collective bargaining agreement. State and federal statutes may allow vacating an award on narrow grounds (e.g., fraud). These protections for arbitrator awards are premised on the union-management system, which provides both parties with due process. Due process in this context means that both parties have experienced representation throughout the process, and that the arbitrators practice only as neutrals. See National Academy of Arbitrators.
Securities
In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The arbitration process operates under its own rules, as defined by contract. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority.
The securities industry uses pre-dispute arbitration agreements, through which the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms, other than Securities class action claims, are resolved in arbitration.
The SEC has come under fire from members of the Senate Judiciary Committee for not fulfilling statutory duty to protect individual investors, because all brokers require arbitration, and arbitration does not provide a court-supervised discovery process, require arbitrators to follow rules of evidence or result in written opinions establishing precedence, or case law, or provide the efficiency gains it once did. Arbitrator selection bias, hidden conflicts of interest, and a case where an arbitration panel refused to follow instructions handed down from a judge, were also raised as issues.JudicialSome state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo. Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent tertiary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement. Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract. Class arbitration Similar to class action litigation, class arbitrations are types where a variety of plaintiffs with similar claims file to have disputes resolved under a single proceeding rather than numerous individual arbitrations. Since the Supreme Court ruled in Lamps Plus, Inc. v. Varela that class arbitrations could not be filed unless explicitly permitted, class arbitrations have been near non-existent. However, a 2025 currently-pending arbitration case led by 100 casino companies that signed similar arbitration contracts against card-shuffling machine manufacturer Light & Wonder involved American Arbitration Association arbitrator John WIlkinson making the decision to consolidate all 100 disputes into a single class, the first since the Lamps Plus decision as well as America's first antitrust class arbitration.Arbitration clausesCongress has expressed a policy in support of arbitration clauses. This support is found in the Federal Arbitration Act, (FAA) which permits compulsory and binding arbitration, under which parties give up the right to appeal an arbitrator's decision to a court. In Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg. Co., the U.S. Supreme Court established the "separability principle", under which enforceability of a contract must be challenged in arbitration before any court action, unless the arbitration clause itself has been challenged. Today, mandatory (or "forced") arbitration clauses are widespread in the United States, with 15 of the largest 20 U.S. credit card issuers, 7 of the 8 largest cell phone companies, and 2 out of 3 major bike sharing companies in Seattle including such clauses in their consumer contracts. Arbitration clauses can be enforceable if "signed" electronically, though California courts have stated that a handwritten signature to an arbitration agreement is easier to enforce than one done electronically.
In AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion (2011), the Supreme Court upheld an arbitration clause in a consumer standard form contract which waived the right to a lawsuit and class action. However, this clause was relatively generous in that the business paid all fees unless the action was determined to be frivolous and a small-claims court action remained available; these types of protections are recommended for the contract to remain enforceable and not unconscionable.
The Supreme Court has also ruled that questions on whether an arbitration clause should be enforced at all permits litigation involving the rest of the case to be stayed. In 2023's Coinbase v. Bielski, the court ruled that federal district courts must stay proceedings involving a case during an arbitration appeal on such case.
Arbitration clauses can also be written in a manner which excludes certain disputes from being required to be sent to arbitration. Motions to compel arbitration involving excluded disputes then on would not be honored, as seen in a 2023 ruling made by the Ninth Circuit via one of its judicial panels. In such ruling, the casino firm Saipan included an arbitration agreement which exempted licensing claims from being subject to mandatory arbitration. Opt out provisions Some arbitration clauses in the United States offer opportunities for parties to opt out of the arbitration agreement and not be subject to it. Many companies utilize opt out clauses within their arbitration agreements, most often giving 30 or 60 days for consumers in contracts between consumers and companies to either send a rejection notice by mail or by email.
Including an opt out provision has been found to improve the likelihood of that a court will find an arbitration clause to be enforceable. In Hopkins v. World Acceptance Corp, a case cited in Ferrara v. Luxottica, failure to opt out of an arbitration agreement dilutes the ability to combat a motion to compel arbitration.
Many credit card companies which have arbitration agreements allow card signers to opt out, although company procedures may make it difficult for consumers to exercise that option.
Enforceability
Validity and notice
Although properly drafted arbitration clauses are generally valid, they are subject to challenge in court for compliance with laws and public policy. Arbitration clauses may potentially be challenged as unconscionable and, therefore, unenforceable. Typically, the validity of an arbitration clause is decided by a court rather than an arbitrator. However, if the validity of the entire arbitration agreement is in dispute, then the issue is decided by the arbitrators in the first instance. This is known as the principle of separability. For example, in Rent-A-Center, West, Inc. v. Jackson, the Supreme Court of the United States held that "under the FAA, where an agreement to arbitrate includes an agreement that the arbitrator will determine the enforceability of the agreement, if a party challenges specifically the enforceability of that particular agreement, the district court considers the challenge, but if a party challenges the enforceability of the agreement as a whole, the challenge is for the arbitrator."
In other words, the law typically allows federal courts to decide these types of "gateway" or validity questions, but the Supreme Court ruled that since Jackson targeted the entire contract rather than a specific clause, the arbitrator decided the validity. Public Citizen, an advocacy organization opposed to the enforcement of pre-dispute arbitration agreements, characterized the decision negatively: "the court said that companies can write their contracts so that the companies' own arbitrator decides whether it's fair to submit a case to that arbitrator."
Arbitration clauses must also further provide a clear procedure, and confusion or ambiguity in an arbitration clause can also cause such clause to be struck down. One example of this phenomenon occurred in a lawsuit against SoLo Funds, where a Philadelphia federal judge ruled that because the app did not make clear its arbitration requirements, the clause was unconscionable and SoLo's bid to compel arbitration was not granted. Ambiguity-related nullifications of arbitration agreements further extend to proof of agreement between the parties, as in Romano v. BCBSM, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan failed to compel arbitration against a former employee in June 2023 after US district judge George Caram Steeh III ruled that the online application process failed to adequately provide the employee notice of the arbitration agreement he would otherwise be bound to. In 2024, a ruling in Marshall v. Georgetown Memorial Hospital heard by the Fourth Circuit found that since in the case there was not a conspicuous notice to scroll down to read the full terms of an online contract, that an arbitration clause which only could be found by scrolling down could not be held to a duty to read principle, and that reasonable notice of the clause would still have not been found. Modification A significant challenge to arbitrate agreements arose out of South Carolina through the case Hooters v. Phillips. In the 1999 case, a federal district court found that Hooters modified its dispute resolution rules in 1996 to be unfair enough that the court held that the agreement was unconscionable, partly due to Hooters requiring that all of the arbitrators in dispute resolution cases be selected from a list pre-approved by the company, which included Hooters managers. In April 2022, the Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit found that in Coady v. Nationwide Motor Sales, because Nationwide Motor Sales' contract enabled them to be the sole party permitted to modify the contract that Coady signed. Citing Hooters v. Phillips, the court expressed when an employer has the ability “in whole or in part” to modify the arbitration provision without notice to its employees. California's Court of Appeal reached a similar conclusion in Peleg v. Neiman Marcus, in which a unilateral modification to an arbitration agreement invalidated the clause.
Another instance of modified arbitration clauses causing it to be overturned was found in a privacy-related dispute between Amazon and its drivers who work under the company's Amazon Flex service. Amazon Flex drivers, who filed a class action lawsuit claiming that the company spied on private Facebook conversations, alleged that the updated 2019 terms related to Amazon Flex were not delivered properly to them, and that the 2016 terms, which did not include an arbitration clause, should apply. Ultimately, the Ninth Circuit decided that since Amazon was the party compelling arbitration, the burden of proof was on Amazon to prove that its flex drivers received notice of the 2019 updated terms, and that arbitration should not be compelled. Waiver Some courts have found that parties can waive their right to compel arbitration through various forms of actions. In California, as demonstrated by Davis v. Shiekh Shoes and Espinoza v. Superior Court, a party wishing to compel arbitration though failing to pay arbitration fees in a timely manner waives their right to compel arbitration, and must resolve the dispute in court. More importantly, the Supreme Court found in Morgan v. Sundance that a party which does not compel arbitration when a valid clause exists waives its right to compel arbitration. Justice Elena Kagan, writing for the court's unanimous ruling in favor of hourly Taco Bell employee Robyn Morgan, found that the Eighth Circuit created "special rules" in which Morgan was compelled to arbitrate based on Sundance's prejudice (delay) of compelling arbitration.
The opinion on a party waiving its right to compel arbitration if it had litigated extensively prior to the motion has been further confirmed in light of Davis and Espinoza when one of Bronx County's justices ruled in Worbes Corp v. Sebrow. Justice Fidel Gomez states that if a party who intended to compel arbitration brought a "substantive defense" before the court, served a trial notice, moved to depose a witness, or "interposed a counterclaim demanding money damages", that party would have waived its right to compel arbitration. Justice Gomez, however, clarified that such right would not be waived by a party if a defendant "had only defended its position and had not acted in a manner that waives the right to arbitrate". Excessive fees Arbitration clauses can be void in instances where the costs of arbitration would be too high. In 1999's Shankle v. B-G Maintenance Management of Colorado, Inc, the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals refused to grant a motion to compel arbitration on the basis that the fees were too high for the plaintiff Matthew Shankle. The Texas Courts of Appeals found in 2022's ''Cont'l Homes of Texas v. Perez'' that an arbitration clause in the case was unenforceable due to unaffordable arbitration costs for the plaintiffs and the arbitration agreement not being an adequate remedy for litigation. Severability In January 2023, a federal court in Delaware recommended that motions to compel arbitration which conflicted with the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 not be honored in Burnett et al. v. Prudent Financial Services LLC, et al. (C.A. No. 22-270-RGA-JLH). Presiding magistrate judge Jennifer Hall interpreted that based on recent action by the Supreme Court and other federal courts, not every provision within the arbitration agreement should be validated. Additionally, Judge Hall prospected that entire arbitration agreements could become invalid if a single provision is found to be unenforceable by a court.
The notion of a single unconscionable provision invalidating the arbitration agreement, even if such provision was outside of the arbitration-related clauses of a contract, was expanded the following June when a California court ruled in Alberto v. Cambrian Homecare that a confidentiality agreement which prohibited discussing compensation and salary information, and threatened litigation and the collection of attorneys fees, was unenforceable and also declared the arbitration agreement unenforceable. Legislation and regulation Federal law Federal Arbitration Act Arbitration in the United States' most overarching clause is the Federal Arbitration Act (officially the United States Arbitration Act of 1925, commonly referred to as the FAA). The Act stipulates that arbitration in a majority of instances is legal when both parties, either after or prior to the arising of a dispute, agree to the arbitration. The Supreme Court has taken a pro-arbitration stance across most but not all cases, although the federal government, most recently in 2022, has passed certain exemptions to arbitration agreements. States are also generally prohibited from passing their own laws which the Supreme Court and other federal courts believe limit or discriminate against arbitration.
The Federal Arbitration Act also explicitly provides that workers involved in transportation are exempt from arbitration agreements, which the Supreme Court unanimously reaffirmed in various cases, with one notable example being 2022's Southwest Airlines v. Saxon. This, however, does not apply to drivers working for Uber and other ridesharing services. In Bissonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC (2024), the Court ruled that the FAA's exemption for transportation workers applies based on the nature of the work performed, rather than the industry of employment, further refining the scope of the statute.
The Supreme Court has also clarified the scope of the FAA in cases involving employment and arbitration agreements. In Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis (2018), the Court ruled that arbitration agreements requiring individual arbitration and prohibiting class or collective actions are enforceable under the FAA, despite the National Labor Relations Act's protections for concerted activities. More recently, in Badgerow v. Walters (2022), the Court held that federal courts lack jurisdiction to confirm or vacate arbitration awards unless an independent basis for federal jurisdiction exists, limiting federal court involvement in arbitration disputes. In Smith v. Spizzirri (2024), the Court clarified that when a party requests a stay of proceedings pending arbitration, courts must grant the stay rather than dismissing the case outright, reinforcing the FAA's procedural requirements. These decisions continue to shape how arbitration agreements are enforced in the United States. Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act
| signeddate = March 3, 2022
| introducedby = Cheri Bustos
| effective date = March 3, 2022
| introducedin = United States House of Representatives
| introduceddate = July 16, 2021
| acronyms = EFASASHA, EFAA
| actsamended = Federal Arbitration Act
| passeddate1 = February 7, 2022
| passedbody1 = House
| passedbody2 = Senate
| passeddate2 = February 10, 2022
}}
In 2022, Congress passed the Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act (EFASASHA or EFAA), which excludes these types of complaints from arbitration clauses. Congress also included a ban on class action waivers for claims covered under the act. Under the law, claims which are filed after March 3, 2022, and fall under the scope of EFAA shall have agreements to submit disputes to binding arbitration and class action waivers within contracts signed deemed unenforceable for the entire case, though the law allows for claimants to have a case decided by binding arbitration if the plaintiff wishes upon filing. The law was championed by Gretchen Carlson, a former Fox News host sexually harassed for many years by then CEO Roger Ailes; she also opposed the use of non-disclosure agreements to shield perpetrators.
The law was introduced by Illinois House Democrat Cheri Bustos as HR 4445, and passed the House of Representatives by a 335–97 vote, with all no votes coming from Republicans. The EFAA passed the Senate with unanimous consent, and was signed into law by President Joe Biden on March 3, 2022. The law became effective immediately at signing. The state of Louisiana also passed a law in 2024, Act No. 541, which bans pre-dispute arbitration agreements in much of the same circumstances where EFAA bans pre-dispute arbitration agreements, though provides that agreements signed after the filing of a dispute is valid.
Some legal agencies raised concerns that the law could allow for claims attached to a sexual harassment or sexual assault dispute to bypass arbitration as well. These concerns were ultimately confirmed in February 2023, where New York federal judge Paul A. Engelmayer ruled in two lawsuits against the company Everyrealm that if at least one claim in a single case was an act of sexual assault or sexual harassment, the pre-dispute arbitration agreement was unenforceable and arbitration could not be compelled. Engelmayer's decision was rooted in the decision from Congress to directly amend the Federal Arbitration Act, and its actions to do so were indicative of its intention to prohibit the practice in entire cases which the EFAA covers; Engelmayer, however, clarified that the claim of sexual assault or harassment must be reasonable and that the EFAA does not enable implausible claims of sexual harassment to be used to "dodge" arbitration agreements. One month later, a California court ruling on a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Tesla further confirmed the EFAA's ability to ban compelling arbitration in sexual harassment suits, and a second New York federal court earlier came to a similar conclusion in a case filed by an investment banker. Other cases in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas have ruled in favor of the EFAA broadly allowing all reasonably related cases to bypass and invalidate arbitration clauses, with most courts primarily justifying the broad scope the EFAA allows on its usage of the term "claim" over "case" in the legislation, and whether all claims are easonably related to an EFAA-covered kind of claim. Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act
The Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act is a bill filed in every meeting of Congress since the 116th Congress which, if passed, contains provisions which ban arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases between consumers and large companies, as well as employers and large companies. The bill is generally supported by the Democratic Party as well as Freedom Caucus member Matt Gaetz, though has usually been opposed by the Republican Party. In the 116th and 117th congresses, the bill passed the House but failed to pass the Senate; the bill has since been reintroduced in the 118th Congress by Democratic senators Sherrod Brown and Richard Blumenthal, and Democratic representative Hank Johnson.
McCarran–Ferguson Act
In insurance law, arbitration is complicated by the fact that insurance is regulated at the state level under the McCarran–Ferguson Act. From a federal perspective, however, a circuit court ruling has determined that McCarran-Ferguson requires a state statute rather than administrative interpretations.
Protecting Older Americans Act
The Protecting Older Americans Act is pending legislation first filed in the 118th Congress by South Carolina Republicans Lindsey Graham in the Senate and Nancy Mace in the House. The law would ban and overturn arbitration agreements in cases involving discrimination based on age.
Federal regulation
Federal Student Loans
In November 2022, the Department of Education and the office on Federal Student Aid passed new rules which included reinstating a ban on institutions participating in its Direct Loan Program from utilizing pre-dispute mandatory arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases relating to Borrower Defense to Repayment. The new rules also require institutions to disclose their uses of arbitration to the department and to provide certain records connected with any borrower defense claim against the school to the department. The Department of Education stated its reasoning for the ban is that class action waivers and arbitration agreements are too complex for much of the general public to comprehend and that arbitration "rarely" gives favorable decisions to consumers.The rules become effective on July 1, 2023.
Department of Labor
The United States Department of Labor was noted in May 2023 by Bloomberg Law journalist Khorri Atkinson for its increased focus and hostility towards mandatory arbitration and its use by employers for violating Department of Labor rules. Solicitor of Labor Seema Nanda has stated that the department will pursue more cases where employers are utilizing mandatory arbitration to commit violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. State law The FAA has been interpreted to preempt and invalidate state laws which prevent or discriminate against the enforcement of arbitration agreements. In one such case in 2023, which overruled California Assembly Bill 51, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that California's bill placed restrictions on the "broad national policy" favoring arbitration agreements. Similar fates have been bestowed upon legislation in New Jersey, New York, and Washington state which attempted to reduce the scope of arbitration clauses.
In 2014's Atalese v. U.S. Legal Services Group, L.P, the Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled that arbitration clauses must have a valid jury trial waiver, which the court saw as a constitutional right which must be explicitly waived in a contract, in order to be effective, a position reaffirmed by Pennsylvania's Superior Court in 2022's Chiluti v. Uber.
A Pennsylvania appeals court in Philadelphia ruled in March 2023 that parents cannot bind their children to arbitration agreements over injuries, in a lawsuit between parents and a local trampoline park.
Proceedings
Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration.
Enforcement
In some cases, a party may comply with an award voluntarily. However, in other cases a party will have to petition to receive a court judgment for enforcement through various means such as a writ of execution, garnishment, or lien. If the property is in another state, then a sister-state judgment (relying on the Full Faith and Credit Clause) can be received by filing to enforce the judgment in the state where the property is located.
Vacatur
Under the Federal Arbitration Act, courts can only vacate awards for limited reasons set out in statute with similar language in the state model Uniform Arbitration Act.
The court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award was made in manifest disregard of law or conflicts with well-established public policy.
Arbitration Fairness Act
See also
* American Arbitration Association
* Arbitration award
* Consumer arbitration
* Conciliation
* Dispute resolution
* Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis
* Expert determination
* Investor-state arbitration
* JAMS (organization)
* London Court of International Arbitration
* Mediation
* Negotiation
* Special referee
* Subrogation
* Tort reform
* UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
* National Arbitration Forum
* National Academy of Arbitrators
For the relevant conflict of laws elements, see contract, forum selection clause, choice of law clause, proper law, and lex loci arbitri
References
Further reading
* Jerold S. Auerbach, Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).
* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., Introduction to Securities Arbitration (SECLaw.com, 2000 - [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm Securities Arbitration Overview-2023 Update])
* David Sherwyn, Bruce Tracey & Zev Eigen. "In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process," 2 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 73 (1999); n.b., abbreviated source in this legal citation format is the University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law, Vol. 2, p. 73.
* Ed Brunet, J.D., [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521839823/ Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment], Cambridge University Press, 2006.
* Gary Born, International Civil Litigation in United States Courts (Aspen 4th ed. 2006) (with Bo Rutledge) (3rd ed. 1996) (2nd ed. 1992) (1st ed. 1989)
External links
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*[http://www.gvsu.edu/arbitrations/ Arbitration awards at GVSU]
*[http://www.adr.org American Arbitration Association]
United States
Category:Law of the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_United_States | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.747330 |
2598 | Adversarial system | The adversarial system (also adversary system, accusatorial system, or accusatory system) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense.
Basic features
Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features. The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury. The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party's case, usually by lawyers. The third is a highly
structured procedure.
The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his Practical Guide to Evidence recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, "Am I never to hear the truth?" "No, my lord, merely the evidence", replied counsel.
Parties
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question—rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. Lord Devlin in The Judge said: "It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle."
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See Gideon v. Wainwright, .
Criminal proceedings
In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence. Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant. The concept of "cross"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
Comparison with inquisitorial systems
The name "adversarial system" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries.
See also
Adversary evaluation
Judicial interpretation
Exclusionary rule
Parallel thinkingdescribed as a systemic alternative
References
Further reading
Category:Judiciaries
Category:Legal systems | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversarial_system | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.753586 |
2602 | Abano Terme | | coordinates_footnotes | region Veneto
| province = Padua (PD)
| frazioni = Feriole, Giarre, Monterosso, Monteortone
| mayor_party | mayor Federico Barbierato
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2 21
| population_footnotes | population_total 19868
| population_as_of = 31 August 2021
| pop_density_footnotes | population_demonym Aponensi or Abanesi
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m 14
| twin1 | twin1_country
| saint = St. Lawrence
| day = August 10
| postal_code = 35031
| area_code = 049
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
Abano Terme (known as Abano Bagni until 1924) is a town and comune in the Province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Euganean Hills; it is southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (2001) (in 1901 it was 4,556).
The baths were destroyed by the Lombards in the 6th century, but they were rebuilt and enlarged when Abano became an autonomous comune in the 12th century and, again, in the late 14th century. The city was under the Republic of Venice from 1405 to 1797.
Main sights
*Abano Cathedral, or the cathedral (duomo) of St. Lawrence. The current edifice was erected in 1780 over a pre-existing church which was allegedly destroyed by Cangrande della Scala. The bell tower has parts from the 9th/10th and 14th centuries.
*The Montirone Gallery, housing works of Il Moretto, Palma il Giovane, Guido Reni, Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo and others.
*The Sanctuary of the Madonna della Salute or of Monteortone (built from 1428). It lies on the site where the Madonna appeared to Pietro Falco, healing his wounds. The church is on the Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles with three apses decorated by a frieze. It has with a Baroque portal (1667), a bell tower, presbytery frescoes portraying the Histories of St. Peter and Virgin'' by Jacopo da Montagnana (1495) and Palma il Giovane's altarpiece depicting Christ Crucifixed Between St. Augustine and St. Jerome.
Just outside the city is San Daniele Abbey (11th century). from the city is also Praglia Abbey, founded in the 11th century by Benedictine monks and rebuilt in 1496–1550. The abbey church of the Assumption, with a marble portal from 1548, has a Renaissance style interior.
People
* Pietro d'Abano (1316), Italian physician and philosopher
* Matteo Meneghello (born 1981), Italian racing driver
Twin towns
* Shibukawa, Japan
* Bad Füssing, Germany
* Lipik, Croatia
* Kamena Vourla, Greece
See also
* Ex Oratorio del Montirone
References
Sources
*''L'Italia da scoprire'', Giorgio Mondadori, 2006.
External links
* [http://www.abano.it/en/Default.aspx Abano.it Touristic informations web site]
* [https://termefacile.it/ TermeFacile.it Spa facilities information website]
Category:Spa towns in Italy
Category:Abano Terme
Category:Hot springs of Italy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abano_Terme | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.766093 |
2604 | Abated | See also, Abatement.
Abated, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.
References
Category:Construction
Category:Masonry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abated | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.771942 |
2605 | Abati | Abati is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.
Notable people with the surname include:
Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet
Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist
Joaquín Abati (1865–1936), Spanish writer
Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player
Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet
Niccolò dell'Abbate (1509 or 1512 – 1571), Italian painter
Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist
Other uses
The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H. Rider Haggard's adventure novel Queen Sheba's Ring
Abati, Iran, village
Abatipoçanga, 16th-century Tamoio chief
Marauna abati, species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae
References
Category:Italian-language surnames | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abati | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.778042 |
2606 | Abatis | thumb|right|Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.
An abatis, abattis, or abbattis is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.
History
thumb|Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during World War II
Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks. He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis. He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.
A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
Construction
thumb|upright|Giant abatis, made from entire trees, can make an effective anti-vehicle obstacle. This formation can be achieved by use of explosives—note the splintered stumps
thumb|Abatis can be defeated by dozer blades, as fitted here to a British Challenger 2 tank
An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.
An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.
Modern use
Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle.
Notes
References
External links
Video on modern anti-tank abatis by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Category:Fortifications by type
Category:Engineering barrages
Category:Medieval defences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatis | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.780362 |
2607 | Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie | | birth_place = Dublin, Ireland
| death_date
| death_place = Paris, France
| residence | citizenship France
| nationality = Irish, French, Basque
| alma_mater | doctoral_advisor
| doctoral_students | known_for
| author_abbrev_bot | author_abbrev_zoo
| signature | footnotes
| ethnicity | field Geographer
| work_institutions | prizes
}}
'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast''' (3 January 1810 – 19 March 1897) during the early 19th century. He was the elder brother of Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie, who accompanied him on his travels.
Biography
Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie was born a British subject in Dublin, Ireland, to a family of partial Basque noble descent from the French province of Soule. His mother, Madame Thompson, was Irish, and his father, Michel d’Abbadie, was a native of Arrast-Larrebieu. He descended from an ancient lineage of lay abbots based in Arrast, a commune in the canton of Mauléon. These lay abbots were originally instituted by Charlemagne to protect the borderlands against Saracen incursions. Residing in the abbeys of the Basque region, they lived with weapons in hand, ever prepared to defend their territories. They were granted the right to collect tithes and participated in the appointment of priests, selecting candidates in collaboration with the bishop. The name "d’Abbadie" originally referred not to a surname but to their ecclesiastical function ("abbatia," "abbadia").
In 1818, the family relocated to France, where Antoine and his brother received a rigorous scientific education.
On 21 February 1859, he married Virginie Vincent de Saint-Bonnet. and later served as president of the French Academy of Sciences. Upon his death in 1897, he bequeathed the Abbadia estate and castle in Hendaye, generating an annual revenue of 40,000 francs, to the Academy of Sciences. This legacy came with the stipulation that the Academy compile a catalog of 500,000 stars within fifty years.Education
Michel d’Abbadie returned to France with his family around 1820. Settling initially in Toulouse, he personally oversaw the education of his children, who were placed under the care of a governess. “I was raised,” Antoine later recounted, “in the English tradition alongside my sisters. We spent our days and nights in a dormitory, closely monitored by a servant. In the evenings, we had little opportunity to converse with our parents, save for an occasional story from Father before being sent to play quietly in a corner of the room. We always addressed our parents formally, as ‘Sir’ or ‘Madam.’”
Antoine remained at home for three or four years, “far removed from the strict discipline of a boarding school tutor.” At the age of 13, he entered middle school, where he demonstrated exceptional enthusiasm and academic fervor. Even as a child, he exhibited a deep curiosity about the unknown in his surroundings. He once asked his governess, “What lies at the end of the road?” She replied, “A river, my friend.” “And what lies beyond the river?” he inquired. “A mountain,” came the answer. “And beyond the mountain?” the boy persisted. “I cannot say, for I have never been there,” she admitted. “Then I shall journey forth and discover it myself,” declared the child. This insatiable thirst for knowledge became a defining characteristic of Antoine d’Abbadie’s life. Gifted with extraordinary linguistic abilities, he would go on to master numerous languages, including English, Italian, German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Berber, and several Ethiopian languages.
In August 1827, Antoine obtained his baccalaureate and returned to Toulouse to study law. Among his closest friends at the time were Pierre Étienne Simon Duchartre, Bernard-Adolphe Granier de Cassagnac and .The young men often discussed their ambitions for the future. “Sometimes,” d’Abbadie later noted, “Granier asks about my plans; I respond with trivialities, and he likely interprets this as indecision. Yet in my heart, I hold the most extraordinary and beautiful project, one that fills me with joy in my idle moments and which I treasure as much as any other pursuit.”
This grand project, to which the young law student alluded, had been germinating in his mind for years. Since his middle school days, it had shaped his focus, his education, and even the smallest details of his life. From an early age, d’Abbadie harbored the passions and aspirations of an adventurer. While initially vague, his ideas gradually crystallized into a more concrete vision. “After completing college in 1829,” he later recounted, “I undertook six years of study specifically aimed at preparing myself for the exploration of Africa’s interior, which I intended to enter through Tunisia and Morocco. Reading the travels of Bruce transported my imagination to East Africa—a region marked by extensive migrations and the origins of enduring traditions, yet veiled in mystery. I became convinced that the most noble pursuit a man could dedicate himself to was the study of his fellow human beings.”
During these six formative years, d’Abbadie rigorously prepared himself for the challenges of exploration. Gifted with exceptional physical agility, even by Basque standards, he spent years honing his body and mind through physical training. He became skilled in fencing, practiced gymnastics, competed in endurance races under various weather conditions, and developed into an accomplished swimmer. During a vacation in Biarritz in 1827, he impressed the local population by swimming to the Boucalot rock, located nearly 500 meters offshore. Science and explorations In 1835, the French Academy commissioned Antoine d’Abbadie to undertake a scientific mission to Brazil. The findings of this expedition were later published in 1873 They traveled extensively throughout Ethiopia, reaching as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa. Often journeying together but occasionally venturing separately, their explorations encompassed scientific research and political engagement. Antoine, in particular, immersed himself in local political dynamics, advocating for French interests and supporting Catholic missionary efforts.
Arnaud d’Abbadie held several distinguished roles in Ethiopia, including those of general, judge, and diplomat. He actively participated in battles and was granted the title of Ras, one of the most esteemed honors in the country. Antoine, by contrast, followed an academic path and became a dedicated scholar. Reflecting on his time in Ethiopia, he remarked, "When residing in a foreign country without any known antecedents, it is advisable to adopt a vocation in line with local customs, as failure to do so may result in being branded as a political spy, a hazardous accusation in any nation. As I was unable to engage in combat, agriculture, or merchandising, I identified as a "mamhir", or teacher and scholar, during my time in Christian Ethiopia and received an education from their public and non-compulsory schools."
During their extended stay, the two brothers fully assimilated into local customs. They exchanged their European attire for the turban and toga of the Ethiopians and traversed the region barefoot, as, at the time, only lepers and Jews wore sandals. This cultural integration earned them warm receptions wherever they traveled. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of Reconnaissances magnétiques he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observationsAbbadia Castle
, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
Abbadie gave his castle home the name Abbadia, which is the name still used in Basque. However, in French it is usually referred to as ''Chateau d'Abbadie or Domaine d'Abbadia, and locally it is not unusual for it to be called le Chateau d'Antoine d'Abbadie''.
The château was built between 1864 and 1879 on a cliff by the Atlantic Ocean, and was designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in the Neo Gothic style. It is considered one of the most important examples of French Gothic Revival Architecture. It is divided in three parts: the observatory and library, the chapel, and the living quarters.
Over the front entrance door of the château is engraved "Céd míle fáilte" Irish gaelic for one hundred thousand welcomes in honour of his Irish heritage.
The château still belongs to the Academy of Science to which it was bequeathed in 1895 on condition of its producing a catalogue of half-a-million stars within fifty years' time, and president of the French Academy of Sciences in 1892. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society<ref name"ww" /> in 1850.
Notes
FootnotesReferences*
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* – [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01006e.htm Antoine d'Abbadie]
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Category:1810 births
Category:1897 deaths
Category:19th-century French explorers
Category:People from Soule
Category:19th-century French astronomers
Category:French-Basque people
Category:Basque-language writers
Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the Lincean Academy
Category:Irish people of Basque descent
Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour
Category:Irish emigrants to France
Category:Ethiopianists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Thomson_d'Abbadie | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.796241 |
2608 | Abba Mari | <!-- |image = he:Abba Meri Hayarchi.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption = The title page of a printed copy of Abba Mari's work, Minḥat Ḳenaot. -->
|birth_date = 1250
|birth_place = Lunel, France
|death_date = 1306
|known_for = Provençal Rabbi and author of Minḥat Ḳenaot
|children =
}}
Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace (Hebrew Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel from the word "astruc" meaning lucky.
The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the Talmud.Opponent of RationalismAbba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of Minḥat Ḳenaot (Jealousy Offering), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain. Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called Sefer ha-Yarḥi, included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of The Guide and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.
As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the Ten Commandments; (2) the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatio ex nihilo and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of Minḥat Ḳenaot. mentions a ḳinah composed by Abba Mari.<ref name=JewishEncyclopedia/>
Minchat Kenaot is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.
