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2861 | Advertising | List of QI episodes|information about advertising on Wikipedia|:Wikipedia:Advertising|and|selfref=yes}}
laundry soap]]
Advertising is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a product or service. Advertising aims to present a product or service in terms of utility, advantages, and qualities of interest to consumers. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are a wide range of uses, the most common being commercial advertisement.
Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding", which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct-response advertising. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and governmental agencies. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement. Advertising may also help to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful.
In the 19th century, soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Thomas J. Barratt was hired by Pears to be its brand manager—the first of its kind—and in addition to creating slogans and images, he recruited West End stage actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.
Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated billion|linkyes}}. Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on magazines, 5.8% on outdoor, and 4.3% on radio. Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") advertising agency groups are Omnicom, WPP, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu.
In Latin, advertere means "to turn towards".
History
, Song dynasty China. It is the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.]]
LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan]]
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.
In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.
In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. 18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising
created under Thomas J. Barratt's leadership, 1900. Victoria and Albert Museum, London]]
In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.
In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name.
: Worth a guinea a box", the first advertising slogan from August 1859]]
In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm Beechams created a slogan for Beecham's Pills: "Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan. The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from St Helens, Lancashire, the founder's hometown.
In June 1836, the French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession.
Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers.<!-- INSERT ADVERTISING AGENCIES' ROLES AFTER THEY OUTGREW BEING LIMITED TO BEING BROKERS for ADVERTISEMENT SPACE IN NEWSPAPERS --> Thomas J. Barratt of London has been called "the father of modern advertising". Working for the Pears soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century. In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.
advertisement from the 1890s]]
Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the Guinness Book of Records, Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste." Thanks to the revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century biscuits and chocolate became products for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish grocery products. One the world's first global brands, Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172 countries in 1900, and their global reach was reflected in their advertisements.
's depiction of the interior of a late 19th century omnibus conspicuously shows the advertisements placed overhead.]]
20th century
shows a rise in audio-visual and digital advertising at the expense of print media.]]
advertisement about a cruise between Tallinn and Helsinki in the 1930s]]
'']]
As a result of massive industrialization, advertising increased dramatically in the United States. In 1919 it was 2.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the US, and it averaged 2.2 percent of GDP between then and at least 2007, though it may have declined dramatically since the Great Recession.
Industry could not benefit from its increased productivity without a substantial increase in consumer spending. This contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale. In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "sublimated" into the desire to purchase commodities. Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, became associated with the method and is sometimes called the founder of modern advertising and public relations. Bernays claimed that:In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "Sex sells" became a controversial issue, with techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality.
In the 1920s, under Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the American government promoted advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925 called 'Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life." In October 1929, the head of the U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity." This was part of the "unparalleled" collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according to a 1933 European economic journal.
The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes. The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking. An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.
of the J. Walter Thompson Agency]]
At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you love to touch".
In the 1920s, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal, but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible". He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer.
Radio from the 1920s
on May 6, 1930]]
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers, followed by non-profit organizations such as schools, clubs, and civic groups who also set up their own stations. Retailers and consumer goods manufacturers quickly recognized radio's potential to reach consumers in their homes and soon adopted advertising techniques that would allow their messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s.
The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to consumers. This was a major paradigm shift that forced manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption, and usage behavior; their needs, wants, and aspirations. The earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a soap opera. Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations, which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.
By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing personal relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the 20th century.
Commercial television in the 1950s
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame. Cable television from the 1980s The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.
Internet from the 1990s
With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google, changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising. Online advertising introduced new opportunities for targeting and engagement, with platforms like Google and Facebook leading the charge. This shift has significantly altered the advertising landscape, making digital advertising a dominant force in the industry.
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since 1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent.
Guerrilla marketing involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various campaigns utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter.
The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years. In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares.
Domain name registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes "park" their domains and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to identify through WHOIS records that are publicly available at registrar websites.
Classification
]]
.]]
in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular media for advertisers.]]
]]
with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station]]
bus with an advertisement on its side]]
displaying advertising for GEO magazine]]
, London in 1877]]
Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose. For example, in print advertising, classification by style can include display advertising (ads with design elements sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response advertising). The term above the line (ATL) is used for advertising involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and promotion are referred to as below the line (BTL). The two terms date back to 1954 when Procter & Gamble began paying their advertising agencies differently from other promotional agencies. In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a new term, through the line (TTL) began to come into use, referring to integrated advertising campaigns.
Traditional media
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Share of global adspend
|-
! Medium !! 2015 !! 2017
|-
| Television advertisement || 37.7% || 34.8%
|-
| Desktop online advertising || 19.9% || 18.2%
|-
| Mobile advertising || 9.2% || 18.4%
|-
| Newspaper || 12.8% || 10.1%
|-
| Magazines || 6.5% || 5.3%
|-
| Outdoor advertising || 6.8% || 6.6%
|-
| Radio advertisement || 6.5% || 5.9%
|-
| Cinema || 0.6% || 0.7%
|}
;Television: Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial airtime during popular events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television – with an audience of over 108 million and studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to see the advertisements. During the 2014 edition of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4 million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second spot. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience. Virtual billboards may be inserted into the background where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. Virtual product placement is also possible. An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The name blends the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the target sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe and often demonstrate products, and commonly have testimonials from customers and industry professionals.
;Radio: Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.
;Online: Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam. A newer form of online advertising is Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive.
;Domain names: Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click web search engines, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead. Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of Google's early acquisitions.
;Product placements: is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.
;Print: Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper. Sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.
;Novelties: Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers.
;Celebrity endorsements: Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, and popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana. Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota.
;Aerial: Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.
aircraft in the special Blue Man Group livery]]
(D-LZFN) of Friedrichshafen used for advertisement]]
New media approaches
A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting. Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast.
Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.
Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users since 1978. As new online communication channels became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.
In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. The display is not only used for generating awareness, it is used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.
As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" "photocopier", "Kleenex" tissue, "Vaseline" petroleum jelly, "Hoover" vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" adhesive bandage). However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a generic trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.
Early in its life, The CW aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota.
A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology.
Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (propaganda).
Rise in new media
thumb|upright=1.3|
US newspaper advertising revenue, Newspaper Association of America published data
With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up, Flash, banner, pop-under, advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% respectively, while older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers). Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their print advertising revenue. Niche marketing Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the long tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.
Niche marketing could also be helped by bringing the issue of color into advertisements. Different colors play major roles when it comes to marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos.
Google AdSense is an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors.
Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own Doritos commercials. Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. Another example of companies using crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company Jones Soda that encourages consumers to participate in the label design themselves.
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourcing remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear. Globalization
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximizing local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.
Foreign public messaging
Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. Diversification In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more". This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".
New technology
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from these sets.
To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected program guidess (EPGs), advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating mobile apps for TV programs. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship.
The emerging technology of drone displays has recently been used for advertising purposes. Education In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.
Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies. Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish companies with students to create these campaigns. Purposes Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers.
Sales promotions and brand loyalty
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.
Criticisms
for Camel cigarettes in the 1940s]]
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation. This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to specific audiences can result in negative backlash for advertisers. In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative cultural portrayals. A 2021 study found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment. Unsolicited ads have been criticized as attention theft.
One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable. Michelle Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more in line with dietary guidelines. The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern. Political advertisement and their regulations have been scrutinized for misinformation, ethics and political bias.
Regulation
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.
The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation. Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising, such as the display of billboards, are regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. The display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense. In the US, where some communities believe that outdoor advertising are a blight on landscapes, attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside occurred in the 1960s, leading to the Highway Beautification Act. Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban, with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English.
The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction. In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front. In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them. Theory Hierarchy-of-effects models
Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice.
* The model of Clow and Baack clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase:
*# Awareness
*# Knowledge
*# Liking
*# Preference
*# Conviction
*# Purchase
* Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.
* Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values. Marketing mix
The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.
In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's. There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience)
and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, and MIS. Research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns.
Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals.
Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.
Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.
Semiotics
Meanings between consumers and marketers depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects. Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example) advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product. These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or consumer. The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept. A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line.
Apple's commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.
The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.
There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective. Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design. Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.
Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94% having been reported. There have been more female voiceovers in recent years, but mainly for food, household products, and feminine-care products.
Gender effects on comprehension
According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising. According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team found that advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to women aims at transformation toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article "The Objectification of Women in Advertising" he discusses the negative impact that these women in advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life. Advertising's manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on stage, within music videos and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of female reality and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of women and young girls negatively affect their views about their bodies and appearances. These advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized. There are some companies like Dove and aerie<!--- no caps as stylized ---> that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less post production manipulation, so more women and young girls are able to relate to them.
More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state. Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don't just Break Stereotypes—They're also Effective" discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first Barbie commercial, where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.AlternativesOther approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions, microtransactions, and data monetization. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using advertisements at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopedia Wikipedia provides free content by receiving funding from charitable donations. "Fathers" of advertising * Late 1700s – Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) – "father of advertising in America"
* Late 1800s – Thomas J. Barratt (1841–1914) of London – called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates
* Early 1900s – J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe Jr of Philadelphia – "world's best known slogan writer"Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice
* N. W. Ayer & Son – probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in a promotional campaign
* Claude C. Hopkins (1866–1932) – popularised the use of test campaigns, especially coupons in direct mail, to track the efficiency of marketing spend
* Ernest Dichter (1907–1991) – developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising
* E. St. Elmo Lewis (1872–1948) – developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and advertising
* Arthur Nielsen (1897–1980) – founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and developed ratings for radio & TV
* David Ogilvy (1911–1999) – pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image in advertising
* Charles Coolidge Parlin (1872–1942) – regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing research in advertising
* Rosser Reeves (1910–1984) – developed the concept of the unique selling proposition (USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising
* Al Ries (1926–2022) – advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the late 1960s
* Daniel Starch (1883–1979) – developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness (still in use)
* J Walter Thompson – one of the earliest advertising agencies
See also
* Advertisements in schools
* Advertorial
* Annoyance factor
* Bibliography of advertising
* Branded content
* Commercial speech
* Comparative advertising
* Conquesting
* Copywriting
* Demo mode
* Direct-to-consumer advertising
* Family in advertising
* Graphic design
* Gross rating point
* History of Advertising Trust
* Informative advertising
* Integrated marketing communications
* List of advertising awards
* Local advertising
* Market overhang
* Media planning
* Meta-advertising
* Mobile marketing
* Performance-based advertising
* Promotional mix
* Senior media creative
* Shock advertising
* Viral marketing
* World Federation of Advertisers
References
Notes
Further reading
* Arens, William, and Michael Weigold. Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing Communications (2012)
* Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective (10th ed. 2014)
* Biocca, Frank. Television and Political Advertising: Volume I: Psychological Processes (Routledge, 2013)
* Chandra, Ambarish, and Ulrich Kaiser. "Targeted advertising in magazine markets and the advent of the internet." Management Science 60.7 (2014) pp: 1829–1843.
* Chen, Yongmin, and Chuan He. "Paid placement: Advertising and search on the internet*." The Economic Journal 121#556 (2011): F309–F328. [http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf online]
* Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary Copeland. Negative political advertising: Coming of age (2013)
* McAllister, Matthew P. and Emily West, eds. HardcoverThe Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture (2013)
* McFall, Elizabeth Rose Advertising: a cultural economy (2004), cultural and sociological approaches to advertising
* Moriarty, Sandra, and Nancy Mitchell. Advertising & IMC: Principles and Practice (10th ed. 2014)
* Okorie, Nelson. The Principles of Advertising: concepts and trends in advertising (2011)
* Reichert, Tom, and Jacqueline Lambiase, eds. Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic appeal (Routledge, 2014)
* Sheehan, Kim Bartel. Controversies in contemporary advertising (Sage Publications, 2013)
* Vestergaard, Torben and Schrøder, Kim. The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985.
** Splendora, Anthony. "Discourse", a Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, The Language of Advertising in Language in Society Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec. 1986), pp. 445–449
History
* Brandt, Allan. [https://books.google.com/books?idyybaN6j4IpEC&pgPA31 The Cigarette Century (2009)]
* Crawford, Robert. ''But Wait, There's More!: A History of Australian Advertising, 1900–2000 (2008)
* Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
* Fox, Stephen R. The mirror makers: A history of American advertising and its creators (University of Illinois Press, 1984)
* Friedman, Walter A. Birth of a Salesman (Harvard University Press, 2005), In the United States
* Jacobson, Lisa. Raising consumers: Children and the American mass market in the early twentieth century (Columbia University Press, 2013)
* Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Packaging the presidency: A history and criticism of presidential campaign advertising (Oxford University Press, 1996)
* Laird, Pamela Walker. Advertising progress: American business and the rise of consumer marketing (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.)
* Lears, Jackson. Fables of abundance: A cultural history of advertising in America (1995)
* Liguori, Maria Chiara. "North and South: Advertising Prosperity in the Italian Economic Boom Years." Advertising & Society Review (2015) 15#4
* Meyers, Cynthia B. A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio (2014)
* Mazzarella, William. Shoveling smoke: Advertising and globalization in contemporary India (Duke University Press, 2003)
* Moriarty, Sandra, et al. Advertising: Principles and practice (Pearson Australia, 2014), Australian perspectives
* Nevett, Terence R. Advertising in Britain: a history (1982)
* Oram, Hugh. The advertising book: The history of advertising in Ireland (MOL Books, 1986)
* Presbrey, Frank. "The history and development of advertising." Advertising & Society Review (2000) 1#1 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asr/v001/1.1presbrey.html online]
* Saunders, Thomas J. "Selling under the Swastika: Advertising and Commercial Culture in Nazi Germany." German History (2014): ghu058.
* Short, John Phillip. "Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany." Enterprise and Society (2014): khu013.
* Sivulka, Juliann. Soap, sex, and cigarettes: A cultural history of American advertising (Cengage Learning, 2011)
* Spring, Dawn. "The Globalization of American Advertising and Brand Management: A Brief History of the J. Walter Thompson Company, Proctor and Gamble, and US Foreign Policy." Global Studies Journal (2013). 5#4
* Stephenson, Harry Edward, and Carlton McNaught. The Story of Advertising in Canada: A Chronicle of Fifty Years (Ryerson Press, 1940)
* Tungate, Mark. Adland: a global history of advertising (Kogan Page Publishers, 2007.)