At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel.<ref nameJewishEncyclopedia/>References
Category:13th-century births
Category:14th-century deaths
Category:People from Lunel
Category:14th-century French rabbis
Category:Provençal rabbis
Category:French Orthodox rabbis
Category:Jewish refugees | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Mari | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.800908 |
2609 | Abbas II of Egypt | *}}
|issue =Princess Emine Hilmi<br/>Princess Atiye Hilmi<br/>Princess Fethiye Hilmi<br/>Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim<br/>Princess Lutfiya Shavkat<br/>Prince Muhammed Abdel Kader
|house =Alawiyya
|father =Tewfik I of Egypt
|mother =Emina of Ilhamy
|birth_date =
|birth_place Alexandria, Khedivate of Egypt
|death_date
|death_place =Geneva, Switzerland
|burial_place =Qubbat Afandina, Cairo, Egypt
|religion =Sunni Islam
|}}
Abbas Helmy II (also known as ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā, ; 14 July 1874 – 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8January 1892 to 19 December 1914. In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the de jure end of Egypt's four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.Early lifeAbbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874. In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English. In a profile of Abbas II, the boys' annual, Chums, gave a lengthy account of his education. His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva,<!--Probably in Chums (Pemberton) but needs checking as EB1911 does not mention Abdin Palace and places his Swiss school in Lausanne--> in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.
At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist.
By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels. The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates. However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.
His relations with Cromer's successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party,
pilgrimage, including his portrait on the left]]
During the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt. He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70, unmarried and without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, 31 May 1895;
* Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 – 1971),
Honours
{| class="wikitable"
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!Ribbon bar
!style="width:10em"| Country
!Honour
! Date
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|Sweden
|Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
|1890
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|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph
|1891
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|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George
|23 July 1891
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|France
|Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur
|1892
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|Denmark
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog
|6 April 1892
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|United Kingdom
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross (Civil) of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath
|10 June 1892
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|Spain
|Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
|4 August 1892
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|Netherlands
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
|1892
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|Ottoman Empire
|1st Class of the Order of the Medjidie
|1895
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|Ottoman Empire
|1st Class of the Order of Osmanieh
|1895
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|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold
|1897
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|Siam
|Knight Grand Cross (Special Class) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao
|1897
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|United Kingdom
|Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
|28 June 1900
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|Russia
|Knight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky
|1902
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|Hesse
|Grand Cross of the Order of Ludwig
|26 March 1903
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|United Kingdom
|Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain
|15 June 1905
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|Oldenburg
|Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis
|1905
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|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
|Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order
|1905
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|Saxony
|Grand Cross of the Order of Albert
|1905
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|Greece
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
|1905
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|Montenegro
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
|1905
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|Romania
|Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I
|1905
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|Vatican
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX
|1905
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|Austria-Hungary
|Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen
|1905
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|Russia
|Knight 1st Class of the Order of Saint Stanislaus
|1908
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|Siam
|Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Royal House of Chakri
|1908
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|Italy
|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
|1911
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|Belgium
|Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
|1911
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|Ethiopia
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia
|1911
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|Morocco
|Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite
|1913
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|Albania
|Grand Cross of the Order of the Black Eagle
|1914
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|Prussia
|Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Red Eagle
|1914
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|Zanzibar
|Grand Cordon of the Order of the Exalted
|1914
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Notes
FootnotesReferences*
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060416181042/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/480/chrncls.htm Al-Ahram on Abbas in exile]
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19 December 1914}}
|-
Category:1874 births
Category:1944 deaths
Category:Dethroned monarchs
Category:Monarchs who abdicated
Category:19th-century Egyptian monarchs
Category:20th-century Egyptian monarchs
Category:Khedives of Egypt
Category:Muhammad Ali dynasty monarchs
Category:Egyptian expatriates in Austria
Category:Egyptian expatriates in Switzerland
Category:Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire
Category:Egyptian people of Albanian descent
Category:Ottoman governors of Egypt
Category:Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph
Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (House of Romanov)
Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog
Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Chula Chom Klao
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 1st class
Category:Knights of the Order of Pope Pius IX
Category:Egyptian slave owners
Category:Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
Category:Sons of monarchs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Egypt | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.826641 |
2610 | Abbas Mirza | | image = A Portrait of The Crown Prince Abbas Mirza, Signed L. Herr, Dated (1)833.jpg
| caption = Portrait of Abbas Mirza, signed by L. Herr, dated 1833
| succession = Crown prince of Iran
| reign = 20 March 1799 – 25 October 1833
| reign-type = Tenure
| predecessor = Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
| successor = Mohammad Shah Qajar
| birth_date
| birth_place = Nava, Mazandaran, Qajar Iran
| death_date
| death_place = Mashhad, Khorasan, Qajar Iran
| spouse = Galin Khanum
| issue = Many, among them:<br />Mohammad Shah Qajar<br>Khanlar Mirza<br>Bahram Mirza<br>Bahman Mirza<br>Farhad Mirza<br>Firuz Mirza
| house = Qajar
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
| mother = Asiya Khanom Devellu
| place of burial = Imam Reza Shrine
| religion = Twelver Shia Islam
}}
Abbas Mirza (; 26 August 1789 – 25 October 1833) was the Qajar crown prince of Iran during the reign of his father Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (). As governor of the vulnerable Azerbaijan province, he played a crucial part in the two wars against the Russian Empire (1804–1813 and 1826–1828), as well as the war of 1821–1823 against the Ottoman Empire. He is also recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.
The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up. On March 20, 1799, he was made the crown prince and given the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent). Around the same time, he was appointed the governor of Azerbaijan, with Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants. Following Russia's takeover of Ganja in 1804, Abbas Mirza was in command of the Iranian military counterattack during the first and second Russo-Iranian wars. Throughout the two wars, he fought against numerous Russian commanders in various engagements, scoring both victories and defeats. The Iranians ultimately lost both wars, agreeing to sign the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, in which they ceded all of their holdings in the Caucasus, corresponding to present-day Armenia, Republic of Azerbaijan, and Dagestan.
In 1821, during interlude between the first and second Russo-Iranian war, increased Iranian-Ottoman tensions led to a new war. Abbas Mirza and his elder brother and rival Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah made a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire, the latter penetrating into Ottoman Iraq as far as the walls of Baghdad. Peace was made in 1823, in which both parties signed the Treaty of Erzurum that recognized the previous borders established by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639.
In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh. Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad. Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar ().
Biography
Background and early life
, dated ]]
Abbas Mirza was born on 26 August 1789 in the village of Nava in Mazandaran, northern Iran. He was the fourth son of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (), the second Qajar shah (king) of Iran and part of the Qovanlu branch of the Qajar tribe. His mother was Asiya Khanom Devellu, a daughter of Fath-Ali Khan Davalu and part of the Davalu branch of the Qajars. This union was arranged by Abbas Mirza's grand-uncle Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar () in an effort to unite the Qovanlu and Davalu.
Thus, the line of Abbas Mirza and his offspring served as the foundation for all of Agha Mohammad Khan's expectations for the continuation of his dynasty. During Fath-Ali Shah's rule in Iran, a European traveler heard a rumor that Agha Mohammad Khan would have chosen Abbas Mirza instead of Fath-Ali Shah as shah if he had lived longer. Fath-Ali Shah's eldest son, Mohammad-Ali Mirza Dowlatshah, whose mother was a Georgian concubine, was excluded from the succession due to this obsession with settling tribal disputes amongst the Qajars. A fierce hostility would grow between Abbas Mirza and Dowlatshah, something some people speculated that Fath-Ali Shah welcomed. Besides Dowlatshah, intense competition would emerge with other brothers; Mohammad Vali Mirza, a ferocious and uncontrollable person who would hold the governorship of Khorasan and then Yazd, and Hossein Ali Mirza, a persistent schemer would hold the governorship of Fars. Like Fath-Ali Shah had been given the royal title of Jahanbani by Agha Mohammad Khan, he also gave his own sons and daughters a royal title. The title of dorr-e darya-e khosravy ("The Pearl of the Sea of Royalty") was given to Abbas Mirza.
The conflict in the Azerbaijan and Caucasus regions between Iran and the Russian Empire was prevalent throughout the time that Abbas Mirza was growing up. In 1797, at the age of eight, he was taken by Agha Mohammad Khan on a campaign against the Karabakh Khanate. He and the other princes stayed at Adina Bazar near Ardabil, and after Agha Mohammad Khan's murder that June, he was taken back to the capital of Tehran. The death of Agha Mohammad Khan gave rise to a number of pretenders to the throne. Appointment as crown prince and governor of Azerbaijan After making sure that his competitors did not constitute a threat, Fath-Ali Shah ascended to the kingdom on Nowruz (Iranian new year) on 21 March 1798. On March 20, 1799, he chose Abbas Mirza as the crown prince and gave him the title of Nayeb-al-saltana (viceregent). Iranian sources report that the title was in line with Agha Mohammad Khan's wishes. Abbas Mirza was given Soleyman Khan Qajar and Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam as his adjutants. Mirza Bozorg, one of the most skilled statesmen of the early Qajar era, served as the tutor and minister of Abbas Mirza.
Around the same time, Abbas Mirza was appointed the governor of the vulnerable province Azerbaijan with Tabriz as his regional capital. As the most rich and populous city in the realm, it would rise to prominence as the hub of a thriving trade with Europe for the remainder of the 18th-century. In order to balance out Azerbaijan's regional autonomy, there were numerous less important seats in Kerman, Isfahan, and Kurdistan as well as at least three more strong princely seats in the south, west, and east. Hossein Ali Mirza was given the governorship of Fars and the Persian Gulf provinces, where he preserved autonomy. In an identical fashion, Dowlatshah was given a sizable domain in western Iran. The princes were pushed to demonstrate their value by expanding their territories along Iran's borders in addition to restoring the economy and establishing peace in their lands. Despite the fact that Abbas Mirza's brothers often settled down in the provincial capitals, he did not always reside in Tabriz.
After becoming governor, Abbas Mirza was sent to defeat the Kurdish chieftain Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli, who was making a claim to Azerbaijan's territory. But it was Soleyman Khan who was given actual leadership of the campaign. After winning a battle near Salmas, Abbas Mirza marched to Khoy before heading back to Tabriz.
First war with Russia
between 1795 and 1801]]
The reign of the Russian tsar (emperor) Alexander I () saw an increased desire on the part of the Russians to increase their presence and influence in the Caucasus, where they had already shown interest since the 1760s. Prince Pavel Tsitsianov, who Alexander I appointed to oversee Caucasian affairs in 1803, had nothing against about using violence, but any infringement of Iran's control over the Caucasus was not something that the Qajar administration could just ignore. Since 1502, Iran had controlled the Caucasus and the Iranians saw it as a natural extension of their country. In mid-January 1804, Tsitsianov invaded Ganja and conquered its fortress; its governor, Javad Khan, was killed, and between 1,500–3,000 residents were slaughtered. Russian law replaced Islamic law, and the congregational mosque was transformed into a church. This marked the beginning of the first Russo-Iranian War. On May 23, 1804, Fath-Ali Shah ordered Russian forces to depart from Iranian territories in the Caucasus. Iran interpreted their unwillingness to comply with this as an act of war.
Fath-Ali Shah designated Abbas Mirza as the leader of the Iranian army against the Russians, and gave the order to mobilize a sizable force of 20,000 soldiers towards Erivan. Since Abbas Mirza was only fifteen at the time, his leadership would have been more symbolic than actual, yet he nonetheless actively took part in the war and displayed bravery as a military commander. Fath-Ali Shah also assigned experienced tutors and commanders to assist Abbas Mirza, which included figures such as Mirza Bozorg, Soleyman Khan, Ali Qoli Khan Shahsevan, Ali Qoli Khan Sartip Qajar, Pir Qoli Khan Qajar, Sadeq Khan Qajar, and Mehdi Qoli Khan Qajar.
Abbas Mirza's aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another in the East, especially as Persia bordered a common rival, namely Imperial Russia. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's young General Kotlyarevsky, aged only twenty-nine but his new ally could give him very little assistance. The early stages of the war following Fath Ali Shah's orders to invade and regain Georgia and the northern parts of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic ended up in years of relatively territorial stale warfare. However, as Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze notes, Abbas Mirza led the army in an overall disastrous campaign against the Russians, suffering defeats at Gyumri, Kalagiri, the Zagam River (1805), Karakapet (1806), Karababa (1808), Ganja (1809), Meghri, the Aras River, and Akhalkalaki (1810). The tide started to decisively turn as Russia was sending more and more advanced weaponry and increasing numbers of soldiers. Commanding the southernmost Russian divisions during the long war, Kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior Persian army in the Battle of Aslanduz (1812) and in early 1813 stormed and took Lankaran. The Russians were encamped on the opposite bank of River Aras when his two British advisers, Capt Christie and Lt Pottinger, told him to post sentry pickets in short order, but Mirza ignored the warnings. Christie and other British officers tried to rally an army retreating in panic; for days the Russians launched fierce assaults, but at last Christie fell, and Mirza ordered a full retreat. Complacency cost 10,000 Persian lives; Mirza believing wrongly in the weight of superior numbers. In spite of the absence of leadership, the Persians at Lenkoran held out for weeks until, breaking through, the Russians slaughtered the garrison of 4,000 officers and men.
In October 1813, with Abbas Mirza still commander-in-chief, Persia was compelled to make a severely disadvantageous peace known as the Treaty of Gulistan, irrevocably ceding swaths of its territory in the Caucasus, comprising present-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of what most recently became the Republic of Azerbaijan. The only promise the Shah received in return was a lukewarm guarantee that Mirza would succeed to his throne, without let or hindrance. Persia's dire losses attracted the attention of the British Empire; following the reversal of initial successes, the Russians now posed a serious threat from the Caucasus. War with the Ottoman Empire
. Persian manuscript, created in Qajar Iran, 19th century]]
The conflict between Iranian and Ottoman border authorities was a major factor in the decline of Iranian-Ottoman relations between 1818 and 1820. Political issues in the Kurdish principality Baban renewed the animosity between Dowlatshah and the Ottoman governors of Baghdad, Sulaymaniyah, and Shahrizur in the central and southern sections of the Iranian-Ottoman frontier. The relation between Abbas Mirza and the Ottoman serasker of Erzurum was also made worse due to a dispute over the control of the nomadic tribes that inhabited the northern frontier. Abbas Mirza first opted for a diplomatic solution to the problems, and the British supported him in this decision. They made every effort to keep the Iranians and Ottomans from fighting each other, as it could weaken both sides and thus make it easier for the Russians to advance further south to India.
The Iranians and Ottomans were unable to find a solution, and following the eruption of the Greek war of independence against the Ottomans in 1821, Abbas Mirza offered Russia that they make a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire. He may have believed that a joint assault on the Ottoman Empire would deter Russia from considering additional attacks against Iran or at the very least further weaken the Russian military. His offer was declined by Russia, who nevertheless encouraged Iran to attack the Ottomans, even offering them financial help. The Russians may have hoped that a conflict between Iran and the Ottoman Empire would weaken them both, thus making it easier for them to advance further south.
In the same year, Dowlatshah invaded Ottoman Iraq, reaching as far as the walls of Baghdad. Dowlatshah was forced to leave due to a cholera epidemic, which he later contracted himself in November. While a second Iranian force conquered Bitlis and pushed towards Diyarbakr, Abbas Mirza distinguished himself by capturing Bayazit and Toprak Qala and marching on to Erzerum. On May 1822 at Khoy, Abbas Mirza successfully defeated the Ottoman counterattack, but by this point, cholera had also spread throughout his force, leading him to sue for peace. In contrast to earlier conflicts, no anti-Shia fatwas were ever declared by the Ottoman clergy to support the war. During peace negotiations, the Ottoman Shaykh al-Islam sent a letter to Abbas Mirza, in which he praised their friendship and referred Iran and the Ottoman Empire as "two great countries that are as one body." Second war with Russia
at the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, 1828]]
His second war with Russia, which began in 1826, started off on a good note as he won back most of the territory lost in the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813); however it ended in a string of costly defeats after which Persia was forced to cede the last of its Caucasian territories, comprising all of what is modern day Armenia, Nakhchivan, the rest of the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that was still in Iranian hands, and Iğdır Province, all conform the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay. The eventual loss was due less to his army's skill and more to do with lack of reinforcements and overwhelming superiority in numbers. The irrevocable losses, which in total amounted up for all of Qajar Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and the South Caucasus, affected Abbas Mirza severely and his health began to suffer. He also lost enthusiasm for any more military reform.
In an effort to make up for his losses by winning over less powerful foes and bolster his claim to the throne, Abbas Mirza invaded the areas east and northeast of Mashhad in the summer and fall of 1832, taking control of Khabushan, Sarakhs, and Torbat-e Heydarieh. Under continuous medical care by both Western and Iranian physicians, Abbas Mirza ultimately died of illness on 25 October 1833 in Mashhad. Fath-Ali Shah died the following year, being succeeded by Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza, who assumed the regnal name of Mohammad Shah Qajar ().
Military reforms
in 1815.]]
A reform of the Iranian army became necessary due to the conflict with the Russians, whose armies utilized modern technology and were structured according to modern ideas. Iran was in a situation resembling that of the Ottoman Empire in the early 18th-century. Abbas Mirza wore a Mongolian mail coat from the royal treasures when he went to battle in 1804; this was likely done partially for symbolical purposes. Even then, he was aware that Russian strategies and equipment were superior to Iranian forces, therefore he started to instruct his soldiers in European practices. This marked the start of Abbas Mirza's Nezam-e Jadid ("The new [military] order"), a project to build an up-to-date army capable of fighting in a modern environment. Its name and military reforms resembled that of the Ottoman Nizam-I Cedid reforms made by the Ottoman Sultan Selim III ().
Abbas Mirza first employed Russian prisoners of war and deserters who provided practical instruction. Samson Makintsev, a commander in Abbas Mirza's army who rose to the rank of general, was the most well-known of these Russian troops. This approach of recruiting foreign instructors was strengthened when untrustworthy forces that had fought in France were sent to the Caucasian front during the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. In 1819, a regiment of 800 men was made up entirely of Russian deserters. French instructors began working at Tabriz in 1807, but after Iran severed ties with France, British officers made up the majority of the training staff. New ideas and administrative procedures were introduced with the Nezam reforms. Nezam troops started donning uniforms, initially in a color resembling Russian green and then French blue. Since the new uniform resembled non-Muslim clothing and went against Islamic clothing, the traditionalist clergy at first opposed it. However, the state leaders were able to convince them that it was required for the defense of Muslim areas. The title sarbaz ("one who is willing to sacrifice his head"), which is still used in the Iranian military today, was given to the soldiers.
Abbas Mirza's jealous brothers, especially Dowlatshah, as well as conservative court members criticized Abbas Mirza and Mirza Bozorg for their ideas of military reform being based on a European model. Accusations of professing Christianity was even made towards Mirza Bozorg, who was the main driving force behind the reforms. The army of Azerbaijan, which was the main force defending against the Russians, was under Abbas Mirza's command. As a result, it was better organized and more skilled than the rest of the imperial army. Abbas Mirza provided his soldiers with clothing and weapons. When James Justinian Morier visited in 1808/09, he estimated that Abbas Mirza's had 40,000 soldiers under his command; 22,000 cavalry, 12,00 infantry with an artillery force, and 6,000 Nezam infantry.
Cultural activities
Mirza Bozorg probably had a significant impact on Abbas Mirza's formal education, which appears to have been well carefully laid out. Abbas Mirza was familiar with Iranian historians' writings, the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi being his favorite book. Although Tabriz had its own court poets like Sabur of Kashan and Abol-Qasem Forugh, Abbas Mirza was not really interested in poetry. Numerous paintings, including portraits of Napoleon, the Russian emperor, and Sultan Selim III, were used to decorate the palaces in Tabriz and Ujan.
It is conceivable that Abbas Mirza read books written about Europe in Ottoman Turkish and/or Persian since he could not understand English or any other European language well enough to read in those languages. One of the most recent books about England—the one European nation that seems to have captured Abbas Mirza's attention the most—was the Safarnameh composed in 1820 by Mirza Saleh Shirazi. It was one of several Persian works on Europe and the West that were available at the time. Despite not understanding English, Abbas Mirza still owned a small collection of English-language literature, including the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Administrative, economic and building activities
Significant amounts of money were spent fighting the Russians. Abbas Mirza attempted to resolve his problems by creating a comprehensive budget register, as British subsidies were insufficient, and his request for funds from Tehran was turned down by Fath-Ali Shah, who considered the richness of Azerbaijan to be sufficient for Abbas Mirza. With a ruznama-nevis assigned to each town to relay information, the state's long-standing intelligence service was revived. It also became illegal for men to purchase their way into government employment. Due to a lack of authorities qualified to implement reforms, traditional methods remained in place in the financial sector and bureaucracy. However, with assistance from Europe, a few industrial measures (whose products were largely used to support the army) were able to get launched. Firearms, the search for copper reserves, a smelter close to Ahar, weaving mills, and other industrial facilities are a few examples.
The situation of the travelers was not greatly improved. On the Sayen pass, which connects Ardabil and Sarab, a caravanserai was built. Abbas Mirza's construction efforts were minimal. In Tabriz, a maidan (square) was built around the barracks, the latter which the Scottish army officer and diplomat John Macdonald Kinneir considered to be sole attractive structure in the city. In 1818–1819, qanats were constructed outside the city, and a modest palace was being built. Personality and appearance According to the Scottish traveller Robert Ker Porter, Abbas Mirza was "rather above the ordinary stature;" his eyes were "dark and expressive...; his nose aquiline; his beard full, and like his finely-formed eye-brows, of a jet-black."
Legacy and assessment
Abbas Mirza is recognized for leading Iran's first reform and modernization attempts with the help of his ministers Mirza Bozorg and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam.
In popular culture
* Tabriz in Fog: an Iranian historical drama about Abbas Mirza's life.
Issue
As was customary for Qajars, Abbas Mirza had many children; 26 sons and 21 daughters.
* Prince Mohammed Mirza, to become Mohammad Shah Qajar
* Prince Bahram Mirza ''Mo'ez ed-Dowleh
* Prince Jahangir Mirza
* Prince Bahman Mirza
* Prince Fereydoun Mirza Nayeb-ol-Eyaleh
* Prince Eskandar Mirza
* Prince Khosrow Mirza
* Prince Qahraman Mirza
* Prince Ardeshir Mirza Rokn ed-Dowleh
* Prince Ahmad Mirza Mo'in ed-Dowleh''
* Prince Ja'far Gholi Mirza
* Prince Mostafa Gholi Mirza
* Prince Hesam o-Saltaneh, Morad Mirza
* Prince Manouchehr Mirza
* Prince Farhad Mirza ''Mo'tamed ed-Dowleh
* Prince Firouz Mirza Nosrat ed-Dowleh
* Prince Khanlar Mirza Ehtesham ed-Dowleh
* Prince Bahador Mirza
* Prince Mohammad Rahim Mirza
* Prince Mehdi Gholi Mirza
* Prince Hamzeh Mirza Heshmat od-Dowleh
* Prince Ildirim Bayazid Mirza
* Prince Lotfollah Mirza Shoa'a ed-Dowleh''
* Prince Mohammad Karim Mirza
* Prince Ja'ffar Mirza
* Prince Abdollah Mirza
See also
*Set Khan Astvatsatourian
*Abbas Mirza Mosque, Yerevan
*Russo-Persian Wars
*Samson Makintsev
*Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia
*Military history of Iran
References
Sources
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Category:Children of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar
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Category:19th-century Iranian military personnel
Category:People of the Russo-Persian Wars
Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded
Category:People from Mazandaran province
Category:History of Azerbaijan (Iran)
Category:Qajar governors
Category:Burials at Imam Reza Shrine
Category:Qajar governors of Azerbaijan
Category:Sons of kings
Category:Crown princes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Mirza | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.843200 |
2613 | George Abbot (bishop) | | name = George Abbot
| honorific-suffix | archbishop_of Archbishop of Canterbury
| image = George Abbot from NPG.jpg
| imagesize | alt
| caption = Portrait in the National Portrait Gallery, 1623
| province | diocese Canterbury
| see | church Church of England
| enthroned = 4 March 1611
| ended = 4 August 1633
| predecessor = Richard Bancroft
| successor = William Laud
| ordination | consecration 3 December 1609
| consecrated_by = Richard Bancroft
| other_post | birth_name
| birth_date = 29 October 1562
| birth_place = Guildford, Surrey, England
| death_date
| death_place = Croydon, Surrey, England
| buried | nationality <!-- use only when necessary per WP:INFONAT -->
| religion = Anglican
| residence | parents Maurice Abbot
| spouse | children
| occupation | profession
| alma_mater | signature
<!----------Sainthood---------->
| feast_day | venerated
| saint_title | beatified_date
| beatified_place | beatified_by
| canonized_date | canonized_place
| canonized_by | attributes
| patronage | shrine
}}
George Abbot (29 October 15624 August 1633)5 August 1633, and the date 4 August 1633 is inscribed on his tomb}} was an English bishop who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633. He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.
Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as "[a] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist". Among his five brothers, He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible.Life and careerEarly yearsBorn at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker, He later studied and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.}}
Despite his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king's court, although the king himself never forsook Abbot. while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting that had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after this sort". The commission was equally divided, and the king voted in Abbot's favour, though also signing a formal pardon or dispensation.
|left]]
After this, Abbot seldom appeared at the council, chiefly because of his infirmities. In 1625, he attended the king constantly; however, in his last illness, he performed the coronation ceremony of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. However, the need to summon parliament soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's powers. His presence was unwelcome at court, and he lived from that time on retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633 and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot's Hospital with lands valued at £300 a year. The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot's Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Abbot had an extensive private library of over 8000 volumes, most of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library. Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.
Guildford remembers Abbot with his hospital and a statue in the High Street. A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him. His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church.<ref name"DNBGeorge" />NotesReferencesExternal links
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<!-- not a bishop until after Tudor period-->
Category:1562 births
Category:1633 deaths
Category:Clergy from Guildford
Category:17th-century Anglican archbishops
Category:People educated at Royal Grammar School, Guildford
Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Category:Archbishops of Canterbury
Category:Bishops of London
Category:Bishops of Lichfield
Category:Chancellors of the University of Dublin
Category:17th-century English translators
Category:Vice-chancellors of the University of Oxford
Category:Masters of University College, Oxford
Category:Translators of the King James Version
Category:17th-century English Anglican priests
Category:17th-century English diplomats
Category:Scottish Episcopal Church
Category:Deans of Winchester
Category:Burials in Surrey
Category:English male poets
Category:17th-century Anglican theologians
Category:16th-century Anglican theologians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Abbot_(bishop) | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.856164 |
2616 | Adware | Adware, often called advertising-supported software by its developers, is software that generates revenue by automatically displaying online advertisements in the user interface or on a screen presented during the installation process.
The software may generate two types of revenue: one is for the display of the advertisement and another on a "pay-per-click" basis, if the user clicks on the advertisement. Some advertisements also act as spyware, collecting and reporting data about the user, to be sold or used for targeted advertising or user profiling. The software may implement advertisements in a variety of ways, including a static box display, a banner display, a full screen, a video, a pop-up ad or in some other form. All forms of advertising carry health, ethical, privacy and security risks for users.
The 2003 Microsoft Encyclopedia of Security and some other sources use the term "adware" differently: "any software that installs itself on your system without your knowledge and displays advertisements when the user browses the Internet", i.e., a form of malware. Some developers offer software free of charge and rely on advertising revenue to recoup their expenses and generate income. Some offer a version without advertising, for a fee.
Types
In legitimate software, the advertising functions are integrated into or bundled with the program. Adware is usually seen by the developer as a way to recover development costs and generate revenue. In some cases, the developer may provide the software to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The income derived from presenting advertisements to the user may allow or motivate the developer to continue to develop, maintain and upgrade the software product. The use of advertising-supported software in business is becoming increasingly popular, with a third of IT and business executives in a 2007 survey by McKinsey & Company planning to be using ad-funded software within the following two years. Advertisement-funded software is also one of the business models for open-source software. Application software Some software is offered in both an advertising-supported mode and a paid, advertisement-free mode. The latter is usually available after buying a license or registration code that unlocks the mode or a separate version of the software., this product is also being phased out and replaced with Office Online (formerly Office Web Apps).}}
Some software authors offer advertising-supported versions of their software as an alternative option to business organizations seeking to avoid paying large sums for software licenses, funding the development of the software with higher fees for advertisers.
Examples of advertising-supported software include Adblock Plus ("Acceptable Ads"), the Windows version of the Internet telephony application Skype, and the Amazon Kindle 3 family of e-book readers, which has versions called "Kindle with Special Offers" that display advertisements on the home page and in sleep mode in exchange for substantially lower pricing.
In 2012, Microsoft and its advertising division, Microsoft Advertising, announced that Windows 8, the major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, would provide built-in methods for software authors to use advertising support as a business model. The idea had been considered since as early as 2005. Most editions of Windows 10 include adware by default. Software as a service Support by advertising is a popular business model of software as a service (SaaS) on the Web. Notable examples include the email service Gmail and other Google Workspace products (previously called Google Apps and G Suite), Microsoft has also adopted the advertising-supported model for many of its social software SaaS offerings. The Microsoft Office Live service was also available in an advertising-supported mode. there appears to be general agreement that software should be considered "spyware" only if it is downloaded or installed on a computer without the user's knowledge and consent. Unresolved issues remain concerning how, what and when consumers need to be told about software installed on their computers. For instance, distributors often disclose in an end-user license agreement that there is additional software bundled with primary software, but some participants did not view such disclosure as sufficient to infer consent.
Much of the discussion on the topic involves the idea of informed consent, the assumption being that this standard eliminates any ethical issues with any given software's behavior. If a majority of important software, websites and devices were to adopt similar behavior and only the standard of informed consent is used, then logically a user's only recourse against that behavior would become not using a computer. The contract would become an ultimatum—agree or be ostracized from the modern world. This is a form of psychological coercion and presents an ethical problem with using implied or inferred consent as a standard. There are notable similarities between this situation and binding arbitration clauses which have become inevitable in contracts in the United States.
Furthermore, certain forms and strategies of advertising have been shown to lead to psychological harm, especially in children. One example is childhood eating disorders—several studies have reported a positive association between exposure to beauty and fashion magazines and an increased level of weight concerns or eating disorder symptoms in girls. Malware The term adware is frequently used to describe a form of malware (malicious software) which presents unwanted advertisements to the user of a computer. The advertisements produced by adware are sometimes in the form of a pop-up, sometimes in an "unclosable window" and sometimes injected into web pages.
When the term is used in this way, the severity of its implication varies. While some sources rate adware only as an "irritant", others classify it as an "online threat" or even rate it as seriously as computer viruses and trojans. The precise definition of the term in this context also varies. Adware that observes the computer user's activities without their consent and reports it to the software's author is called spyware. Adware may collect the personal information of the user, causing privacy concerns. Most adware operates legally and some adware manufacturers have even sued antivirus companies for blocking adware.
A new wrinkle is adware that disables anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available.
Adware has also been discovered in certain low-cost Android devices, particularly those made by small Chinese firms running on Allwinner systems-on-chip. There are even cases where adware code is embedded deep into files stored on the system and boot partitions, to which removal involves extensive (and complex) modifications to the firmware.
In recent years, machine-learning based systems have been implemented to detect malicious adware on Android devices by examining features in the flow of network traffic. See also
* Malvertising
*Online advertising
* Typhoid adware
Notes
References
Category:Online advertising
Category:Types of malware | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.871302 |
2618 | Aeacus | Aeacus (; also spelled Eacus; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a king of the island of Aegina in Greek mythology. He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon. According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in the underworld alongside Minos and Rhadamanthus. In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.
He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour.
Mythology
left|thumb|Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus, engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's Metamorphoses Book VII, 622–642.
Birth and early days
Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax (aka Ajax the Greater). In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.
Later adventures
A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).
Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.
In the afterlife
left|thumb|Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys by Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer
After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.
In The Frogs (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.
Family
Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia. In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Aeacus' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae (). Several times in the Iliad, Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.). The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage.