* West, Darrell M. Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns, 1952–2012 (Sage, 2013)
External links
* [http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University]
** Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess/ Ad*Access], over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda.
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa/ Emergence of Advertising in America], 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adviews/ AdViews], vintage television commercials
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/outdooradvertising/ ROAD 2.0], 30,000 outdoor advertising images
*** [http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/mma/ Medicine & Madison Avenue], documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products
* Art & Copy'', a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Communication design
Category:Promotion and marketing communications
Category:Business models | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.800709 |
2862 | AI-complete | In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), tasks that are hypothesized to require artificial general intelligence to solve are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard. Calling a problem AI-complete reflects the belief that it cannot be solved by a simple specific algorithm.
In the past, problems supposed to be AI-complete included computer vision, natural language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real-world problem. AI-complete tasks were notably considered useful for testing the presence of humans, as CAPTCHAs aim to do, and in computer security to circumvent brute-force attacks.HistoryThe term was coined by Fanya Montalvo by analogy with NP-complete and NP-hard in complexity theory, which formally describes the most famous class of difficult problems. Early uses of the term are in Erik Mueller's 1987 PhD dissertation and in Eric Raymond's 1991 Jargon File.
Expert systems, that were popular in the 1980s, were able to solve very simple and/or restricted versions of AI-complete problems, but never in their full generality. When AI researchers attempted to "scale up" their systems to handle more complicated, real-world situations, the programs tended to become excessively brittle without commonsense knowledge or a rudimentary understanding of the situation: they would fail as unexpected circumstances outside of its original problem context would begin to appear. When human beings are dealing with new situations in the world, they are helped by their awareness of the general context: they know what the things around them are, why they are there, what they are likely to do and so on. They can recognize unusual situations and adjust accordingly. Expert systems lacked this adaptability and were brittle when facing new situations.
DeepMind published a work in May 2022 in which they trained a single model to do several things at the same time. The model, named Gato, can "play Atari, caption images, chat, stack blocks with a real robot arm and much more, deciding based on its context whether to output text, joint torques, button presses, or other tokens." Similarly, some tasks once considered to be AI-complete, like machine translation, are among the capabilities of large language models.
AI-complete problems
AI-complete problems have been hypothesized to include:
* AI peer review (composite natural language understanding, automated reasoning, automated theorem proving, formalized logic expert system)
* Bongard problems
* Computer vision (and subproblems such as object recognition)
* Natural language understanding (and subproblems such as text mining, machine translation, and word-sense disambiguation)
* Autonomous driving
* Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem, whether navigation, planning, or even the kind of reasoning done by expert systems.FormalizationComputational complexity theory deals with the relative computational difficulty of computable functions. By definition, it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterized formally. Since many AI problems have no formalization yet, conventional complexity theory does not enable a formal definition of AI-completeness.ResearchRoman Yampolskiy
suggests that a problem <math>C</math> is AI-Complete if it has two properties:
* It is in the set of AI problems (Human Oracle-solvable).
* Any AI problem can be converted into <math>C</math> by some polynomial time algorithm.
On the other hand, a problem <math>H</math> is AI-Hard if and only if there is an AI-Complete problem <math>C</math> that is polynomial time Turing-reducible to <math>H</math>. This also gives as a consequence the existence of AI-Easy problems, that are solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine with an oracle for some problem.
Yampolskiy has also hypothesized that the Turing Test is a defining feature of AI-completeness.
Groppe and Jain classify problems which require artificial general intelligence to reach human-level machine performance as AI-complete, while only restricted versions of AI-complete problems can be solved by the current AI systems. For Šekrst, solving AI-complete problems would have strong repercussions on society.
See also
* ASR-complete
* List of unsolved problems in computer science
* Synthetic intelligence
References
<references/>
Category:Artificial intelligence
Category:Computational problems | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-complete | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.815972 |
2864 | Archaeoastronomy | thumb|The rising Sun illuminates the inner chamber of Newgrange, Ireland, only at the winter solstice.
Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.
thumb|The sunset at the equinox seen from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily
Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture. Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements.
Archaeoastronomy can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs. It is perhaps the need to balance the social and scientific aspects of archaeoastronomy which led Clive Ruggles to describe it as "a field with academic work of high quality at one end but uncontrolled speculation bordering on lunacy at the other".
History
Two hundred years before John Michell wrote the above, there were no archaeoastronomers and there were no professional archaeologists, but there were astronomers and antiquarians. Some of their works are considered precursors of archaeoastronomy; antiquarians interpreted the astronomical orientation of the ruins that dotted the English countryside as William Stukeley did of Stonehenge in 1740, while John Aubrey in 1678 and Henry Chauncy in 1700 sought similar astronomical principles underlying the orientation of churches. Late in the nineteenth century astronomers such as Richard Proctor and Charles Piazzi Smyth investigated the astronomical orientations of the pyramids.
The term archaeoastronomy was advanced by Elizabeth Chesley Baity (following the suggestion of Euan MacKie) in 1973, but as a topic of study it may be much older, depending on how archaeoastronomy is defined. Clive Ruggles says that Heinrich Nissen, working in the mid-nineteenth century was arguably the first archaeoastronomer. Rolf Sinclair says that Norman Lockyer, working in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, could be called the 'father of archaeoastronomy'. Euan MacKie would place the origin even later, stating: "...the genesis and modern flowering of archaeoastronomy must surely lie in the work of Alexander Thom in Britain between the 1930s and the 1970s".
left|thumb|Early archaeoastronomers surveyed Megalithic constructs in the British Isles, at sites like Auglish in County Londonderry, in an attempt to find statistical patterns.
In the 1960s the work of the engineer Alexander Thom and that of the astronomer Gerald Hawkins, who proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer, inspired new interest in the astronomical features of ancient sites. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed, but this was not the case for Alexander Thom's work, whose survey results of megalithic sites hypothesized widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. Euan MacKie, recognizing that Thom's theories needed to be tested, excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter's prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom's long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom's geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom's conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain. In contrast a re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork by Clive Ruggles argued that Thom's claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless, Thom's legacy remains strong, Edwin C. Krupp wrote in 1979, "Almost singlehandedly he has established the standards for archaeo-astronomical fieldwork and interpretation, and his amazing results have stirred controversy during the last three decades." His influence endures and practice of statistical testing of data remains one of the methods of archaeoastronomy.
alt=|left|thumb|It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments.
The approach in the New World, where anthropologists began to consider more fully the role of astronomy in Amerindian civilizations, was markedly different. They had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies and the historical records of the early colonizers. Following the pioneering example of Anthony Aveni, this allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy that were comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe.
This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Oxford in 1981. The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless, the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today, rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies, archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky.
Relations to other disciplines
Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures. As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes), history of astronomy (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies).
Reflecting Archaeoastronomy's development as an interdisciplinary subject, research in the field is conducted by investigators trained in a wide range of disciplines. Authors of recent doctoral dissertations have described their work as concerned with the fields of archaeology and cultural anthropology; with various fields of history including the history of specific regions and periods, the history of science and the history of religion; and with the relation of astronomy to art, literature and religion. Only rarely did they describe their work as astronomical, and then only as a secondary category.
Both practicing archaeoastronomers and observers of the discipline approach it from different perspectives. Other researchers relate archaeoastronomy to the history of science, either as it relates to a culture's observations of nature and the conceptual framework they devised to impose an order on those observations or as it relates to the political motives which drove particular historical actors to deploy certain astronomical concepts or techniques. Art historian Richard Poss took a more flexible approach, maintaining that the astronomical rock art of the North American Southwest should be read employing "the hermeneutic traditions of western art history and art criticism" Astronomers, however, raise different questions, seeking to provide their students with identifiable precursors of their discipline, and are especially concerned with the important question of how to confirm that specific sites are, indeed, intentionally astronomical.
The reactions of professional archaeologists to archaeoastronomy have been decidedly mixed. Some expressed incomprehension or even hostility, varying from a rejection by the archaeological mainstream of what they saw as an archaeoastronomical fringe to an incomprehension between the cultural focus of archaeologists and the quantitative focus of early archaeoastronomers. Yet archaeologists have increasingly come to incorporate many of the insights from archaeoastronomy into archaeology textbooks and, as mentioned above, some students wrote archaeology dissertations on archaeoastronomical topics.
Since archaeoastronomers disagree so widely on the characterization of the discipline, they even dispute its name. All three major international scholarly associations relate archaeoastronomy to the study of culture, using the term Astronomy in Culture or a translation. Michael Hoskin sees an important part of the discipline as fact-collecting, rather than theorizing, and proposed to label this aspect of the discipline Archaeotopography. Ruggles and Saunders proposed Cultural Astronomy as a unifying term for the various methods of studying folk astronomies. Others have argued that astronomy is an inaccurate term, what are being studied are cosmologies and people who object to the use of logos have suggested adopting the Spanish cosmovisión.
When debates polarise between techniques, the methods are often referred to by a colour code, based on the colours of the bindings of the two volumes from the first Oxford Conference, where the approaches were first distinguished. Green (Old World) archaeoastronomers rely heavily on statistics and are sometimes accused of missing the cultural context of what is a social practice. Brown (New World) archaeoastronomers in contrast have abundant ethnographic and historical evidence and have been described as 'cavalier' on matters of measurement and statistical analysis. Finding a way to integrate various approaches has been a subject of much discussion since the early 1990s.
Methodology
There is no one way to do archaeoastronomy. The divisions between archaeoastronomers tend not to be between the physical scientists and the social scientists. Instead, it tends to depend on the location and/or kind of data available to the researcher. In the Old World, there is little data but the sites themselves; in the New World, the sites were supplemented by ethnographic and historic data. The effects of the isolated development of archaeoastronomy in different places can still often be seen in research today. Research methods can be classified as falling into one of two approaches, though more recent projects often use techniques from both categories.
Green archaeoastronomy
Green archaeoastronomy is named after the cover of the book Archaeoastronomy in the Old World. It is based primarily on statistics and is particularly apt for prehistoric sites where the social evidence is relatively scant compared to the historic period. The basic methods were developed by Alexander Thom during his extensive surveys of British megalithic sites.
Thom wished to examine whether or not prehistoric peoples used high-accuracy astronomy. He believed that by using horizon astronomy, observers could make estimates of dates in the year to a specific day. The observation required finding a place where on a specific date the Sun set into a notch on the horizon. A common theme is a mountain that blocked the Sun, but on the right day would allow the tiniest fraction to re-emerge on the other side for a 'double sunset'. The animation below shows two sunsets at a hypothetical site, one the day before the summer solstice and one at the summer solstice, which has a double sunset.
To test this idea he surveyed hundreds of stone rows and circles. Any individual alignment could indicate a direction by chance, but he planned to show that together the distribution of alignments was non-random, showing that there was an astronomical intent to the orientation of at least some of the alignments. His results indicated the existence of eight, sixteen, or perhaps even thirty-two approximately equal divisions of the year. The two solstices, the two equinoxes and four cross-quarter days, days halfway between a solstice and the equinox were associated with the medieval Celtic calendar. While not all these conclusions have been accepted, it has had an enduring influence on archaeoastronomy, especially in Europe.
Euan MacKie has supported Thom's analysis, to which he added an archaeological context by comparing Neolithic Britain to the Mayan civilization to argue for a stratified society in this period. This, Thom argued, was a notch on the horizon where a double sunset would occur at midwinter. However, from ground level, this sunset would be obscured by a ridge in the landscape, and the viewer would need to be raised by two meters: another observation platform was needed. This was identified across a gorge where a platform was formed from small stones. The lack of artifacts caused concern for some archaeologists and the petrofabric analysis was inconclusive, but further research at Maes Howe and on the Bush Barrow Lozenge led MacKie to conclude that while the term 'science' may be anachronistic, Thom was broadly correct upon the subject of high-accuracy alignments.
In contrast Clive Ruggles has argued that there are problems with the selection of data in Thom's surveys. Others have noted that the accuracy of horizon astronomy is limited by variations in refraction near the horizon. A deeper criticism of Green archaeoastronomy is that while it can answer whether there was likely to be an interest in astronomy in past times, its lack of a social element means that it struggles to answer why people would be interested, which makes it of limited use to people asking questions about the society of the past. Keith Kintigh wrote: "To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn't inform the current interpretive questions." Nonetheless, the study of alignments remains a staple of archaeoastronomical research, especially in Europe.
Brown archaeoastronomy
In contrast to the largely alignment-oriented statistically led methods of green archaeoastronomy, brown archaeoastronomy has been identified as being closer to the history of astronomy or to cultural history, insofar as it draws on historical and ethnographic records to enrich its understanding of early astronomies and their relations to calendars and ritual. These cycles would have been of astrological and ritual significance as Venus was associated with Quetzalcoatl or Xolotl. Associations of architectural features with settings of Venus can be found in Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and probably some other Mesoamerican sites.
left|thumb|upright=1.15|"El Caracol", a possible observatory temple at Chichen Itza
The Temple of the Warriors bears iconography depicting feathered serpents associated with Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. This means that the building's alignment towards the place on the horizon where Venus first appears in the evening sky (when it coincides with the rainy season) may be meaningful. However, since both the date and the azimuth of this event change continuously, a solar interpretation of this orientation is much more likely.
Anthony Aveni claims that another building associated with the planet Venus in the form of Kukulcan, and the rainy season at Chichen Itza is the Caracol. This is a building with a circular tower and doors facing the cardinal directions. The base faces the most northerly setting of Venus. Additionally the pillars of a stylobate on the building's upper platform were painted black and red. These are colours associated with Venus as an evening and morning star. However the windows in the tower seem to have been little more than slots, making them poor at letting light in, but providing a suitable place to view out. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles considered the interpretation that the Caracol is an observatory site was debated among specialists, meeting the second of their four levels of site credibility. In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the history of astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the Han dynasty, in the second century BC.
A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are. Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area and in other parts of Mesoamerica.
Source materials
Because archaeoastronomy is about the many and various ways people interacted with the sky, there are a diverse range of sources giving information about astronomical practices.
Alignments
A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites.
An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.
A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer.
Artifacts
thumb|The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)For artifacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists.
A more mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings. This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time.
Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read.
Art and inscriptions
thumb|left|Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the Fajada Butte petroglyph on various days
Art and inscriptions may not be confined to artefacts, but also appear painted or inscribed on an archaeological site. Sometimes inscriptions are helpful enough to give instructions to a site's use. For example, a Greek inscription on a stele (from Itanos) has been translated as:"Patron set this up for Zeus Epopsios. Winter solstice. Should anyone wish to know: off 'the little pig' and the stele the sun turns." From Mesoamerica come Mayan and Aztec codices. These are folding books made from Amatl, processed tree bark on which are glyphs in Mayan or Aztec script. The Dresden codex contains information regarding the Venus cycle, confirming its importance to the Mayans. A widely known example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte at which a glint of sunlight passes over a spiral petroglyph. The location of a dagger of light on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the summer solstice a dagger can be seen through the heart of the spiral; at the winter solstice two daggers appear to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. Recent studies have identified many similar sites in the US Southwest and Northwestern Mexico. It has been argued that the number of solstitial markers at these sites provides statistical evidence that they were intended to mark the solstices. The Sun Dagger site on Fajada Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stands out for its explicit light markings that record all the key events of both the solar and lunar cycles: summer solstice, winter solstice, equinox, and the major and minor lunar standstills of the Moon's 18.6 year cycle. In addition at two other sites on Fajada Butte, there are five light markings on petroglyphs recording the summer and winter solstices, equinox and solar noon. Numerous buildings and interbuilding alignments of the great houses of Chaco Canyon and outlying areas are oriented to the same solar and lunar directions that are marked at the Sun Dagger site.
If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols.
Ethnographies
As well as the materials left by peoples themselves, there are also the reports of other who have encountered them. The historical records of the Conquistadores are a rich source of information about the pre-Columbian Americans. Ethnographers also provide material about many other peoples.
Anthony Aveni uses the importance of zenith passages as an example of the importance of ethnography. For peoples living between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn there are two days of the year when the noon Sun passes directly overhead and casts no shadow. In parts of Mesoamerica this was considered a significant day as it would herald the arrival of rains, and so play a part in the cycle of agriculture. This knowledge is still considered important amongst Mayan Indians living in Central America today. The ethnographic records suggested to archaeoastronomers that this day may have been important to the ancient Mayans. There are also shafts known as 'zenith tubes' which illuminate subterranean rooms when the Sun passes overhead found at places like Monte Albán and Xochicalco. It is only through the ethnography that we can speculate that the timing of the illumination was considered important in Mayan society. Alignments to the sunrise and sunset on the day of the zenith passage have been claimed to exist at several sites. However, it has been shown that, since there are very few orientations that can be related to these phenomena, they likely have different explanations.
Ethnographies also caution against over-interpretation of sites. At a site in Chaco Canyon can be found a pictograph with a star, crescent and hand. It has been argued by some astronomers that this is a record of the 1054 Supernova. However recent reexaminations of related 'supernova petroglyphs' raises questions about such sites in general. Cotte and Ruggles used the Supernova petroglyph as an example of a completely refuted site
Ethnoastronomy is also an important field outside of the Americas. For example, anthropological work with Aboriginal Australians is producing much information about their Indigenous astronomies and about their interaction with the modern world.
Recreating the ancient sky
Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment.
Declination
To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. On a clear night observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole can be observed. This point is +90° of the North Celestial Pole or −90° observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The arc connecting the points on the horizon due East and due West (if the horizon is flat) and all points midway between the Celestial Poles is the Celestial Equator which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say whether a specific body can be seen in that direction.
center|thumb|600px|Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes
Solar positioning
While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation.
Lunar positioning
The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits—known as lunistices rather than solstices. However, its travel between lunistices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year-long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunistices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the Moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due to the extremely variable nature of the Moon. See Moon for more details.
Stellar positioning
thumb|right|Precessional movement
Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now.
The movement of the Earth's axis was already noticed by the Sumerians over six thousand years ago, when they were able to observe the star Canopus culminating directly above the horizon on the southern meridian for the first time in their oldest and southernmost city Eridu. For several decades, Canopus was not yet visible in the neighbouring town of Ur to the north-east of Eridu, and therefore, it was called the "Star of the City of Eridu" in Sumerian.
In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the Sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the Sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes.
Transient phenomena
thumb|left|Halley's Comet depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry
Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to 28 May, 585 BC.
Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the Solar System once and so are inherently unpredictable.
Meteor showers should be predictable, but some meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena.
Major topics of archaeoastronomical research
The use of calendars
A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod's Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to partially confirm this: astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical studies of the Hopi of the southwestern United States indicate that they carefully observed the rising and setting positions of the Sun to determine the proper times to plant crops. However, ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that their luni-solar calendar was somewhat haphazard, indicating the limits of astronomical calendars in some societies. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities.
One such example is the Tzolk'in calendar of 260 days. Together with the 365-day year, it was used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, forming part of a comprehensive calendrical system, which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles. Archaeoastronomical studies throughout Mesoamerica have shown that the orientations of most structures refer to the Sun and were used in combination with the 260-day cycle for scheduling agricultural activities and the accompanying rituals. The distribution of dates and intervals marked by orientations of monumental ceremonial complexes in the area along the southern Gulf Coast in Mexico, dated to about 1100 to 700 BCE, represents the earliest evidence of the use of this cycle.
Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could pause or skip days with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping. Orientation measurements in Greek temples and Byzantine churches have been associated to deity's name day, festivities, and special events.
Myth and cosmology
thumb|upright=1.15|The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690
Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In these cultures myth was a tool for achieving this, and the explanations, while not reflecting the standards of modern science, are cosmologies.
The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion.
The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions. The Chinese system was composed of five directions: North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as feng shui.
There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce.
A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate.
The loss of one of the sisters, Merope, in some Greek myths may reflect an astronomical event wherein one of the stars in the Pleiades disappeared from view by the naked eye.
Giorgio de Santillana, professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Hertha von Dechend, professor at Goethe University Frankfurt, argued that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They argued that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate, late Neolithic astronomy that was lost. Santillana and von Dechend argued in their book Hamlet's Mill: An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time (1969) that ancient myths have no historical or factual basis other than a cosmological one encoding astronomical phenomena, especially the precession of the equinoxes. Santillana and von Dechend's approach is not widely accepted.
Displays of power
thumbnail|250px|left|The Precinct of Amun-Re was aligned on the midwinter solstice.
By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.
Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. When viewed from a ceremonial plaza on the Island of the Sun (the mythical origin place of the Sun) in Lake Titicaca, the Sun was seen to rise at the June solstice between two towers on a nearby ridge. The sacred part of the island was separated from the remainder of it by a stone wall and ethnographic records indicate that access to the sacred space was restricted to members of the Inca ruling elite. Ordinary pilgrims stood on a platform outside the ceremonial area to see the solstice Sun rise between the towers.
In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.
In a later period the Serapeum of Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god.
Major sites of archaeoastronomical interest
Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte recently edited a book on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy which discussed a worldwide sample of astronomical and archaeoastronomical sites and provided criteria for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites.
Newgrange
right|thumb|The sunlight enters the tomb at Newgrange via the roofbox built above the door.
Newgrange is a passage tomb in the Republic of Ireland dating from around 3,300 to 2,900 BC For a few days around the Winter Solstice light shines along the central passageway into the heart of the tomb. What makes this notable is not that light shines in the passageway, but that it does not do so through the main entrance. Instead it enters via a hollow box above the main doorway discovered by Michael O'Kelly. It is this roofbox which strongly indicates that the tomb was built with an astronomical aspect in mind. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Newgrange as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility. It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in the Plough / Big Dipper which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where north lay. The deviations from true north using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction.
thumb|Constellations on the astronomical ceiling of Senemut Tomb
Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as a map of the three stars in the belt of Orion, although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers. The site was instead probably governed by a spectacular hierophany which occurs at the summer solstice, when the Sun, viewed from the Sphinx terrace, forms—together with the two giant pyramids—the symbol Akhet, which was also the name of the Great Pyramid. Further, the south east corners of all the three pyramids align towards the temple of Heliopolis, as first discovered by the Egyptologist Mark Lehner.
The astronomical ceiling of the tomb of Senenmut (BC) contains the Celestial Diagram depicting circumpolar constellations in the form of discs. Each disc is divided into 24 sections suggesting a 24-hour time period. Constellations are portrayed as sacred deities of Egypt. The observation of lunar cycles is also evident.
El Castillo
El Castillo, also known as Kukulcán's Pyramid, is a Mesoamerican step-pyramid built in the centre of Mayan center of Chichen Itza in Mexico. Several architectural features have suggested astronomical elements. Each of the stairways built into the sides of the pyramid has 91 steps. Along with the extra one for the platform at the top, this totals 365 steps, which is possibly one for each day of the year (365.25) or the number of lunar orbits in 10,000 rotations (365.01).
left|thumb|Plumed Serpent
A visually striking effect is seen every March and September as an unusual shadow occurs around the equinoxes. Light and shadow phenomena have been proposed to explain a possible architectural hierophany involving the sun at Chichén Itzá in a Maya Toltec structure dating to about 1000 CE. A shadow appears to descend the west balustrade of the northern stairway. The visual effect is of a serpent descending the stairway, with its head at the base in light. Additionally the western face points to sunset around 25 May, traditionally the date of transition from the dry to the rainy season. The intended alignment was, however, likely incorporated in the northern (main) facade of the temple, as it corresponds to sunsets on May 20 and July 24, recorded also by the central axis of Castillo at Tulum. The two dates are separated by 65 and 300 days, and it has been shown that the solar orientations in Mesoamerica regularly correspond to dates separated by calendrically significant intervals (multiples of 13 and 20 days). In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles used the "equinox hierophany" at Chichén Itzá as an example of an Unproven site, the third of their four levels of credibility. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Stonehenge as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility.
As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. Anthony Aveni notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received.
Maeshowe
thumb|The interior of Maeshowe chambered tomb
This is an architecturally outstanding Neolithic chambered tomb on the mainland of Orkney, Scotland—probably dating to the early 3rd millennium BC, and where the setting Sun at midwinter shines down the entrance passage into the central chamber (see Newgrange). In the 1990s further investigations were carried out to discover whether this was an accurate or an approximate solar alignment. Several new aspects of the site were discovered. In the first place the entrance passage faces the hills of the island Hoy, about 10 miles away. Secondly, it consists of two straight lengths, angled at a few degrees to each other. Thirdly, the outer part is aligned towards the midwinter sunset position on a level horizon just to the left of Ward Hill on Hoy. Fourthly the inner part points directly at the Barnhouse standing stone about 400m away and then to the right end of the summit of Ward Hill, just before it dips down to the notch between it at Cuilags to the right. This indicated line points to sunset on the first Sixteenths of the solar year (according to A. Thom) before and after the winter solstice and the notch at the base of the right slope of the Hill is at the same declination. Fourthly a similar 'double sunset' phenomenon is seen at the right end of Cuilags, also on Hoy; here the date is the first Eighth of the year before and after the winter solstice, at the beginning of November and February respectively—the Old Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc. This alignment is not indicated by an artificial structure but gains plausibility from the other two indicated lines. Maeshowe is thus an extremely sophisticated calendar site which must have been positioned carefully in order to use the horizon foresights in the ways described. Moreover, the great northerly extremes of Venus always occur in late April or early May, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. The Venus glyphs placed in the cheeks of the Maya rain god Chac, most likely referring to the concomitance of these phenomena, support the west-working orientation scheme.
Chaco Canyon
thumb|upright=1.15|The Great Kiva at Chaco Canyon
In Chaco Canyon, the center of the ancient Pueblo culture in the American Southwest, numerous solar and lunar light markings and architectural and road alignments have been documented. These findings date to the 1977 discovery of the Sun Dagger site by Anna Sofaer. Three large stone slabs leaning against a cliff channel light and shadow markings onto two spiral petroglyphs on the cliff wall, marking the solstices, equinoxes and the lunar standstills of the 18.6 year cycle of the moon. In addition, research shows that the Great North Road, a thirty-five mile engineered "road", was constructed not for utilitarian purposes but rather to connect the ceremonial center of Chaco Canyon with the direction north.
Lascaux Cave
thumb |According to Rappenglueck, the eyes of the bull, the bird, and the bird-man may represent the three stars Vega, Altair, and Deneb commonly known as the Summer Triangle.
In recent years, new research has suggested that the Lascaux cave paintings in France may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Michael Rappenglueck of the University of Munich argues that some of the non-figurative dot clusters and dots within some of the figurative images correlate with the constellations of Taurus, the Pleiades and the grouping known as the "Summer Triangle". Based on her own study of the astronomical significance of Bronze Age petroglyphs in the Vallée des Merveilles and her extensive survey of other prehistoric cave painting sites in the region—most of which appear to have been selected because the interiors are illuminated by the setting Sun on the day of the winter solstice—French researcher Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez has further proposed that the gallery of figurative images in the Great Hall represents an extensive star map and that key points on major figures in the group correspond to stars in the main constellations as they appeared in the Paleolithic. Appliying phylogenetics to myths of the Cosmic Hunt, Julien d'Huy suggested that the palaeolithic version of this story could be the following: there is an animal that is a horned herbivore, especially an elk. One human pursues this ungulate. The hunt locates or gets to the sky. The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation. It forms the Big Dipper. This story may be represented in the famous Lascaux shaft 'scene'
Fringe archaeoastronomy
Archaeoastronomy owes something of a poor reputation among scholars due to its occasional misuse to advance a range of pseudo-historical accounts. During the 1930s, Otto S. Reuter compiled a study entitled Germanische Himmelskunde, or "Teutonic Skylore". The astronomical orientations of ancient monuments claimed by Reuter and his followers would place the ancient Germanic peoples ahead of the Ancient Near East in the field of astronomy, demonstrating the intellectual superiority of the "Aryans" (Indo-Europeans) over the Semites.