Family tree of Aeacidae
See also
Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology
Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859–1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Further reading
External links
Category:Greek underworld
Category:Mythological Aeginetans
Category:Children of Zeus
Category:Greek judges of the dead
Category:Kings in Greek mythology
Category:Kings of the Myrmidons
Category:Metamorphoses characters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeacus | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.889014 |
2619 | Aeclanum | |location = Mirabella Eclano (Province of Avellino, Italy)
|region = Campania
|type = Settlement
|part_of |length
|width |area
|height |builder
|material |built
|abandoned |epochs Roman Republic – Byzantine Empire
|cultures = Samnites – Ancient Rome
|dependency_of |occupants
|event |excavations
|archaeologists = Italo Sgobbo
|condition |ownership
|management = Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici di Salerno, Avellino, Benevento e Caserta
|public_access = Yes
|website = [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210550/http://www.cir.campania.beniculturali.it/luoghi-della-cultura/parco-archeologico-dellantica-aeclanum Aeclanum]
|notes =
}}
Aeclanum (also spelled Aeculanum, , ) was an ancient town of Samnium, Southern Italy, about 25 km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia. It lies in Passo di Mirabella, near the modern Mirabella Eclano.
It is now an archaeological park.
Location
Aeclanum was on a promontory naturally defended, to some extent, by a steep slope on the south side down to the river Calore, while the north side lay open towards the crest of the ridge where the Via Appia ran. This led through Lacus Ampsanctus to Aquilonia and Venusia. Two other routes to Apulia, the and , diverged nearby, leading through Aequum Tuticum to Luceria and through Trivicum to Herdoniae respectively. The road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (modern Atripalda, near Avellino) may also follow an ancient line.
Today there are ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. Excavation has revealed a long history of pre-Roman settlement.
History
Aeclanum was a town of the Hirpini, although it was never mentioned during the Samnite wars. Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and sacked it. It quickly recovered, new fortifications were erected, and it became a municipium. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a (colony).
With the Lombard invasion of Italy, in the 6th century AD, it was annexed to the Duchy of Benevento, but was captured and destroyed by Eastern Roman forces under Constans II in 663 and never recovered, being reduced to a small hamlet known as Quintodecimo, a name that referred to its distance of 15 Roman miles from Benevento. No longer a residential bishopric, Aeclanum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Gallery
<gallery class"center" widths"160" style="font-size:92%; line-height:130%">
File:Aeclanum (Ancient Roman Street).jpg|The central road
File:Aeclanum (Ruins-01).jpg|Remains of the houses (1)
File:Aeclanum (Ruins-02).jpg|Remains of the houses (2)
File:Aeclanum (Thermae-02).jpg|Side view of the thermae''
</gallery>
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210550/http://www.cir.campania.beniculturali.it/luoghi-della-cultura/parco-archeologico-dellantica-aeclanum Aeclanum (Cultural Property of Campania website)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150121021334/http://www.comunemirabellaeclano.gov.it/parco-archeologico.html Aeclanum (Mirabella Eclano municipal website)]
Category:Roman sites of Campania
Category:Samnite cities
Category:Former populated places in Italy
Category:Province of Avellino
Category:Human remains (archaeological)
Category:Archaeological sites in Campania
Category:Roman towns and cities in Italy
Category:Archaeological parks
Category:Buildings and structures in Campania
Category:Tourist attractions in Campania
Category:Tourism in Italy
Category:Osci
Category:Ruins in Italy
Category:Destroyed populated places
Category:Coloniae (Roman) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeclanum | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.915989 |
2620 | Aedesius | Aedesius (, died shortly before 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic. He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled Lives of the Sophists. Aedesius's philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.
The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in a dream represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples compelled him to resume his instructions. Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra.
References
Bibliography
Hartmann, Udo (2018). Der spätantike Philosoph. Die Lebenswelten der paganen Gelehrten und ihre hagiographische Ausgestaltung in den Philosophenviten von Porphyrios bis Damaskios [The late antique philosopher. The lifeworlds of pagan scholars and their hagiographic treatment in the philosophical vitae from Porphyrius to Damascius]. 3 volumes. Bonn: Habelt, , pp. 537–558.
Category:355 deaths
Category:4th-century Romans
Category:4th-century Greek philosophers
Category:Neoplatonists
Category:Year of birth missing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedesius | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.919283 |
2621 | Aedicula | , with sign of Baal Hammon, signs of Tanit and caduceus]]
In ancient Roman religion, an aedicula (: aediculae): ædiculæ)|name|group}} is a small shrine, and in classical architecture refers to a niche covered by a pediment or entablature supported by a pair of columns and typically framing a statue, the early Christian ones sometimes contained funeral urns. Aediculae are also represented in art as a form of ornamentation.
The word aedicula is the diminutive of the Latin aedes, a temple building or dwelling place. The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really genii) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.
Other aediculae were small shrines within larger temples, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In ancient Roman architecture the aedicula has this representative function in the society. They are installed in public buildings like the triumphal arch, city gate, and thermae. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus ( AD) is a good example.
From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or the framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle, which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture.<gallery>
File:Pantheon11111.jpg|Aediculae in the Pantheon, Rome
File:Wall painting - Athena in aedicula and snake at altar - Gragnano Carmiano (villa A) - Pompeii PAAnt 63688 - 01.jpg|Aedicula containing a painted Athena and Agathodaemon
File:Montemartini - tempio di Apollo Sosiano edicola 1030469.JPG|1st century BC interior aedicula from the Temple of Apollo Sosianus, Rome
File:Herculaneum-Palestra.jpg|Painted aediculae in a fresco from the palaestra of Herculaneum
File:DSC00097 - Edicola funebre greco-punica da Marsala - Foto G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Graeco-Punic funerary aedicula from Marsala, with signs of Tanit and caduceus
File:Painted stucco relief - architecture with aedicula and pictures - Pompeii (VI 9 2) - Napoli MAN 9596.jpg|Aediculae and figures painted on stucco from Pompeii
</gallery>
Gothic aediculae
of Exeter Cathedral, with rows of figures in aediculae or tabernacle frames above the door, and two above the crenellations]]
In Gothic architecture, too, an aedicula or tabernacle is a structural framing device that gives importance to its contents, whether an inscribed plaque, a cult object, a bust or the like, by assuming the tectonic vocabulary of a little building that sets it apart from the wall against which it is placed. A tabernacle frame on a wall serves similar hieratic functions as a free-standing, three-dimensional architectural baldaquin or a ciborium over an altar.
In Late Gothic settings, altarpieces and devotional images were customarily crowned with gables and canopies supported by clustered-column piers, echoing in small the architecture of Gothic churches. Painted aediculae frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of illuminated manuscripts.
Renaissance aediculae
Classicizing architectonic structure and décor ''all'antica, in the "ancient [Roman] mode", became a fashionable way to frame a painted or bas-relief portrait, or protect an expensive and precious mirror during the High Renaissance; Italian precedents were imitated in France, then in Spain, England and Germany during the later 16th century.
, Lancaster, Lancashire]]
Post-Renaissance classicism
Aedicular door surrounds that are architecturally treated, with pilasters or columns flanking the doorway and an entablature even with a pediment over it came into use with the 16th century. In the neo-Palladian revival in Britain, architectonic aedicular or tabernacle frames, carved and gilded, are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through the 1740s, by such designers as William Kent.
Aediculae'' feature prominently in the arrangement of the Saint Peter's tomb with statues by Bernini; a small aedicula directly underneath it, dated ca. 160 AD, was discovered in 1940.
Other aediculae
Similar small shrines, called naiskoi, are found in Greek religion, but their use was strictly religious.
Aediculae exist today in Roman cemeteries as a part of funeral architecture.
Presently the most famous aediculae is situated inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in city of Jerusalem.
Contemporary American architect Charles Moore (1925–1993) used the concept of aediculae in his work to create spaces within spaces and to evoke the spiritual significance of the home.
See also
* Portico
* Similar, but free-standing structures:
** Ciborium
** Baldachin
** Monopteros
** Gazebo
Notes
References
Bibliography
* Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A. (1996). Dictionary of Roman Religion. Facts on File, inc. .
* External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121209015026/http://www.trp.dundee.ac.uk/research/glossary/aedicule.html Conservation glossary]
Category:Ancient Roman temples
Category:Architectural elements
Category:Ancient Roman architectural elements | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedicula | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.925034 |
2622 | Aedui | The Aedui or Haedui (Gaulish: *Aiduoi, 'the Ardent'; ) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges. During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52. Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire.
Name
They are mentioned as Ardues (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), Haedui by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Haeduos by Livy (late 1st c. BC), Aedui by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), Aidúōn (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Aídouoi (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).
The ethnonym Aedui is a Latinized form of Gaulish *Aiduoi (sing. *Aiduos), which means 'the Ardent ones'. It derives from the Celtic stem *aidu- ('fire, ardour'; cf. Old Irish áed 'fire', Welsh aidd 'ardour'; also the Irish deity Aéd or Aodh), itself from ('firewood'; cf. Sanskrit édhas 'bonfire', Latin aedes 'building, temple'; cf. also Ancient Greek Aether 'god of the upper sky' and Aethra 'bright sky', from aíthō 'to ignite, to kindle').
Geography
thumb|274x274px|Aedui core territory (in red) and confederation (in brown), with allies (in pink) and enemies (in grey).
Territory
The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes. It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.
Settlements
Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.
During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum ('fortress of Augustus'; modern-day Autun).
Ancient sources
The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward).
History
Pre-Roman period
Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave).
By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.
Roman period
Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.thumb|Denarius of the Aedui, first century BC, 1.94 grams. Hotel de la Monnaie.|300x300px
According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar's time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.
After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (B. G. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).
In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus Ann. iii. 43–46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of jus honorum, thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.
Until Claudius (41–54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.
The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, "judgment-worker"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
See also
List of peoples of Gaul
Jublains archeological site
References
Primary sources
Bibliography
Further reading
Category:Historical Celtic peoples
Category:Gauls
Category:Tribes involved in the Gallic Wars | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedui | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.949332 |
2623 | Aegadian Islands | thumb|upright=1.2|A map showing the Aegadian Islands
The Aegadian Islands (; ; ; ; ) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of .
The island of Favignana (Aegusa), the largest, lies southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (Phorbantia) lies west; and Marettimo, the ancient Hiera Nesos, west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the comune of Favignana in the province of Trapani.
The overall population in 2017 was 4,292. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there.
History
There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.
The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.
The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.
Island views
File:Mare Favignana.JPG|Cala Rossa, Favignana
File:Favignana cala azzurra.jpg|Cala azzurra, Favignana
File:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg|A view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible.
See also
Isolotto Formica Lighthouse
References
External links
Category:Archipelagoes of Italy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegadian_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.953165 |
2624 | Aegean civilization | Aegean civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The Cycladic civilization converges with the mainland during the Early Helladic ("Minyan") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period. From (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete, probably by military conquest. The earlier Aegean farming populations of Neolithic Greece brought agriculture westward into Europe before 5000 BC.
Early European Farmers ("EEFs")
Around 5,000 BC, peoples descending from migrant Greek Neolithic populations reached the northern European plain in modern-day France and Germany; they reached Britain some 1000 years later.
Once in the Balkans, the Aegean EEFs appear to have divided into two wings: one which expanded further north into Europe along the Danube (Linear Pottery culture), and another which headed west along the Mediterranean (Cardial Ware) into the Iberian Peninsula. Descendants of this latter group eventually migrated into Britain. Previously, these areas were populated by Western Hunter-Gatherer represented by the Cheddar Man.
Periodization
Mainland
Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100–2050/2001 BC
Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900–1550 BC
Late Helladic (LH): 1550–1050 BC
Crete
thumb|right|Reconstruction of the Palace of Knossos
Early Minoan (EM): 3200–2160 BC
Middle Minoan (MM): 2160–1600 BC
Late Minoan (LM): 1600–1100 BC
Cyclades
Early Cycladic (EC): 3300–2000 BC
Kastri (EH II–EH III): –2100 BC
Convergence with MM from ca. 2000 BC
Commerce
Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is shown by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area. Cretan vessels appeared to be exported to Melos, Egypt, and the Greek mainland. In particular, Melian vases, eventually, found their way to Crete. After 1600 BC, there was commerce with Egypt, and Aegean goods found their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have come to light, excluding certain axeheads. These axeheads were too small for practical use. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet been proven (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans, and vases. These vases feature ships of low free-board, with masts and oars. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration. The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the 'ship fresco' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.
Discoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture.
Evidence
For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.
Internal evidence
thumb|180px|The "saffron-gatherer" fresco, from the Minoan site of Akrotiri on Santorini
Structures: Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.
Structural decoration: Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.
Furniture: (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.
Art products: for example, plastic objects, carved in stone, or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work. Vases of many kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
Weapons, tools and implements: In stone, clay, and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.
Articles of personal use: for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.
Written documents: for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).
Excavated tombs: Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.
Public works: Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.
External evidence
Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations: for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.
Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations: Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.
Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.: In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.
Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks.
Discovery
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great "Treasury of Atreus" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann's time. However, they were regarded as a crude precursor of later Greek culture. It was not until Schliemann's excavations that Mycenaean culture attracted serious scholarly attention.
There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. For instance, scholars had noted that tributaries appearing in Egyptian art resembled modern Greeks, but were unable to definitely recognize them as such. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.
Ludwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works. When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.
Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth "Mycenaean"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut "bee-hive" grave near the Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann's initial excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise. However, the "Burnt City" now known as Troy II, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse curiosity both among scholars and the general public. With Schliemann's excavations at Mycenae, interest in prehistoric Greece exploded. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any previously known style. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. Many scholars were struck by potential resemblances between objects described by Homer and Mycenaean artifacts.
Schliemann resumed excavations at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his "Lydian" city now known as Late Bronze Age Troy. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after Schliemann's death. But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the palace at Mycenae. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.
From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.
In 1890 and 1893, Staes cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut "bee-hives" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating). The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.
Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.
A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.
In Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.
Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cádiz and from Saragossa.
One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages— Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn). But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897–1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.
Thus the "Aegean Area" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt. Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed.
End
thumb|Invasions, destruction and possible population movements during the Late Bronze Age collapse, beginning BC
The final collapse of the Mycenaean civilisation appears to have occurred about 1200 BC. Iron took the place of bronze, cremation took the place of burial of the dead, and writing was lost.
See also
Mycenaean Greece
Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
Poliochne
References
This includes illustrations and a history of the civilizations, as understood in the early 20th century.
External links
Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean": chronology, history, bibliography
Aegean and Balkan Prehistory: Articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_civilization | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.977358 |
2626 | Aegeus | thumb|upright=1.3|Theseus Recognized by his Father by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832)
Aegeus (, ; ) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.
Family
Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.
Aegeus' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.
Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.
Mythology
Reign
Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.
The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:
... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea's garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron's shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.
Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus' son Theseus.
Heirless King
Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.
The cryptic words of the oracle were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.
When Theseus grew up, he found his father's belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children's inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.thumb|251x251px|Thésée reconnu par son père by Antoine-Placide Gibert (1832)
Conflict with Crete
While visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.
After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.
Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.
Sophocles' tragedy Aegeus has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' Medea.
Legacy
At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.
There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον).
See also
Catullus, LXIV.
Plutarch, Theseus.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. 1. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Scholia to Lycophron's Alexandra, marginal notes by Isaak and Ioannis Tzetzes and others from the Greek edition of Eduard Scheer (Weidmann 1881). Online version at the Topos Text Project.. Greek text available on Archive.org
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
External links
Category:Princes in Greek mythology
Category:Kings of Athens
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Ancient Megarians
Category:Mythological people from Attica
Category:Suicides in Greek mythology
Category:People who died at sea
Category:Medea
Category:Theseus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegeus | 2025-04-05T18:26:06.992067 |
2627 | Aegina | |postal_code=180 10
|area_code=2297
|licence=Υ
|website=https://www.aegina.gr
|image_skyline=Ägina Hafenblick.jpg
|caption_skyline=View of Aegina's seafront
|mayorIoannis Zormpas
|party|since 2019
}}
Aegina (; ; ) in Demotic, Katharevousa, and in Ancient Greek.}} is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king.
Geography
<mapframe latitude"37.7235" longitude"23.4819" zoom"10" width"200" height"131" align"left" />Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately from east to west and from north to south, with an area of .
An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs,
History
Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.
Early Bronze
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site. The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.
Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists. The excavations on the site, done by the Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg are still ongoing.Middle BronzeMinoan ceramics have been found in contexts of . The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.
Archaeological excavations at Cape Kolonna revealed a purple dye workshop dating back to the 16th century BC.
Late Bronze
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.
At Mount Ellanio, a Mycenaean refuge has been found dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age.
Iron Age
It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.
One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.
Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian League during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC. Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.
During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina's fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory. At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.
Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.
In 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission ("earth and water") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.
All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).
There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:
* Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC
* It is only for two years (491 and 490 BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,
* It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.
* There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens. As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes "for the war against Aegina" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of Athens as 483–482 BC.
It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina () and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.
Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina , but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of "sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.
It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490–480 BC.Decline
In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.
By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.
It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina's medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The loss of the state's power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle's estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.
Hellenistic period and Roman rule
Aegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322–229 BC), the Achaeans (229–211 BC), Aetolians (211–210 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210–133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC). However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD. Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century, having as its bishop Crispus, the ruler of the Corinthian synagogue, who became a Christian, and was baptised by Paul the Apostle. There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879. The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Byzantine period
Aegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th–8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the Chronicle of Monemvasia, the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions. The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies, such as those of Athanasia of Aegina or Theodora of Thessalonica, record a large-scale raid , that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island's hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.
According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates. when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic's protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.
Venetians in Aegina (1451–1537)
In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello's uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (rettore) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà's death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.
In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.
Administration
Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.
In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie's authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.
Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.
Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor's decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.
16th century
After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.
In 1502–03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.
In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.
With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.
First Ottoman period (1540–1687)
Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537. In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians. The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.
The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).
Second Venetian period (1687–1715)
.]]
In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.
In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.
Second Ottoman period (1715–1821)
During the early part of the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1714–1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century. The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as Old Athenian, which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.
Greek Revolution
During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.
Landmarks
.]]
* Temple of Aphaea, dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece. It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.
* Monastery of Agios Nectarios, dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.
* A statue in the principal square commemorates Ioannis Kapodistrias (1776–1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.
* The Orphanage of Kapodistrias is a large building, known locally as The Prison (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828–29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence. The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra. From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967–1974) - hence its local name. There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.
* The Tower of Markellos was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687–1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege. A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time. The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802. In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state. It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century. It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.
* Temple of Zeus Hellanios, near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.
* Colona, Located to the north of the town of Aegina. Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement. The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation. The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved. The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill. It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens. Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases.
Economy
Pistachios
In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island. By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time. As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris. The quality of "Fistiki Aeginis" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil's volcanic characteristics. Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world. Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina's Pistachio Producers. It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year. In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name "Fistiki Fest".
Culture
Mythology
In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island's name was Aegina.
Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place. So he changed some ants (, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.
Famous Aeginetans
* Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated
* Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor
* Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant
* Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor
* Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor
* Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher
* Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician
* Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint
* Theodora of Thessaloniki (9th century), nun and saint
* Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople
* Nectarios of Aegina (1846–1920), bishop and saint
* Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918
*Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45
Historical population
{|class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Town population !! Municipal/Island population
|-
|1981 ||6,730 ||11,127
|-
|1991 ||6,373 ||11,639
|-
|2001 ||7,410 ||13,552
|-
|2011 ||7,253 ||13,056
|-
|2021 ||6,633 ||12,911
|}
See also
*Aeginetan Commemoration
*Flag of Aegina
Gallery
<gallery class="center">
File:Αίγινα 2197.jpg|Airview of the town of Aegina
File:Church Agios Nikolaos Aegina harbor, Greece.jpg|Church Agios Nikolas o Thalassinos, Aegina
File:Aegina - panoramic view 02.jpg|Agia Marina, Aegina
File:First Greek Printshop Aegina c1890.jpg|The first printshop of the independent Greek State, 1830
File:Entrance to the Old Port of Aegina - Wordsworth Christopher - 1882.jpg|Christopher Wordsworth, Aegina 1882
File:The Temple of Aphaea - panoramio (1).jpg|The Temple of Aphaea, Aegina
File:Aphaea1.jpg|Temple of Aphaea
File:The Byzantine Church of Taxiarches in Aigina on August 25, 2021.jpg|Reconstructed Byzantine church of the Taxiarchs built over the ruins of the "Temple of Zeus Hellanios" on Mount Hellanion
</gallery>
Notes
References
Sources
* Welter Gabriel, Aigina, Archäol. Inst. d. Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1938.
*
*
* Miller William, Essays on the Latin orient, Rome 1921 (reprint: Amsterdam 1964).[https://archive.org/details/essaysonlatinori00milluoft Essays on the Latin Orient]
* Miller William, "Η Παληαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ηρημωμένη ελληνική πόλις", Νέος Ελληνομνήμων Κ΄ (1926), p. 363–365.[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025748/http://www.lib.uoi.gr/collection/pdfs/Neos_Ellhnomnhmwn_1926_TeuxosD%27/Neos_Ellhnomnhmwn_1926_TeuxosD%27_3.pdf Wayback Machine]
* Rubio y Lluch A., "Συμβολαί εις την ιστορίαν των Καταλωνίων εν Ελλάδι", Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος Β΄(1883), p. 458–466.[https://web.archive.org/web/20151209023340/http://pc-3.lib.uoi.gr:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/HASH01db1fac99f08bf969c89a4b/1/doc.pdf]
* Lambros Spyridon ed., Έγγραφα αναφερόμενα εις την μεσαιωνικήν ιστορίαν των Αθηνών, Athens 1906.
* D' Olwer Nic., ''Les seigneurs Catalans d' Egine, τόμος εις μνήμην του Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου, Athens 1935.
* Koulikourdi Georgia, Αίγινα, 2 vols., Athens 1990.
* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, Οι Συναγωγές της Θεσσαλονίκης και της Βέροιας, Aθήνα 1997. .
* Messinas, Elias, The Synagogues of Greece: A Study of Synagogues in Macedonia and Thrace: With Architectural Drawings of all Synagogues of Greece. Seattle 2022.
* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, H Συναγωγή, Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Ινφογνώμων 2022.
* Moutsopoulos Nikolaos, Η Παλιαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ιστορική και μορφολογική εξέτασις των μνημείων, Athens 1962.
* Nikoloudis Nikolaos [https://web.archive.org/web/20151231195838/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid10466 .:BiblioNet : Νικολούδης, Νικόλαος Γ.], "Η Αίγινα κατά τον Μεσαίωνα και την Τουρκοκρατία", Βυζαντινός Δόμος 7(1993–94), pp:13–21.
* Pennas Charalambos [https://archive.today/20130217153002/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid60697 .:BiblioNet : Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος], The Byzantine Aegina[https://archive.today/20130217214232/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowbook&bookid119115 .:BiblioNet : Byzantine Aegina / Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος], Athens 2004.
* John N. Koumanoudes [https://archive.today/20130217160046/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowauthor&personsid42398 .:BiblioNet : Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν.], Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ, Αγκίστρι, Αίγινα, Αστυπάλαια, Λήμνος, Σαλαμίνα, Σπέτσες, Σύμη, Χίος και Ψαρά[https://archive.today/20130217200349/http://www.biblionet.gr/main.asp?pageshowbook&bookid154034 .:BiblioNet : Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ / Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν.], Τεχνικό Επιμελητήριο Ελλάδας, 2010.
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150212130914/http://studyingthepast.com/post/8-the-feud-between-athens-and-aegina The feud between Athens and Aegina]
* [http://www.aegina.gr The Municipality of Aegina – official website]
* [http://www.discoveraegina.gr/en Site for visitors and tourists run by the Municipality of Aegina]
* [https://www.aegina-kolonna.at/ Excavations on the site Aegina Kolonna]
* [http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.100.a.php Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976:] "Aigina, Greece"
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd_1911/shepherd-c-014-015.jpg Map of Ancient Greece (includes Aegina Island)]
* [http://www.aeginagreece.com AeginaGreece.com Tourist guide]
* [https://ecoweekorg.wixsite.com/aeginamosaic The Mosaic of Aegina Program]
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Category:Capitals of Greek states | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegina | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.015065 |
2628 | Aegis | , a Roman statue type often identified as a copy of a work by the Classical Greek sculptor Pheidias (Dresden Skulpturensammlung)]]
The aegis ( ; aigís), as stated in the Iliad, is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 13).
# "violent windstorm", from the verb aïssō (word stem aïg-) = "I rush or move violently". Akin to kataigis, "thunderstorm".
# The shield of a deity as described above.
# "goatskin coat", from treating the word as meaning "something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat": Greek aix (stem aig-) = "goat" + suffix -is (stem -id-).
The original meaning may have been the first, and Zeus Aigiokhos "Zeus who holds the aegis" may have originally meant "Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm". The transition to the meaning "shield" or "goatskin" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.In Greek mythology)]]The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the Iliad. "It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (Iliad, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle ... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen."
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus's forge, who "busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods—a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess's breast—a severed head rolling its eyes", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the Gorgoneion (Medusa's head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and "re-born" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was "awful to behold". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton's daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled. Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend.
In classical poetry and art
, Pompeii (Naples National Archaeological Museum)]]
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (Ion, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the Gorgoneion was added to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (Poetical Astronomy ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (aigis "goat-skin") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.]]
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. "Athene's garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents."
Robert Graves in The Greek Myths (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis.References
External links
*[http://www.theoi.com Theoi Project: "Aigis"]
*[http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2003/3757/pdf/athena.pdf Die Aigis: Zu Typologie und Ikonographie eines Mythischen Gegenstandes]: a Doctoral dissertation on the Ægis (Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität, Münster 1991) by Sigrid Vierck.
Category:Comparative mythology
Category:Greek shields
Category:Interpersonal relationships
Category:Medusa
Category:Mythography
Category:Mythological clothing
Category:Mythological shields
Category:Objects in Greek mythology
Category:Symbols of Athena | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegis | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.023765 |
2629 | Aegisthus | thumb|right|250px|Aegisthus being murdered by Orestes and Pylades – The Louvre
Aegisthus (; ; also transliterated as Aigisthos, ) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer's Odyssey, believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus's Oresteia, written in the 5th century BC. Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides's Electra ( 420 BC), although his character remains offstage.
Family
Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes's own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father's rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus's son Agamemnon. In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother's children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.
While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king's return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon's son Orestes.
Mythology
Early life
Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus's wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes's sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.
Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from , male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.
Death of Atreus
In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.
Power struggle over Mycenae
Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus's sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.
After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen's abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon's return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.
Following Agamemnon's death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen). In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus's daughter Erigone.
In culture
thumb|Pierre-Narcisse Guérin's Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, in which Aegisthus appears as a shadowy figure pushing Clytemnestra forward
Homer gives no information about Aegisthus's antecedents. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.
In Aeschylus's Oresteia, Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, Agamemnon, he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In The Libation Bearers he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a "weak lion", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he "takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act." Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in Agamemnon revealing him to be "cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical 'tyrant figure' in embryo."
Aeschylus's portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca's Agamemnon, enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss's and Hugo von Hofmannsthal's opera, Elektra his voice is "a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra." In the first production he was depicted as "an epicene...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively."
An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the "Tomb of Aegisthus". It dates from around 1510 BC.
References
External links
Category:Kings of Mycenae
Category:Clytemnestra
Category:Atreidai | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegisthus | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.030322 |
2630 | Aegospotami | Aegospotami (, Aigos Potamoi) or Aegospotamos (i.e. Goat Streams) is the ancient Greek name for a small river or rivers issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish Çanakkale Boğazı), northeast of Sestos.
Aegospotami is plural, which suggests that the name may have referred to multiple rivers. As is often the case, interpretation of geography described by ancient sources has difficulties, not the least of which is evolution of the terrain, and the river or rivers have been identified with both the modern Karakova Dere and Büyük Dere ("Big Creek", now called Münipbey Deresi). Körpe and Yavuz concurred with both Bommelaer and Strauss that the latter stream is the more likely candidate and additionally identified the probable site of the associated settlement as a rise on the left bank of the Münipbey Deresi known as Kalanuro Tepesi, based on geographical features and archaeological remnants.
Aegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, near the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.
At its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War. The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.
References
Category:Greek colonies in the Thracian Chersonese
Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Category:Rivers of Turkey
Category:Former populated places in Turkey
Category:Landforms of Çanakkale Province
Category:History of Çanakkale Province
(+)
Category:Populated places in ancient Thrace | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegospotami | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.034901 |
2632 | Aelia Capitolina | |type|part_of|length|width|area|height|builder|material|built|cultures|dependency_of|occupants=}}
Aelia Capitolina (Latin: Colonia Aelia Capitolina [kɔˈloːni.a ˈae̯li.a kapɪtoːˈliːna]) was a Roman colony founded during the Roman emperor Hadrian's visit to Judaea in 129/130 CE. It was founded on the ruins of Jerusalem, which had been almost totally razed after the siege of 70 CE. This act marked a significant transformation of the city from a Jewish metropolis to a small pagan settlement dedicated to the cult of Capitoline Jupiter.
The population of Aelia Capitolina consisted primarily of Roman legionaries, veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers. Jews were forbidden entrance to the city. The city's urban layout was redesigned with broad colonnaded streets, arched gateways, and forums that served as commercial and social hubs. The religious landscape also shifted, with the worship of Roman deities replacing the Jewish religious practices that had been centered around the Temple in Jerusalem. Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the Roman Empire, with an estimated population of around 4,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the population during the late Second Temple period.
The modest colony would change dramatically starting in the early 4th century, when Constantine the Great granted Christianity legal status within the Roman Empire. This led to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, laying the groundwork for its eventual transformation into a prominent Christian center during the Byzantine period. The ban on Jews was maintained until the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 636. The Aelia part of the name was used in Arabic as Īlyāʾ during the Umayyad Caliphate. whom the Romans believed had vanquished and replaced the God of the Jews. A temple to Jupiter was built in the city.
The discovery of Aelia Capitolina coins struck before the revolt, found in a building abandoned prior to the uprising and in coin hoards from Bar Kokhba refuge caves, has provided strong archaeological evidence that the city's foundation preceded the revolt. This evidence has led most modern historians to favor Cassius Dio’s account, placing Hadrian’s urban and religious policies as key factors that contributed to Jewish resistance. Meanwhile, Eusebius' interpretation, which presents the city's reconstruction as a post-revolt punishment, is now seen as likely influenced by a supersessionist theology.
Construction and plan
Jerusalem was rebuilt in the style of its original Hippodamian plan, although adapted to Roman use. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death except for one day each year: during the fast day of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially secularized the city. Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire now inhabited the rebuilt city.
Archaeological evidence from this period indicates that Roman customs, including pork consumption and the presence of statues and figured decorations, became widespread. Jewish symbols and practices, such as the use of miqvaot (ritual baths) and traditional stone vessels, disappeared.
The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of Legio X Fretensis during the Late Roman period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which encamped all over the city's western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the 4th century.Layout and street pattern
The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise. The urban grid was based on the usual central north–south road (cardo maximus) and central east–west route (decumanus maximus). However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the Temple Mount blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, the strict pattern had to be adapted to the local topography; a secondary, eastern cardo, diverged from the western one and ran down the Tyropoeon Valley, while the decumanus had to zigzag around the Temple Mount, passing it on its northern side. The Hadrianic western cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine period, it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern, expanded margins of the city.
The two cardines converged near the Damascus Gate, and a semicircular piazza covered the remaining space; in the piazza, a columnar monument was constructed, hence the Arabic name for the gate, Bab el-Amud ("Gate of the Column"). Tetrapylones were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads.
This street pattern has been preserved in the Old City of Jerusalem to the present. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about wide, but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow. The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylones are preserved in the 19th century Franciscan chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit.Western forumAs was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main forum at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan. Adjacent to the forum, Hadrian built a large temple to Venus, at a site later used for the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the church.Valley cardo and eastern forumThe Struthion Pool lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed vaulting over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary forum; the pavement can still be seen under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion. Traditionally, this was thought to be the gate of Herod's Antonia Fortress, which itself was alleged to be the location of Jesus' trial and Pontius Pilate's Ecce homo speech as described in John 19:13. This was due in part to the 1864 discovery of a game etched on a flagstone of the pool. According to the convent's nuns, the game was played by Roman soldiers and may have ended in the execution of a 'mock king'. Ermete Pierotti is the first to term the words Ecce Homo to the arch, in reference to Pilate's words to Jesus. It is possible that following its destruction, the Antonia Fortress's pavement tiles were brought to the cistern of Hadrian's plaza. The southern arch was incorporated into a zawiya (Sufi monastery) for Uzbek dervishes of the Naqshbandi order in the 16th century, but these were demolished in the 19th century in order to found a mosque. Population Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the Roman Empire, with an estimated population of around 4,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the population during the late Second Temple period. The demographic consisted primarily of Roman legionaries, veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers.