More recently I. J. Gallagher, R. L. Pyle, and B. Fell interpreted inscriptions in West Virginia as a description in Celtic Ogham alphabet of the supposed winter solstitial marker at the site. The controversial translation was supposedly validated by a problematic archaeoastronomical indication in which the winter solstice Sun shone on an inscription of the Sun at the site. Subsequent analyses criticized its cultural inappropriateness, as well as its linguistic and archaeoastronomical claims, to describe it as an example of "cult archaeology".
Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza.
India
Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. David Pingree, a historian of Indian astronomy, condemned "the scholars who perpetrate wild theories of prehistoric science and call themselves archaeoastronomers".
Organisations
There are currently several academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy (including ethnoastronomy and Indigenous astronomy).
ISAACthe International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culturewas founded in 1996 as the global society for the field. It sponsors the Oxford conferences and the Journal of Astronomy in Culture.
SEAC – La Société Européenne pour l'Astronomie dans la Culture was founded in 1992 with a focus on broader Europe. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis.
SIACLa Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura was founded in 2003 with a focus on Latin America.
SCAAS - The Society for Cultural Astronomy in the American Southwest was founded in 2009 as a regional organisation focusing on the astronomies of the native peoples of the Southwestern United States; it has since held seven meetings and workshops.
AAAC – the Australian Association for Astronomy in Culture was founded in 2020 in Australia, focusing on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander astronomy.
The Romanian Society for Cultural Astronomy was founded in 2019, holding an annual international conference and publishing the first monograph on archaeo- and ethnoastronomy in Romania (2019).
SMART – the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions was founded in Aotearoa/New Zealand in 2013, focusing on Maori astronomy.
Native Skywatchers was founded in 2007 in Minnesota, USA to promote Native American star knowledge, particularly of the Lakota and Ojibwe peoples of the northern US and Canada.
Publications
Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes (from 1979 to 2002) it published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy.
The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, Culture & Cosmos, and the Journal of Skyscape Archaeology also publish papers on archaeoastronomy.
Academic programs
National projects and university programs including, or dedicated to, cultural astronomy are found globally. They include:
The Sophia Centre for Cosmology in Culture at the University of Wales - Trinity Saint David in Lampeter, UK.
The Cultural Astronomy Program at the University of Melbourne in Australia.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research made interesting findings in this field.
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
. reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000), pp. 30–39.
Three volumes; 217 articles.
Šprajc, Ivan (2015). Governor's Palace at Uxmal. In: Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, ed. by Clive L. N. Ruggles, New York: Springer, pp. 773–81
Šprajc, Ivan, and Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava (2013). Astronomía en la arquitectura de Chichén Itzá: una reevaluación. Estudios de Cultura Maya XLI: 31–60.
Further reading
External links
Astronomy before History - A chapter from The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, Michael Hoskin ed., 1999.
Clive Ruggles: images, bibliography, software, and synopsis of his course at the University of Leicester.
Traditions of the Sun – NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories.
Ancient Observatories: Timeless Knowledge NASA Poster on ancient (and modern) observatories.
Astronomy is the most ancient of the sciences. (About Kazakh folk astronomy)
Category:Ancient astronomy
Category:Astronomical sub-disciplines
Category:Archaeological sub-disciplines
Category:Traditional knowledge
Category:Articles containing video clips | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.098504 |
2865 | Andrzej Sapkowski | | birth_place = Łódź, Poland
| alma_mater = University of Łódź
| occupation = Novelist, economist
| period = 1986–present
| genre = Fantasy, history
| notableworks = The Witcher<br />Hussite Trilogy
| awards = Janusz A. Zajdel Award<br />Paszport Polityki<br />Medal for Merit to Culture - Gloria Artis<br />World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement<br />David Gemmell Legend Award<br />Ignotus Award<br />European Science Fiction Society Award
| signature = Sapkowski A signature.svg
}}
Andrzej Sapkowski (; born 21 June 1948) is a Polish fantasy writer. He is best known for his series of books The Witcher, which revolves around the eponymous monster-hunter, Geralt of Rivia. The saga has been popularized through television, stage, comic books, video games and translated into 37 languages making him the second most-translated Polish science fiction and fantasy writer after Stanisław Lem.
Described as the "Polish Tolkien", he has written multiple novels and short story collections, selling over 30 million copies worldwide. The influence of Slavic mythology is seen as a characteristic feature of many of his works. He is a five-time recipient of the Zajdel Award, Poland's most popular science fiction and fantasy prize, as well as many other awards and honors including David Gemmell Award, World Fantasy Life Achievement Award and the Gloria Artis Medal for Merit to Culture.
s on display occupying two shelves at an Empik bookstore in Katowice, Poland]]
Early life
He was born on 21 June 1948 in Łódź, in central Poland. His father served in the Polish People's Army and participated in the Battle of Berlin. After the end of World War II, his parents lived near Nowa Sól before settling in Łódź. He attended the Bolesław Prus High School No. 21. He also studied economics at the University of Łódź, and before turning to writing, he had worked as a senior sales representative for a foreign trade company. He started his literary career as a translator, in particular, of science fiction. Among the first works translated by him was The Words of Guru by Cyril M. Kornbluth.
Career
Major works
He says he wrote his first short story, The Witcher (1986), ("Wiedźmin", also translated "The Hexer" or "Spellmaker"), on a whim, in order to enter a contest by Polish science fiction and fantasy magazine Fantastyka. In an interview, he said that being a businessman at the time and thus familiar with marketing, he knew how to sell, and indeed, he won third prize. The story was published in Fantastyka in 1986 and was enormously successful both with readers and critics. Sapkowski has created a cycle of tales based on the world of "The Witcher", comprising three collections of short stories and eight novels. This cycle and his other works have made him one of the best-known fantasy authors in Poland in the 1990s. The world in which these adventures take place is heavily influenced by Slavic mythology.
In her review of Blood of Elves, Alice Wybrew of Total Sci-Fi writes that "Moving effortlessly between moments of wrought emotion and staggeringly effective action, to lengthy periods of political discussion and war stratagems, Sapkowski addresses every aspect of a good fantasy novel eloquently and with ease. His style reads as easily as David Gemmel, but hits harder and deeper than his late fantasy comrade. Creating a world that is both familiar and comfortable, it is through his inventive use of character manipulation that he generates a new and realistic experience". Alex Jay of Polygon further observes that within Sapkowski's fantasy tales, "there are parallels to the complicated history of ethnic strife and resistance to oppression in Central and Eastern Europe". The depictions of the disputes between nonhumans and humans "echo real-world disputes over territory and citizenship that draw dividing lines according to race, nationality, or ethnicity".
In 2001, he published the ''Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave'', an original and personal guide to fantasy literature. It was written in the form of an encyclopaedia and the author discusses in it the history of the literary genre, well-known fantasy heroes, descriptions of magic terminology as well as major works of notable writers including J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, Robert E. Howard's Conan, C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea, Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter, and George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire.
Sapkowski's next book series was the Hussite Trilogy set in the 15th century at the time of the Hussite Wars with Reinmar of Bielawa as the main protagonist. Mariusz Czubaj writes:
Although the Hussite Trilogy proved less popular compared to The Witcher, it has been described as the author's "magnum opus". Published between 2002 and 2006, the series was released as an audiobook in 2019.
In August 2023, Sapkowski announced he was working on a new novel from The Witcher universe during an on-line meeting with his Ukrainian fans. He added that his work on the book "may take a year, but no longer" giving it a potential expected publication date at some point in 2024. The novel, titled Rozdroże Kruków, was published in Poland in November 2024, and will release internationally as Crossroads of Ravens in September 2025.
Legal dispute with CD Projekt
In October 2018, he sent an open letter to CD Projekt demanding 60 million zloty ($16.1 million) in royalty payments from the company for using the Witcher universe in their computer games. The letter was written despite the fact that Sapkowski had sold the video game rights to the Witcher for a single sum, rather than through a royalties contract. Sapkowski and his lawyers based their claims on Article 44 of the Copyright and Related Rights Act.
On 20 December 2019, the writer and the company resolved the dispute with an amicable settlement. The company stated this deal was made in an effort "to maintain good relations with authors of works which have inspired CD Projekt Red's own creations." The details of this arrangement were not made public.
Personal life
, Czech Republic]]
Sapkowski resides in his hometown of Łódź in central Poland. He had a son named Krzysztof (1972–2019), who was an avid reader of the Polish Fantastyka magazine, and for whom he wrote the first Witcher story, who has since deceased.
Sapkowski is a member of the Polish Writers Association. In an interview, he mentioned that his favorite writers included Ernest Hemingway, Mikhail Bulgakov, Raymond Chandler and Umberto Eco.
In 2005, Stanisław Bereś conducted a lengthy interview with Sapkowski that was eventually published in a book form as Historia i fantastyka.
Translations and adaptations of Sapkowski's works
Sapkowski's books have been translated into Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, Georgian, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Persian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Ukrainian. An English translation of The Last Wish short story collection was published by Gollancz in 2007. From 2008, the Witcher saga is published by Gollancz. The English translation of Sapkowski's novel Blood of Elves won the David Gemmell Legend Award in 2009.
In the years 1993–1995, a six-issue comic book series entitled The Witcher was released in the Komiks magazine by Prószyński i S-ka publishing house. The comic was written by Maciej Parowski and illustrated by Bogusław Polch. The comics were the first attempt to portray the Witcher universe outside the novels. Since 2014, a comic book series The Witcher has been published by the American publisher Dark Horse Comics. The stories presented in the series are mostly originals, written not by Andrzej Sapkowski but by other writers; the exception being volume 2, Fox Children, which adapted a story from the anthology Season of Storms.
In 2001, a television series based on the Witcher cycle was released in Poland and internationally, entitled Wiedźmin (The Hexer). A film by the same title was compiled from excerpts of the television series but both have been critical and box office failures.
In 2009, Russian heavy metal band Esse staged The Road with No Return, a rock opera based on the works by Sapkowski. Yevgeny Pronin is the author of the libretto and the composer of much of the opera's music. The premiere of the opera took place the same year in Rostov-on-Don and was subsequently released as a DVD in 2012.
The Polish game developer, CD Projekt Red, created a role-playing game series based on The Witcher universe. The first game, titled simply The Witcher, was first released in October 2007. The sequel, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings was released in 2011. The third game in the trilogy, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, was released in May 2015. The game shipped over 40 million copies, making it one of the best selling video games of all time.
In May 2017, Netflix commissioned The Witcher, an English-language adaptation of the book series. The Witcher television series premiered on Netflix on 20 December 2019. Sapkowski served for a while as a creative consultant on the project. The popularity of the Netflix show led to Sapkowski topping Amazon's list of best-selling authors ahead of J.K. Rowling and Stephen King. A spin-off anime The Witcher: Nightmare of the Wolf, produced by Lauren Schmidt Hissrich, premiered in 2021. A second spinoff anime, The Witcher: Sirens of the Deep, was released on February 11 2025, adapting the short story A Little Sacrifice from the collection Sword of Destiny.
In September 2017, a musical Wiedźmin (The Witcher) directed by Wojciech Kościelniak was premiered at the Musical Theatre in Gdynia.
The Witcher: Blood Origin is a fantasy miniseries created by Declan de Barra and Lauren Schmidt Hissrich adapted from The Witcher book series which serves as a prequel to the Netflix television series. It was released on Netflix in December 2022.
Awards and recognition
Sapkowski is a recipient of numerous awards and honours both Polish and foreign including:
*1990: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Mniejsze zło (The Lesser of Two Evils)
*1992: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Miecz przeznaczenia (Sword of Destiny)
*1993: Ikaros Award (Czech Republic); Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story W leju po bombie (In a Bomb Crater)
*1994: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his novel Krew elfów (Blood of Elves)
*1995: Raczyński Library Award for lifetime achievements
*1996: European Science Fiction Society Hall of Fame: author
*1997: Paszport Polityki, which is awarded annually to artists who have strong prospects for international success
*2002: Janusz A. Zajdel for his novel Narrenturm
*2003: Ignotus Award (Spain) for The Last Wish in the Best Anthology category and for Muzykanci (The Musicians) in the Best Foreign Short Story category; Nike Award nomination (Poland's top literary prize) for his novel Narrenturm
*2008: Honorary citizenship of the city of Łódź
*2009: David Gemmell Legend Award
*2010: European Science Fiction Society "European Grand Master" honorary award
*2011: FantLab's Book of the Year Award (Russia) for his short story Żmija (Viper) in the Best Translated Novella or Short Story category
*2012: Tähtifantasia Award (Finland) for his short story Sword of Destiny translated from Polish by Tapani Kärkkäinen; Science Fiction & Fantasy Translation Award nomination for his novel Spellmaker, translated from the Polish by Michael Kandel
*2016: World Fantasy Award—Life Achievement for The Witcher sagaDecorations
*2014: Silver Medal Gloria Artis, conferred by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland
Bibliography
The Witcher Saga
Short story collections
*The Witcher (pl:Wiedźmin, 1986), 5 stories. Currently out of print, although 4 of its stories were reprinted in The Last Wish along with new material, while the fifth story was reprinted in Something ends, Something begins and The Malady and Other Stories.
*Sword of Destiny (Miecz przeznaczenia, 1992), 6 stories. English edition: 2015
*The Last Wish (Ostatnie życzenie, 1993), 7 stories. English edition: 2007 (in US: 2008). Its stories (including both its original stories and the stories which it republishes from The Witcher) take place before Sword of Destiny even though it was published later.
*The short story "The Hexer" in the English anthology Chosen by Fate: Zajdel Award Winner Anthology (by SuperNOVA in cooperation with the Silesian Club of Fantasy Literature, 2000) is an English translation by Agnieszka Fulińska of the short story "The Witcher" which had previously been published in Polish in The Witcher and The Last Wish. The Last Wish was later translated into English in full.
*The short story "Spellmaker" in the English anthology A Polish Book of Monsters (edited and translated by Michael Kandel, 2010) is another translation of the short story "The Witcher" which had previously been published in The Witcher, The Last Wish, and Chosen by Fate: Zajdel Award Winner Anthology.
*Something Ends, Something Begins (pl:Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna, 2000), 8 stories. Only two of its stories are related to The Witcher saga ("The Road with No Return" and the titular "Something Ends, Something Begins").
*The Malady and Other Stories (:pl:Maladie i inne opowiadania, 2012), 10 stories. It includes the 8 stories from Something ends, Something begins plus two new stories that aren't related to The Witcher saga. The contents of the English translation is different, containing excerpts from the first and third novels, 2 stories from The Last Wish, and the titular short story.
Pentalogy
*Blood of Elves (Krew elfów, 1994). English edition: 2009
*Time of Contempt (Czas pogardy, 1995). English edition: 27 June 2013
*Baptism of Fire (Chrzest ognia, 1996). English edition: 6 March 2014
*The Tower of Swallows (Wieża Jaskółki, 1997). English edition: May 2016
*Lady of the Lake (Pani Jeziora, 1999). English edition: 14 March 2017
* Crossroad of Ravens (Rozdroże kruków, 2024) – set before the short stories in The Last Wish
New book
Shortly before the release of Rozdroże kruków, in an interview for the Polish weekly periodical Polityka, Sapkowski announced that it would not be the last book set in the Witcher universe. Again, he did not provide more details, saying only that "there'll be a new book" and "if I set the time horizon to three or four years, it'll be without much risk".
Hussite Trilogy
*The Tower of Fools (Narrenturm, 2002). English edition: 2020
*Warriors of God (Boży bojownicy, 2004). English edition: 2021
*Light Perpetual (Lux perpetua, 2006). English edition: 2022
Standalone novel
*The Viper (Żmija, 2009), a stand-alone novel set during the Soviet–Afghan War
Other works
*The Eye of Yrrhedes (Oko Yrrhedesa, 1995), roleplaying game
*The World of King Arthur. Maladie (Świat króla Artura. Maladie, 1995), essay and an illustrated short story set in Arthurian mythology
*''Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave (Rękopis znaleziony w Smoczej Jaskini, 2001, 2008, 2011 (expanded)), fantasy encyclopedic compendium
See also
*Polish literature
*Science fiction and fantasy in Poland
*List of Polish writers
*Stanisław Lem
*Jacek Dukaj
*Janusz A. Zajdel Award
*Toss a Coin to Your Witcher
*Gwent: The Witcher Card Game
*The Witcher: Monster Slayer''
References
External links
*
*
* [http://culture.pl/en/artist/andrzej-sapkowski Andrzej Sapkowski] at Culture.pl
*[http://najlepszefantasy.pl/czytelnia/18-kanon-fantasy-andrzeja-sapkowskiego/ Canon of fantasy literature, by Andrzej Sapkowski]
Category:1948 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Łódź
Category:Polish fantasy writers
Category:20th-century Polish novelists
Category:21st-century Polish novelists
Category:Polish male novelists
Category:Polish male short story writers
Category:20th-century Polish male writers
Category:21st-century Polish male writers
Category:20th-century short story writers
Category:21st-century short story writers
Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
Category:Polish translators
Category:Polish economists
Category:Constructed language creators
Category:University of Łódź alumni
Category:Recipients of the Silver Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis
Category:World Fantasy Award–winning writers
Category:Slavic mythology in popular culture
Category:Works based on Slavic mythology
Category:Writers from Łódź
Category:People from Łódź Voivodeship
Category:Janusz A. Zajdel Award winners | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrzej_Sapkowski | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.138785 |
2866 | Ammeter | An ammeter (abbreviation of ampere meter) is an instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. For direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter usually has low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being measured.
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments that relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems. It is generally represented by letter 'A' in a circuit.
History
terminal service plant in New York City]]
The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, who observed a compass needle was deflected from pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field. This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect – the instruments were called "multipliers".
The word rheoscope as a detector of electrical currents was coined by Sir Charles Wheatstone about 1840 but is no longer used to describe electrical instruments. The word makeup is similar to that of rheostat (also coined by Wheatstone) which was a device used to adjust the current in a circuit. Rheostat is a historical term for a variable resistance, though unlike rheoscope may still be encountered.
Types
Some instruments are panel meters, meant to be mounted on some sort of control panel. Of these, the flat, horizontal or vertical type is often called an edgewise meter.
Moving-coil
The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet causes the coil to move. The modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral springs to provide the restoring force. The uniform air gap between the iron core and the permanent magnet poles make the deflection of the meter linearly proportional to current. These meters have linear scales. Basic meter movements can have full-scale deflection for currents from about 25 microamperes to 10 milliamperes.
This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other and the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical springs.
These also measure true RMS for an applied AC.
Digital
In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of meter are built around this.
Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt. Such instruments are often calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a sine wave only, but many designs will indicate true RMS within limitations of the wave crest factor.
Integrating
There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters.
In these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to the electrical charge transferred with that current. These can be used for metering energy (the charge needs to be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for estimating the charge of a battery or capacitor.
Picoammeter
A picoammeter, or pico ammeter, measures very low electric current, usually from the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere range at the upper end. Picoammeters are used where the current being measured is below the limits of sensitivity of other devices, such as multimeters.
Most picoammeters use a "virtual short" technique and have several different measurement ranges that must be switched between to cover multiple decades of measurement. Other modern picoammeters use log compression and a "current sink" method that eliminates range switching and associated voltage spikes.
Special design and usage considerations must be observed in order to reduce leakage current which may swamp measurements such as special insulators and driven shields. Triaxial cable is often used for probe connections.
Application
Ammeters must be connected in series with the circuit to be measured. For relatively small currents (up to a few amperes), an ammeter may pass the whole of the circuit current. For larger direct currents, a shunt resistor carries most of the circuit current and a small, accurately-known fraction of the current passes through the meter movement. For alternating current circuits, a current transformer may be used to provide a convenient small current to drive an instrument, such as 1 or 5 amperes, while the primary current to be measured is much larger (up to thousands of amperes). The use of a shunt or current transformer also allows convenient location of the indicating meter without the need to run heavy circuit conductors up to the point of observation. In the case of alternating current, the use of a current transformer also isolates the meter from the high voltage of the primary circuit. A shunt provides no such isolation for a direct-current ammeter, but where high voltages are used it may be possible to place the ammeter in the "return" side of the circuit which may be at low potential with respect to earth.
Ammeters must not be connected directly across a voltage source since their internal resistance is very low and excess current would flow. Ammeters are designed for a low voltage drop across their terminals, much less than one volt; the extra circuit losses produced by the ammeter are called its "burden" on the measured circuit(I).
Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most, because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents. To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The resistances of shunts is in the integer to fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of , so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of when carrying their full rated current.
To make a multi-range ammeter, a selector switch can be used to connect one of a number of shunts across the meter. It must be a make-before-break switch to avoid damaging current surges through the meter movement when switching ranges.
A better arrangement is the Ayrton shunt or universal shunt, invented by William E. Ayrton, which does not require a make-before-break switch. It also avoids any inaccuracy because of contact resistance. In the figure, assuming for example, a movement with a full-scale voltage of 50 mV and desired current ranges of 10 mA, 100 mA, and 1 A, the resistance values would be: R1 4.5 ohms, R2 0.45 ohm, R3 = 0.05 ohm. And if the movement resistance is 1000 ohms, for example, R1 must be adjusted to 4.525 ohms.
Switched shunts are rarely used for currents above 10 amperes.
Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side. A special type of zero-center ammeter for testing high currents in cars and trucks has a pivoted bar magnet that moves the pointer, and a fixed bar magnet to keep the pointer centered with no current. The magnetic field around the wire carrying current to be measured deflects the moving magnet.
Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury.
In AC circuits, a current transformer can be used to convert the large current in the main circuit into a smaller current more suited to a meter. Some designs of transformer are able to directly convert the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current, typically either or at full rated current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Some recent types have a parallel pair of magnetically soft probes that are placed on either side of the conductor.
See also
Notes
References
External links
* — from [http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/ Lessons in Electric Circuits] series main page
Category:Electrical meters
Category:Electronic test equipment
Category:Flow meters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammeter | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.150779 |
2868 | Amanda Hesser | | birth_place | death_date <!-- (death date then birth date) -->
| death_place | nationality American
| other_names | occupation
| years_active | known_for
| notable_works =
}}
Amanda Hesser (born 1971) is an American food writer, editor, cookbook author and entrepreneur. Most notably, she was the food editor of The New York Times Magazine, the editor of T Living, a quarterly publication of The New York Times, author of The Essential New York Times Cookbook which was a New York Times bestseller, and co-founder and CEO of Food52.
Biography
After finishing her first book, in 1997, Hesser was hired as a food reporter for The New York Times where she wrote more than 750 stories. While at the Times, Hesser wrote about the influence of Costco on the wine industry, and how the Farmer Consumer Advisory Committee made decisions for the New York City Greenmarket. She was also among the first to write about Ferran Adrià of El Bulli in a major American publication.
Hesser was involved in two cases of conflict of interest while working at the Times. In 2004, she awarded the restaurant Spice Market a three-star rating without disclosing that the year before, the restaurant's owner, Jean-Georges Vongerichten, had provided a complimentary jacket blurb for her book Cooking for Mr. Latte. In 2007, Hesser published a favorable review of Vegetable Harvest by Patricia Wells without noting that in 1999, Wells had provided a jacket blurb for Hesser's book The Cook and the Gardener. In both cases, the Times subsequently pointed out the conflicts of interest with editors' notes.
While Hesser left the Times in March 2008 to focus on the development of Food52, she continued to write the "Recipe Redux" feature for the Times magazine until February 27, 2011.
As co-founder and CEO of Food52, she has raised two rounds of investment from parties including Lerer Hippeau Ventures and Bertelsmann Digital Media Investments. Food52 has won numerous notable awards, including the James Beard Foundation Award for Publication of the Year (2012) and the International Association of Culinary Professionals Award for Best Website (2013). In February 2017, noting that 92 percent of the company was white, she and her co-founder Merrill Stubbs "issued a statement about the ways in which the company intended to redress a lack of racial equality in its workplace." By the following January, "they published a follow-up letter updating readers on the progress of their efforts, stating that their staff had been reduced to being 76 percent white."
Hesser was featured in Food & Wine's 40 under 40 list, was named one of the 50 most influential women in food by Gourmet magazine, and had a cameo as herself in the film Julie & Julia.
Hesser lives in Brooklyn Heights with her husband, Tad Friend, a staff writer for The New Yorker, and their two children.
Bibliography
Books
*The Cook and the Gardener (W. W. Norton & Company, 1999)
*''Cooking for Mr. Latte: A Food Lover's Courtship, with Recipes (W. W. Norton & Company, 2004) [Collected Food Diary columns she wrote from 2000 to 2002]
*Eat, Memory: Great Writers at the Table, a Collection of Essays from the New York Times (W. W. Norton & Company, 2009) [Edited 26 previously published essays]
*The Essential New York Times Cookbook: Classic Recipes for a New Century (W. W. Norton & Company, 2010)
*The Food52 Cookbook: 140 Winning Recipes from Exceptional Home Cooks (William Morrow Cookbooks, 2011)
*The Food52 Cookbook, Volume 2: Seasonal Recipes from Our Kitchens to Yours (William Morrow Cookbooks, 2012)
*Food52 Genius Recipes: 100 Recipes That Will Change the Way You Cook (Ten Speed Press, 2015)
*Food52 Vegan: 60 Vegetable-Driven Recipes for Any Kitchen (Ten Speed Press, 2015)
*Food52 Baking: 60 Sensational Treats You Can Pull Off in a Snap (Ten Speed Press, 2015)
*Food52 A New Way to Dinner: A Playbook of Recipes and Strategies for the Week Ahead (Ten Speed Press, 2016)
*Food52 Mighty Salads: 60 New Ways to Turn Salad into Dinner (Ten Speed Press, 2017)
*Food52 Ice Cream and Friends: 60 Recipes and Riffs for Sorbets, Sandwiches, No-Churn Ice Creams, and More (Ten Speed Press, 2017)
*Food52 Any Night Grilling: 60 Ways to Fire Up Dinner (and More) (Ten Speed Press, 2018)
*Food52 Genius Desserts: 100 Recipes That Will Change the Way You Bake (Ten Speed Press, 2018)
eBooks
* "Food 52 Holiday Recipes & Party Planning Guide: A cookbook, instruction manual, and entertaining battle plan" (Open Air Publishing, 2011)
Anthologized works
*Women Who Eat (2003)
*Best Food Writing (2002, 2004)
*The Art of Eating (2004)
*Alone in the Kitchen with an Eggplant (2007)
*Eat, Memory: Great Writers at the Table'' (2009)
References
External links
*
Category:1972 births
Category:Living people
Category:American food writers
Category:American cookbook writers
Category:American women food writers
Category:People from Brooklyn Heights
Category:American women chief executives
Category:American company founders
Category:American women company founders
Category:International Association of Culinary Professionals award winners
Category:21st-century American women writers
Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers
Category:21st-century American businesspeople
Category:21st-century American businesswomen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Hesser | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.173488 |
2869 | Anxiolytic | | MedlinePlus| Consumer_Reports
| medicinenet| rxlist
<!-- External links -->
}}
An anxiolytic (; also antipanic or anti-anxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and their related psychological and physical symptoms.
Nature of anxiety
Anxiety is a naturally-occurring emotion and response. When anxiety levels exceed the tolerability of a person, anxiety disorders may occur. People with anxiety disorders can exhibit fear responses, such as defensive behaviors, high levels of alertness, and negative emotions. Those with anxiety disorders may have concurrent psychological disorders, such as depression. Anxiety disorders are classified using six possible clinical assessments:
{| class="wikitable"
!Type
!Description
|-
|Generalized anxiety disorders (GAD)
|The anxiety symptoms are usually persistent and constant. Patients of this disorder could experience excessive anxiety for a long duration, commonly over six months and the symptoms could occur without any specific triggers.
|-
|Panic disorder
|This disorder specifically refers to the suffering from panic attacks and also the fear of repetitive attacks. Commonly found in agoraphobia patients (the fear of difficulty in leaving a confined venue). Panic attacks are sudden upsurges in anxiety level usually with unexplained reasons.
|-
|Social phobia
|This refers to the fear of staging in social situations where one experiences public observation among people or performs in front of the public. The fears are often unexplained and persistent. The fear could also be attributed to the possible humiliation in front of others due to poor performance or awkward social interactions.
|-
|Specific phobias
|Persistent fear towards a specific object, either tangible or intangible. This leads to undeniable avoidance or thought of escape from the object or endurance of the object in immense levels of anxiety.
|-
|Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
|PTSDs develop due to experience of severe trauma or life-threatening events. Specific symptoms include flashbacks to traumatic events triggered during similar situations, as well as avoidance of these situations. The fear of re-experiencing the event is also associated with feelings of helplessness or horror.
|-
|Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD)
|Person with OCD would experience compulsive impulses of removing an obsession. One common example is the obsession with impurities or contamination. The person would have compulsion or urge in sterilizing the environment to remove the contamination. Another example is the obsession with orderliness. The person would manipulate the surroundings including visual presentations to ease their obsession.
|}
Different types of anxiety disorders will share some general symptoms while having their own distinctive symptoms. This explains why people with different types of anxiety disorders will respond differently to different classes of anti-anxiety medications.