Jews were permitted to enter Aelia Capitolina only once a year, on Tisha B'Av, to mourn the destruction of the Second Temple. A Christian pilgrim from Bordeaux, who visited the city in 333, recorded that Jews would gather annually to anoint a perforated stone, where they would "bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart." Similarly, Jerome described the annual Jewish pilgrimage to the city, writing: And in order for them to be allowed to weep over the ruin of their city, they pay a fine [...] on the day in which Jerusalem was captured and plundered by the Romans, the people came mourning, the feeble foolish women assemble, and the old men, covered with years and rags, show the wrath of the Lord in their bodies and in their physical appearance.
According to Eusebius, the Jerusalem church was dispersed twice, first in 70 CE and again in 135 CE. A key distinction between these periods is that from 70 to 130 CE, the bishops of Jerusalem bore Jewish names, whereas after 135 CE, the bishops of Aelia Capitolina appear to have been Greek. Eusebius' evidence for the continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Itinerarium Burdigalense, a 4th-century Christian travelogue.
Later history
The reign of Constantine the Great and the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the early fourth century initiated the process of Christian establishment in Jerusalem, eventually transforming the small colony into a prominent Christian center. Christians had been allowed to visit the city since the 4th century, when Constantine ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.
In the fifth century, the emperor based in Constantinople maintained control of the city, but following Sasanian emperor Khosrow II's early seventh-century advance through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen against the Byzantines. In 614, after 21 days of siege, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sasanian and Jewish forces slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The conquered city would remain in Sasanian hands for some fifteen years. It was reconquered by emperor Heraclius in 629.
Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the armies of Umar, the Rashid caliph, in 636, which resulted in the removal of the restrictions on Jews living in the city. In this era, it was referred to in Arabic as Madinat Bayt al-Maqdis "City of the Temple", a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city was called Ilyā, reflecting the Roman name Aelia.See also
* Alexander of Jerusalem (died 251), bishop of Jerusalem
* Caesarea Maritima, Roman provincial capital after 6 CE
* Gabbatha, biblical name of the place where Pilate tried Jesus
* Names of Jerusalem
References
Footnotes
<references group"lower-alpha" responsive"1"></references>
Citations
<references responsive"0"></references>Bibliography
Main sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Leo Kadman, The Coins of Aelia Capitolina, Jerusalem, 1956
* Benjamin H. Isaac, Roman Colonies in Judaea: the Foundation of Aelia Capitolina, Talanta XII/XIII (1980/81), pp. 31–54
* Ritti, T., Documenti adrianei da Hierapolis di Frigia: le epistole di Adriano alla città, L’Hellénisme d’époque romaine. Nouveaux documents, nouvelles approches (ier s. a.C.–iiie s. p.C.), Paris, 2014, pp. 297–340
* Yaron Z. Eliav, [https://books.google.com/books?id1TA-Fg4wBnUC&dqEcce%20Homo%20blomme&pg=PA244 The Urban Layout of Aelia Capitolina: A New View from the Perspective of the Temple Mount], The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish Revolt, Peter Schäfer (ed.), 2003, pp. 241–277
* Zissu, B., Klein, E., Kloner, A. Settlement Processes in the territorium of Roman Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina), J. M. Alvarez, T. Nogales, I. Roda (hg.), XVIII CIAC: Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Mérida, 2014, pp. 219–223.
* S. Weksler-Bdolah, The Foundation of Aelia Capitolina in Light of New Excavations along the Eastern Cardo, IEJ 64, 2014, pp. 38–62
* B. Isaac,Caesarea-on-the-Sea and Aelia Capitolina: Two Ambiguous Roman Colonies, L’héritage Grec des colonies Romaines d’Orient. Interactions culturelles dans les provinces hellénophones de l’empire romain, C. Brélaz (hg.), Paris, 2017, pp. 331–343.
* Kloner, A., Klein, E., Zissu, B., The Rural Hinterland (territorium) of Aelia Capitolina, G. Avni, G. D. Stiebel (hg.), Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City, Portsmouth, RI, 2017, pp. 131–141.
* Newman, H. I., The Temple Mount of Jerusalem and the Capitolium of Aelia Capitolina, Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni, G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, J. Patrich (hg.), Jerusalem, 2017, pp. 35–42
* A. Bernini, Un riconoscimento di debito redatto a Colonia Aelia Capitolina, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 206, 2018, pp. 183–193
* A. Bernini, New Evidence for Colonia Aelia Capitolina (P. Mich. VII 445 + inv. 3888c + inv. 3944k, Proceedings of the 28th International Congress of Papyrology, Barcelona, 2019, pp. 557–562.
* Werner Eck, [http://www.ejournals.eu/pliki/art/15014/ Die Colonia Aelia Capitolina: Überlegungen zur Anfangsphase der zweiten römischen Kolonie in der Provinz Iudaea-Syria Palaestina], ELECTRUM, Vol. 26 (2019), pp. 129–139
* Miriam Ben Zeev Hofman, ''Eusebius and Hadrian's Founding of Aelia Capitolina in Jerusalem'', ELECTRUM, Vol. 26 (2019), pp. 119–128
* Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah, Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period - In Light of Archaeological Research, Mnemosyne, Supplements, History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, Volume: 432, Brill, 2020
External links
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/aelia.htm Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090907043901/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/jhs/TSsptemp.html Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the emperor Hadrian]
* [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/archaeologists-bringing-jerusalem-s-ancient-roman-city-back-to-life-1.413874 "Archaeologists bringing Jerusalem's ancient Roman city back to life" by Nir Hasson, Ha'aretz, February 21, 2012]
* [https://www.manar-al-athar.ox.ac.uk/pages/search.php?search=%21collection542 Photos of the Ecco Homo Arch] at the Manar al-Athar photo archive
Category:Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire
Category:Classical sites in Jerusalem
Category:Former populated places in West Asia
Category:Ancient history of Jerusalem
Category:Judea (Roman province)
Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Category:Populated places established in the 2nd century
Category:131 establishments
Category:130s establishments in the Roman Empire
Category:320s disestablishments in the Roman Empire
Category:Roman towns and cities
Category:Coloniae (Roman)
Category:Palestine in the Roman era
Category:Old City (Jerusalem) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.053125 |
2633 | Aelian | Aelian or Aelianus may refer to:
Aelianus Tacticus, 2nd-century Greek military writer in Rome
Casperius Aelianus (13–98 AD), Praetorian Prefect, executed by Trajan
Claudius Aelianus, Roman writer of De Natura Animalium, teacher and historian of the 3rd century, who wrote in Greek
Lucius Aelianus or Laelian (died 269), one of the thirty tyrants under the Roman empire
Aelianus Meccius, 2nd-century Greek physician, tutor of Galen
Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, adopted nephew of Plautia Urgulanilla, first wife of Claudius; consul 45 and 74 AD
Aelian (rebel) (fl. 285), leader of the Bagaudae peasant rebels
Aelianus (comes), leader of the Roman defensive forces at the Siege of Amida in 359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelian | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.054572 |
2634 | Aelianus Tacticus | thumb|In hoc codice continentur Helianus De instruendis aciebus et Onosander De optimo imperatore, , by Aelianus Tacticus
Aelianus Tacticus (; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as Aelian (), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.
Work
Aelian's military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks (), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.
Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus's house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.
Critics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). The author of the Strategikon ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian's work as a conceptional model, especially its preface. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own Taktika. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350.
References
Sources
Category:Roman-era Greeks
Category:2nd-century writers
Category:Ancient Macedonian army
Category:Ancient Greek military writers
Category:2nd-century Greek people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelianus_Tacticus | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.058191 |
2635 | Agarose | right|thumb|An agarose gel in a trayused for gel electrophoresis
Agarose is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red algae. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.
Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.
Structure
right|thumb|The structure of the repeating unit of an agarose polymer.
Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.
Each agarose chain contains ~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm). The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to >200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.
Properties
Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from Gelidium has a gelling temperature of and a melting temperature of , while those derived from Gracilaria, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of and melting temperature of . The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.
Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.
The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added. On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.
Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
LE agarose is said to be better for preparative electrophoresis, i.e. when DNA needs to be extracted from an agarose gel.
Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses
The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.
Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (~90 nm) than standard agaroses. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at .
Applications
thumb|An agarose gel with bands of DNA stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light on a UV Transilluminator.
Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes >200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments >100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.
Agarose gel electrophoresis
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50–20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.
The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.
Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), Praesto and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).
For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.
Solid culture media
Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, Caenorhabditis elegans, other organisms and various cell lines.
Motility assays
Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel's porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell's swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient.
See also
Agar
SDD-AGE
References
Category:Polysaccharides | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarose | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.070276 |
2637 | Atomic absorption spectroscopy | }}
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a spectro-analytical procedure for the quantitative measurement of chemical elements. AAS is based on the absorption of light by free metallic ions that have been atomized from a sample. An alternative technique is atomic emission spectroscopy (AES).
In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution, or directly in solid samples via electrothermal vaporization, and is used in pharmacology, biophysics,
archaeology and toxicology research.
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AAS) was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany.
The modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, Australia.
Instrumentation
In order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured by a detector.
Atomizers
The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are spectroscopic flames and electrothermal atomizers. Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization, might be used for special purposes.
Flame atomizers
The oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide since the late 1950s, and investigated in parallel by Hans Massmann at the Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy (ISAS) in Dortmund, Germany.
Although a wide variety of graphite tube designs have been used over the years, the dimensions nowadays are typically 20–25 mm in length and 5–6 mm inner diameter. With this technique liquid/dissolved, solid and gaseous samples may be analyzed directly. A measured volume (typically 10–50 μL) or a weighed mass (typically around 1 mg) of a solid sample are introduced into the graphite tube and subject to a temperature program. This typically consists of stages, such as drying – the solvent is evaporated; pyrolysis – the majority of the matrix constituents are removed; atomization – the analyte element is released to the gaseous phase; and cleaning – eventual residues in the graphite tube are removed at high temperature.
The graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely, and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample components. Tubes may be heated transversely or longitudinally, where the former ones have the advantage of a more homogeneous temperature distribution over their length. The so-called stabilized temperature platform furnace (STPF) concept, proposed by Walter Slavin, based on research of Boris L’vov, makes ET AAS essentially free from interference. The major components of this concept are atomization of the sample from a graphite platform inserted into the graphite tube (L’vov platform) instead of from the tube wall in order to delay atomization until the gas phase in the atomizer has reached a stable temperature; use of a chemical modifier in order to stabilize the analyte to a pyrolysis temperature that is sufficient to remove the majority of the matrix components; and integration of the absorbance over the time of the transient absorption signal instead of using peak height absorbance for quantification.
In ET AAS a transient signal is generated, the area of which is directly proportional to the mass of analyte (not its concentration) introduced into the graphite tube. This technique has the advantage that any kind of sample, solid, liquid or gaseous, can be analyzed directly. Its sensitivity is 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than that of flame AAS, so that determinations in the low μg L<sup>−1</sup> range (for a typical sample volume of 20 μL) and ng g<sup>−1</sup> range (for a typical sample mass of 1 mg) can be carried out. It shows a very high degree of freedom from interferences, so that ET AAS might be considered the most robust technique available nowadays for the determination of trace elements in complex matrices.Specialized atomization techniquesWhile flame and electrothermal vaporizers are the most common atomization techniques, several other atomization methods are utilized for specialized use.
Glow-discharge atomization
A glow-discharge device (GD) serves as a versatile source, as it can simultaneously introduce and atomize the sample. The glow discharge occurs in a low-pressure argon gas atmosphere between 1 and 10 torr. In this atmosphere lies a pair of electrodes applying a DC voltage of 250 to 1000 V to break down the argon gas into positively charged ions and electrons. These ions, under the influence of the electric field, are accelerated into the cathode surface containing the sample, bombarding the sample and causing neutral sample atom ejection through the process known as sputtering. The atomic vapor produced by this discharge is composed of ions, ground state atoms, and fraction of excited atoms. When the excited atoms relax back into their ground state, a low-intensity glow is emitted, giving the technique its name.
The requirement for samples of glow discharge atomizers is that they are electrical conductors. Consequently, atomizers are most commonly used in the analysis of metals and other conducting samples. However, with proper modifications, it can be utilized to analyze liquid samples as well as nonconducting materials by mixing them with a conductor (e.g. graphite).
Hydride atomization
Hydride generation techniques are specialized in solutions of specific elements. The technique provides a means of introducing samples containing arsenic, antimony, selenium, bismuth, and lead into an atomizer in the gas phase. With these elements, hydride atomization enhances detection limits by a factor of 10 to 100 compared to alternative methods. Hydride generation occurs by adding an acidified aqueous solution of the sample to a 1% aqueous solution of sodium borohydride, all of which is contained in a glass vessel. The volatile hydride generated by the reaction that occurs is swept into the atomization chamber by an inert gas, where it undergoes decomposition. This process forms an atomized form of the analyte, which can then be measured by absorption or emission spectrometry.
Cold-vapor atomization
The cold-vapor technique is an atomization method limited only for the determination of mercury, due to it being the only metallic element to have a large vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Because of this, it has an important use in determining organic mercury compounds in samples and their distribution in the environment. The method initiates by converting mercury into Hg<sup>2+</sup> by oxidation from nitric and sulfuric acids, followed by a reduction of Hg<sup>2+</sup> with tin(II) chloride. The mercury, is then swept into a long-pass absorption tube by bubbling a stream of inert gas through the reaction mixture. The concentration is determined by measuring the absorbance of this gas at 253.7 nm. Detection limits for this technique are in the parts-per-billion range making it an excellent mercury detection atomization method. Radiation sources We have to distinguish between line source AAS (LS AAS) and continuum source AAS (CS AAS). In classical LS AAS, as it has been proposed by Alan Walsh, the high spectral resolution required for AAS measurements is provided by the radiation source itself that emits the spectrum of the analyte in the form of lines that are narrower than the absorption lines. Continuum sources, such as deuterium lamps, are only used for background correction purposes. The advantage of this technique is that only a medium-resolution monochromator is necessary for measuring AAS; however, it has the disadvantage that usually a separate lamp is required for each element that has to be determined. In CS AAS, in contrast, a single lamp, emitting a continuum spectrum over the entire spectral range of interest is used for all elements. Obviously, a high-resolution monochromator is required for this technique, as will be discussed later. Hollow cathode lamps Hollow cathode lamps (HCL) are the most common radiation source in LS AAS. Inside the sealed lamp, filled with argon or neon gas at low pressure, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the element of interest and an anode. A high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, resulting in an ionization of the fill gas. The gas ions are accelerated towards the cathode and, upon impact on the cathode, sputter cathode material that is excited in the glow discharge to emit the radiation of the sputtered material, i.e., the element of interest. In the majority of cases single element lamps are used, where the cathode is pressed out of predominantly compounds of the target element. Multi-element lamps are available with combinations of compounds of the target elements pressed in the cathode. Multi element lamps produce slightly less sensitivity than single element lamps and the combinations of elements have to be selected carefully to avoid spectral interferences. Most multi-element lamps combine a handful of elements, e.g.: 2 - 8. Atomic Absorption Spectrometers can feature as few as 1-2 hollow cathode lamp positions or in automated multi-element spectrometers, a 8-12 lamp positions may be typically available.
Electrodeless discharge lamps
Electrodeless discharge lamps (EDL) contain a small quantity of the analyte as a metal or a salt in a quartz bulb together with an inert gas, typically argon gas, at low pressure. The bulb is inserted into a coil that is generating an electromagnetic radio frequency field, resulting in a low-pressure inductively coupled discharge in the lamp. The emission from an EDL is higher than that from an HCL, and the line width is generally narrower, but EDLs need a separate power supply and might need a longer time to stabilize.
Deuterium lamps
Deuterium HCL or even hydrogen HCL and deuterium discharge lamps are used in LS AAS for background correction purposes. The radiation intensity emitted by these lamps decreases significantly with increasing wavelength, so that they can be only used in the wavelength range between 190 and about 320 nm.
Continuum sources
When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS, it is necessary to use a high-resolution monochromator, as will be discussed later. In addition, it is necessary that the lamp emits radiation of intensity at least an order of magnitude above that of a typical HCL over the entire wavelength range from 190 nm to 900 nm. A special high-pressure xenon short arc lamp, operating in a hot-spot mode has been developed to fulfill these requirements.
Spectrometer
As already pointed out above, there is a difference between medium-resolution spectrometers that are used for LS AAS and high-resolution spectrometers that are designed for CS AAS. The spectrometer includes the spectral sorting device (monochromator) and the detector.
Spectrometers for LS AAS
In LS AAS the high resolution that is required for the measurement of atomic absorption is provided by the narrow line emission of the radiation source, and the monochromator simply has to resolve the analytical line from other radiation emitted by the lamp. This can usually be accomplished with a band pass between 0.2 and 2 nm, i.e., a medium-resolution monochromator. Another feature to make LS AAS element-specific is modulation of the primary radiation and the use of a selective amplifier that is tuned to the same modulation frequency, as already postulated by Alan Walsh. This way any (unmodulated) radiation emitted for example by the atomizer can be excluded, which is imperative for LS AAS. Simple monochromators of the Littrow or (better) the Czerny-Turner design are typically used for LS AAS. Photomultiplier tubes are the most frequently used detectors in LS AAS, although solid state detectors might be preferred because of their better signal-to-noise ratio. Spectrometers for CS AAS When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS measurement it is indispensable to work with a high-resolution monochromator. The resolution has to be equal to or better than the half-width of an atomic absorption line (about 2 pm) in order to avoid losses of sensitivity and linearity of the calibration graph. The research with high-resolution (HR) CS AAS was pioneered by the groups of O’Haver and Harnly in the US, who also developed the (up until now) only simultaneous multi-element spectrometer for this technique. The breakthrough, however, came when the group of Becker-Ross in Berlin, Germany, built a spectrometer entirely designed for HR-CS AAS. The first commercial equipment for HR-CS AAS was introduced by Analytik Jena (Jena, Germany) at the beginning of the 21st century, based on the design proposed by Becker-Ross and Florek. These spectrometers use a compact double monochromator with a prism pre-monochromator and an echelle grating monochromator for high resolution. A linear charge-coupled device (CCD) array with 200 pixels is used as the detector. The second monochromator does not have an exit slit; hence the spectral environment at both sides of the analytical line becomes visible at high resolution. As typically only 3–5 pixels are used to measure the atomic absorption, the other pixels are available for correction purposes. One of these corrections is that for lamp flicker noise, which is independent of wavelength, resulting in measurements with very low noise level; other corrections are those for background absorption, as will be discussed later. Background absorption and background correction The relatively small number of atomic absorption lines (compared to atomic emission lines) and their narrow width (a few pm) make spectral overlap rare; there are only few examples known that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another. Molecular absorption, in contrast, is much broader, so that it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line. This kind of absorption might be caused by un-dissociated molecules of concomitant elements of the sample or by flame gases. We have to distinguish between the spectra of di-atomic molecules, which exhibit a pronounced fine structure, and those of larger (usually tri-atomic) molecules that don't show such fine structure. Another source of background absorption, particularly in ET AAS, is scattering of the primary radiation at particles that are generated in the atomization stage, when the matrix could not be removed sufficiently in the pyrolysis stage.
All these phenomena, molecular absorption and radiation scattering, can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high (erroneous) calculation for the concentration or mass of the analyte in the sample. There are several techniques available to correct for background absorption, and they are significantly different for LS AAS and HR-CS AAS.
Background correction techniques in LS AAS
In LS AAS background absorption can only be corrected using instrumental techniques, and all of them are based on two sequential measurements: firstly, total absorption (atomic plus background), secondly, background absorption only. The difference of the two measurements gives the net atomic absorption. Because of this, and because of the use of additional devices in the spectrometer, the signal-to-noise ratio of background-corrected signals is always significantly inferior compared to uncorrected signals. It should also be pointed out that in LS AAS there is no way to correct for (the rare case of) a direct overlap of two atomic lines. In essence there are three techniques used for background correction in LS AAS:
Deuterium background correction
This is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS. In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer. The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least accurate one, as it cannot correct for any structured background. It also cannot be used at wavelengths above about 320 nm, as the emission intensity of the deuterium lamp becomes very weak. The use of deuterium HCL is preferable compared to an arc lamp due to the better fit of the image of the former lamp with that of the analyte HCL.
Smith-Hieftje background correction
This technique (named after their inventors) is based on the line-broadening and self-reversal of emission lines from HCL when high current is applied. Total absorption is measured with normal lamp current, i.e., with a narrow emission line, and background absorption after application of a high-current pulse with the profile of the self-reversed line, which has little emission at the original wavelength, but strong emission on both sides of the analytical line. The advantage of this technique is that only one radiation source is used; among the disadvantages are that the high-current pulses reduce lamp lifetime, and that the technique can only be used for relatively volatile elements, as only those exhibit sufficient self-reversal to avoid dramatic loss of sensitivity. Another problem is that background is not measured at the same wavelength as total absorption, making the technique unsuitable for correcting structured background.
Zeeman-effect background correction
An alternating magnetic field is applied at the atomizer (graphite furnace) to split the absorption line into three components, the π component, which remains at the same position as the original absorption line, and two σ components, which are moved to higher and lower wavelengths, respectively. Total absorption is measured without magnetic field and background absorption with the magnetic field on. The π component has to be removed in this case, e.g. using a polarizer, and the σ components do not overlap with the emission profile of the lamp, so that only the background absorption is measured. The advantages of this technique are that total and background absorption are measured with the same emission profile of the same lamp, so that any kind of background, including background with fine structure can be corrected accurately, unless the molecule responsible for the background is also affected by the magnetic field and using a chopper as a polariser reduces the signal to noise ratio. While the disadvantages are the increased complexity of the spectrometer and power supply needed for running the powerful magnet needed to split the absorption line. Background correction techniques in HR-CS AAS In HR-CS AAS background correction is carried out mathematically in the software using information from detector pixels that are not used for measuring atomic absorption; hence, in contrast to LS AAS, no additional components are required for background correction. Background correction using correction pixels It has already been mentioned that in HR-CS AAS lamp flicker noise is eliminated using correction pixels. In fact, any increase or decrease in radiation intensity that is observed to the same extent at all pixels chosen for correction is eliminated by the correction algorithm. This obviously also includes a reduction of the measured intensity due to radiation scattering or molecular absorption, which is corrected in the same way. As measurement of total and background absorption, and correction for the latter, are strictly simultaneous (in contrast to LS AAS), even the fastest changes of background absorption, as they may be observed in ET AAS, do not cause any problem. In addition, as the same algorithm is used for background correction and elimination of lamp noise, the background corrected signals show a much better signal-to-noise ratio compared to the uncorrected signals, which is also in contrast to LS AAS.
Background correction using a least-squares algorithm
The above technique can obviously not correct for a background with fine structure, as in this case the absorbance will be different at each of the correction pixels. In this case HR-CS AAS is offering the possibility to measure correction spectra of the molecule(s) that is (are) responsible for the background and store them in the computer. These spectra are then multiplied with a factor to match the intensity of the sample spectrum and subtracted pixel by pixel and spectrum by spectrum from the sample spectrum using a least-squares algorithm. This might sound complex, but first of all the number of di-atomic molecules that can exist at the temperatures of the atomizers used in AAS is relatively small, and second, the correction is performed by the computer within a few seconds. The same algorithm can actually also be used to correct for direct line overlap of two atomic absorption lines, making HR-CS AAS the only AAS technique that can correct for this kind of spectral interference.
See also
*Absorption spectroscopy
*Beer–Lambert law
*Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
*Laser absorption spectrometry
References
Further reading
*B. Welz, M. Sperling (1999), Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .
*A. Walsh (1955), The application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis, Spectrochim. Acta 7: 108–117.
*J.A.C. Broekaert (1998), Analytical Atomic Spectrometry with Flames and Plasmas, 3rd Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
*B.V. L’vov (1984), Twenty-five years of furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 39: 149–157.
*B.V. L’vov (2005), Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry; J. Anal. Chem., 60: 382–392.
*H. Massmann (1968), Vergleich von Atomabsorption und Atomfluoreszenz in der Graphitküvette, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 23: 215–226.
*W. Slavin, D.C. Manning, G.R. Carnrick (1981), The stabilized temperature platform furnace, At. Spectrosc. 2: 137–145.
*B. Welz, H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann (2005), High-resolution Continuum Source AAS, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .
*H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann, R. Weisse (1996), Influence of the spectral bandwidth of the spectrometer on the sensitivity using continuum source AAS, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 355: 300–303.
*J.M. Harnly (1986), Multi element atomic absorption with a continuum source, Anal. Chem. 58: 933A-943A.
*Skoog, Douglas (2007). Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Canada: Thomson Brooks/Cole. .
External links
*
Category:Absorption spectroscopy
Category:Australian inventions
Category:Scientific techniques
Category:Analytical chemistry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.078412 |
2639 | Arthur St. Clair | | death_date =
| image = ArthurStClairOfficialPortrait-restored.jpg
| caption = Portrait by Charles Willson Peale, 1783
| order = 1st
| office = Governor of the Northwest Territory
| term_start = July 15, 1788
| term_end = November 22, 1802
| preceded = Position established
| succeeded = Charles Willing Byrd
| office1 = 4th Senior Officer of the United States Army
| term_start1 = March 4, 1791
| term_end1 = March 5, 1792
| president1 = George Washington
| preceded1 = Josiah Harmar
| succeeded1 = Anthony Wayne
| office2 = 9th President of the Confederation Congress
| term_start2 = February 2, 1787
| term_end2 = November 4, 1787
| preceded2 = Nathaniel Gorham
| succeeded2 = Cyrus Griffin
| signature = Arthur st clair signature.svg
| alma_mater = University of Edinburgh
| birth_place = Thurso, Caithness, Scotland
| death_place = Greensburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| restingplace = St. Clair Park, Greensburg
| party = Federalist
| nickname | allegiance
| branch =
| serviceyears | rank
| unit | commands
| battles =
* French and Indian War
** Siege of Louisbourg
** Battle of the Plains of Abraham
* Lord Dunmore's War
* American Revolutionary War
** Invasion of Quebec
*** Battle of Trois-Rivières
** Battle of Trenton
** Battle of Princeton
** Siege of Fort Ticonderoga
** Siege of Yorktown
* Northwest Indian War
** Battle of the Wabash
| awards | relations
}}
Major-General Arthur St. Clair (
]]
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, to honor his membership in the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he decided to relocate his home.
As governor, he formulated "Maxwell's Code" (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also worked with Josiah Harmar, Senior Officer of the United States, to resolve the issue of Native American tribes refusing to leave their lands, which the federal government had seized as punishment for their support of the British during the Revolution. In 1789, the two men succeeded in getting several Native American tribal leaders to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but the treaty was never fully implemented and the tribes rejected it outright as illegitimate.
Supported with intelligence, supplies, and weapons funneled to them by British agents, the tribes decided to wage full-scale war against the Americans in what came to be called the "Northwest Indian War" (or "Little Turtle's War"). Harmar was ordered by President Washington's administration to crush the Indians with a force comprised mainly of ill-disciplined and inexperienced state militiamen; he suffered a humiliating defeat in October 1790.
Army commander
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded the disgraced Harmar as Senior Officer of the new United States Army and was restored to his previous rank of major general. He personally led a punitive expedition, this time with two full Army regiments and a large contingent of militia. Unlike Harmar, St. Clair had a far better organized and supplied force; unfortunately, like Harmar, St. Clair was also devoid of any practical experience in frontier warfare and generally dismissive of the Indians as fighters. In October 1791, he ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson to serve as the advance post for his campaign. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named Fort Deposit.
St. Clair's defeat
In November 1791, near modern-day Fort Recovery, St. Clair advanced on the main Indian settlements at the head of the Wabash River. On November 4, they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket with the support of British agents Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. More than 600 American soldiers and scores of camp followers were killed in the battle, which came to be known as "St. Clair's Defeat"; other names include the "Battle of the Wabash", the "Columbia Massacre," or the "Battle of a Thousand Slain". It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. army by Native Americans in history, with a total of 623 fallen Americans compared to just 50 fallen Native Americans. The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt. Robert Benham.
Continued as Governor 1788-1802
Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair surrendered his commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington before resuming his previous office as territorial governor.
A Federalist, St. Clair refocused his energies on carving up the Northwest Territory into two states that would strength Federalist control of Congress. However, he was opposed by Ohio Democrat-Republicans for what they perceived as his shameless partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, he declared that his constituents "are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France." This, coupled with the gradual collapse of Federalist influence in Washington D.C., led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him as governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.
The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, largely as a reaction to St. Clair's method of governance.
Family life
St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard's mother's maiden name was Bowdoin, and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, a colonial governor of Massachusetts.
His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.
Like many of his Revolutionary-era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout due to poor diet, as noted in his correspondence with John Adams.Death
In retirement, St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.
Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg. St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova Caesarea
Lodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791. This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2. His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.
Legacy
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD Michigan place names as all are named after Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River which are named for Saint Clare of Assisi NOT Arthur St. Clair. Thank you. -->
A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair's home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.
An American Civil War steamer was named USS St. Clair.
Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, in her first poetry collection of 1815.
The site of Clair's inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the National Start Westward Memorial of The United States, commemorating the settlement of the territory.
Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:
In Pennsylvania:
* Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania
* St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
* East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
* West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
* The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
* St. Clair Hospital, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
In Ohio:
*St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio
* St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,
* St. Clairsville, Ohio
* St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio
* St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio
* Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio
Other States:
* St. Clair County, Illinois
* St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana
* St. Clair County, Missouri
* St. Clair County, Alabama
* St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street's north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.
In Scotland:
* The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him.
References
Notes
Books
* Kopper, Kevin Patrick. "Arthur St. Clair and the Struggle For Power in the Old Northwest, 1763–1803" (Dissertation. Kent State University, 2005) [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accessionkent1113952769&dispositioninline online]
*
*
External links
* [http://www.ohiomemory.org Ohio Memory]
* [http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=354 Ohio History Central]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807164157/http://fortligonier.org/hermitage.php The Hermitage – home of Arthur St. Clair]
Category:1737 births
Category:1818 deaths
Category:Adjutants general of the United States Army
Category:Continental Army generals
Category:Continental Army officers from Pennsylvania
Category:Continental Army personnel who were court-martialed
Category:Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
Category:19th-century American politicians
Category:Governors of Northwest Territory
Category:Politicians from Cincinnati
Category:People from Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Category:American people of the Northwest Indian War
Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Category:British military personnel of the French and Indian War
Category:People from Thurso
Category:Royal American Regiment officers
Category:British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Category:Commanding Generals of the United States Army
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.090001 |
2640 | Ajaccio | |commune status = Prefecture and commune
|image flag = Flag of Ajaccio.svg
|image coat of arms = Blason ville fr Ajaccio.svg
|image =
|caption |arrondissement Ajaccio
|canton = Ajaccio-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
|INSEE = 2A004
|postal code = 20000
|demonym = Ajacciens (in French), Aiaccini or Ajaccini (in Italian), Aiaccini or Aghjaccini (in Corsican)
|mayor Stéphane Sbraggia
|term = 2022–2026
|intercommunality = CA Pays Ajaccien
|coordinates
|elevation m = 38
|elevation min m = 0
|elevation max m = 787
|area km2 = 82.03
|population =
|population date =
|population footnotes =
|website = http://www.ajaccio.fr/
}}
Ajaccio (, , ; French: ; or ; , <small>locally:</small> ; ) is the capital and largest city of Corsica, France. It forms a French commune, prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud, and head office of the Collectivité territoriale de Corse (capital city of Corsica). It is also the largest settlement on the island. Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille.
The original city went into decline in the Middle Ages, but began to prosper again after the Genoese built a citadel in 1492, to the south of the earlier settlement. After the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755, the Genoese continued to hold several citadels, including Ajaccio, until the French took control of the island.
The inhabitants of the commune are known as Ajacciens (men) or Ajacciennes (women). The most famous of these is Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Ajaccio in 1769, and whose ancestral home, the Maison Bonaparte, is now a museum. Other dedications to him in the city include Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport.
Toponymy
Several hypotheses have been advanced as to the etymology of the name Ajaccio (Aiacciu in Corsican, Addiazzo on old documents). Among these, the most prestigious suggests that the city was founded by the Greek legendary hero Ajax and named after him. Other more realistic explanations are, for example, that the name could be related to the Tuscan agghiacciu meaning "sheep pens". Another explanation, supported by Byzantine sources from around the year 600 AD called the city Agiation which suggests a possible Greek origin for the word, agathè could mean "good luck" or "good mooring" (this was also the root of the name of the city of Agde).
Geography
Location
Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille. The commune occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio This is reflected in the layout of the city which is marked by very large areas of low-rise buildings and concrete towers, especially on the heights (''Les Jardins de l'Empereur) and in the north of the city - e.g. the waterfront, Les Cannes, and Les Salines. A dichotomy appears in the landscape between the old city and the imposing modern buildings. Ajaccio gives the image of a city built on two different levels.
Climate
The city has a Mediterranean climate which is Csa in the Köppen climate classification. The average annual sunshine is 2,726 hours.
There are important local climatic variations, especially with wind exposure and total precipitation, between the city centre, the airport, and the îles Sanguinaires. The annual average rainfall is at the Campo dell'Oro weather station (as per the chart) and at the Parata'': the third-driest place in metropolitan France. The heat and dryness of summer are somewhat tempered by the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea except when the sirocco is blowing. In autumn and spring, heavy rain-storm episodes may occur. Winters are mild and snow is rare. Ajaccio is the French city which holds the record for the number of thunderstorms in the reference period 1971–2000 with an average of 39 thunderstorm days per year.
On 14 September 2009, the city was hit by a tornado with an intensity of F1 on the Fujita scale. There was little damage except torn billboards, flying tiles, overturned cars, and broken windows but no casualties.
Weather Data for Ajaccio
, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1949–present
|collapsed |metric first Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 22.4
|Feb record high C = 25.3
|Mar record high C = 29.6
|Apr record high C = 32.2
|May record high C = 34.6
|Jun record high C = 41.6
|Jul record high C = 40.3
|Aug record high C = 39.5
|Sep record high C = 40.0
|Oct record high C = 35.0
|Nov record high C = 29.4
|Dec record high C = 22.7
|Jan high C = 14.0
|Feb high C = 14.2
|Mar high C = 16.0
|Apr high C = 18.5
|May high C = 22.1
|Jun high C = 25.9
|Jul high C = 28.6
|Aug high C = 29.2
|Sep high C = 26.1
|Oct high C = 22.8
|Nov high C = 18.3
|Dec high C = 15.1
|year high C = 20.9
|Jan mean C = 9.4
|Feb mean C = 9.2
|Mar mean C = 11.0
|Apr mean C = 13.4
|May mean C = 17.0
|Jun mean C = 20.7
|Jul mean C = 23.2
|Aug mean C = 23.7
|Sep mean C = 20.8
|Oct mean C = 17.7
|Nov mean C = 13.6
|Dec mean C = 10.5
|year mean C = 15.8
|Jan low C = 4.7
|Feb low C = 4.3
|Mar low C = 5.9
|Apr low C = 8.4
|May low C = 11.8
|Jun low C = 15.4
|Jul low C = 17.7
|Aug low C = 18.1
|Sep low C = 15.4
|Oct low C = 12.6
|Nov low C = 9.0
|Dec low C = 5.8
|year low C = 10.8
|Jan record low C = -7.0
|Feb record low C = -8.1
|Mar record low C = -5.6
|Apr record low C = -1.7
|May record low C = 3.0
|Jun record low C = 6.8
|Jul record low C = 9.2
|Aug record low C = 9.1
|Sep record low C = 7.6
|Oct record low C = 1.6
|Nov record low C = -3.2
|Dec record low C = -4.9
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 54.1
|Feb precipitation mm = 48.1
|Mar precipitation mm = 50.4
|Apr precipitation mm = 53.1
|May precipitation mm = 49.8
|Jun precipitation mm = 25.9
|Jul precipitation mm = 8.6
|Aug precipitation mm = 15.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 57.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 85.7
|Nov precipitation mm = 111.8
|Dec precipitation mm = 73.9
|year precipitation mm = 635.0
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 7.0
|Feb precipitation days = 6.7
|Mar precipitation days = 6.3
|Apr precipitation days = 7.2
|May precipitation days = 5.0
|Jun precipitation days = 2.8
|Jul precipitation days = 1.2
|Aug precipitation days = 1.4
|Sep precipitation days = 5.1
|Oct precipitation days = 7.4
|Nov precipitation days = 9.3
|Dec precipitation days = 8.6
|year precipitation days = 68.0
|Jan snow days = 0.8
|Feb snow days = 0.6
|Mar snow days = 0.3
|Apr snow days = 0.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.0
|Nov snow days = 0.1
|Dec snow days = 0.3
|year snow days = 2.1
|Jan humidity = 81
|Feb humidity = 80
|Mar humidity = 80
|Apr humidity = 80
|May humidity = 80
|Jun humidity = 78
|Jul humidity = 76
|Aug humidity = 76
|Sep humidity = 78
|Oct humidity = 80
|Nov humidity = 81
|Dec humidity = 82
|Jan sun = 135.8
|Feb sun = 155.6
|Mar sun = 210.8
|Apr sun = 230.4
|May sun = 288.3
|Jun sun = 332.3
|Jul sun = 373.6
|Aug sun = 343.3
|Sep sun = 260.6
|Oct sun = 206.9
|Nov sun = 140.2
|Dec sun = 124.0
|year sun = 2801.7
|source 1 Meteo France
| source 2 Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990)
}}
{| class"wikitable collapsible plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Climatological normals for Ajaccio (period 1961–1990)
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
! Parameter
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
|-
! Average number of days with thunder
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.7
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.9
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.6
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.7
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|3.8
| style="background-color: #C0FFA0; color: black;"|4.3
| style="background-color: #C0FFA0; color: black;"|4.3
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.0
|-
! Mean number of days with hail
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.7
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.9
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.9
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5FF; color: black;"|0.6
|-
! Number Days with air frost
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|3.8
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|3
| style="background-color: #E5FFFF; color: black;"|1.4
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"|0.4
| style="background-color: #E0FFFF; color: black;"|2.6
|-
! Number Days with no Sunshine
| style="background-color: #E5E5E5; color: black;"|3.7
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.5
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.4
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1.3
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFAFA; color: black;"|0.3
| style="background-color: #F9F6EE; color: black;"|1
| style="background-color: #F1E9D2; color: black;"|2.5
| style="background-color: #E5E5E5; color: black;"|4.3
|-
! No. of days with mean temperature >
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.6
| style="background-color: #FFCC99; color: black;"|4.8
| style="background-color: #FF8000; color: black;"|20.5
| style="background-color: #994C00; color: white;"|30.0
| style="background-color: #994C00; color: white;"|30.6
| style="background-color: #CC6600; color: black;"|25.1
| style="background-color: #FFB266; color: black;"|9.8
| style="background-color: #FFE5CC; color: black;"|0.7
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
|-
! No. of days with max temperature >
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FAEBD7; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFCCCC; color: black;"|1.1
| style="background-color: #FF9999; color: black;"|4.7
| style="background-color: #FF9999; color: black;"|4.5
| style="background-color: #FFCCCC; color: black;"|1.1
| style="background-color: #FAEBD7; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
|}
Heraldry
History
Antiquity
The city was not mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria in the 2nd century AD despite the presence of a place called Ourkinion in the Cinarca area. It is likely that the city of Ajaccio had its first development at this time. The 2nd century was a period of prosperity in the Mediterranean basin (the Pax Romana) and there was a need for a proper port at the head of the several valleys that lead to the Gulf able to accommodate large ships. Some important underwater archaeological discoveries recently made of Roman ships tend to confirm this.
Further excavations conducted recently led to the discovery of important early Christian remains suggest that an upwards reevaluation might be necessary of the size of Ajaccio city in Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The city was in any case already significant enough to be the seat of a diocese, mentioned by Pope Gregory the Great in 591. The city was then further north than the location chosen later by the Genoese - in the location of the existing quarters of Castel Vecchio and Sainte-Lucie.
The earliest certain written record of a settlement at Ajaccio with a name ancestral to its name was the exhortation in Epistle 77 written in 601AD by Gregory the great to the Defensor Boniface, one of two known rectors of the early Corsican church, to tell him not to leave Aléria and Adjacium without bishops. There is no earlier use of the term and Adjacium is not an attested Latin word, which probably means that it is a Latinization of a word in some other language. The Ravenna Cosmography of about 700 AD cites Agiation, which sometimes is taken as evidence of a prior Greek city, as -ion appears to be a Greek ending. There is, however, no evidence at all of a Greek presence on the west coast and the Ionians at Aléria on the east coast had been expelled by the Etruscans long before Roman domination.
Ptolemy, who must come the closest to representing indigenous names, lists the Lochra River just south of a feature he calls the "sandy shore" on the southwest coast. If the shore is the Campo dell'Oro (Place of Gold) the Lochra would seem to be the combined mouth of the Gravona and Prunelli Rivers, neither one of which sounds like Lochra.
North of there was a Roman city, Ourchinion. The western coastline was so distorted, however, that it is impossible to say where Adjacium was; certainly, he would have known its name and location if he had had any first-hand knowledge of the island and if in fact it was there. Ptolemy's Ourchinion is further north than Ajaccio and does not have the same name. It could be Sagone. The lack of correspondence between Ptolemaic and historical names known to be ancient has no defense except in the case of the two Roman colonies, Aleria and Mariana. In any case the population of the region must belong to Ptolemy's Tarabeni or Titiani people, neither of which are ever heard about again. Archaeological evidenceThe population of the city throughout the centuries maintained an oral tradition that it had originally been Roman. Travellers of the 19th century could point to the Hill of San Giovanni on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio, which still had a cathedral said to have been the 6th-century seat of the Bishop of Ajaccio. The Castello Vecchio ("old castle"), a ruined citadel, was believed to be Roman but turned out to have Gothic features. The hill was planted with vines. The farmers kept turning up artifacts and terracotta funerary urns that seemed to be Roman.
In the 20th century, the hill was covered over with buildings and became a part of downtown Ajaccio. In 2005 construction plans for a lot on the hill offered the opportunity to the Institut national de recherches archéologiques preventatives (Inrap) to excavate. They found the baptistry of a 6th-century cathedral and large amounts of pottery dated to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; in other words, an early Christian town. A cemetery had been placed over the old church. In it was a single Roman grave covered over with roof tiles bearing short indecipherable inscriptions. The finds of the previous century had included Roman coins. This is the only evidence so far of a Roman city continuous with the early Christian one.
Medieval Genoese period
It has been established that after the 8th century the city, like most other Corsican coastal communities, strongly declined and disappeared almost completely. Nevertheless, a castle and a cathedral were still in place in 1492 which last was not demolished until 1748.
Towards the end of the 15th century, the Genoese were eager to assert their dominance in the south of the island and decided to rebuild the city of Ajaccio. Several sites were considered: the Pointe de la Parata (not chosen because it was too exposed to the wind), the ancient city (finally considered unsafe because of the proximity of the salt ponds), and finally the Punta della Lechia which was finally selected.
Work began on the town on 21 April 1492 south of the Christian village by the Bank of Saint George at Genoa, who sent Cristoforo of Gandini, an architect, to build it. He began with a castle on Capo di Bolo, around which he constructed residences for several hundred people.
The new city was essentially a colony of Genoa. The Corsicans were restricted from the city for some years.
Nevertheless, the town grew rapidly and became the administrative capital of the province of Au Delà Des Monts (more or less the current Corse-du-Sud). Bastia remained the capital of the entire island.
Although at first populated exclusively by the Genoese, the city slowly opened to the Corsicans while the Ajaccians, almost to the French conquest, were legally citizens of the Republic of Genoa and were happy to distinguish themselves from the insular paesani who lived mainly in Borgu, a suburb outside the city walls (the current rue Fesch was the main street).
Attachment to France
Ajaccio was occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, but it again fell to the Genoese after the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year.
Subsequently, the Republic of Genoa was strong enough to keep Corsica until 1755, the year Pasquale Paoli proclaimed the Corsican Republic. Paoli took most of the island for the republic, but he was unable to force Genoese troops out of the citadels of Saint-Florent, Calvi, Ajaccio, Bastia and Algajola. Leaving them there, he went on to build the nation, while the Republic of Genoa was left to ponder prospects and solutions. Their ultimate solution was to sell Corsica to France in 1768 and French troops of the Ancien Régime replaced Genoese ones in the citadels, including Ajaccio's.
Corsica was formally annexed to France in 1780.
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte (born as Napoleone di Buonaparte) was born at Ajaccio in the same year as the Battle of Ponte Novu, 1769. The Buonaparte family at the time had a huge four-story home in town (now a museum known as Maison Bonaparte) and a rarely used country home in the hills north of the city (now site of the Arboretum des Milelli). The father of the family, attorney Carlo di Buonaparte, was secretary to Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican Republic.
After the defeat of Paoli, the Comte de Marbeuf began to meet with some leading Corsicans to outline the shape of the future and enlist their assistance. The Comte was among a delegation from Ajaccio in 1769, offered his loyalty and was appointed assessor.
Marbeuf also offered Carlo di Buonaparte an appointment for one of his sons to the Military College of Brienne, but Napoleone did not speak French which was a requirement and he had to be at least ten years of age. There is a dispute concerning Napoleon's age because of this requirement; the emperor is known to have altered the civic records at Ajaccio concerning himself and it is possible that he was born in Corte in 1768 when his father was there on business. In any case Napoleon was sent to a school in Autun to learn basic French, then after a year went to Brienne from 1779 to 1784.
At Brienne Napoleon concentrated on studies. He wrote a boyish history of Corsica. He did not share his father's views but held Pasquale Paoli in high esteem and was at heart a Corsican nationalist. The top students were encouraged to go into the artillery. After graduation and a brief sojourn at the Military School of Paris Napoleon applied for a second-lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of La Fère at Valence and after a time was given the position. Meanwhile, his father died and his mother was cast into poverty in Corsica, still having four children to support. Her only income was Napoleon's meager salary.
The regiment was in Auxonne when the revolution broke out in the summer of 1789. Napoleon returned on leave to Ajaccio in October, became a Jacobin and began to work for the revolution. The National Assembly in Paris united Corsica to France and pardoned its exiles. Paoli returned in 1790 after 21 years and kissed the soil on which he stood. He and Napoleon met and toured the battlefield of Paoli's defeat. A national assembly at Orezza created the department of Corsica and Paoli was subsequently elected president. He commanded the national guard raised by Napoleon. After a brief return to his regiment Napoleon was promoted to first lieutenant and came home again on leave in 1791.
All officers were recalled from leave in 1792, intervention threatened and war with Austria (Marie-Antoinette's homeland) began. Napoleon returned to Paris for review, was exonerated, then promoted to captain and given leave to escort his sister, a schoolgirl, back to Corsica at state expense. His family was prospering; his estate increased.
Napoleon became a lieutenant-colonel in the Corsican National Guard. Paoli sent him off on an expedition to Sardinia, ordered by France, under Paolis's nephew but the nephew had secret orders from Paoli to make sure the expedition failed. Paoli was now a conservative, opposing the execution of the king and supporting an alliance with Great Britain. Returning from Sardinia Napoleon with his family and all his supporters were instrumental in getting Paoli denounced at the National Convention in Paris in 1793. Napoleon earned the hatred of the Paolists by pretending to support Paoli and then turning against him (payment, one supposes, for Sardinia).
Paoli was convicted in absentia, a warrant was issued for his arrest (which could not be served) and Napoleon was dispatched to Corsica as Inspector General of Artillery to take the citadel of Ajaccio from the royalists who had held it since 1789. The Paolists combining with the royalists defeated the French in two pitched battles and Napoleon and his family went on the run, hiding by day, while the Paolists burned their estate. Napoleon and his mother, Laetitia, were taken out by ship in June 1793, by friends while two of the girls found refuge with other friends. They landed in Toulon with only Napoleon's pay for their support.
of Napoleon]]
The Bonapartes moved to Marseille but in August Toulon offered itself to the British and received the protection of a fleet under Admiral Hood. The Siege of Toulon began in September under revolutionary officers mainly untrained in the art of war. Napoleon happened to present socially one evening and during a casual conversation over a misplaced 24-pounder explained the value of artillery. Taken seriously he was allowed to bring up over 100 guns from coastal emplacements but his plan for the taking of Toulon was set aside as one incompetent officer superseded another. By December they decided to try his plan and made him a Colonel. Placing the guns at close range he used them to keep the British fleet away while he battered down the walls of Toulon. As soon as the Committee of Public Safety heard of the victory Napoleon became a brigadier general, the start of his meteoric rise to power.
The Bonapartes were back in Ajaccio in 1797 under the protection of General Napoleon. Soon after Napoleon became First Consul and then emperor, using his office to spread revolution throughout Europe. In 1811 he made Ajaccio the capital of the new Department of Corsica. Despite his subsequent defeat by the Prussians, Russians, and British, his exile and his death, no victorious power reversed that decision or tried to remove Corsica from France. Among the natives, though Corsican nationalism is strong, and feeling often runs high in favour of a union with Italy; loyalty to France, however, as evidenced by elections, remains stronger.
19th and 20th centuries
In the 19th century Ajaccio became a winter resort of the high society of the time, especially for the English, in the same way as Monaco, Cannes, and Nice. An Anglican Church was even built.
The first prison in France for children was built in Ajaccio in 1855: the Horticultural colony of Saint Anthony. It was a correctional colony for juvenile delinquents (from 8 to 20 years old), established under Article 10 of the Act of 5 August 1850. Nearly 1,200 children from all over France stayed there until 1866, when it was closed. Sixty percent of them perished, the victims of poor sanitation and malaria which infested the unhealthy areas that they were responsible to clean.Contemporary history
On 9 September 1943, the people of Ajaccio rose up against the Nazi occupiers and became the first French town to be liberated from the domination of the Germans. General Charles de Gaulle went to Ajaccio on 8 October 1943 and said: "We owe it to the field of battle the lesson of the page of history that was written in French Corsica. Corsica to her fortune and honour is the first morsel of France to be liberated; which was done intentionally and willingly, in the light of its liberation, this demonstrates that these are the intentions and the will of the whole nation."
Throughout this period, no Jew was executed or deported from Corsica through the protection afforded by its people and its government. This event now allows Corsica to aspire to the title "Righteous Among the Nations", as no French region except for the commune Le Chambon-sur-Lignon in Haute-Loire carries this title. Their case is being investigated .
Since the middle of the 20th century, Ajaccio has seen significant development. The city has seen population growth and considerable urban sprawl. Today Ajaccio is the capital of Corsica and the main town of the island and seeks to establish itself as a true regional centre.
Ajaccio was a hotspot for violence during the violent unrest in March 2022.
Economy
The city is, with Bastia, the economic, commercial and administrative centre of Corsica. Its urban area of nearly 90,000 inhabitants is spread over a large part of the Corse-du-Sud, on either side of the Gulf of Ajaccio and up the valley of the Gravona. Its business is primarily oriented towards the services sector.
The services sector is by far the main source of employment in the city. Ajaccio is an administrative centre comprising communal, intercommunal, departmental, regional, and prefectural services.
It is also a shopping centre with the commercial streets of the city centre and the areas of peripheral activities such as that of Mezzavia (hypermarket Géant Casino) and along the ring road (hypermarket Carrefour and E. Leclerc).
Tourism is one of the most vital aspects of the economy, split between the seaside tourism of summer, cultural tourism, and fishing. A number of hotels, varying from one star to five star, are present across the commune.
Ajaccio is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Ajaccio and Corsica South. It manages the ports of Ajaccio, Bonifacio, Porto-Vecchio, Propriano and the Tino Rossi marina. It also manages Ajaccio airport and Figari airport as well as the convention centre and the Centre of Ricanto.
Secondary industry is underdeveloped, apart from the aeronautical company Corsica Aerospace Composites CCA, the largest company on the island with 135 employees at two sites. The storage sites of GDF Suez (formerly Gaz de France) and Antargaz in the district of Vazzio are classified as high risk.EnergyThe Centrale EDF du Vazzio, a heavy oil power station, provides the south of the island with electricity. The Gravona Canal delivers water for consumption by the city.TransportRoad access
By road, the city is accessible from National Route NR194 from Bastia and NR193 via NR196 from Bonifacio.
These two main axes, as well as the roads leading to suburban villages, connect Ajaccio from the north - the site of Ajaccio forming a dead end blocked by the sea to the south. Only the Cours Napoleon and the Boulevard du Roi Jerome cross the city.
Along with the high urban density, this explains the major traffic and parking problems especially during peak hours and during the summer tourist season. A bypass through several neighbourhoods is nearing completion.
Communal bus services
The Muvistrada provide services on 21 urban routes, one "city" route for local links and 20 suburban lines. The frequency varies according to demand with intervals of 30 minutes for the most important routes:
A park and ride with 300 spaces was built at Mezzana in the neighbouring commune of Sarrola-Carcopino in order to promote intermodality between cars and public transport. It was inaugurated on 12 July 2010.
Airport
The city is served by an Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport which is the headquarters of Air Corsica, a Corsican airline. It connects Ajaccio to a number of cities in mainland France (including Paris, Marseille, Nice, and Brive) and to places in Europe to serve the tourist industry.
The airline CCM Airlines also has its head office on the grounds of the Airport.
Port
The port of Ajaccio is connected to the French mainland on an almost daily basis (Marseille, Toulon, Nice). There are also occasional links to the Italian mainland (Livorno) and to Sardinia, as well as a seasonal service serving Calvi and Propriano. The two major shipping companies providing these links are Corsica Linea and Corsica Ferries.
Ajaccio has also become a stopover for cruises with a total of 418,086 passengers in 2007by far the largest in Corsica and the second-largest in France (after Marseille, but ahead of Nice/Villefranche-sur-Mer and Cannes). The goal is for Ajaccio to eventually become the premier French port for cruises as well as being a main departure point.
Administration
Ajaccio was successively:
*Capital of the district of the department of Corsica in 1790 to 1793
*Capital of the department of Liamone from 1793 to 1811
*Capital of the department of Corsica from 1811 to 1975
*Capital of the region and the collectivité territoriale de Corse'' since 1970 and the department of Corse-du-Sud since 1976
Ajaccio remained (with some interruptions) an electoral stronghold of the Bonapartist (CCB) party until the municipal elections of 2001. The outgoing municipality was then beaten by a left-wing coalition led by Simon Renucci which gathered Social Democrats, Communists, and Charles Napoleon - the pretender to the imperial throne.
List of Successive Mayors of Ajaccio
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=5 | Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935
|-
! From !! To !! Name !! Party !! Position
|-
| 1790 || 1790 || Jean Jèrome Levie || ||
|-
| 1791 || 1796 || Vincenté Guitera || ||
|-
| 1796 || 1796 || Lodovico Ornano || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || François Marie Levie || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || Thomas Tavera || ||
|-
| 1798 || 1798 || Antoine Tagliafico || ||
|-
| 1799 || 1800 || J. B. Pozzo di Borgo || ||
|-
| 1800 || 1801 || Jean Jèrome Levie || ||
|-
| 1801 || 1805 || Pierre Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1805 || 1815 || François Levie || ||
|-
| 1815 || 1815 || Jean Noël Martinenghi || ||
|-
| 1815 || 1816 || François Levie || ||
|-
| 1816 || 1817 || Georges Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1817 || 1819 || Adorno de Baciocchi || ||
|-
| 1819 || 1822 || J. B. Colonna de Bozzi || ||
|-
| 1822 || 1826 || J. B. Spotorno || ||
|-
| 1826 || 1832 || Constantin Stephanopoli || ||
|-
| 1832 || 1837 || Cunéo d'Ornano || ||
|-
| 1837 || 1848 || Paul François Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1848 || 1848 || Bernardin Poli || ||
|-
| 1848 || 1855 || Laurent Zevaco || ||
|-
| 1855 || 1860 || Antoine Decosmi || ||
|-
| 1860 || 1867 || François Xavier Braccini || ||
|-
| 1867 || 1870 || Louis Nyer || ||
|-
| 1870 || 1870 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1870 || 1871 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1871 || 1871 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1871 || 1873 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1873 || 1876 || F. X. Forcioli Conti || ||
|-
| 1876 || 1877 || Nicolas Peraldi || ||
|-
| 1877 || 1877 || Joseph Fil || ||
|-
| 1877 || 1884 || Nicolas Peraldi || Republicain ||
|-
| 1884 || 1893 || Joseph Pugliesi || CCB ||
|-
| 1893 || 1896 || Pierre Petreto || CCB ||
|-
| 1896 || 1900 || Joseph Pugliesi || CCB ||
|-
| 1900 || 1904 || Pierre Bodoy || CCB ||
|-
| 1904 || 1919 || Dominique Pugliesi Conti || CCB ||
|-
| 1919 || 1925 || Jérôme Peri || Radical ||
|-
| 1925 || 1931 || Dominique Paoli || CCB ||
|-
| 1931 || 1931 || Joseph Marie François Spoturno || ||
|-
| 1931 || 1934 || François Coty || CCB ||
|-
| 1934 || 1935 || Hyacinthe Campiglia || CCB ||
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible"
! colspan=5 | Mayors from 1935
|-
! From !! To !! Name !! Party !! Position
|-
| 1935 || 1943 || Dominique Paoli || CCB ||
|-
| 1943 || 1945 || Eugène Macchini || CCB ||
|-
| 1945 || 1947 || Arthur Giovoni || PCF ||
|-
| 1947 || 1949 || Nicéphore Stephanopoli de Commene || CCB ||
|-
| 1949 || 1953 || Antoine Serafini || CCB ||
|-
| 1953 || 1959 || François Maglioli || CCB ||
|-
| 1959 || 1964 || Antoine Serafini || CCB ||
|-
| 1964 || 1975 || Pascal Rossini || CCB ||
|-
| 1975 || 1994 || Charles Napoléon Ornano || CCB ||
|-
| 1994 || 2001 || Marc Marcangeli || CCB || Doctor
|-
| 2001 || 2014 || Simon Renucci || CSD || Doctor
|-
| 2014 || 2014 || Laurent Marcangeli || ||
|-
| 2014 || 2015 || vacant || ||
|-
| 2015 || 2022 || Laurent Marcangeli || ||
|-
| 2022 || 2026 || Stéphane Sbraggia || ||
|}
Quarters
10 Quarters are recognized by the municipality.
*Cannes-Binda: an area north of the city, consisting of Housing estates, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Salines, subject to a policy of urban renewal
*Centre Ville: The tourist heart of the city consisting of shopping streets and major thoroughfares
*Casone: a bourgeois neighbourhood with an affluent population located in the former winter resort on the heights of the southern city.
*''Les Jardins de l'Empereur: a neighbourhood classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) on the heights of the city, consisting of housing estates overlooking the city
*Mezzavia: northern quarter of the town with several subdivisions and areas of business and economic activities
*Octroi-Sainte Lucie: constitutes the northern part of the city centre near the port and the railway station
*Pietralba: quarter northeast of the city, classified ZUS
*Résidence des Îles: quarter to the south of the city near the tourist route of Sanguinaires in a quality environment
*Saint-Jean: collection of buildings for a population with low incomes, close to the historic urban core of the city, classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS)
*Saline: quarter north of the city, consisting of large apartment blocks, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Cannes, subject to a policy of urban renewal
*Vazzio: quarter northeast of the city, near the airport, the EDF Central, and the Francois Coty stadium.
Intercommunality
Since December 2001, Ajaccio has been part of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien'' with nine other communes: Afa, Alata, Appietto, Cuttoli-Corticchiato, Peri, Sarrola-Carcopino, Tavaco, Valle-di-Mezzana, and Villanova.
Origins
The geopolitical arrangements of the commune are slightly different from those typical of Corsica and France. Usually an arrondissement includes cantons and a canton includes one to several communes including the chef-lieu, "chief place", from which the canton takes its name. The city of Ajaccio is one commune, but it contains four cantons, Cantons 1–4, and a fraction of Canton 5. The latter contains three other communes: Bastelicaccia, Alata and Villanova, making a total of four communes for the five cantons of Ajaccio.
Each canton contains a certain number of quartiers, "quarters". Cantons 1, 2, 3, 4 are located along the Gulf of Ajaccio from west to east, while 5 is a little further up the valleys of the Gravona and the Prunelli Rivers. These political divisions subdivide the population of Ajaccio into units that can be more democratically served but they do not give a true picture of the size of Ajaccio. In general language, "greater Ajaccio" includes about 100,000 people with all the medical, educational, utility and transportational facilities of a big city. Up until World War II it was still possible to regard the city as being a settlement of narrow streets localized to a part of the harbour or the Gulf of Ajaccio: such bucolic descriptions do not fit the city of today, and travelogues intended for mountain or coastal recreational areas do not generally apply to Corsica's few big cities.
The arrondissement contains other cantons that extend generally up the two rivers into central Corsica.
Twin towns – sister cities
Ajaccio is twinned with:
* La Maddalena, Italy (1991)
Population
The population of Ajaccio increased sharply after 1960 due to migration from rural areas and the coming of "Pied-Noirs" (French Algerians), immigrants from the Maghreb and French from mainland France.
Health
Ajaccio has three hospital sites:
*the Misericordia Hospital, built in 1950, is located on the heights of the city centre. This is the main medical facility in the region.
*The Annex Eugenie.
*the Psychiatric Hospital of Castelluccio is west of the city centre and is also home of cancer services and long-stay patients.Education
Ajaccio is the headquarters of the Academy of Corsica.
The city of Ajaccio has:
*18 nursery schools (16 public and 2 private)
*17 primary schools (15 public and 2 private)
*6 colleges
**5 Public Schools:
*** Collège Arthur-Giovoni
*** Collège des Padule
*** Collège Laetitia Bonaparte
*** Collège Fesch
*** EREA
** 1 Private School: Institution Saint Paul
* 3 sixth-form colleges/senior high schools
** 2 public schools:
*** Lycée Laetitia Bonaparte
*** Lycée Fesch
** 1 private: Institution Saint Paul
* 2 LEP (vocational high schools)
** Lycée Finosello
** Lycée Jules Antonini
Higher education is undeveloped except for a few BTS and IFSI, the University of Corsica Pascal Paoli is located in Corte. A research facility of INRA is also located on Ajaccio.
Culture and heritage
Ajaccio has a varied tourism potential, with both a cultural framework in the centre of the city and a natural heritage around the coves and beaches of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Natura 2000 reserve of the îles Sanguinaires.
Civil heritage
]]
The commune has many buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:
*The Monument to General Abbatucci in the Place Abbatucci (1854)
*The Monument to Napoleon I in the Place d'Austerlitz (20th century)
*The Baciocchi Family Mansion at 9 Rue Bonaparte (18th century)
*The Fesch Palace at 48 bis Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1827)
*The Monument to the First Consul in the Place Foch (1850)
*The Peraldi House at 18 Rue Forcioli-Conti (1820)
*The Grand Hotel at Cours Grandval (1869)
*The old Château Conti at Cours Grandval (19th century)
*The Monument to Napoleon and his brothers in the Place du General de Gaulle (1864)
*The Monument to Cardinal Fesch at the Cour du Musée Fesch (1856)
*The old Alban Factory at 89 Cours Napoleon (1913)
*The Milelli House in the Saint-Antoine Quarter (17th century)
*The Hotel Palace-Cyrnos (1880), an old Luxury Hotel from the 19th century and a famous palace of the old days in the quarter "for foreigners" now converted into housing.
*The Lantivy Palace (1837), an Italian palace now headquarters of the prefecture of Corsica.