Etiology
The etiology of anxiety disorder remains unknown. There are several contributing factors that are still yet to be proved to cause anxiety disorders. Anti-anxiety medication can be classified into six types according to their different mechanisms: antidepressants, benzodiazepines, azapirones, antiepileptics, antipsychotics, and beta blockers.
Antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). SSRIs are used in all types of anxiety disorders while SNRIs are used for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Both of them are considered as first-line anti-anxiety medications. TCAs are second-line treatment as they cause more significant adverse effects when compared to the first-line treatment. Benzodiazepines are effective in emergent and short-term treatment of anxiety disorders due to their fast onset but carry the risk of dependence. History The first monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), iproniazid, was discovered accidentally when developing the new antitubercular drug isoniazid. The drug was found to induce euphoria and improve the patient's appetite and sleep quality.
The first tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, was originally developed and studied to be an antihistamine alongside other first-generation antihistamines of the time, such as promethazine. TCAs can increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin by inhibiting their reuptake transport proteins. The majority of TCAs exert greater effect on norepinephrine, which leads to side effects like drowsiness and memory loss.
In order to be more effective on serotonin agonism and avoid anticholinergic and antihistaminergic side effects, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) were researched and introduced to treat anxiety disorders. The first SSRI, fluoxetine (Prozac), was discovered in 1974 and approved by FDA in 1987. After that, other SSRIs like sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), and escitalopram (Lexapro) have entered the market. The groups of medications are as follows.
{| class="wikitable"
!Drug Class
!Examples
|-
|Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs, SNRIs)
|SSRIs e.g., fluoxetine, sertraline; SNRIs e.g., venlafaxine; MAOIs; TCAs
|-
|Benzodiazepines
|Lorazepam, diazepam, alprazolam
|-
|Azapirones
|Buspirone, gepirone, tandospirone
|-
|Antiepileptics
|Gabapentin, pregabalin, tiagabine and valproate
|-
|Antipsychotics
|Olanzapine, risperidone
|-
|Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists
|Propranolol, atenolol
|}
Antidepressants
Medications that are indicated for both anxiety disorders and depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are new generations of antidepressants. They have a much lower adverse effect profile than older antidepressants like monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Therefore, SSRIs and SNRIs are now the first-line agent in treating long term anxiety disorders, given their applications and significance in all six types of disorders.
Azapirones
Buspirone can be useful in GAD but not particularly effective in treating phobias, panic disorder or social anxiety disorders. Antiepileptics Antiepileptics are rarely prescribed as an off-label treatment for anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorders. There have been some suggestions that they may help with anxiety symptoms but there is generally a lack of research on its use.
One antiepileptic, pregabalin, has been found to be better at treating GAD than a placebo, and comparable effects to benzodiazepines. It has also been shown be potentially efficient in treating social anxiety disorder. Gabapentin has been prescribed off-label for anxiety despite a lack of research evidence supporting such use, although some studies have indicated that it may relieve anxiety symptoms. The potential anxiolytic effect of tiagabine has been observed in some pre-clinical trials, but its effectiveness has not yet been proved. Similarly, there is a lack of research on valproate for the treatment of anxiety disorders. SSRIs are the first-line anti-anxiety medications. Serotonin is one of the crucial neurotransmitters in mood enhancement, and increasing serotonin level produces an anti-anxiety effect. SSRIs increase the serotonin level in the brain by inhibiting serotonin uptake pumps on serotonergic systems, without interactions with other receptors and ion channels. SSRIs are beneficial in both acute response and long-term maintenance treatment for both depression and anxiety disorder.
The SSRIs paroxetine and escitalopram are USFDA approved to treat generalized anxiety disorder.
* Hypersalivation
* Migraine
* Rhinitis
|-
|Escitalopram
(active enantiomer of citalopram)
|
* Depressive illness
* Generalized anxiety disorder
* Obsessive-compulsive disorder
* Panic disorder
* Social anxiety disorder
|
* Sinusitis
|-
|Fluoxetine
Sexual dysfunction, anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, and reduced libido are common adverse side effects of SSRIs. Sometimes they may persist after the cessation of treatment.
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs) include venlafaxine and duloxetine drugs. Venlafaxine, in extended release form, and duloxetine, are indicated for the treatment of GAD. SNRIs are as effective as SSRIs in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Tricyclic antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have anxiolytic effects; however, side effects are often more troubling or severe and overdose is dangerous. They are considered effective, but have generally been replaced by antidepressants that cause different adverse effects. Examples include imipramine, doxepin, amitriptyline, nortriptyline and desipramine.
Therapeutic use
{| class="wikitable"
!Drugs
!Indication
!Common side effect
|-
|Imipramine
|
* Nocturnal enuresis for children above six years old
* Severe depression
|
* Antihistamine side effects like sedation, weight gain
* Anticholinergic side effects like blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation
|-
|Clomipramine
Tetracyclic antidepressants
Mirtazapine has demonstrated anxiolytic effect comparable to SSRIs while rarely causing or exacerbating anxiety. Mirtazapine's anxiety reduction tends to occur significantly faster than SSRIs. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are first-generation antidepressants effective for anxiety treatment but their dietary restrictions, adverse effect profile and availability of newer medications have limited their use. MAOIs include phenelzine, isocarboxazid and tranylcypromine. Pirlindole is a reversible MAOI that lacks dietary restriction.
Barbiturates
Barbiturates are powerful anxiolytics but the risk of abuse and addiction is high. Many experts consider these drugs obsolete for treating anxiety but valuable for the short-term treatment of severe insomnia, though only after benzodiazepines or non-benzodiazepines have failed.
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are prescribed to quell panic attacks. Benzodiazepines are also prescribed in tandem with an antidepressant for the latent period of efficacy associated with many ADs for anxiety disorder. There is risk of benzodiazepine withdrawal and rebound syndrome if BZDs are rapidly discontinued. Tolerance and dependence may occur. The risk of abuse in this class of medication is smaller than in that of barbiturates. Cognitive and behavioral adverse effects are possible.
Benzodiazepines include:
alprazolam (Xanax), bromazepam,
chlordiazepoxide (Librium),
clonazepam (Klonopin),
diazepam (Valium),
lorazepam (Ativan),
oxazepam,
temazepam, and Triazolam.
Therapeutic use
{| class="wikitable"
!Drug
!Indication
!Common Side effect
|-
|Lorazepam
|
* Short term use in anxiety
* Short term use in insomnia associated anxiety
* Conscious sedation for procedures
* Premedication
* Status epilepticus/febrile convulsions/convulsions caused by poisoning
|
* Decreased alertness
* Ataxia, confusion (more in elderly)
|-
|Diazepam
|
* Muscle spasm of varied aetiology
* Anxiety
* Acute drug-induced dystonic reactions
* Sedation for minor surgical and medical procedures
|
* Abnormal appetite
* Concentration impairment
* Gastrointestinal disorder
* Movement disorder
* Muscle spasm
* Vomiting
|-
|Alprazolam
|
* Short term use in anxiety
|
* As all benzodiazepines
|}
Adverse effect
Benzodiazepines lead to central nervous system depression, resulting in common adverse effects like drowsiness, oversedation, light-headedness. Memory impairment can be a common adverse effect especially in elderly, hypersalivation, ataxia, slurred speech, psychomotor effects. The alpha-1 antagonist prazosin could be effective for PTSD. The alpha-2 agonists clonidine and guanfacine have demonstrated both anxiolytic and anxiogenic effects. Miscellaneous BuspironeBuspirone (Buspar) is a 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor agonist used to treated generalized anxiety disorder. If an individual has only recently stopped taking benzodiazepines, buspirone will be less effective.
Pregabalin
Pregabalin (Lyrica) produces anxiolytic effect after one week of use comparable to lorazepam, alprazolam, and venlafaxine with more consistent psychic and somatic anxiety reduction. Unlike BZDs, it does not disrupt sleep architecture nor does it cause
cognitive or psychomotor impairment.HydroxyzineHydroxyzine (Atarax) is an antihistamine originally approved for clinical use by the FDA in 1956. Hydroxyzine has a calming effect which helps ameliorate anxiety. Hydroxyzine efficacy is comparable to benzodiazepines in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder.PhenibutPhenibut (Anvifen, Fenibut, Noofen) is an anxiolytic used in Russia. Phenibut is a GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor agonist, The medication is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States, but is sold online as a supplement.TemgicolurilTemgicoluril (Mebicar) is an anxiolytic produced in Latvia and used in Eastern Europe. Temgicoluril has an effect on the structure of limbic-reticular activity, particularly on the hypothalamus, as well as on all four basic neuromediator systems – γ aminobutyric acid (GABA), choline, serotonin and adrenergic activity. Temgicoluril decreases noradrenaline, increases serotonin, and exerts no effect on dopamine.FabomotizoleFabomotizole (Afobazole) is an anxiolytic drug launched in Russia in the early 2000s. Its mechanism of action is poorly-defined, with GABAergic, NGF and BDNF release promoting, MT<sub>1</sub> receptor agonism, MT<sub>3</sub> receptor antagonism, and sigma receptor agonism thought to have some involvement.BromantaneBromantane is a stimulant drug with anxiolytic properties developed in Russia during the late 1980s. Bromantane acts mainly by facilitating the biosynthesis of dopamine, through indirect genomic upregulation of relevant enzymes (tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD)).EmoxypineEmoxypine is an antioxidant that is also a purported anxiolytic. Its chemical structure resembles that of pyridoxine, a form of vitamin B<sub>6</sub>.Menthyl isovalerateMenthyl isovalerate is a flavoring food additive marketed as a sedative and anxiolytic drug in Russia under the name Validol.
Racetams
Some racetam based drugs such as aniracetam can have an antianxiety effect.AlpidemAlpidem is a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic with similar anxiolytic effectiveness as benzodiazepines but reduced sedation and cognitive, memory, and motor impairment. It was marketed briefly in France but was withdrawn from the market due to liver toxicity. Further, etifoxine does not affect memory and vigilance, and does not induce rebound anxiety, drug dependence, or withdrawal symptoms. Alternatives to medication Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder, while exposure therapy is the recommended treatment for anxiety related phobias. Healthcare providers can guide those with anxiety disorder by referring them to self-help resources. Sometimes medication is combined with psychotherapy but research has not found a benefit of combined pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy versus monotherapy.
If CBT is found ineffective, both the Canadian and American medical associations then suggest the use of medication.
See also
*
Categories
References
External links
*
Category:Anxiety disorder treatment
Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiolytic | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.225115 |
2870 | Antipsychotic | Quetiapine is used to treat generalized anxiety disorder.Schizophrenia
Antipsychotic drug treatment is a key component of schizophrenia treatment recommendations by the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the American Psychiatric Association, and the British Society for Psychopharmacology. The main aim of treatment with antipsychotics is to reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis, that include delusions and hallucinations. In general, the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment in reducing positive symptoms appears to increase with the severity of baseline symptoms. All antipsychotic medications work relatively the same way: by antagonizing D2 dopamine receptors. However, there are some differences when it comes to typical and atypical antipsychotics. For example, atypical antipsychotic medications have been seen to lower the neurocognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia more than conventional antipsychotics, although the reasoning and mechanics of this are still unclear to researchers.
Applications of antipsychotic drugs in the treatment of schizophrenia include prophylaxis for those showing symptoms that suggest that they are at high risk of developing psychosis; treatment of first-episode psychosis; maintenance therapy (a form of prophylaxis, maintenance therapy aims to maintain therapeutic benefit and prevent symptom relapse); and treatment of recurrent episodes of acute psychosis. Researchers analyzed data from 32,240 individuals aged 17 to 64 diagnosed with schizophrenia between 2002 and 2012 to arrive at this conclusion.Prevention of psychosis and symptom improvementTest batteries such as the PACE (Personal Assessment and Crisis Evaluation Clinic) and COPS (Criteria of Prodromal Syndromes), which measure low-level psychotic symptoms and cognitive disturbances, are used to evaluate people with early, low-level symptoms of psychosis. Test results are combined with family history information to identify patients in the "high-risk" group; they are considered to have a 20–40% risk of progression to frank psychosis within two years.
First-episode psychosis
First-episode psychosis (FEP) is the first time that psychotic symptoms are presented. NICE recommends that all people presenting with first-episode psychosis be treated with both an antipsychotic drug and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). NICE further recommends that those expressing a preference for CBT alone be informed that combination treatment is more effective.
The conversion rate for a first episode of drug induced psychosis to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia is lower, with 30% of people converting to either bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. NICE makes no distinction between substance-induced psychosis and any other form of psychosis. The rate of conversion differs for different classes of drugs. The goals of treatment for FEP include reducing symptoms and potentially improving long-term treatment outcomes. Randomized clinical trials have provided evidence for the efficacy of antipsychotic drugs in achieving the former goal, with first-generation and second generation antipsychotics showing about equal efficacy. The evidence that early treatment has a favorable effect on long-term outcomes is equivocal. There is little or no difference in efficacy among approved antipsychotic drugs, including both first- and second-generation agents. The efficacy of such drugs is suboptimal. Few patients achieve complete resolution of symptoms. Response rates, calculated using various cutoff values for symptom reduction, are low, and their interpretation is complicated by high placebo response rates and selective publication of clinical trial results.Maintenance therapyThe majority of patients treated with an antipsychotic drug will experience a response within four weeks. The goals of continuing treatment are to maintain suppression of symptoms, prevent relapse, improve quality of life, and support engagement in psychosocial therapy. A 3-year trial following persons receiving maintenance therapy after an acute psychotic episode found that 33% obtained long-lasting symptom reduction, 13% achieved remission, and only 27% experienced satisfactory quality of life. The effect of relapse prevention on long term outcomes is uncertain, as historical studies show little difference in long term outcomes before and after the introduction of antipsychotic drugs. The authors speculated that the difference may be because the people that discontinued treatment after a longer time had more severe mental illness than those that discontinued antipsychotic therapy sooner. If someone experiences psychotic symptoms due to nonadherence, they may be compelled to receive treatment through a process called involuntary commitment, in which they can be forced to accept treatment (including antipsychotics). A person can also be committed to treatment outside of a hospital, called outpatient commitment.