*The Hotel de Ville (1836)
*'''Napoleon Bonaparte's House''' (17th century) now a national museum: the Maison Bonaparte
*The old Lazaretto of Aspretto (1843)
*The Citadel (1554)
*The Sawmill at Les Salines (1944)
*The Lighthouse on the Sanguinaires Islands (1844)
;Other sites of interest
*The Monument in the Place du Casone
*The old town and the Borgu are typically Mediterranean with their narrow streets and picturesque buildings
*The Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town
*The area known as the Foreigners' Quarter has a number of old palaces, villas, and buildings once built for the wintering British in the Belle Époque such as the Anglican Church and the Grand Hotel Continental. Some of the buildings are in bad condition and very degraded, others were destroyed for the construction of modern buildings.
*The Genoese towers: Torra di Capu di Fenu, Torra di a Parata, and Torra di Castelluchju in the Îles Sanguinaires archipelago
*The Square Pierre Griffi (in front of the railway station), named after a hero of the Corsican Resistance and one of the members of the , the first operation launched in occupied Corsica to coordinate resistance
*The '''Statue of Commandant Jean L'Herminier (in front of the ferry terminal), commander of the French submarine Casabianca (1935) which actively participated in the struggle for the liberation of Corsica in September 1943
Religious heritage
]]
The town is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.
*The Oratory of Saint Roch at Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1599)
*The Chapel of Saint Erasme or Sant'Erasmu''' at 22 Rue Forcioli-Conti (17th century)
*The Oratory of Saint John the Baptist at Rue du Roi-de-Dome (1565)
*The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta at Rue Saint-Charles (1582) from the Renaissance which depended on the diocese of Ajaccio and where Napoleon was baptized with its organ from Cavaillé-Coll.
*The Chapel of the Greeks on the Route des Sanguiunaires (1619)
*The Early Christian Baptistery of Saint John (6th century)
*The Imperial Chapel (1857) houses the graves of Napoleon's parents and his brothers and sisters.
;Other religious sites of interest
*The Church of Saint Roch, Neoclassical architecture by Ajaccien project architect Barthélémy Maglioli (1885)
Environmental heritage
*Sanguinaires Archipelago:
**The Route des Sanguinaires runs along the southern coast of the city after the Saint François Beach. It is lined with villas and coves and beaches. Along the road is the Ajaccio cemetery with the grave of Corsican singer Tino Rossi.
**At the mouth of the Route des Sanguinaires is the Pointe de la Parata near the archipelago and the lighthouse.
<gallery>
File:Ajaccio Plage.jpg|The Saint François Beach
File:Ajaccio Golfe1JPG.jpg|Gulf of Ajaccio
File:PSajaccio8440tonemapped.jpg|The iles sanguinaires and views of la Parata from the sentier des crêtes
File:PSajaccio8432tonemapped.jpg|Along the sentier des crêtes: Skull Rock
</gallery>
*The Sentier des Crêtes (Crest Trail) starts from the city centre and is an easy hike offering splendid views of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The shores of the Gulf are dotted with a multitude of small coves and beaches ideal for swimming and scuba diving.
*Many small paths traversing the maquis (high ground covered in thick vegetation) in the commune from which the Maquis resistance network was named.
Interests
*The city has two marinas and a casino.
*The main activities are concentrated in the city centre on the Route des Sanguinaires (cinemas, bars, clubs etc.).
In popular culture
Films made in Ajaccio include:
*Napoléon, one of the last successful French silent films by Abel Gance in 1927.
*Les Radonneurs, a French film directed by Philippe Harel in 1997.
*Les Sanguinaires, a film by Laurent Cantet in 1998.
*The Amazing Race, an American TV series by Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster in 2001 (season 6 episode 9).
*'''L'Enquête Corse, directed by Alain Berberian in 2004.
*Trois petites filles, a French film directed by Jean-Loup Hubert in 2004.
*Joueuse' (Queen to Play), a French film directed by Caroline Bottaro in 2009.Sports
There are various sports facilities developed throughout the city.
*AC Ajaccio is a French Ligue 2 football club which plays at the Stade François Coty (13,500 seats) in the north-east of the city
*Gazélec Football Club Ajaccio, in Championnat National, football club which plays at the Stade Ange Casanova located at Mezzavia'', 2,900 seats.
*GFCO Ajaccio handball
*GFCO Ajaccio Volleyball
*GFCO Ajaccio Basketball
*Vignetta Racecourse
Notable people
were born in Ajaccio, including Napoleon]]
*Carlo Buonaparte (1746–1785), politician, father of Napoleon Bonaparte
*Felice Pasquale Baciocchi (1762–1841), general of the armies of the Revolution and the Empire, brother in law of the Emperor Napoleon 1st, Grand Duke of Tuscany
*Joseph Fesch (1763–1839), cardinal
*Joseph Bonaparte (1768–1844), French statesman, King of Naples, King of Spain
*Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of France
*Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840), Prince of Canino and Musignano, Interior Minister of France
*Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand Duchess of Tuscany
*Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland
*Pauline Bonaparte (1780–1825), Duchess of Guastalla, Princess Consort of Sulmona and Rossano
*Caroline Bonaparte (1782–1839), Queen Consort of Naples and Sicily
*Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia
*Danielle Casanova (1909–1943), Resistance member
*Emma Choury (1916–2001), trade unionist
*François Coty (1874–1934), perfumer, businessman, newspaper publisher and politician
*Irène Bordoni (1895–1953), singer and actress
*Tino Rossi (1907–1983), singer and actor
*Michel Giacometti (1929–1990), ethnomusicologist
*François Duprat (1941–1978), writer
*Michel Ferracci-Porri (born 1949), writer
*Jean-Michel Cavalli (born 1959), football player and manager
*Alizée (born 1984), singer
Military
Units that were stationed in Ajaccio:
*163rd Infantry Regiment, 1906
*173rd Infantry Regiment
*The Aspretto naval airbase for seaplanes 1938–1993
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Ajaccio.jpg|1914 city map
File:Ajaccio MN1JPG.jpg|Napoleon's birth house
</gallery>
See also
*Diocese of Ajaccio
*Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department
References
External links
*[https://www.ajaccio.fr Official website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020154127/http://www.ca-ajaccien.fr/ The Communauté d'Agglomération du Pays Ajaccien (CAPA) website]
*[https://www.ajaccio-tourisme.com Tourism Office of Ajaccio website]
*[https://visitajaccio.com Tourist Info Visit Ajaccio]
<!--DO NOT REMOVE. THEY ARE STANDARD CATEGORIES FOR ALL FRENCH COMMUNES AND PREFECTURES-->
Category:Communes of Corse-du-Sud
Category:Prefectures in France | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajaccio | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.162242 |
2641 | Ajaigarh | | subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = Division
| subdivision_name2 = Sagar
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Panna
}}
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh.
History
Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of , and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of sawai maharaja. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868–69 and 1896–97.
The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
Rulers of Ajaygarh
Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal : 1649–1731
(founder ruler of many kingdoms)
___________________________|______________________________
Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra
(Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso)
____________________________|______________________________
Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh (1758–1765)
____________________________|______________________________
Khuman Singh Guman Singh (1765–1792) Durg Singh
(Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) |
|__________________Son of______|
Bhakhat Singh :b. 1792-d. 1837
(Founder ruler of Ajaigarh)
_____________________________|_______________________________
Madho Singh (r. 1837–1849) Mahipat Singh (r. 1849–1853)
(No male issue) |
|
Ranjore Singh (K.C.I.E)__________Vijay Singh (R. 1853–1855)
(born 1844; died 1919) (died early, fell from horse)
_____________________________|________________________________
Jaipal Singh Bhopal Singh (K.C.I.E.) Pakshpal Singh
(born 1866; died 1942) |
| Col. Deshpal Singh : (1914 - )
Punyapratap Singh: | |
(born 1884; died 1958) Ajaiveer Singh Ashit Varn Singh (1953–2017)
| (No Male Issue) |
Devendra Vijay Singh |
(born 1913; died 1984) Hraday Shah ---------------|
(Privy Purses, titles abolished)
_____________________________|_________________________________
Mahipendra Singh Kaushalendra Singh Surendra Singh
| (born 1934; died 1982) |
| | |
Shailendra Singh Ajayraj Singh Tarunendra Singh
Ajaigarh Fort
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region. It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River. This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.
The fort is visited by both history and art lovers. This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.
Gallery
Demographics
As of the 2001 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 13,979. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
References
External links
*[http://www.bundelkhand.in/portal/photo-gallery/Ajaigarh Ajaigarh photo callery]
*[http://www.traveltargets.com/panna/#Ajaigarh_Fort_and_Valley Ajaigarh Fort & Valley]
Category:Populated places established in 1765
Category:Bundelkhand
Category:Cities and towns in Panna district
Category:Tourist attractions in Panna district | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajaigarh | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.166489 |
2642 | Ajanta Caves | | Location = Ajanta, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India
| Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iii, vi
| ID = 242
| Year = 1983
| Area = 8,242 ha
| Buffer_zone = 78,676 ha
| locmapin = India#Maharashtra#
|Religion=}}
hall.]]
The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The caves were built in two phases, the first starting around the second century BCE and the second occurring from 400 to 650 CE, according to older accounts, or in a brief period of 460–480 CE according to later scholarship.
The Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries (Viharas) and worship-halls (Chaityas) of different Buddhist traditions carved into a wall of rock. The caves also present paintings depicting the past lives and rebirths of the Buddha, pictorial tales from ''Aryasura's Jatakamala, and rock-cut sculptures of Buddhist deities. Textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India. in the Deccan plateau. Within the gorge are a number of waterfalls, audible from outside the caves when the river is high. Transport With the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is one of the major tourist attractions of Maharashtra. It is about from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, from the city of Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (formerly Auragabad) and east-northeast of Mumbai. Ajanta is from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain and Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta style is also found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves and the cave temples of Karnataka. Nearest airports are Jalgaon and Sambhaji Nagar followed by Mumbai and nearest railway stations are Jalgaon & Bhusawal.
History
The Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have been made in two distinct phases; first during the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE, and second several centuries later.
The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, Other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire (300 BCE to 100 BCE). Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of chaitya-griha form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are vihāras'' (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types). The first Satavahana period caves lacked figurative sculpture, emphasizing the stupa instead.
According to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century. However, the early caves were in use during this dormant period, and Buddhist pilgrims visited the site, according to the records left by Chinese pilgrim Faxian around 400 CE.
Caves of the later or Vakataka period
The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over an extended period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE, but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. This view has been criticised by some scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example, Huntington and Harle.
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The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna, Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, the rest viharas. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some refurbishing and repainting of the early caves.
Spink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below. Although debate continues, Spink's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions. The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: "The second phase of paintings started around 5th–6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries".
According to Spink, the construction activity at the incomplete Ajanta Caves was abandoned by wealthy patrons in about 480 CE, a few years after the death of Harishena. However, states Spink, the caves appear to have been in use for a period of time as evidenced by the wear of the pivot holes in caves constructed close to 480 CE. The second phase of constructions and decorations at Ajanta corresponds to the very apogee of Classical India, or India's golden age. However, at that time, the Gupta Empire was already weakening from internal political issues and from the assaults of the Hūṇas, so that the Vakatakas were actually one of the most powerful empires in India. Some of the Hūṇas, the Alchon Huns of Toramana, were precisely ruling the neighbouring area of Malwa, at the doorstep of the Western Deccan, at the time the Ajanta caves were made. Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area of Gandhara and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta or Pitalkhora caves were being decorated with some designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.
According to Richard Cohen, a description of the caves by 7th-century Chinese Traveller Xuanzang and scattered medieval graffiti suggest that the Ajanta Caves were known and probably in use subsequently, but without a stable or steady Buddhist community presence. The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text Ain-i-Akbari by Abu al-Fazl, as twenty four rock-cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.
Colonial era/Rediscovery
On 28 April 1819 a British officer named John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tigers was shown the entrance to Cave No. 10 when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door. The caves were well known by locals already. Captain Smith went to a nearby village and asked the villagers to come to the site with axes, spears, torches, and drums, to cut down the tangled jungle growth that made entering the cave difficult. He first saw ceilings with beautiful and artistically drawn faces on them, then he noticed monastic halls which helped him identify their Buddhist origin. He then deliberately damaged an image on the wall by scratching his name and the date over the painting of a bodhisattva. Since he stood on a five-foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye-level gaze of an adult today. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.
Within a few decades, the caves became famous for their exotic setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional and unique paintings. A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society established the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission" to clear, tidy and record the most important rock-cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson as president. In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India.
During the colonial era, the Ajanta site was in the territory of the princely state of the Hyderabad and not British India. In the early 1920s, Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, appointed people to restore the artwork, converted the site into a museum and built a road to bring tourists to the site for a fee. These efforts resulted in early mismanagement, states Richard Cohen, and hastened the deterioration of the site. Post-independence, the state government of Maharashtra built arrival, transport, facilities, and better site management. The modern Visitor Center has good parking facilities and public conveniences and ASI operated buses run at regular intervals from Visitor Center to the caves.
The Nizam's Director of Archaeology obtained the services of two experts from Italy, Professor Lorenzo Cecconi, assisted by Count Orsini, to restore the paintings in the caves. The Director of Archaeology for the last Nizam of Hyderabad said of the work of Cecconi and Orsini:
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Despite these efforts, later neglect led to the paintings degrading in quality once again.
Since 1983, Ajanta caves have been listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of India.
The Ajanta Caves, along with the Ellora Caves, have become the most popular tourist destination in Maharashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly-lit and hard to read in the caves.
Sites and monasteries
Sites
The caves are carved out of flood basalt and granite rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period. The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality. This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places. The inhomogeneity in the rock has also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially-built vihara caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.
The sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof, and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were integrated parallel tasks. A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective Naga (snake) deity. Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism. These include the Ellora Caves, Ghototkacha Caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves and Shivleni Caves.
The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain merit, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave. The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist afterlife beliefs as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17. After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small "shrinelets" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these "intrusive" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.
Monasteries
, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells]]
The majority of the caves are vihara halls with symmetrical square plans. To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls. A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock. This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.
The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more-or-less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors. The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue.
The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines. Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.
The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.
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File:Ajanta Cave 12 plan to scale.jpg|Cave 12 plan: an early type of vihara (1st century BCE) without internal shrine
File:GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg|Cave 1 plan, a monastery known for its paintings
File:Ajanta Cave 6 plan.jpg|Cave 6: a two-storey monastery with "Miracle of Sravasti" and "Temptation of Mara" painted
File:Ajanta Cave 16 plan.jpg|Cave 16: a monastery featuring two side aisles
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Worship halls
The other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type chaitya-griha – literally, "the house of stupa". This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a stupa in the apse. The stupa is surrounded by pillars and concentric walking space for circumambulation. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in the late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the architecture of a Christian church, but without the crossing or chapel chevette. The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral-style architecture found in still older rock-cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave of the Ajivikas near Gaya in Bihar dated to the 3rd century BCE. These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.
The four completed chaitya halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central "nave" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (pradakshina). The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms, and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished. The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete chaitya hall.
The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both chaitya halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.
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File:Ajanta Chaitya 10 plan.jpg|Cave 10: a worship hall with Jataka tales-related art (1st century BCE)
File:Ajanta Chaitya 9 plan.jpg|Cave 9: a worship hall with early paintings and animal friezes (1st century CE)
File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19: known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera and other arts (5th century CE)
File:Ajanta Cave 19 longitudinal section.jpg|Cave 19: another view (5th century CE)
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Paintings
Most of the Ajanta caves, and almost all the murals paintings date from nearly 600 years later, during a second phase of construction. The paintings in the Ajanta caves predominantly narrate the Jataka tales. These are Buddhist legends describing the previous births of the Buddha. These fables embed ancient morals and cultural lores that are also found in the fables and legends of Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales are exemplified through the life example and sacrifices that the Buddha made in hundreds of his past incarnations, where he is depicted as having been reborn as an animal or human.
Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and "show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars". Some connections with the art of Gandhara can also be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, "have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist", and represent "the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art". They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region. The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.
The paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster. All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture. The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal. The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.
In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular. According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.
File:Coming Of Sinhala (Mural At Ajanta In Cave No 17).jpg|Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of Sinhala'. The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.
File:Hamsa jâtaka, Ajanta, India.jpg|Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17: the Buddha as the golden goose in his previous life
File:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (13).JPG|Cave 13
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Spink's chronology and cave history
Walter Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves. He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period "between 100 BCE – 100 CE", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so "for over three centuries". This changed during the Hindu emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty,
Hindu and Buddhist sponsorship
The Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture. According to Spink and other scholars, the royal Vakataka sponsors of the Ajanta Caves probably worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist gods. This suggest that the deity was possibly under worship by the artisans. Cave 1
Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horseshoe-shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This cave, when first made, would have been in a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Spink states that the Vākāṭaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.
The cliff has a steeper slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen "half-intact in the 1880s" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river and lost.
This cave (35.7 m × 27.6 m)
File:Ajanta Cave 1 Mahajanaka Jataka mural detail.jpg|Sibi Jataka: the king undergoes the traditional rituals for renunciants. He receives a ceremonial bath.
File:Bodhisattva Padmapani, cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with lotus
File:Ajanta_foreigner_2.jpg|Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners on the ceiling
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Cave 2
Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency. One of the 5th-century frescos in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.
Cave 2 (35.7 m × 21.6 m), just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. The work stopped after the scooping out of a rough entrance of the hall.
Cave 4
Cave 4, a Vihara, was sponsored by Mathura, likely not a noble or courtly official, rather a wealthy devotee. This is the largest vihara in the inaugural group, which suggests he had immense wealth and influence without being a state official. It is placed at a significantly higher level, possibly because the artists realized that the rock quality at the lower and same level of other caves was poor and they had a better chance of a major vihara at an upper location. Another likely possibility is that the planners wanted to carve into the rock another large cistern to the left courtside for more residents, mirroring the right, a plan implied by the height of the forward cells on the left side.
The Archaeological Survey of India dates it to the 6th century CE.
File:1880 sketch antechamber reliefs Cave 7 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|Cave 7: Buddhas on the antechamber left wall (James Burgess sketch, 1880)
File:Ajanta si01-0403.jpg|Buddhas on the antechamber's right wall
File:Ajanta Caves 47.jpg|The shallow corridor before the shrine
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Cave 8
Cave 8 is another unfinished monastery (15.24 × 24.64 m). For many decades in the 20th century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room. It is at the river level with easy access, relatively lower than other caves, and according to Archaeological Survey of India it is possibly one of the earliest monasteries. Much of its front is damaged, likely from a landslide.
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Cave 10, a vast prayer hall or Chaitya, is dated to about the 1st century BCE, together with the nearby vihara cave No 12. These two caves are thus among the earliest of the Ajanta complex. It has a large central apsidal hall with a row of 39 octagonal pillars, a nave separating its aisle and stupa at the end for worship. The stupa has a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path). Then, after Cave 10 of Ajanta, in chronological order: Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later, Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves, to finally culminate with the "final perfection" of the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves. It reads:
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;Paintings
The paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479–480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the "official" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible. The paintings are numerous and from two periods, many narrating the Jataka tales in a clockwise sequence. Both Hinayana and Mahayana stage paintings are discernable, though the former are more faded and begrimed with early centuries of Hinayana worship. Of interest here is the Saddanta Jataka tale – the fable about six tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka – the story about the man who dedicates his life serving his blind parents. According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest layer of the Cave 10 paintings date from about 100 BCE, and the principles behind their composition are analogous to those from the same era at Sanchi and Amaravati.
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*Plate 3* Ajunta-- Interior of Chaitya Cave, No. 10.jpg|Cave 10, condition in 1839
File:089 Cave 10, Buddha Drawing on Column (33896473480).jpg|The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara
File:Ajanta Caves 71.jpg|Later painting with devotional figures, on pillars and ceiling
File:106 Cave 10, Paintings in Arches (33438399444).jpg|Paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on the arches
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Cave 11
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Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 m) built during c. 462 to 478.
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Cave 16
Cave 16 occupies a prime position near the middle of site, and was sponsored by Varahadeva, minister of Vakataka king Harishena (r. ). He was a follower of Buddhism. He devoted it to the community of monks, with an inscription that expresses his wish, may "the entire world (...) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease" and affirming his devotion to the Buddhist faith: "regarding the sacred law as his only companion, (he was) extremely devoted to the Buddha, the teacher of the world". He was, states Spink, probably someone who revered both the Buddha and the Hindu gods, as he proclaims his Hindu heritage in an inscription in the nearby Ghatotkacha Cave. The 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described the cave as the entrance to the site.
Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m) Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery and has the standard arrangement of a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways. The veranda of this monastery is 19.5 m × 3 m, while the main hall is almost a perfect square with 19.5 m side.
The paintings in Cave 16 are numerous. Narratives include various Jataka tales such as Hasti, Mahaummagga and the Sutasoma fables. Other frescos depict the conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, Sujata's offering, Asita's visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival. The Hasti Jataka frescos tell the story of a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a large group of people starving, then tells them to go below a cliff where they could find food. The elephant proceeds to sacrifice himself by jumping off that cliff thereby becoming food so that the people can survive. These frescos are found immediately to the left of entrance, in the front corridor and the narrative follows a clockwise direction.
The Mahaummagga Jataka frescos are found on the left wall of the corridor, which narrates the story of a child Bodhisattva. Thereafter, in the left corridor is the legend surrounding the conversion of Nanda – the half brother of the Buddha. The story depicted is one of the two major versions of the Nanda legend in the Buddhist tradition, one where Nanda wants to lead a sensuous life with the girl he had just wed and the Buddha takes him to heaven and later hell to show the spiritual dangers of a sensual life. After the Nanda-related frescos, the cave presents Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying votaries with offerings to worship the Buddha and the Buddha seated in teaching asana and dharma chakra mudra.
The right wall of the corridor show the scenes from the life of the Buddha. These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha with a begging bowl in white dress, Tapussa and Bhalluka next to the Buddha after they offering wheat and honey to the Buddha as monk, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival. One mural shows Buddha's parents trying to dissuade him from becoming a monk. Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in dhoti and women in sari as his behavior presents the four signs that he is likely to renounce.
File:017 Cave 16, Colonnaned Hall (34141160892).jpg|Palace scene fresco, right corridor of Cave 16
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Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m) The narrative frescos depict the various Jataka tales such as the Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodamiga Jatakas.
File:1880 sketch Buddha in sanctum Cave 17 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctum
File:Indra and Apsara mural.jpg|Musician with Alapini Vina (far left), next to Indra.
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Cave 18
Cave 18 is a small rectangular space (3.38 × 11.66 m) with two octagonal pillars and it joins into another cell. Its role is unclear. A figure with begging bowl is the Buddha, watching him are his wife and son.
The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and a fluted shaft topped with Buddha in its capitals. Next, to the Buddha in the capitals are elephants, horses and flying apsara friezes found elsewhere in India, reflecting the style of the Gupta Empire artwork. According to Sharma, the similarities at the Karla Caves Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggest that Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.
The walls and the ceiling of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings. These show the Buddha, flowers, and in the left aisle the "Mother and Child" legend again.
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File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19 plan suggests that it once had a courtyard and additional artwork
File:Engravings in pathway of Ajanta.JPG|Nagaraja in ardhaparyanka asana, with his wife holding lotus and wearing mangalasutra
File:013 Cave 19, Buddha Meditating (33535639164).jpg|The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefs
File:027 Cave 19, Buddha Paintings (34219246102).jpg|Buddha paintings in the side aisle of Cave 19
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Cave 20
Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) from the 5th century. Its construction, states Spink, was started in the 460s by king Upendragupta, with his expressed desire "to make the great tree of religious merit grow". The work on Cave 20 was pursued in parallel with other caves. Cave 20 has exquisite detailing, states Spink, but it was relatively lower on priority than Caves 17 and 19. The work on Cave 20 was intermittently stopped and then continued in the following decade.
The vihara consists of a sanctum, four cells for monks and a pillared verandah with two stone cut windows for light. Prior to entering the main hall, on the left of veranda are two Buddhas carved above the window and side cell. The ceiling of the main hall has remnants of painting. The sanctum Buddha is in preaching posture. The cave is known for the sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel.
Many of the figural and ornamental carvings in Cave 20 are similar to Cave 19, and to a lesser degree to those found in Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans were responsible for the evolution of the three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, something unique at the Ajanta site. The decorations are also innovative in Cave 20, such as one showing the Buddha seated against two pillows and "a richly laden mango tree behind him", states Spink.
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File:033 Cave 20, Buddha on Lion Throne (34246702601).jpg|The Buddha on Lion throne
File:037 Cave 20, Naga (33567164493).jpg|The sanctum has two Nagarajas on the side as guardians.
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Cave 21
Cave 21 is a hall (29.56 × 28.03 m) with twelve rock-cut rooms for monks, a sanctum, and twelve pillared and pilastered verandah. The carvings on the pilaster include those of animals and flowers. The pillars feature reliefs of apsaras, Nagaraja, and Nagarani, as well as devotees bowing with the Anjali mudra. The hall shows evidence that it used to be completely painted. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.
Cave 22
Cave 22 is a small vihara (12.72 × 11.58 m) with a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells. It is excavated at a higher level and has to be reached by a flight of steps. Inside, the Buddha is seated in pralamba-padasana. The painted figures in Cave 22 show Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.
The sculptures in Cave 26 are elaborate and more intricate. It is among the last caves excavated, and an inscription suggests late 5th or early 6th century according to ASI. The cave consists of an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (pradikshana). This path is full of carved Buddhist legends, three depictions of the Miracle of Sravasti in the right ambulatory side of the aisle, and seated Buddhas in various mudra. Many of these were added later by devotees, and therefore are intrusive to the aims of the original planners. The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately the left side of entrance. The major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the legend called the "Temptations by Mara". The temptations include the seduction by Mara's daughters who are depicted below the meditating Buddha. They are shown scantly dressed and in seductive postures, while on both the left and right side of the Buddha are armies of Mara attempting to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence. In the top right corner is the image of a dejected Mara frustrated by his failure to disturb the resolve or focus of the ascetic Buddha. Further tracing and excavations led to a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave dated to the 2nd and 1st century BCE. Cave 30 may actually be the oldest cave of the Ajanta complex. It is a 3.66 m × 3.66 m cave with three cells, each with two stone beds and stone pillows on the side of each cell. The cell door lintels show lotus and garland carvings. The cave has two inscriptions in an unknown script. It also has a platform on its veranda with a fine view of the river ravine below and the forest cover. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been closed at some point with large carefully carved pieces as it distracted the entrance view of Cave 16.
Other infrastructure
Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were vihara (temporary traveler residences, monasteries). The designers and artisans who built these caves included facilities for collecting donations and storing grains and food for the visitors and monks. Many of the caves include large repositories cut into the floor. The largest storage spaces are found, states Spink, in the "very commodious recesses in the shrines of both Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11". These caves were probably chosen because of their relative convenience and the security they offered due to their higher level. The choice of integrating covered vaults cut into the floor may have been driven by the need to provide sleeping space and logistical ease.}} Recent excavations brick monastery facing the caves at Ajanta. The cells were built around a stupa set on a central platform. A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini was also found, which was possibly under worship by the artisans.
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File:Ajanta burnt-brick monastery.jpg|Buddhist vihara cell structure at the recently excavated brick monastery at Ajanta
File:Ajanta Visvasena.jpg|Coin of Western Satrap Visvasena (293–304), found in the excavations at the monastery
File:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|Coin of Byzantine Theodosius II (402–450), found in the excavations at the monastery
File:Ajanta terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini.jpg|Terracotta plaque of Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini found on the site
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Copies of the paintings
(1915) right]]
The paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th century for European and Japanese museums. Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters. In 1846 for example, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras Presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to make copies of the frescos on the cave walls. Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863. He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display. Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.
's 19th-century copy]]
Another attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some . A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria. Griffith and his students had painted many of the paintings with "cheap varnish" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.
, Paris. Part of a mural probably relating the conversion of Nanda, Cave 1.]]
A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling India Society. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.
Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library), then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).
, Jaipur, India]]
Some slightly creative copies of Ajanta frescos, especially the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from the shrine antechamber of Cave 17, were commissioned by Thomas Holbein Hendley (1847–1917) for the decoration of the walls of the hall of the Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur, India. The museum was opened to the public in 1887. This work is otherwise presented as characteristic of the end of the 19th century.
Another attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井寛方:1878–1945) after being invited by Rabindranath Tagore to India to teach Japanese painting techniques. He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials perished during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.
Reception history
The Ajanta cave arts are a window into the culture, society and religiosity of the native population of India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Different scholars have variously interpreted them from the perspective of gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia. The dress, the jewellery, the gender relations, the social activities depicted show at least the lifestyle of the royalty and elite, and in others definitely the costumes of the common man, monks and rishi. They shine "light on life in India" around mid 1st millennium CE.
The Ajanta paintings provide a contrast between the spiritual life of monks who had given up all materialistic possessions versus the sensual life of those it considered materialistic, luxurious, symbols of wealth, leisurely and high fashion. Many frescos show scenes from shops, festivals, jesters at processions, palaces and performance art pavilions. These friezes share themes and details of those found in Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, Ellora, Bagh, Aihole, Badami and other archaeological sites in India. Ajanta caves contributes to visual and descriptive sense of the ancient and early medieval Indian culture and artistic traditions, particularly those around the Gupta Empire era period.
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The earliest colonial era descriptions of the Ajanta caves was largely orientalist and critical. According to William Dalrymple, the subjects in the Ajanta caves were puzzling to 19th-century Orientalists. Lacking the Asian cultural heritage and with no knowledge of Jataka Tales or equivalent Indian fables, they could not comprehend it. They projected their own views and assumptions, calling it something that lacks reason and rationale, something that is a meaningless crude representation of royalty and foreigners with mysticism and sensuousness. The 19th-century views and interpretations of the Ajanta Caves were conditioned by ideas and assumptions in the colonial mind, saw what they wanted to see.
Foreigners in the paintings of Ajanta
The Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio-economic information in ancient India, particularly in relation to the interactions of India with foreign cultures at the time most of the paintings were made, in the 5th century CE (Common Era). According to Indian historian Haroon Khan Sherwani: "The paintings at Ajanta clearly demonstrate the cosmopolitan character of Buddhism, which opened its way to men of all races, Greek, Persian, Saka, Pahlava, Kushan and Huna". Depictions of foreigners abound: according to Spink, "Ajanta's paintings are filled with such foreign types." They have sometimes been a source of misinterpretation as in the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene". These foreigners may reflect the Sassanian merchants, visitors and the flourishing trade routes of the day.
;The so-called "Persian Embassy Scene"
Cave 1, for example, shows a mural fresco with characters with foreigner faces or dresses, the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene". This scene is located at the right of the entrance door upon entering the hall. According to Spink, James Fergusson, a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu Chalukya king Pulakeshin II. An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king Khusrau II in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with. These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena-era painting of a Jataka tale (the Mahasudarsana jataka, in which the enthroned king is actually the Buddha in one of his previous lives as King) with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as Sassanian near East that was common by the 5th century.
;International trade, growth of Buddhism
dress drinking wine, on the ceiling of the central hall of Cave 1, likely a generic scene from an object imported from Central Asia (460–480 CE) The men depicted in these paintings may also have been Bactrians, at that time under Hephthalite rule.]]
Cave 1 has several frescos with characters with foreigners' faces or dresses. Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17. Such murals, states Pia Brancaccio, suggest a prosperous and multicultural society in 5th-century India active in international trade. These also suggest that this trade was economically important enough to the Deccan region that the artists chose to include it with precision. A copper plate in the Kanheri caves near Mumbai indicates that foreigners were active in trade in the city of Kalyan in the 5th century CE.}} Some show foreign Near East kings with wine and their retinue which presumably add to the "general regal emphasis" of the cave. According to Brancaccio, the Ajanta paintings show a variety of colorful, delicate textiles and women making cotton. Textile probably was one of the major exports to foreign lands, along with gems. These were exported first through the Red Sea, and later through the Persian Gulf, thereby bringing a period of economic and cultural exchange between the Indians, the Sasanian Empire and the Persian merchants before Islam was founded in the Arabian peninsula.
While scholars generally agree that these murals confirm trade and cultural connections between India and Sassanian west, their specific significance and interpretation varies. }} Another hypothesis is offered by Upadhya, who states that the artists who built Ajanta caves "very probably included foreigners".
<gallery widths"125px" heights"125px">
File:Ajanta Cave 2 Veranda ceiling foreigners.jpg|Cave 2, ceiling: foreigners sharing a drink of wine
File:Ajanta foreigner 2.jpg|Cave 1, ceiling: another Persian-style foreign group, one of the four such groups (one now missing) at the center of each quadrant of the ceiling
File:Ajanta Cave 17 foreign servant.jpg|A servant from Central Asia, Cave 17.
File:Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall horsemen detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners on horses attending the Buddha
</gallery>
Impact on later painting and other arts
The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka. Some influences from Ajanta have also suggested in the Kizil Caves of the Tarim Basin, in particular in early caves such as the Peacock Cave.
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists with examples from ancient India to follow. Nandalal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style. Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.
Anna Pavlova's ballet ''Ajanta's Frescoes was inspired by her visit to Ajanta, choreographed by Ivan Clustine, with music by Nikolai Tcherepnin (one report says Mikhail Fokine in 1923). and premiered at Covent Garden in 1923.
Jewish American poet Muriel Rukeyser wrote about the caves in "Ajanta," the opening poem of her third collection Beast in View (1944). Rukeyser was inspired in part by writings on the caves by artist Mukul Dey in 1925 and art historian Stella Kramrisch in 1937.
See also
* Cetiya
* Bedse Caves
* Bhaja Caves
* Dambulla cave temple
* Kanheri Caves
* Karla Caves
* Mogao Caves
* Nasik Caves
* Pitalkhora Caves
* Shivneri Caves
* List of colossal sculptures in situ
Notes
References
Bibliography
* "ASI": [http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta.asp Archaeological Survey of India] website, with a concise entry on the Caves, accessed 20 October 2010
* Burgess, James and Fergusson J. Cave Temples of India. (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2005).
* Burgess, James and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India, Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).
* Burgess, James. Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).
* Burgess, James. "Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures," Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).
* Behl, Benoy K. The Ajanta Caves'' (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998).
* .
*
* Cohen, Richard S. "Nāga, Yaksinī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta," History of Religions. 37/4 (May 1998): 360–400.
* Cohen, Richard S. "Problems in the Writing of Ajanta's History: The Epigraphic Evidence," Indo-Iranian Journal. 40/2 (April 1997): 125–48.
* Cohen, Richard S. Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves. A PhD dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).
* Cowell, E.B. The Jataka, I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).
* Dhavalikar, M.K. Late Hinayana Caves of Western India (Pune: 1984).
*
*
* Griffiths, J. Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta, 2 vols. (London: 1896–1897).
* Halder, Asit Kumar. "AJANTA" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a foreword by Gautam Halder LALMATI. Kolkata. 2009
*
*
* Kramrisch, Stella. A Survey of Painting in the Deccan (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: "Ajanta," ''Exploring India's Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch, ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273–307.
*
* Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).
* Mirashi, V.V. "Historical Evidence in Dandin's Dasakumaracharita," Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164–77.
* Mirashi, V.V. Inscription of the Vakatakas. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).
* Mirashi, V.V. The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).
* Mirashi, V.V. Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam's Dominions, 1941).
* Mitra, Debala. Ajanta, 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).
* Nagaraju, S. Buddhist Architecture of Western India (Delhi: 1981)
* Parimoo, Ratan; et al. The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).
* Schlingloff, Dieter. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)
* Schlingloff, Dieter. Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations (New Delhi: 1987).
* Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. The Age of the Vakatakas (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 'The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta,' South Asian Studies (London: March 2012), vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 37–68.
*
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. (2024). ''Ajanta's Evolution: From Sāvakayāna to Bodhisatvayāna amid Hunnic Turmoil. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2021a. Early Hunnic Invasions and Abandonment of Buddhist Temples in India. = Ajanta Mahāpiṭaka I.4. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2020a. Khiṅgīla vs. Buddhist Caves: A Synchronised Chronology of the Early Alchon Hūṇs, Early Guptas, Vākāṭakas, Traikūṭakas, and Buddhist Caves (ca. 451–480 CE) =Ajanta Mahāpiṭaka I.2. Baroda: Hari Sena Press.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 2019b. Ajanta Paintings: A Compilation of 84 Abridged Narratives. 2nd. Baroda: Hari Sena Press.
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Spink, Walter M. "A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves," C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 1's Patronage," Chhavi 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144–57.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 7's Twice-born Buddha," Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia, ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103–16.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: Politics and Patronage," Kaladarsana, ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109–26.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: The Crucial Cave," Ars Orientalis, 10 (1975), pp. 143–169.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11," Ars Orientalis, 7 (1968), pp. 155–168.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta's Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating," Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume, ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.
* Spink, Walter M. "Notes on Buddha Images," The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213–41.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Achievement of Ajanta," The Age of the Vakatakas, ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177–202.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Vakataka's Flowering and Fall," The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives, vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71–99.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Archaeology of Ajanta," Ars Orientalis, 21, pp. 67–94.
*
* Weiner, Sheila L. Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).
* Yazdani, Gulam. Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescos Based on Photography, 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955).
* Yazdani, Gulam. The Early History of the Deccan, Parts 7–9 (Oxford: 1960).
* Zin, Monika. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003)
External links
<!--NO MORE CANVAS GURU TOURIST SPAM LINKS. THEY WILL BE DELETED AS SOON AS INSERTED-->
* [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0192.xml Ajanta Caves Bibliography], Akira Shimada (2014), Oxford University Press
* [https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta]
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/oct/23/greatest-ancient-picture-gallery The Greatest Ancient Picture Gallery. William Dalrymple, New York Review of Books (23 Oct 2014)]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/ Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List]
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/entity/m0_z7 Google Streetview Tours of each Cave of Ajanta]
* [http://www.profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf Inscriptions with Translations: Ajanta Caves], Richard Cohen
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Category:Caves of Maharashtra
Category:World Heritage Sites in Maharashtra
Category:Caves containing pictograms in India
Category:Former populated places in India
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Category:Buddhist caves in Maharashtra | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajanta_Caves | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.242404 |
2645 | Ajmer | | pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt | pushpin_map_caption Location in Rajasthan, India
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Rajasthan
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = Ajmer
| founder = Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II
| named_for = Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = Ajmer Municipal Corporation
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 = 155
| area_footnotes
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m 480
| population_total = 542,321
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank | population_demonym
| population_urban = 551,101
| population_footnotes
| demographics1_title2 = Additional official
| demographics1_info2 English
| nickname = Heart of Rajasthan
}}
Ajayameru, currently known as Ajmer () is a city in the north-western Indian state of Rajasthan. It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Ajmer district and Ajmer division. It lies at the centre of Rajasthan, earning it the nickname the Heart of Rajasthan.
Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. Ajmer has been a municipality since 1869. Ajmer has been selected as one of the heritage cities for the HRIDAY and Smart City Mission schemes of the Government of India.EtymologyThe city of Ajmer was established as "Ajaya Meru", meaning "invincible hill" in Sanskrit by a Chahamana ruler, either Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II. It refers to the Taragarh Hill, on which the city is situated. Over time, "Ajaya Meru" evolved into "Ajmer". It served as their capital until the 12th century CE.Other namesA Gujarati historic novel named Gujaratno Jay written by Zaverchand Meghani, based on various Jain Prabandhas, describes the city as sapādalakṣaṇa (સપાદલક્ષણ). History Ajmer was originally known as Ajayameru. Maharaja of Parmar Rajputs founded the Ajmer city in the 11th-century, which was admired from Chahamana king Ajaydeva. Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the earliest mention of the city's name occurs in Palha's Pattavali, which was copied in 1113 CE (1170 VS) at Dhara. This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE. A prashasti (eulogistic inscription), issued by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Sanskrit college), states Ajayadeva (that is Ajayaraja II) moved his residence to Ajmer.
A later text, Prabandha-Kosha states that it was the 8th-century king Ajayaraja I who commissioned the Ajayameru fort, which later came to be known as the Taragarh fort of Ajmer. According to historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have been found at Ajmer. Singh theorises that Ajayaraja II later expanded the town area, constructed palaces, and moved the Chahamana capital from Shakambhari to Ajmer.
In 1193, Ajmer was annexed by the Ghurids and later was returned to Gaur Rajput rulers under condition of tribute.
By the 15th century, Ajmer was captured by Mewar and in 1506, Ajja Jhala was appointed as the Governor of Ajmer.
In 1556, Ajmer came under the Mughal Empire after being conquered by Mughal Emperor Akbar. Their most prominent building activities were in the dargah and its vicinity. Jahanara Begum and Dara Shikoh, children of Shah Jahan, were both born in the city in 1614 and 1615, respectively.
Mughal patronage of the city had waned by the beginning of the 18th century. In 1752, the Scindias conquered the city, and in 1818, the British gained authority over the city. Colonial-era Ajmer served as the headquarters of the Ajmer-Merwara Province and possessed a Central jail, a large General Hospital, and two smaller hospitals, according to Gazetteer, 1908. It was the headquarters of a native regiment and of a Railway Volunteer corps. From the 1900s, the United Free Church of Scotland, the church of England, the Roman Catholics, and the American Episcopal Methodists have had mission establishments here. At that time there were twelve printing presses in the city, from which eight weekly newspapers were published.
At the time of India's independence in 1947, Ajmer continued as a separate state with its own legislature until its merger with erstwhile Rajputana province, then called Rajasthan. The Legislature of Ajmer State was housed in the building which now houses T. T. College. It had 30 MLAs, and Haribhau Upadhyay was the first chief minister of the erstwhile state, with Bhagirath Chaudhary as the first Vidhan Sabha speaker. In 1956, after acceptance of the proposal by Fazil Ali, Ajmer was merged into Rajasthan to form Ajmer District with the addition of Kishangarh sub-division of Jaipur district.GeographyAjmer is in the northwest of India and is surrounded by the Aravali Mountains. It is situated on the lower slopes of the Taragarh Hill of that range. To the northwest is the Nagapathar Range of the Aravali Mountain Ranges which protects it from desertification from the Thar Desert.ClimateAjmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over of rain every year, but most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months, between June and September. Temperatures remain relatively high throughout the year, with the summer months of April to early July having an average daily temperature of about . During the monsoon there is frequent heavy rain and thunderstorms, but flooding is not a common occurrence. The winter months of November to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from with little or no humidity. There are, however, occasional cold weather fronts that cause temperatures to fall to near freezing levels.
Demographics
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in circumference. This hill fort guarding Ajmer, was the seat of the Chauhan rulers. It was built by King Ajaypal Chauhan on the summit of Taragarh Hill and overlooks Ajmer. The battlements run along the top of the hill. When it fell to the British Raj, the fort was dismantled on the orders of Lord William Bentinck in 1832 and was converted into a sanatorium for the British troops stationed at the garrison town of Nasirabad. About 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day. The Urs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is celebrated every year on the 6th and 7th of Rajab.
*Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra: Literally meaning "shed of two-and-a-half days", it is an ASI protected monument near Ajmer Sharif Dargah and a converted mosque built after the partial destruction of earlier Hindu and Jain temples there on orders of Muhammad Ghori after he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the second battle of Tarain.Originally built as a Sanskrit college, the mosque underwent a transformative evolution in the 12th century under the reign of Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak.
*Mayo College: The college was founded in 1875 at the suggestion of Lord Mayo as a college where the sons of chiefs and nobles might receive an education to fit them for their high positions and important duties. John Lockwood Kipling, father of Nobel Laureate, Rudyard Kipling, had been principal of Mayo College.
*Soni Ji Ki Nasiyaan: It is architecturally rich Jain temple built in the late nineteenth century whose main chamber Swarna Nagari "City of Gold", has prominent depiction of Ayodhya made from 1000 kg of gold.
*Akbari Fort & Museum: The city's museum was once the residence of Prince Salīm, the son of the Emperor Akbar, and presently houses a collection of Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture. This is a magnificent example of Mughal architecture, construction of which was commissioned by Akbar in 1570. This is where Salim, as the Emperor Jahangir, read out the firman permitting the British East India Company to trade with India. It is a massive square building, with lofty octagonal bastions at each corner. It was the headquarters of the administration in their time and in that of the Marathas. It was here that the emperors appeared in state, and that, as recorded by Sir Thomas Roe, criminals were publicly executed. The interior was used as a magazine during the British occupation until 1857; and the central building, used as a tahsil office. With the fort, the outer city walls, of the same period, are connected. These surround the city and are pierced by the Delhi, Madar, Usri, Agra, and Tirpolia gates.
*Nareli Jain Temple: is a Jain temple complex of fourteen temples recently built. It is known for its architecture and intricate stone carvings which gives it both a traditional and contemporary look.
*Ana Sagar Lake: This is an historic man-made lake built by Maharaja Anaji (1135–1150 CE). By the lake is the Daulat Bagh, a garden laid out by Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Shah Jahan later added five pavilions, known as the Baradari, between the garden and the lake embankment of the Ana Sagar supports the beautiful marble pavilions erected as pleasure-houses by Shah Jahan. The embankment, moreover, contains the - site of the former hammam (bath-room). Three of the five pavilions were at one time formed into residences for British officials, while the embankment was covered with office buildings and enclosed by gardens. The houses and enclosures were finally removed in 1900–1902, when the two south pavilions were re-erected, the marble parapet completed, and the embankment restored, as far as practicable, to its early condition. The Baradari has since been closed for the public because of increased crowd and pollution caused by people.A new garden called Subhash Udhyan has been opened in the recent years in place of Baradari.
*Lake Foy Sagar: It is a picturesque artificial lake that was created as a famine relief project in 1892 some 3 miles to the west of the city. It offers excellent views of Aravali mountains range as well migrating birds. The city used to derive its water-supply from it during colonial times. The water was conveyed into the city and suburbs through pipes which were laid underground. The capacity of the lake is 150,000,000 cubic feet.
*Prithviraj Smark: Prithviraj Smark is dedicated to Prithviraj Chauhan. It is located on the way to Taragarh Fort. This place has a life-size statue of King Prithviraj Chauhan mounted on a horse.
*Tomb of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri: Khwaja Husain Ajmeri also known as Shaikh Husain Ajmeri, he was a Grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer from the line of Khwaja Fakhruddin's son Khwaja Husamuddin Jigar Sokhta, he was SajjadaNasheen and Mutwalli of Ajmer Dargah before and during the time of Emperor Akbar and Emperor Jahangir, his tomb is situated near the Sola Khamba (Tomb of Khwaja Alauddin another grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer), Behind Shahjahani Mosque Dargar Sharif Ajmer, he died sometime between the year 1619 and 1620. his tomb was built in the year 1637–38.
*Manibandh : Also known as Chamunda Mata Mandir is one among the 108 Shakti Pitha at Gayatri hills near Pushkar, 11 km from Ajmer. It takes 14 minutes to travel from Pushkar Lake to Chamunda Mata Mandir (about 5–6 km)
*Sri Nimbark Peeth : Located in Salemabad it is the principal seat of Sri Nimbarka Sampradaya.
Transportation
Air
The Kishangarh Airport is the nearest airport. It is 25 km from Ajmer city. The Ajmer Airport ground breaking ceremony was done by then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh in 2012. The airport was finally completed and inaugurated by then Union Minister of State for Civil Aviation Jayant Sinha and Chief Minister Vasundhara Raje on 11 October 2017. The airport is operational since then and regular flights to/from Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Indore and Surat are currently available. The airport is now among main and busy airports of Rajasthan. Currently SpiceJet and Star Air operate from Ajmer Airport on daily basis. Kishangarh Airport, Ajmer is being managed and operated by Airports Authority of India (AAI).
The Jaipur International Airport which is 135 km from Ajmer is the nearest international airport.
Rail
The Ajmer Junction is the main railway station situated in the city. It was built during colonial times. Education The city has many schools and colleges. Among them, Mayo College is a prominent college. The regional office of CBSE is located here.
Notable people
* Sufiya Sufi - (born 1987) an Indian sprint athlete.
See also
*Delhi Gate, Ajmer
*Ajmeri Gate
**Ajmeri Gate metro station
*Qabil Ajmeri
*Ajmeri Kalakand
*Marwari language, also known as Ajmeri, spoken around Marwar and Ajmer
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
* W.D. Begg: The Holy Biography of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Millat Book Centre, Delhi, 1999).
* [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectidDS405.1.I34_V05_145.gif Ajmer] The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 5, p. 137-146.External links
*[http://www.ajmer.rajasthan.gov.in Ajmer District website]
*[http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/ic/searchterm/R%20Nath!Ajmer/field/creato!covera/mode/all!all/conn/and!and/order/title R. Nath Mughal Architecture Image Collection, Images from Ajmer] - University of Washington Digital Collection
Category:Cities and towns in Ajmer district
Category:Holy cities
Category:Tourist attractions in Rajasthan
Category:1818 in British India
Category:Smart cities in India | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajmer | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.286454 |
2646 | Ajmer-Merwara | Ajmer-Merwara (also known as Ajmir Province, and Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri) was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818.
It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1861 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces. Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri.
It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.
The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwar, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.
In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India's agent for the Rajputana Agency.
Extent and geography
The area of the province was . The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.
The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.
Superintendents for Ajmer
9 Jul 181817 Jul 1818 Nixon
18 Jul 181815 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785–1849)
16 Dec 182421 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)
22 Apr 182523 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton
24 Oct 182728 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish
29 Nov 18311 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)
2 Jul 183216 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs
17 Apr 183430 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813–1864)
1 Jul 183625 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807–1886)
26 Jul 1837Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten
Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara)
18231836 Henry Hall (1789–1875)
18361857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)
Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency
183229 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781–1834)
29 Nov 1833Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs
Jun 18341 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves
1 Feb 18391839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788–1880)
Apr 1839Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848)
Jan 1844Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)
Dec 1847Jan 1853 John Low (1788–1880)
25 Jun 184819 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)
8 Sep 18511 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)
18521853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804–1884) (1st time)
5 Mar 1853Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806–1857)
15 Mar 1857Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time)
10 Apr 185924 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814–1867) (acting for Lawrence)
Apr 18641867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.)
18671870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825–1904)
15 Jun 18701 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818–1899) (acting for Keatinge)
Chief Commissioners
1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.)
1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)
21 Jun 18736 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825–1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)
6 Apr 18746 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (1903)
6 Jul 187412 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.)
12 Nov 187418 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835–1911)
18 Aug 18765 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (1st time)(acting)
5 Mar 187712 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.)
12 Dec 187827 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836–1911) (1st time)
17 Mar 188128 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)
28 Nov 188227 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)
27 Mar 188720 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)
20 Mar 189027 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840–1927)
27 Aug 18912 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)
2 Dec 189122 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.)
22 Nov 189311 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840–1914)
11 Jan 189520 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.)
20 Mar 189510 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841–1917)
10 Mar 18981 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854–1942) (1st time)
1 May 19001 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848–1909)
1 Apr 19013 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)
3 Feb 19021 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time)
1 Apr 19054 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861–1940)
4 Jan 191822 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864–1920)
22 Dec 19197 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873–1965)
7 Aug 192518 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872–1942)
18 Mar 192714 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874–1946)
14 Oct 193228 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882–1966)
28 Oct 19371 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887–1962)
May 1939Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893–1980) (acting for Lothian)
1 Dec 194415 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904–1949)
Post-independence
From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.
The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region.
See also
Rawat Rajputs
The Mer (community) are a Hindu caste from the Gujarat and Central India who emigrated hundred of years ago from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.
Mair Rajputs of Punjab are a Hindu caste who emigrated hundreds of years ago to Punjab from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.
References
Category:Provinces of British India
Category:Historical Indian regions
Category:History of Rajasthan
Category:Ajmer district
Category:1818 establishments in British India
Category:1936 disestablishments in British India
Category:History of Ajmer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajmer-Merwara | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.302794 |
2654 | Abatement of debts and legacies | Abatement of debts and legacies is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.
Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.
The order of abatement is usually:
Intestate property
The residuary of the estate
General Devises—i.e., cash gifts
Demonstrative Devises—i.e., cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.
Specific Devises—i.e., specified items of personal property, real property, etc.
Non-probate property—i.e., life insurance policies—do not abate.
Definitions
A specific devise, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving his $500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.
A general devise, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving $500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.
A demonstrative devise, is money given from a particular account. For example, "$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock."
A residual devise is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James's will might say: "I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly." Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James's residuary estate.
References
Category:Common law
Category:Wills and trusts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.312924 |
2661 | Affection | thumb|right|200px|Two children showing affection
Affection or fondness is a "disposition or state of mind or body" commonly linked to a feeling or type of love. It has led to multiple branches in philosophy and psychology that discuss emotion, disease, influence, and state of being. Often, "affection" denotes more than mere goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and temporary. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the distinctively sensual element.
Affection can elicit diverse emotional reactions such as embarrassment, disgust, pleasure, and annoyance. The emotional and physical effect of affection also varies between the giver and the receiver.
Restricted definition
thumb|right|A young girl kisses a baby on the cheek.
Sometimes the term is restricted to emotional states directed towards living entities, including humans and animals. Affection is often compared with passion, stemming from the Greek word . Consequently, references to affection are found in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and early British ethicists. Despite these associations, it is commonly differentiated from passion on various grounds. Some definitions of affection exclude feelings of anxiety or heightened excitement, elements typically linked to passion. In this narrower context, the term holds significance in ethical frameworks, particularly concerning social or parental affections, forming a facet of moral duties
Expression
Affection can be communicated by looks, words, gestures, or touches. It conveys love and social connection. The five love languages explains how couples can communicate affections to each other. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards. Such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants, especially their biochemical systems and prefrontal development.
Affectionate gestures can become undesirable if they insinuate potential harm to one's welfare. However, when welcomed, such behavior can offer several health benefits. Some theories suggest that positive sentiments enhance individuals' inclination to engage socially, and the sense of closeness fostered by affection contributes to nurturing positive sentiments among them.
Benefits of affection
Affection exchange is an adaptive human behavior that benefits well-being. Expressing affection brings emotional, physical, and relational gains for people and their close connections. Sharing positive emotions yields health advantages like reduced stress hormones, lower cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and a stronger immune system. Expressing affection, not merely feeling affection, is internally rewarding. Even if not reciprocated, givers still experience its effects.
Parental relationships
Affectionate behavior is frequently considered an outcome of parental nurturing, tied to hormonal rewards. Both positive and negative parental actions may health issues in later life. Neglect and abuse result in poorer well-being and mental health, contrasting with affection's positive effects. A 2013 study highlighted the impact of early child abuse and lack of affection on physical health.
Affectionism
Affectionism is a school of thought that considers affections to be of central importance. Although it is not found in mainstream Western philosophy, it does exist in Indian philosophy.
See also
References
External links
Category:Emotions
Category:Love
Category:Personal life
Category:Phrenology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affection | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.326316 |
2662 | Affiliation (family law) | }}
In law, affiliation (from Latin , "to adopt as a son") was previously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity. The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document.
Affiliation procedures in England
In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 10), and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts 1872 and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances) may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age.
An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.See also
* Adoption
* Illegitimacy
* Paternity (law)
* Poor Laws
References
External links
*
Category:Family law
Category:Wills and trusts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affiliation_(family_law) | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.328903 |
2663 | Affinity | Affinity may refer to:
Commerce, finance and law
Affinity (law), kinship by marriage
Affinity analysis, a market research and business management technique
Affinity Credit Union, a Saskatchewan-based credit union
Affinity Equity Partners, an Asian private equity firm
Affinity fraud, a type of scam targeting a specific demographic
Affinity marketing, a method of extending market reach by forming partnerships and cross-selling relationships
Affinity Partners, an American private equity firm
Religion and belief
Affinity (canon law), a kinship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman
Affinity (Christian organisation), network of conservative evangelical churches and Christian agencies
Affinity group, a private, non-commercial and non-governmental organisation formed around a shared interest or goal
Science and technology
Affinity, the UK's first road-legal solar car, built by Cambridge University Eco Racing
Affinity (mathematics), an affine transformation preserving collinearity
Affinity (pharmacology), a characterisation of protein-ligand binding strength
Affinity (sociology), a shared interest and commitment between persons in groups and/or willingness to associate
Affinity (taxonomy), a suggestion of common descent or type
Affinity chromatography, method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture
Affinity electrophoresis, general name for many analytical methods used in biochemistry and biotechnology
Affinity laws, laws used in hydraulics to express relationships between variables involved in fan or pump performance
Binding affinity, a measure of the interaction of ligands with their binding sites
Chemical affinity, used to describe or characterise elements' or compounds' readiness to form bonds
Electron affinity, energy released on formation of anions
Processor affinity, a computing term for the assignment of a task to a given core of a multicore CPU
Serif Europe's Affinity series of programs
Affinity Designer, a vector illustration editor
Affinity Photo, a raster graphics editor
Affinity Publisher, a desktop publishing application
Media-related
Music
Affinity (band), a jazz/rock band
Affinity (Affinity album)
Affinity (Bill Evans album)
Affinity (Haken album)
Affinity (Oscar Peterson album)
Affinity (EP), a 2013 EP by the English band Press to Meco
Johnny Alegre A, a jazz collective based in Manila
Other media
Affinity (novel), a 1999 novel by Sarah Waters
Affinity (film), a 2008 feature film based on the novel
"Affinity" (Stargate SG-1), an episode from season 8 of the TV sci-fi spin-off series Stargate SG-1
Elective Affinities, a novel by Goethe
Other uses
Affinity (medieval), late medieval retainers of a monarch in "bastard feudalism"
Affinity, West Virginia
See also
Affine (disambiguation)
Affine transformation, a type of transformation applied to a geometry
Refining, also known as "affining"
Afinidad (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.332058 |
2665 | Affray | , The Brawl, 1855]]
In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, affray is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in ) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.Australia
In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.
In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says "Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty—1 year’s imprisonment."
In Victoria, Affray was a common law offence until 2017, when it was abolished and was replaced with the statutory offence that can be found under section 195H of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). The section defines Affray as the use or threat of unlawful violence by a person in a manner that would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to be terrified. However, a person who commits this conduct may only be found guilty of Affray if the use or threat of violence was intended, or if the person was reckless as to whether the conduct involves the use or threat of violence. If found guilty, the maximum penalty that may be imposed for Affray is imprisonment for 5 years or, if at the time of committing the offence the person was wearing a face covering used primarily to conceal their identity or to protect them from the effects of crowd-controlling substances, imprisonment for 7 years.
India
The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of "actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the lieges".South AfricaUnder the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica. for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:
}}
The term "violence" is defined by section 8.
Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.
The mens rea of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.
The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.
In R v Childs & Price (2015), the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.
Northern Ireland
Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.
United States
In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states.
See also
* Assault
* Battery
* Combat
References
* Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4: General police duties, Fraser Simpson (2006). pp. 247. Oxford University Press.
Category:Crimes
Category:Legal terminology
Category:Violence | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affray | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.336688 |
2667 | Afghan Turkestan | | subdivision_type1 = Languages
| subdivision_name1 = Uzbek, Turkmen, Dari, Pashto
| area_total_km2 = 147000
}}
Afghan Turkestan,}}a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In the 19th century, there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan with Mazar-e Sharif as provincial capital. The province incorporated the territories of the present-day provinces of Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-e Pol, and Faryab. In 1890, Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was separated from Turkestan Province. It was later abolished by Abdur Rahman.
The whole territory of Afghan Turkestan, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of . It thus comprised about 147,000 km<sup>2</sup> (57,000 sq mi) or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan.
Geography
The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.
The province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or Chahar Wilayat ("four domains") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhoy (city), and Maymana in the west. Demographics
map showing the territory of the settlement of ethnic groups and subgroups in Afghanistan]]
The bulk of the people are Uzbeks and Turkmens with large concentrations of Hazaras, Qizilbashs, Tatars, Tajiks, and Pashtuns.
History
Khanates forming Afghan-Turkestan, 19th century]]
Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur Shah. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mohammad, the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. Dost Mohammad's earliest campaigns begin in the 1830s in the Afghan Turkestan Campaign of 1838-39. The sovereignty over Andkhoy, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maymana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.In 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul. See also
* Chinese Turkestan
* Russian Turkestan
* Turkestan Province
Notes
References
Further reading
Category:Former provinces of Afghanistan
Category:Turkestan
Category:Regions of Afghanistan
Category:Turkic toponyms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Turkestan | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.341126 |
2668 | Afyonkarahisar | | province = Afyonkarahisar
| district = Afyonkarahisar
| leader_party = CHP
| leader_name = Burcu Köksal
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2
| elevation_m = 1021
| population_footnotes ) is a major city in western Turkey. It is the administrative centre of Afyonkarahisar Province and Afyonkarahisar District. Its population is 251,799 (2021). Afyon is in the mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, south-west of Ankara along the Akarçay River. In Turkey, Afyonkarahisar stands out as a capital city of hot springs and spas, an important junction of railway, highway and air traffic in West-Turkey, and the place where independence was won.
In addition, Afyonkarahisar is one of Turkey's leading provinces in agriculture, globally renowned for its marble and is the world's largest producer of pharmaceutical opium. In antiquity, the city was called Akroinon and it is the site of Afyonkarahisar Castle, built around 1350 BC.EtymologyThe name Afyon Kara Hisar literally means opium black fortress in Turkish, since opium was widely grown here and there is a castle on a black rock. It is also known simply as Afyon. Older spellings include Karahisar-i Sahip, Afium-Kara-hissar and Afyon Karahisar. The city was known as Afyon (opium), until the name was changed to Afyonkarahisar by the Turkish Parliament in 2004.
History
in Afyonkarahisar]]
Ancient times
The top of the rock in Afyon has been fortified for a long time. It was known to the Hittites as Hapanuwa, and was later occupied by Phrygians, Lydians and Achaemenid Persians until it was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the city (now known as Akroinοn (Ακροϊνόν) or Nikopolis (Νικόπολις) in Ancient Greek), was ruled by the Seleucids and the kings of Pergamon, then Rome and Byzantium.
Medieval period
Akroinοn became an important fortress in the Armeniakon theme due to its strategic location and natural defences and was first mentioned in Byzantine history when it was attacked in 716 and 732 by Arabs invaders. The Byzantine emperor Leo III renamed the city Nicopolis (Greek for "city of victory") after his victory over Arab besiegers under Abdallah al-Battal (who would become the famous Turkish literature figure of Battal Gazi) in 740. Since the 10th century it was also a bishopric of Phrygia Salutaris.
The city was still held by the former in 1112 but was lost to the Sultanate of Rum at some time before 1146 when Manuel I Komnenos won a victory here. The Turks were unable to firmly control the city until around 1210,
in Afyonkarahisar]]
During the First World War, British prisoners of war who had been captured at Gallipoli were housed here in an empty Armenian church at the foot of the rock. During the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) campaign (part of the Turkish War of Independence) Afyon and the surrounding hills were occupied by Greek forces. However, it was recovered on 27 August 1922, a key moment in the Turkish counter-attack in the Aegean region. After 1923 Afyon became a part of the Republic of Turkey.
The region was a major producer of raw opium (hence the name Afyon) until the late 1960s when under international pressure, from the US in particular, the fields were burnt and production ceased. Now poppies are grown under a strict licensing regimen. They do not produce raw opium any more but derive Morphine and other opiates using the poppy straw method of extraction.
Afyon was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote of 1927–1938.
Economy
The economy of Afyonkarahisar is based on agriculture, industries and thermal tourism.
Especially its agriculture is strongly developed from the fact, a large part of its population living in the countrysides. Which stimulated agricultural activities greatly.
Marble
Afyonkarahisar produces an important chunk of Turkish processed marbles, it ranks second on processed marble exports and fourth on travertine. Afyon holds an important share of Turkish marble reserves, with some 12,2% of total Turkish reserves.
Historically marble from Afyon was generally referred to as "Docimeaen marble" due to the place where it was mined, Docimium. Afyon has unique marble types and colors, which were historically very renown and are unique to Afyon such as "Afyon white", historically known as "Synnadic white", "Afyon Menekse", historically known as "Pavonazzetto", and "Afyon kaplan postu", a less popular type.