Antipsychotics in long-acting injectable (LAI), or "depot", form have been suggested as a method of decreasing medication nonadherence (sometimes also called non-compliance). NICE advises LAIs be offered to patients when preventing covert, intentional nonadherence is a clinical priority. LAIs are used to ensure adherence in outpatient commitment. A meta-analysis found that LAIs resulted in lower rates of rehospitalization with a hazard ratio of 0.83; however, these results were not statistically significant (the 95% confidence interval was 0.62 to 1.11). The reason for this combination is the therapeutic delay of the aforementioned mood stabilizers (for valproate therapeutic effects are usually seen around five days after treatment is commenced whereas lithium usually takes at least a week The antipsychotics have a documented efficacy when used alone in acute mania/mixed episodes. cariprazine, lurasidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine) have also been found to possess efficacy in the treatment of bipolar depression as a monotherapy, whereas only olanzapine and quetiapine have been proven to be effective broad-spectrum (i.e., against all three types of relapse—manic, mixed and depressive) prophylactic (or maintenance) treatments in patients with bipolar disorder. A recent Cochrane review also found that olanzapine had a less favourable risk/benefit ratio than lithium as a maintenance treatment for bipolar disorder.
The American Psychiatric Association and the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommend antipsychotics for managing acute psychotic episodes in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and as a longer-term maintenance treatment for reducing the likelihood of further episodes. They state that response to any given antipsychotic can be variable so that trials may be necessary, and that lower doses are to be preferred where possible. A number of studies have looked at levels of "compliance" or "adherence" with antipsychotic regimes and found that discontinuation (stopping taking them) by patients is associated with higher rates of relapse, including hospitalization.DementiaPsychosis and agitation develop in as many as 80 percent of people living in nursing homes. Antipsychotics in old age dementia showed a modest benefit compared to placebo in managing aggression or psychosis, but this is combined with a fairly large increase in serious adverse events. Thus, antipsychotics should not be used routinely to treat dementia with aggression or psychosis, but may be an option in a few cases where there is severe distress or risk of physical harm to others. Psychosocial interventions may reduce the need for antipsychotics. In 2005, the FDA issued an advisory warning of an increased risk of death when atypical antipsychotics are used in dementia. In the subsequent 5 years, the use of atypical antipsychotics to treat dementia decreased by nearly 50%. Aripiprazole, quetiapine extended-release, and olanzapine (when used in conjunction with fluoxetine) have received the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labelling for this indication. There is, however, a greater risk of side effects with their use compared to using traditional antidepressants.
A recent study on the use of antipychotics in unipolar depression concluded that the use of those drugs in addition to antidepressants alone leads to a worse disease outcome. This effect is especially pronounced in younger patients with psychotic unipolar depression. Considering the wide use of such combination therapies, further studies on the side effects of antipychotics as an add-on therapy are warranted.OtherGlobal antipsychotic utilization has seen a steady growth since the introduction of atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics and this is ascribed to off-label use for many other unapproved disorders. Besides the above uses antipsychotics may be used for obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Tourette syndrome, autism and agitation in those with dementia. The atypical antipsychotic risperidone may be useful for obsessive–compulsive disorder. The use of low doses of antipsychotics for insomnia, while common, is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit as well as concern regarding adverse effects. Some of the more serious adverse effects may also occur at the low doses used, such as dyslipidemia and neutropenia, and a recent network meta-analysis of 154 double-blind, randomized controlled trials of drug therapies vs. placebo for insomnia in adults found that quetiapine did not demonstrated any short-term benefits in sleep quality. Low dose antipsychotics may also be used in treatment of impulse-behavioural and cognitive-perceptual symptoms of borderline personality disorder. Despite the lack of evidence supporting the benefit of antipsychotics in people with personality disorders, 1 in 4 who do not have a serious mental illness are prescribed them in UK primary care. Many people receive these medication for over a year, contrary to NICE guidelines.
In children they may be used in those with disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders and pervasive developmental disorders or intellectual disability. Antipsychotics are only weakly recommended for Tourette syndrome, because although they are effective, side effects are common. The situation is similar for those on the autism spectrum.
Much of the evidence for the off-label use of antipsychotics (for example, for dementia, OCD, PTSD, personality disorders, Tourette's) was of insufficient scientific quality to support such use, especially as there was strong evidence of increased risks of stroke, tremors, significant weight gain, sedation, and gastrointestinal problems. A UK review of unlicensed usage in children and adolescents reported a similar mixture of findings and concerns. A survey of children with pervasive developmental disorder found that 16.5% were taking an antipsychotic drug, most commonly for irritability, aggression, and agitation. Both risperidone and aripiprazole have been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents. A review in the UK found that the use of antipsychotics in England doubled between 2000 and 2019. Children were prescribed antipsychotics for conditions for which there is no approval, such as autism.
Aggressive challenging behavior in adults with intellectual disability is often treated with antipsychotic drugs despite lack of an evidence base. A recent randomized controlled trial, however, found no benefit over placebo and recommended that the use of antipsychotics in this way should no longer be regarded as an acceptable routine treatment.
Antipsychotics may be an option, together with stimulants, in people with ADHD and aggressive behavior when other treatments have not worked. They have not been found to be useful for the prevention of delirium among those admitted to hospital.
Typicals vs atypicals
Aside from reduced extrapyramidal symptoms, and with the clear exception of clozapine, it is unclear whether the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics offer advantages over older, first generation antipsychotics. Amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects. Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages.
Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ("treatment-resistant" or "refractory" schizophrenia), but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people.
Due to bias in the research the accuracy of comparisons of atypical antipsychotics is a concern.
In 2005, a US government body, the National Institute of Mental Health published the results of a major independent study (the CATIE project). No other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the first-generation antipsychotic perphenazine on the measures used, nor did they produce fewer adverse effects than the typical antipsychotic perphenazine, although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8% vs. 2% to 4%). This is significant because any patient with tardive dyskinesia was specifically excluded from randomization to perphenazine; i.e., in the CATIE study the patient cohort randomized to receive perphenazne was at lower risk of having extrapyramidal symptoms.
Atypical antipsychotics do not appear to lead to improved rates of medication adherence compared to typical antipsychotics.
Many researchers question the first-line prescribing of atypicals over typicals, and some even question the distinction between the two classes. In contrast, other researchers point to the significantly higher risk of tardive dyskinesia and other extrapyramidal symptoms with the typicals and for this reason alone recommend first-line treatment with the atypicals, notwithstanding a greater propensity for metabolic adverse effects in the latter. The UK government organization NICE recently revised its recommendation favoring atypicals, to advise that the choice should be an individual one based on the particular profiles of the individual drug and on the patient's preferences.
The re-evaluation of the evidence has not necessarily slowed the bias toward prescribing the atypicals.Other usesAntipsychotics, such as risperidone, quetiapine, and olanzapine, have been used as hallucinogen antidotes or "trip killers" to block the effects of serotonergic psychedelics like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
Adverse effects
Generally, more than one antipsychotic drug should not be used at a time because of increased adverse effects.
Use of antipsychotics is associated with reductions in brain tissue volumes, including white matter reduction, an effect which is dose-dependent and time-dependent. combined with intensive psychosocial therapy may potentially prevent pallidal brain volume loss in first episode psychosis. Unwanted side effects cause people to stop treatment, resulting in relapses. Risperidone (atypical) has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol (typical). Another less rare condition of tardive dyskinesia can occur due to long-term use of antipsychotics, developing after months or years of use. It is more often reported with use of typical antipsychotics. Very rarely antipsychotics may cause tardive psychosis.
Clozapine is associated with side effects that include weight gain, tiredness, and hypersalivation. More serious adverse effects include seizures, NMS, neutropenia, and agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) and its use needs careful monitoring.
Clozapine is also associated with thromboembolism (including pulmonary embolism), myocarditis, and cardiomyopathy. A systematic review of clozapine-associated pulmonary embolism indicates that this adverse effect can often be fatal, and that it has an early onset, and is dose-dependent. The findings advised the consideration of using a prevention therapy for venous thromboembolism after starting treatment with clozapine, and continuing this for six months.
However, the risk of serious adverse effects from clozapine is low, and there are the beneficial effects to be gained of a reduced risk of suicide, and aggression. Typical antipsychotics and atypical risperidone can have a side effect of sexual dysfunction. Clozapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine are associated with beneficial effects on sexual functioning helped by various psychotherapies.By rate'Common (≥ 1% and up to 50% incidence for most antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include:'
* Dysphoria and apathy (due to dopamine receptor blockade)
* Sedation (particularly common with asenapine, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, chlorpromazine and zotepine)
* Anticholinergic side-effects (common for olanzapine, clozapine; less likely on risperidone) such as:
** Blurred vision
** Constipation
** Dry mouth (although hypersalivation may also occur)
** Reduced perspiration
* Tardive dyskinesia appears to be more frequent with high-potency first-generation antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, and tends to appear after chronic and not acute treatment. It is characterized by slow (hence the tardive) repetitive, involuntary and purposeless movements, most often of the face, lips, legs, or torso, which tend to resist treatment and are frequently irreversible. The rate of appearance of TD is about 5% per year of use of antipsychotic drug (whatever the drug used)
* Breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies with over 2 million individuals estimated an association between antipsychotic use and breast cancer by over 30%.
'Rare/Uncommon (<1% incidence for most antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include:'
* Blood dyscrasias (e.g., agranulocytosis, leukopenia, and neutropaenia), which is more common in patients on clozapine.
* Metabolic syndrome and other metabolic problems such as type II diabetes mellitus — particularly common with clozapine, olanzapine and zotepine. In American studies African Americans appeared to be at a heightened risk for developing type II diabetes mellitus. Evidence suggests that females are more sensitive to the metabolic side effects of first-generation antipsychotic drugs than males. Metabolic adverse effects appear to be mediated by antagonizing the histamine H<sub>1</sub> and serotonin 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> receptors
* Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a potentially fatal condition characterized by:
** Autonomic instability, which can manifest with tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, etc.
** Hyperthermia — elevated body temperature.
** Mental status change (confusion, hallucinations, coma, etc.)
** Muscle rigidity
** Laboratory abnormalities (e.g., elevated creatine kinase, reduced iron plasma levels, electrolyte abnormalities, etc.)
* Pancreatitis
* QT interval prolongation — more prominent in those treated with amisulpride, pimozide, sertindole, thioridazine and ziprasidone. Both atypical and typical antipsychotics have a higher hazard ratio<!-- Hazard ratios are not the same as incidence rate. A 4.42 hazard ratio results in 37.2% incidence by age 65 in Singapore as compared to 10% by age 65 in the general Singapore population. --> for dementia risk. In 2024 testable hypotheses were proposed for the mechanism responsible for cortical thinning till dementia.
Some studies have found decreased life expectancy associated with the use of antipsychotics, and argued that more studies are needed. Antipsychotics may also increase the risk of early death in individuals with dementia. Antipsychotics typically worsen symptoms in people with depersonalisation disorder. Antipsychotic polypharmacy (prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual) is a common practice but not evidence-based or recommended, and there are initiatives to curtail it. Similarly, the use of excessively high doses (often the result of polypharmacy) continues despite clinical guidelines and evidence indicating that it is usually no more effective but is usually more harmful. A meta-analysis of observational studies with over two million individuals has suggested a moderate association of antipsychotic use with breast cancer.
Loss of grey matter and other brain structural changes over time are observed amongst people diagnosed with schizophrenia. Meta-analyses of the effects of antipsychotic treatment on grey matter volume and the brain's structure have reached conflicting conclusions. A 2020 study concluded that atypical antipsychotics are linked to cortical thinning and cognitive decline in the mid (20 months) to long-term. A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that grey matter loss is greater in patients treated with first generation antipsychotics relative to those treated with atypicals, and hypothesized a protective effect of atypicals as one possible explanation. A second 2012 meta-analysis suggested that treatment with antipsychotics was associated with increased grey matter loss. Animal studies found that monkeys exposed to both first- and second-generation antipsychotics experience significant reduction in brain volume, resulting in an 8-11% reduction in brain volume with preserved neuron count and decreased glial cell count over a 17–27 month period.
The National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors said that antipsychotics are not interchangeable, and it recommends including trying at least one weight-neutral treatment for those patients with potential metabolic issues.
Subtle, long-lasting forms of akathisia are often overlooked or confused with post-psychotic depression, in particular when they lack the extrapyramidal aspect that psychiatrists have been taught to expect when looking for signs of akathisia.
Adverse effect on cognitive function and increased risk of death in people with dementia along with worsening of symptoms has been described in the literature.
Antipsychotics, due to acting as dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonists and thereby stimulating pituitary lactotrophs, may have a risk of prolactinoma with long-term use. This is also responsible for their induction of hyperprolactinemia (high prolactin levels). Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping.
There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in recurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely, tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.
Tardive dyskinesia may abate during withdrawal from the antipsychotic agent, or it may persist.
Withdrawal effects may also occur when switching a person from one antipsychotic to another, (it is presumed due to variations of potency and receptor activity). Such withdrawal effects can include cholinergic rebound, an activation syndrome, and motor syndromes including dyskinesias. These adverse effects are more likely during rapid changes between antipsychotic agents, so making a gradual change between antipsychotics minimises these withdrawal effects. The British National Formulary recommends a gradual dose reduction when discontinuing antipsychotic treatment to avoid acute withdrawal symptoms or rapid relapse. The process of cross-titration involves gradually increasing the dose of the new medication while gradually decreasing the dose of the old medication.