Docimian marble was highly admired and valued for its unique colors and fine grained quality by ancient people such as the Romans. When the Romans took control over Docimaean quarries, they were impressed by the beautiful color combinations of the Docimaean Pavonazzetto, which is a type of white marble with purple veins. Emperors such as Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian made extensive use of Docimaean marble to many of their major building projects. These include the Pantheon, Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Aemilia.Thermal sector
The geography of Afyon has great geothermal activity. Hence, the place has plenty of thermal springs. There are five main springs and all of them have high mineral content with temperatures ranging between 40 and 100 °C. The waters have strong healing properties to some diseases. As a result, plenty of thermal facilities formed over time.
In time, Afyon has developed its thermal sector with more capacity, comfort and innovation. Afyon combined the traditional bath houses with 5-star resorts, the health benefits of the natural springs have made the thermal resorts more than a mere tourist attraction.
Hospitals and universities have come in association with thermal resorts, to utilize the full health potentials of the thermals.
As such, Afyon Kocatepe University Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Hospital opened for that purpose.
Afyon now has the largest residence capacity of thermal resorts,
Pharmaceuticals and morphine
Almost a third of all the morphine produced in the world derives from alkaloids factory in Afyon, named as "Afyon Alkaloids". this large capacity is the byproduct of Afyon's poppy plantations. The pharmaceuticals derive from the opium of the poppy capsules. "Afyon Alkaloids" factory is the largest of its kind in the world, with high capacity processing ability and modern laboratories. The raw opium is put through a chain of biochemical processes, resulting into several types of morphine.
In the Alkaloid Extraction Unit only base morphine is produced. In the adjacent Derivatives Unit half of the morphine extracted is converted to morphine hydrochloride, codeine, codeine phosphate, codeine sulphate, codeine hydrochloride, morphine sulphate, ethylmorphine hydrochloride.
Agriculture
Livestocks
Afyon breeds a large amount of livestock, its landscape and demography is suitable for this field. As such it ranks in the top 10 within Turkey in terms of amounts of sheep and cattle it has.
Meat and meat products
As a result of being an important source of livestock, related sectors such as meat and meat products are also very productive in Afyon. Its one of the leading provinces in red meat production and has very prestigious brand marks of sausages, such as "Cumhuriyet Sausages".
Eggs
Afyon is the sole leader in egg production within Turkey. It has the largest amount of laying hens, with a figure of 12,7 million. And produces a record amount of 6 million eggs per day.
Cherries and sour cherries
Sour cherries are cultivated in Afyon in very large numbers, so much so that it became very iconic to Afyon. Every year, a sour cherry festival takes place in the Cay district. It is the largest producer of sour cherries in Turkey. The sour cherries grown in Afyon are of excellent quality because of the ideal climate they're grown in. For the same reason Afyon is also an ideal place for cherry cultivation. First quality cherries known as "Napolyon Cherries" are grown in abundance, its one of the top 5 leading provinces.
Poppy
One of the iconic agricultural practices of Afyon is the cultivation of poppy. Afyon's climate is ideal for the cultivation of this plant, hence a large amount of poppy plantation occurs in this region. Though, a strong limitation came some decades ago from international laws, cause of the opium content of poppy plants peels. Nevertheless, Afyon is the largest producer of poppy in Turkey under the Köppen classification and an oceanic climate with a hot summer and a cool winter (Doak) under the Trewartha classification. The winters are cool and the summers are warm and dry with cool nights. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn.
Highest recorded temperature: on 29 July 2000<br>Lowest recorded temperature: on 28 January 1954
Transport
Afyon is also an important rail junction between İzmir, Konya, Ankara and Istanbul. Afyon is on the route of the planned high-speed rail line between Ankara and Izmir.]]Zafer Airport, located 60 km from city center, serves Afyonkarahisar. Four flights per week to Istanbul, and seasonal flights to international destinations are available.
Afyon today
Afyon is the centre of an agricultural area and the city has a country town feel to it. There is little in the way of bars, cafes, live music or other cultural amenities, and the standards of education are low for a city in the west of Turkey. Nonetheless, the city does host one seat of higher education, Afyon Kocatepe University.
Afyon is known for its marble (in 2005 there were 355 marble quarries in the province of Afyon producing high quality white stone), its sucuk (spiced sausages), its kaymak (meaning either cream or a white Turkish delight) and various handmade weavings. There is also a large cement factory.
This is a natural crossroads, the routes from Ankara to İzmir and from Istanbul to Antalya intersect here and Afyon is a popular stopping-place on these journeys. There are a number of well-established roadside restaurants for travellers to breakfast on the local cuisine. Some of these places are modern well-equipped hotels and spas; the mineral waters of Afyon are renowned for their healing qualities. There is also a long string of roadside kiosks selling the local Turkish delight.
Cuisine
Courses
** sucuk - the famed local speciality, a spicy beef sausage, eaten fried or grilled. The best known brands include Cumhuriyet, Ahmet İpek, İkbal, İtimat and Danet but only 2 brands has the geographical indication and these are Cumhuriyet & Danet (Vahdet Et).
** ağzaçık or bükme - filo-style pastry stuffed with cheese or lentils.
** keşkek - boiled wheat and chick peas stewed with meat.
lokum, Turkish delight of cream, a speciality of Afyonkarahisar.|169x169px]]
Sweets
* local cream kaymak eaten with honey, with a bread pudding ekmek kadayıfı, or with pumpkin simmered in syrup. Best eaten at the famous Ikbal restaurants (either the old one in the town centre or the big place on the main road).
* Turkish delight.
* helva - sweetened ground sesame
Main sights
* Afyonkarahisar Castle
* Victory Museum (Zafer Müzesi), a national military and war museum, which was used as headquarters by then Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk), his chief general staff and army commanders before the Great Offensive in August 1922. In the very city center, across the fortress, featuring maps, uniforms, photos, guns from the Greco-Turkish War.
* The partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name. To reach at the top, eight hundred stairs need to be climbed.
* The Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum which houses thousands of Hellenic, Frigian, Hittite, Roman, Ottoman finds.
* Afyon Grand Mosque
* Altıgöz Bridge, like the Ulu Camii built by the Seljuqs in the 13th century.
* Afyon mansion () situated on a hill overlooking the panoramic plain.
* the White Elephant - Afyon is twinned with the town of Hamm in Germany, and now has a large statue of Hamm's symbolic white elephant.
With its rich architectural heritage, the city is a member of the European Association of Historic Towns and Regions [https://web.archive.org/web/20080910004925/http://www.historic-towns.org/documents/members/turkey.doc].
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of population over years
|-
| Year ||1914|| 1990 || 1995 || 2000
|-
| Population ||285,750|| 95,643 || 103,000 || 128,516
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
* Nyíregyháza, Hungary, since 1992
* Greece, Athens, since 1999<ref name=kardes />
* Turkistan, Kazakhstan<ref name=kardes />
* Hamm, Germany, since 2005<ref name=kardes />
* Peć, Kosovo, since 2008<ref name=kardes />
* Yunfu, China, since 2007<ref name=kardes />
* Latakia, Syria, since 2009<ref namekardes />Notable natives
Following list is alphabetically sorted after family name.
* Mihran Mesrobian (1889–1975), architect and decorated Ottoman soldier
* İlker Başbuğ (born 1943), former Chief of the General Staff of Turkey
* Ali Çetinkaya (1879–1949), Ottoman Army officer and Turkish politician
* Fikret Emek (born 1963), retired military personnel of the Special Forces Command
* Veysel Eroğlu (born 1948), Turkish politician
* Bülent İplikçioğlu (born 1952), historian
* Ahmed Karahisari (1468–1566), Ottoman calligrapher
* Gülcan Mıngır (born 1989), middle-distance runner
* Ahmet Necdet Sezer (born 1941), former President of Turkey
* Sibel Özkan (born 1988), Olympic medalist female weightlifter
* Nurgül Yeşilçay (born 1976), actress
* Gunay Uslu (born 1972), Dutch cultural historian and politician
See also
* 2012 Afyonkarahisar arsenal explosion
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130105921/http://en.infoturkey.net/category/cities/afyonkarahisar/ Afyon Karahisar]
* [http://www.afyon.bel.tr/ City council website]
Category:Populated places in Afyonkarahisar District
Category:Anatolia
Category:Provincial municipalities in Turkey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afyonkarahisar | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.361872 |
2670 | Abba Arikha | |rtl=yes}}}}
| native_name_lang = tmr
| pronunciation | birth_name Rav Abba bar Aybo
| birth_date = 175
| birth_place = Kafri, Asoristan, Sasanian Empire (present-day Iran)
| death_date = 247
| death_place = Sura, Asoristan, Sasanian Empire (present-day Iraq)
| nationality = Jewish
| occupation = Rabbi
| known_for = Scholarship (amoraim) for Talmudic academies in Babylonia
}}
Rav Abba bar Aybo (; 175–247 CE), commonly known as Abba Arikha () or simply as Rav (), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues.
Biography
His surname, Arikha (English: the Tall), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading Arekha, consider it an honorary title, "Lecturer".), returned to Asoristan, referred to as "Babylonia" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism. but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi does tell us that he is being described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian emperor, Artabanus IV. He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner. He also composed the prayer recited on Shabbat before the start of a new month, Birkat ha-Hodesh.
* "Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber"
* "In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat."
* "Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham"
* "Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one's fellow man."
* "One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'"
* "A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result."
* "While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!" [Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive]
* "Receive the payment. Deliver the goods!" [i.e. do not sell on credit]
* "[Better to come] under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e. the Arabs) than [the displeasure of] Rome; [better to come] under the displeasure of Rome than [the displeasure of] a Persian; [better to come] under the displeasure of a Persian than [the displeasure of] a disciple of the Sages; [better to come] under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than [the displeasure of] an orphan and widow."
* "A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake. For eventually he will do it for their own sake"
* "A man ought always to look about in search of a [good] city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is [relatively] new, its iniquities are also few."
* "A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, [and no more]."
Rav loved the Book of Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.
To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words:}}
Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction.
References
Citations
Sources
*
* .
Category:175 births
Category:247 deaths
Category:Rabbis of Academy of Sura | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Arikha | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.370318 |
2671 | Abbahu | Rabbi Abbahu () was a Jew and Talmudist of the Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina from about 279 to 320 CE and is counted a member of the third generation of Amoraim. He is sometimes cited as Rabbi Abbahu of Kisrin (Caesarea Maritima).
Biography
His rabbinical education was acquired mainly at Tiberias in the academy presided over by Johanan bar Nappaha, with whom his relationship was almost that of a son. He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean academy.
Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures. He encouraged the study of Koine Greek by Jews. He learned Greek in order to become useful to his people, then under the Roman proconsuls, that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of Hebrew even in prayer. In spite of the bitter protests of Shimon bar Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek. Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the biblical maxim: "It is good that you should take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not your hand: for he that fears God shall come forth of them all".
Rector in Caesarea
Being wise, handsome, and wealthy, Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government. On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote to them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud, is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers.
After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, Abba of Acre, as worthier than himself. He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathise with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys. Later he assumed the office of rector in Caesarea, the former seat of Hoshaiah Rabbah, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue); from which some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. In Caesarea he originated several ritual rules, one of which (regulating the sounding of the shofar) has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by rishonim as "the Enactment of R. Abbahu".
He did not confine his activity to Caesarea, but also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns. On these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many halakhot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions. In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency. On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people. Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws created hardship for the common people, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community. As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. Once he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently heard that the Samaritans no longer strictly observed the dietary laws. With the assistance of his colleagues (Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi) he investigated the report and, ascertaining it to be well founded, ruled the Samaritans to be equivalent to Gentiles for all ritual purposes.
Abbahu and Hiyya bar Abba
Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Hiyya bar Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakhic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the peopole naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakhist. At this apparent slight, Hiyya manifested chagrin, and Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the peddler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. "What," said Abbahu, "is my modesty as compared with that of Abba of Acre, who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions." When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, Abbahu simply said, "What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?" His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, "Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar."
Later years
Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Hanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi. Abbahu sent Hanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he had studied, but the youth occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: "Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea that I have sent you off to Tiberias? Study must precede practice". Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said "even the statues of Caesarea shed tears".
Against the Christians
R. Abbahu, although eminent as a halakhist, was more distinguished as an aggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day. Sometimes these disputes were of a humorous nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, "In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible, 'With joy shall ye draw water.'" To this R. Abbahu replied, "Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as you say, but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of your skin and fill them with water". These controversies, although forced on him, provoked resentment, and it was even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi discovered the crime in time.
A Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu "When does your Messiah come?" in a tone of mockery. Abbahu replied: "When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon you and His glory shall be seen on you'." A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: "How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?" Abbahu replied: "Does it not say, 'The Lord comes with fire'? Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers 31:23." Another question of the same character: "Why the boastful claim, 'What nation on earth is like Your people Israel', since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?" Abbahu replied: "Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?"
Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilyonim (Gospels) and other books of the heretics (Minnin) are not to be saved from a fire on Shabbat: "the books of those [written by Minnin for the purpose of debating with Jews] at Abidan may or may not be saved." In regard to the line "Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) recited after the Shema, Abbahu says that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of silently tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice. Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: "A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord says, 'I am the Lord your God! I am the first - that is, I have no father; and I am the last - that is, I have no brother; and besides me there is no God - that is, I have no son'". His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: "God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent; if a man says: 'I am God,' he is a liar; if he says: 'I am a son of man,' he will have cause to regret it; and if he says, 'I will go up to heaven,' he has said [something] but will not keep his word".
Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam, on Enoch, and on the resurrection, are less clear and direct.
Other Abbahus
There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakhist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan, and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) bar Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many halakhot from him.
References
It has the following bibliography:
Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv. 304, 307–317;
Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, ii.161-164;
Frankel, Mebo, pp. 58a-60;
Weiss, Dor, iii. 103–105;
Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 88–142.
Category:3rd-century births
Category:4th-century deaths
Category:3rd-century rabbis
Category:4th-century rabbis
Category:3rd-century Romans
Category:4th-century Romans
Category:Talmud rabbis of Syria Palaestina
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbahu | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.382879 |
2673 | Abbreviator | An abbreviator (plural "abbreviators" in English, abbreviatores in Latin) or breviator was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out in extenso by the scriptores.
Roman lay origin
Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase.
The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the Digest and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.
Ecclesiastical abbreviatores
In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the "curial" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs "ae" and "oe", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The Abbreviatores were officials of the Roman Curia.
The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic—or Roman—Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, Praelectiones Jur. Can., 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of Abbreviatores necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the Dataria Apostolica and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of Abbreviatores.
According to Ciampini (Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc., Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name "abbreviatores", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (Extravag. Joan., Tit. 13, "Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.
Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 "In Apostolicae", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.
Institution of the College of Abbreviators
In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the "College of Abbreviators", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called "Abbreviators of the Upper Bar" (Abbreviatores de Parco Majori; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (Abbreviatores de Parco Minori); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.
Pope Paul II suppressed the college, but Pope Sixtus IV (Constitutio 16, "Divina") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency ("parco"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.
Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (Curia Romana, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the college consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called "Gallicum" and commonly "Bollatico", but in Italy "Teutonic", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his Constitutio Universae Eccles. of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.
Titles and privileges
Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as Comes palatinus ("Count Palatine"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (Militiae Aureae), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (Acta Pont. Greg. XVI, Vol. 3, 178–179–180).
Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, "Romani"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.
They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature in capella. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and cappa, as also rochet in capella. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.
These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.
As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as "Reverendissimus", "Right Reverend", and "Monsignor". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, "Maximo") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.
Suppression
Pope Pius X abrogated the college in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the protonotarii apostolici participantes.
References
Category:Catholic ecclesiastical titles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviator | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.388291 |
2674 | Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi | | image | alt
| caption | birth_name Muhammad ibn Yusuf
| birth_date = 1162
| birth_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| death_date = 9 November 1231 (aged 69)
| death_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| era = Islamic golden age <br> (Later Abbasid era)
| other_names = Muwaffaq al-Din Muhammad Abd al-Latif ibn Yusuf al-Baghdadi
| known_for =
| spouse | children
| parents = Yusuf al-Baghdadi
}}
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (; 1162, Baghdad – 1231, Baghdad), short for Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī (), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.
Biography
Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah's literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil's patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu'l-Qasim al-Shari'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.
In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207–1208, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala’-al-Din Da’ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). ‘Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.
Account of Egypt
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.
In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.ArcheologyʿAbd al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:
* "monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies";
* "they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur'an mentions them and their people";
* "they are reminders of human endurance and fate";
* "they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought".
While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.Egyptology
His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author's residence in Egypt. The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to ‘Abd al-Latif's detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism. He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.
Autopsy
Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw [mandible], coccyx and sacrum.TranslationAl-Baghdādī's Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.PhilosophyAs far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers’ ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author's acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the “golden age of Arabic philosophy” (Gutas, 20).AlchemyʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf's view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29–62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301–17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203–5; Stern, 66–7; Allemann).SpiritualismDuring the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid-1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221–9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8–9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story ‘Ghost Writer’, as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person.ReferencesBibliography
*Allemann, Franz, ʿAbdallaṭīf al-Baġdādī: Risālah fī Mudjādalat al-ḥakīmain al-kīmiyāʾī wan-naẓarī (“Das Streitgespräch zwischen dem Alchemisten und dem theoretischen Philosophen” or The Argument Between the Alchemist and the Theoretical Philosopher). Eine textkritische Bearbeitung der Handschrift: Bursa, Hüseyin Çelebi 823, fol. 100-123 mit Übersetzung und Kommentar, PhD dissertation Bern 1988.
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* Degen, Rainer, Zum Diabetestraktat des ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī, Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, 37 (N.S. 27) (1977), 455–62.
* Dietrich, Albert, Ein Arzneimittelverzeichnis des Abdallaṭīf Ibn Yūsuf al-Baġdādī, in: Wilhelm Hoenerbach, Der Orient in der Forschung. Festschrift für Otto Spies zum 5. April 1966 (Wiesbaden 1967), 42–60.
* Gannagé, Emma, “Médecine et philosophie à Damas à l’aube du XIIIème siècle: un tournant post-avicennien?”, Oriens, 39 (2011), 227–256.
* Gutas, Dimitri, 'Philosophy in the Twelfth Century: One View from Bagdad, or the Reputation of al-Ghazālī, in: Peter Adamson, In the Age of Averroes: Arabic Philosophy in the Sixth/Twelfth Century, London/Torino: Nino Aragno Editore, 2011, 9-26.
* Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa, ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-atibbāʾ, ed. Imruʾulqais ibn aṭ-Ṭaḥḥān (August Müller), 2 vols. (Cairo-Königsberg 1299/1882), 2: 201-13 [Reprint by Fuat Sezgin et al.: Islamic Medicine 1–2, 2 vols., Frankfurt am Main 1995]. The entry on ALB has been translated, annotated, and edited by N. Peter Joosse and Geert Jan van Gelder, in: A Literary History of medicine: The ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbāʾ of Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah, HdO 134, volume 3-1 [ed.]: 1295–1323; 3-2 [trl.]: 1470-1506 (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2019).
* Joosse, N. Peter, art. "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī" in: Encyclopaedia of Islam Three.
* Joosse, N. Peter, The Physician as a Rebellious Intellectual. The Book of the Two Pieces of Advice or Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162–1231): Introduction, Edition and Translation of the Medical Section (Frankfurt am Main and Bern: Peter Lang Edition 2014). [Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 18].
* Joosse, N. Peter, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī as a philosopher and a physician. Myth or reality, topos or truth?, in Peter Adamson, In the age of Averroes. Arabic philosophy in the sixth/twelfth century (Nino Aragno Editore: London/Torino 2011), 27-43.
* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘Pride and prejudice, praise and blame’. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī’s views on good and bad medical practitioners, in Arnoud Vrolijk and Jan P. Hogendijk, O ye gentlemen. Arabic studies on science and literary culture in honour of Remke Kruk (Brill: Leiden/Boston 2007), 129–41.
* Joosse, N. Peter, 'ʿUnmasking the Craftʾ. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's Views on Alchemy and Alchemists: in: Anna A. Akasoy and Wim Raven, Islamic Thought in the Middle Ages. Studies in Text, Transmission and Translation in Honour of Hans Daiber (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2008), 301–17.
* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘De geest is uit de fles’. De middeleeuwse Arabische arts ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī: zijn medische werk en zijn bizarre affiliatie met het twintigste-eeuwse spiritisme, Gewina 30/4 (2007), 211–29.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, 'Decline and Decadence in Iraq and Syria after the Age of Avicenna?: ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162–1231) between Myth and History, in: Bulletin of the History of Medicine 84 (2010), 1-29.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's commentary on Hippocrates’ ‘Prognostic’. A preliminary exploration, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.), >Epidemics< in context. Greek commentaries on Hippocrates in the Arabic tradition (De Gruyter: Berlin and Boston 2012), 251–83.
* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, Archery, mathematics, and conceptualising inaccuracies in medicine in 13th century Iraq and Syria, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101 (2008), 425–7.
*
* Karimullah, Kamran I., « Assessing Avicenna's (d. 428/1037) Medical Influence in Prolegomena to Post-Classical (1100‒1900 CE) Medical Commentaries », MIDÉO, 32 ( 2017), 93-134 (especially section I on ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī).
* Kruk, Remke, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's Kitāb al-Ḥayawān: A chimaera?, in: Anna A. Akasoy and Wim Raven, Islamic thought in the middle ages. Studies in text, transmission and translation, in honour of Hans Daiber (Leiden and Boston 2008), 345–62.
* Mackintosh-Smith, Tim, 'Ghost Writer', as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, (Slightly foxed Ltd: London, 2005).
* Martini Bonadeo, Cecilia, art. "‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi", in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2015 Edition), in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2015/entries/al-baghdadi/>.
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* Pormann, Peter E. and N. Peter Joosse, Commentaries on the Hippocratic Aphorisms in the Arabic tradition: The example of melancholy, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.), >Epidemics< in context. Greek commentaries on Hippocrates in the Arabic tradition (De Gruyter: Berlin and Boston 2012), 211–49.
* Pormann, Peter E. and Emilie Savage-Smith, Medieval Islamic medicine (Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh 2007), 60, 73–4.
*
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* Stern, Samuel Miklos, A collection of treatises by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī, Islamic Studies 1 (1962), 53–70. [Reprint, in Fritz W. Zimmermann (ed.), S.M. Stern, Medieval Arabic and Hebrew thought (London 1983), No. XVIII].
* Thies, Hans-Jürgen, ''Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitbildes in der arabischen Medizin'', Diss. Bonn, Selbstverlag Uni Bonn, 1971.
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* Toorawa, Shawkat M., A portrait of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's education and instruction, in Joseph E. Lowry, Devin J. Stewart and Shawkat M. Toorawa, Law and education in medieval Islam. Studies in memory of professor George Makdisi (Oxford 2004), 91–109.
* Ullmann, Manfred, Die Medizin im Islam (Brill: Leiden/Köln 1970), 170–2.
* Ullmann, Manfred, review of Hans-Jürgen Thies, Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitsbildes in der arabischen Medizin, (Selbstverlag Uni Bonn: Bonn 1971), Der Islam 48 (1972), 339–40.
* Zand, K.H. and J.A. and I.E. Videan, Kitāb al-Ifāda wa l-iʿtibār fī l-umūr al-mushāhada wa l-ḥawādith al-muʿāyana bi-arḍ miṣr. Facsimile edition of the autograph manuscript at the Bodleian Library, Oxford and English translation by Kamal Hafuth Zand and John A. and Ivy E. Videan under the name The Eastern Key (London and Cairo 1204/1964).
External links
Category:1162 births
Category:1231 deaths
Category:Writers from Baghdad
Category:12th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Physicians from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Egyptologists
Category:13th-century physicians
Category:Travel writers of the medieval Islamic world
Category:13th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:12th-century jurists
Category:13th-century jurists
Category:12th-century Arab people
Category:13th-century Arab people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.397568 |
2676 | Abd al-Rahman I | | title = Emir
| image_size = 275
| image = Dirham abd al rahman i 21816.jpg
| caption = Dirham coin of Abd al-Rahman I
| predecessor = Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri (as governor of al-Andalus)
| succession = 1st Emir of Córdoba
| reign = 14 May 756 – 30 September 788
| coronation | predecessor1
| successor1 = Hisham I
| spouse = Several; including Hulal
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = Sulayman<br>Omar<br>Hisham I<br>Abdullah
| house = Umayyad
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Mu'awiya ibn Hisham
| mother = Raha
| birth_date = 7 March 731
| birth_place = Damascus, Syria Umayyad Caliphate
| death_date = 30 September 788 (aged 57)
| death_place = Qurtuba, Al-Andalus, Emirate of Cordoba (present-day Spain)
| place of burial | signature
| religion = Sunni Islam
}}
'''Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham (; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known as Abd al-Rahman I', was the founder and first emir of the Emirate of Córdoba, ruling from 756 to 788. He established the Umayyad dynasty in al-Andalus, which continued for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba).
Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus in 750. He was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"), Saqr Quraysh'' ("the Falcon of Quraysh").BiographyEarly life and flight from DamascusAbd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra, near Damascus in the heartland of the Umayyad Caliphate, the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Rah, a Berber woman from the Nafza tribe, and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743. According to ibn Idari he was ""tall, blonde, one-eyed, beardless, with a mole in the face, he carried two earlocks". He was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.
Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back. The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come to me!" Yahya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut off his head and left his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards.
In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another member of the Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly of south Arabian or "Yemeni" tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun, drawn from the junds or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.
Among the Syrian junds were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500,
Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however, his landing site was unconfirmed.
Fight for power
]]
Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry. Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him—people who would have liked to see him back in power.
Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering 20,000. It is doubtful, however, that his troops were "regular" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge. With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus. However, in order to take over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Still, most of central and northern al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).RuleIt is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph. There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up the title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. One of these kinsmen, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 to drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in medieval Islam), and became one of his top generals and his governor in Seville.
By 763 Abd al-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army. Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger. The gate lifted and Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph, who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing a sea between us!" Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (the Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe).
Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.
Problems in the Upper March
Zaragoza proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd al-Rahman, but his successors as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. "[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] in Cordoba...." Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland). Charlemagne was also attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.
from the Grandes Chroniques de France, A romanticization of Battle of Roncevaux Pass.]]
Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's governorship. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines. Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence.
Legacy and death
Construction works
hall, with its distinctive two-tiered arches, inside the Great Mosque of Córdoba, begun by Abd al Rahman I in 785–786.]]
Abd al-Rahman did much work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure. He also built the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day cathedral of Córdoba), which took place from 785 to 786 (169 AH) to 786–787 (170 AH). It was expanded multiple times by his successors up to the 10th century.
Social dynamics
Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers under his command was nearly 40,000.
As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the jizya. Possibly because of tribute taxes, "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim". However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century.
Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction among the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza, married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility.
Death
Abd al-Rahman died c. 788 in Córdoba, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III.
Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards. His legacy started a new chapter for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating in the new Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by his descendants.Family
Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry. Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of the Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750.
Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal. She is said to have been very beautiful and was the mother of Hisham. Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:
* Sulayman (745–800), Governor of Toledo. Exiled after he refused to accept his brother Hisham's rule. Returned to challenge his nephew in 796, captured and executed in 800.
* Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed by Fruela I of Asturias.
* Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796), Emir of Cordoba.
* Abdallah
Legends
In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but he was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.
According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of "Falcon of the Quraysh" (Saqr Quraish, foremost of the Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful!", but the Caliph denied this. Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no. They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied:
See also
* Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
* Abbasid Revolution
* al-Andalus
* Caliphate of Córdoba
* Abd al-Malik ibn Umar
* Sara al-Qutiyya
Further reading
* Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)
* Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)
References
Bibliography
* External links*
Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:731 births
Category:788 deaths
Category:8th-century Arab people
Category:8th-century monarchs in Europe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.409733 |
2677 | Abd ar-Rahman II | | death_place = Córdoba, Emirate of Córdoba
| issue = Muhammad I of Córdoba
| house = Umayyad
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = al-Hakam I
| mother = Halawah
| image_size =
}}
Abd ar-Rahman II (; 792–852) was the fourth Umayyad Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called "massacre of the ditch", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids. Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.
, Spain]]Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. He was also involved in the execution of the "Martyrs of Córdoba", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba.References
Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:792 births
Category:852 deaths
Category:People from Toledo, Spain
Category:9th-century monarchs in Europe
Category:8th-century Arab people
Category:9th-century Arab people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.416054 |
2678 | Abd al-Rahman III | | image = Dirham abd al rahman iii 20386.jpg
| image_size = 255px
| caption = Silver dirham of Abd al-Rahman III, minted in 946 AD
| succession1 = 8th Emir of Córdoba
| reign1 = 16 October 91217 January 929
| coronation1 17 October 912 (aged )
| cor-type1 = Bay'ah
| predecessor1 = Abdullah
| succession = 1st Caliph of Córdoba
| reign = 17 January 92915 October 961
| coronation 17 January 929 (aged )
| cor-type = Proclamation
| successor = Al-Hakam II
| spouse Fatima bint Al-Mundhir<br />
Marjan or Murjan
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue Sons in order of birth according to Ibn Hazm: ()<br />Laqab: Al-Nasir li-Din Allah
| house = Umayyad; Marwanid (Andalusian) Branch
| father = Muhammad ibn Abdullah
| mother Muzna (originally Maria?)
| death_date
| signature | religion Sunni Islam<br> (Maliki school)
}}
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil (; 890–961), or simply ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, was the Umayyad Emir of Córdoba from 912 to 929, at which point he founded the Caliphate of Córdoba, serving as its first caliph until his death. Abd al-Rahman won the laqab (sobriquet) () in his early 20s when he supported the Maghrawa Berbers in North Africa against Fatimid expansion and later claimed the title of Caliph for himself. His half-century reign was known for its religious tolerance.LifeEarly yearsLineage and appearanceAbd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December 890. His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891. He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine. His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infanta Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black." He had reddish-blond hair, which he reportedly dyed black to appear more "Arab".Harem youthMuhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as al-Sayyida ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour. It was claimed that he had learned and known the local Mozarabic language.Accession to throne
Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.
Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912.}}
Early rule
During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre. The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.
]]
He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.
In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the Kūras (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.
During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (hasam) under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun.The Levente and Algarve rebelsThe continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. and silver dirhams, replacing the "al-Andalus" title with his name.
In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931)
In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.
War with the Christian kingdoms of the north
Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.
Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz.
The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid.
In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.
Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman, This likely influenced the polemical story of his sexual attraction for a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. This story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.
Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.
Legacy
Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings. European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor.
|6|7
|88. Muhammad I, Emir of Córdoba
|1010. Fortún Garcés, King of Pamplona<ref name"Salas Merino"/>
|1111. Oria<ref name"Salas Merino"/>
|12|13
|14|15
}}
Notes and references
Bibliography
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|-
Category:9th-century births
Category:961 deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:10th-century caliphs of Córdoba
Category:10th-century Arab people
Category:Emirs of Córdoba
Category:Pardon recipients
Category:Patrons of the arts
Category:People from Córdoba, Spain
Category:Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba
Category:Spanish humanists
Category:Spanish people of Basque descent
Category:City founders | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.432449 |
2679 | Abd al-Rahman IV | | image | succession Caliph of Córdoba
| birth_date = 1000s
| birth_place = Caliphate of Córdoba
| death_date = c. 1018
| death_place = Cádiz, Caliphate of Córdoba
| father = Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Abd al-Rahman III
| mother | reign 1018
| predecessor = Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir
| successor = Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun
| dynasty = Umayyad
| religion = Sunni Islam
}}
Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik (), commonly known as Abd al-Rahman IV, was the Caliph of the Umayyad state of Córdoba in Al-Andalus, succeeding Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of Abd al-Rahman V
References
|-
Category:Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba
Category:1018 deaths
Category:11th-century caliphs of Córdoba
Category:Year of birth unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_IV | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.435002 |
2680 | Abd al-Rahman V | |death_place= Cordoba
|father= Hisham bin Abd al-Jabbar bin Abd ar-Rahman III
|mother= Ghaia
|reign= 1023 – 1024
|predecessor= al-Qasim al-Ma'mun
|successor= Muhammad III
|dynasty= Umayyad
}}
Abd ar-Rahman V () was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.
During the decline of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, Abd-ar-Rahman IV Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-Rahman V Mostadir (1023–1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. References
<references />
Category:1001 births
Category:1024 deaths
Category:Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba
Category:11th-century caliphs of Córdoba | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_V | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.436981 |
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