City and Hackney Clinical Commissioning Group found more than 1,000 patients in their area in July 2019 who had not had regular medication reviews or health checks because they were not registered as having serious mental illness. On average they had been taking these drugs for six years. If this is typical of practice in England more than 100,000 patients are probably in the same position. List of agents Clinically used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses. A 2013 review has stated that the division of antipsychotics into first and second generation is perhaps not accurate.
* Sultopride – An atypical antipsychotic of the benzamide chemical class used in Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong for the treatment of schizophrenia. It was launched by Sanofi-Aventis in 1976. Sultopride acts as a selective D2 and D3 receptor antagonist.
Benzisoxazoles/benzisothiazoles
* Iloperidone (Fanapt) – Approved by the US FDA in 2009, it is fairly well tolerated, although hypotension, dizziness, and somnolence were very common side effects. Has not received regulatory approval in other countries, however.
* Paliperidone (Invega) – Primary, active metabolite of risperidone that was approved in 2006.
* Perospirone <sup>†</sup> – Has a higher incidence of extrapyramidal side effects than other atypical antipsychotics.
* Risperidone (Risperdal) – Divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed, at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome and anxiety disorder.
* Ziprasidone (Geodon) – Approved in 2004 to treat bipolar disorder. Side-effects include a prolonged QT interval in the heart, which can be dangerous for patients with heart disease or those taking other drugs that prolong the QT interval.
* Lurasidone (Latuda) – Approved by the US FDA for schizophrenia and bipolar depression, and for use as schizophrenia treatment in Canada.
Butyrophenones
* Melperone <sup>†</sup> – Only used in a few European countries. No English-speaking country has licensed it to date.
* Lumateperone (Caplyta)
Tricyclics
* Asenapine (Saphris) – Of the dibenzo-oxepino pyrrole class of atypical antipsychotics. Used for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute mania associated with bipolar disorder.
* Clozapine (Clozaril) – Of the dibenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Requires routine laboratory monitoring of complete blood counts every one to four weeks due to the risk of agranulocytosis. It has unparalleled efficacy in the treatment of treatment-resistant schizophrenia.
* Olanzapine (Zyprexa) – Of the theienobenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used to treat psychotic disorders including schizophrenia, acute manic episodes, and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Used as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy, either alone or in combination with fluoxetine as Symbyax.
* Quetiapine (Seroquel) – Of the dibenzothiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used primarily to treat bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Also used and licensed in a few countries (including Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States) as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. It's the only antipsychotic that's demonstrated efficacy as a monotherapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder (it treats mixed mood swings alone). It indirectly serves as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor by means of its active metabolite, norquetiapine.
* Zotepine – Of the dibenzothiepin class of atypical antipsychotic indicated for acute and chronic schizophrenia. It is still used in Japan and was once used in Germany but it was discontinued.<sup>†</sup>
Others
* Blonanserin – Approved by the PMDA in 2008. Used in Japan and South Korea.
* Pimavanserin – A selective 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonist approved for the treatment of Parkinson's disease psychosis in 2016.
* Sertindole <sup>‡</sup> – Developed by the Danish pharmaceutical company H. Lundbeck. Like the other atypical antipsychotics, it is believed to have antagonist activity at dopamine and serotonin receptors in the brain.
Third-generation
Third generation antipsychotics are recognized as demonstrating D<sub>2</sub> receptor partial agonism as opposed to the D<sub>2</sub> and 5HT-<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonism of second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics and D2 antagonism of first-generation (typical) antipsychotics.
Butyrophenone(s)
* Lumateperone (Caplyta) – In December 2019, lumateperone, a presynaptic D<sub>2</sub> receptor partial agonist and postsynaptic D<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonist, received its first global approval in the US for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults. In 2020 and 2021 FDA approved for depressive episodes associated with bipolar I or II disorder in adults, as monotherapy and as adjunctive therapy with lithium or valproate. Phenylpiperazines/quinolinones/benzoxazinones * Aripiprazole (Abilify) - Partial agonist at the D<sub>2</sub> receptor. Considered the prototypical third-generation antipsychotic.
* Aripiprazole lauroxil (Abilify Maintena) – Long-acting version of aripiprazole for injection.
* Brexpiprazole (Rexulti) – Partial agonist of the D<sub>2</sub> receptor. Successor of aripiprazole.
* Brilaroxazine – A D<sub>2/3/4</sub> and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> partial agonist and 5-HT<sub>2A/2B/7</sub> antagonist
* Cariprazine (Vraylar, Reagila) – A D<sub>3</sub>-preferring D<sub>2/3</sub> partial agonist.
Muscarinic agonists
* Xanomeline/trospium chloride (Cobenfy) - A fixed-dose combination of xanomeline and trospium chloride. Xanomeline is a functionally selective muscarinic M<sub>4</sub> and M<sub>1</sub> receptor agonist. Trospium chloride is a peripherally-acting non-selective muscarinic antagonist. Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024.Mechanism of actionAntipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine tend to block dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptors in the dopaminergic pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. Decreased dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, and excess dopamine release in other pathways, are associated with psychotic episodes in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
In addition to the antagonistic effects of dopamine, antipsychotics (in particular atypical antipsychotics) also antagonize 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors. Different alleles of the 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor have been associated with schizophrenia and other psychoses, including depression. Higher concentrations of 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors in cortical and subcortical areas, in particular in the right caudate nucleus have been historically recorded.
Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D<sub>2</sub> receptors; however, most also act on serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> and 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> receptors. Both clozapine and quetiapine appear to bind just long enough to elicit antipsychotic effects but not long enough to induce extrapyramidal side effects and prolactin hypersecretion. 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> antagonism increases dopaminergic activity in the nigrostriatal pathway, leading to a lowered extrapyramidal side effect liability among the atypical antipsychotics.
Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. It was the first antipsychotic to not act on D<sub>2</sub> receptors. The mechanism of action instead relies on xanomeline's functional selectivity for the M1 and M4 muscarinic receptors, with trospium chloride, a peripherally selective antimuscarinic added to counteract xanomeline's unwanted peripheral muscarinic effects.
Through the ability of most antipsychotics to antagonize 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> serotonin pathways enabling a sensitisation of postsynaptic serotonin receptors, MDMA exposure can be more intense because it has more excitatory receptors to activate. The same effect can be observed with the D<sub>2</sub> antagonizing with normal amphetamine (with this just being hypothetical as there is the fact that antipsychotics sensitize receptors, with exact these postsynaptic receptors (5-HT<sub>2A</sub>, D<sub>2</sub>) being flooded by the respective neurotransmitter (serotonin, dopamine) from amphetamine exposure).
Comparison of medications
<!-- Qualitative shading: - ≈ 5%, +/- ≈ 10%, + ≈ 17.5%, ++/+ ≈ 25%, ++ ≈ 37.5%, +++/++ ≈ 50%, +++ ≈ 75%. -->
<!-- Shading for discontinuation odds ratio: 0% shade at OR1, 100% green shade at OR0 (shade 1-OR), 100% red shade at OR→+∞ (shade 1-1/OR). -->
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:small; width:100%;"
! colspan="7" | Overview
|-
|
{|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="7"
|-
! Generic name !! Class !! Type !! Brand name(s) !! Launch !! Developer/Originator(s) !! Refs
|-
| Amisulpride || Benzamide || Disputed || Solian || 1986 || Sanofi-Synthélabo ||
|-
| Aripiprazole || Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone || Atypical || Abilify || 2002 || Otsuka/Bristol-Myers Squibb ||
|-
| Aripiprazole lauroxil || Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone || Atypical || Aristada || 2015 || Alkermes ||
|-
| Asenapine || Tricyclic/Dibenzoxapinopyrrole || Atypical || Saphris/Sycrest || 2009 || Organon/Merck ||
|-
| Benperidol || Butyrophenone || Typical || Anquil || 1966 || Janssen ||
|-
| Blonanserin || Pyridinylpiperazine || Atypical || Lonasen || 2008 || Sumitomo Dainippon/Mitsubishi Tanabe ||
|-
| Brexpiprazole || Phenylpiperazine/Quinolinone || Atypical || Rexulti || 2015 || Otsuka/Lundbeck ||
|-
| Bromperidol || Butyrophenone || Typical || Impromem || 1981 || Janssen ||
|-
| Carpipramine || Tricyclic/Dibenzazepine || Disputed || Defecton/Prazinil || 1977 || Pierre Fabre ||
|-
| Clocapramine || Tricyclic/Dibenzazepine || Disputed || Clofekton/Padrasen || 1974 || Yoshitomi ||
|-
| Clopenthixol || Tricyclic/Thioxanthene || Typical || Sordinol/Ciatyl || 1961 || Lundbeck ||
|-
| Clorotepine || Tricyclic/Dibenzothiepin || Disputed || Clotepin || 1971 || Spofa ||
|-
| Clotiapine || Tricyclic/Dibenzothiazepine || Disputed || Etumine || 1966 || Sandoz/Wander ||
|-
| Clozapine || Tricyclic/Dibenzodiazepine || Atypical || Clozaril || 1972 || Sandoz-Novartis ||
|-
| Droperidol || Butyrophenone || Typical || Dridol/Droleptan/Inapsine || 1963 || Janssen-Cilag ||
|-
| Flupentixol || Tricyclic/Thioxanthene || Typical || Fluanxol || 1965 || Lundbeck ||
|-
| Fluphenazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Prolixin || 1959 || Bristol-Myers Squibb ||
|-
| Levomepromazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Disputed || Nozinan/Levoprome || 1957 || Rhône-Poulenc ||
|-
| Levosulpiride || Benzamide || Disputed || Levopraid ||| 1987 || Abbott ||
|-
| Lurasidone || Benzisothiazole || Atypical || Latuda || 2010 || Sumitomo Dainippon/Sunovion ||
|-
| Melperone || Butyrophenone || Disputed || Buronil || 1967 || Lundbeck ||
|-
| Olanzapine || Tricyclic/Thienobenzodiazepine || Atypical || Zyprexa || 1996 || Lilly ||
|-
| Paliperidone palmitate || Benzisoxazole || Atypical || Invega Sustenna/Xeplion || 2009 || Janssen-Cilag/Johnson & Johnson ||
|-
| Penfluridol || Diphenylbutylpiperidine || Typical || Semap || 1973 || Janssen ||
|-
| Perazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Taxilan || 1958 || Promonta ||
|-
| Periciazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Neuleptil/Neulactil || 1964 || Rhône-Poulenc ||
|-
| Perospirone || Benzisothiazole || Atypical || Lullan || 2001 || Sumitomo Dainippon/Mitsubishi Tanabe ||
|-
| Perphenazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Trilafon || 1957 || Schering-Plough ||
|-
| Pimozide || Diphenylbutylpiperidine || Typical || Orap || 1969 || Janssen ||
|-
| Pipotiazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Piportil || 1973 || Rhône-Poulenc/Aventis ||
|-
| Prochlorperazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Compazine || 1956 || Rhône-Poulenc/GlaxoSmithKline ||
|-
| Sulpiride || Benzamide || Disputed || Dogmatil || 1968 || Delagrange/Fujisawa ||
|-
| Thioridazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Melleril || 1958 || Novartis ||
|-
| Trifluoperazine || Tricyclic/Phenothiazine || Typical || Stelazine || 1958 || GlaxoSmithKline || !! Discontinuation rate Has a comparatively low penetrability of the blood–brain barrier.
|-
| Amoxapine || || || || || || || || || || Amoxapine is also an antidepressant. Very toxic in overdose due to the potential for renal failure and seizures.
|-
| Aripiprazole || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || Only clinically utilised antipsychotic that does not act by antagonising the D<sub>2</sub> receptor and rather partially agonises this receptor.
|-
| Asenapine || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || Oral hypoesthesia. Has a complex pharmacologic profile.
|-
| Blonanserin || |~0.7}} || || || || || || || || || Only used in a few East Asian countries.
|-
| Chlorpromazine || |}} || || || || || || || || || First marketed antipsychotic, sort of the prototypical low-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic.
|-
| Clozapine || |}} || || || || || || || || || Notable AEs: Agranulocytosis, neutropaenia, leukopaenia and myocarditis. Dose-dependent seizure risk. Overall the most effective antipsychotic, on average. Usually reserved for treatment-resistant cases or highly suicidal patients.
|-
| Droperidol || || || || || || || || || || Mostly used for postoperative nausea and vomiting.
|-
| Flupenthixol || || || || || || || || || || Also used in lower doses for depression.
|-
| Fluphenazine || |}} || || || || || || || || || High-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic.
|-
| Haloperidol || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || Prototypical high-potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic.
|-
| Iloperidone || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || ?
|-
| Levomepromazine || || || || || || || || || || Also used as an analgesic, agitation, anxiety and emesis.
|-
| Loxapine || |}} || || || || || || || || || ?
|-
| Lurasidone || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || May be particularly helpful in ameloriating the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, likely due to its 5-HT<sub>7</sub> receptor.
|-
| Melperone || || || || || || || || || || Several smaller low-quality clinical studies have reported its efficacy in the treatment of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Only approved for use in a few European countries. It is known that off-licence prescribing of melperone is occurring in the United Kingdom. Is a butyrophenone, low-potency atypical antipsychotic that has been tried as a treatment for Parkinson's disease psychosis, although with negative results.
|-
| Molindone || || || || || || || || || || Withdrawn from the market. Seems to promote weight loss (which is rather unusual for an antipsychotic seeing how they tend to promote weight gain).|| || || || || || || || || Limited data available on adverse effects.
|-
| Periciazine || || || || || || || || || || Also used to treat severe anxiety. Not licensed for use in the US.
|-
| Perospirone || || || || || || || || || || Usually grouped with the atypical antipsychotics despite its relatively high propensity for causing extrapyramidal side effects. || || || || || || || || || Has additional antiemetic effects.
|-
| Pimozide || |}} || || || || || || || || || High potency first-generation (typical) antipsychotic.
|-
| Pipotiazine || || || || || || || || || || Only available in the UK.
|-
| Prochlorperazine || || || || || || || || || || Primarily used in medicine as an antiemetic.
|-
| Quetiapine || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || Binds to the D<sub>2</sub> receptor in a hit and run fashion. That is it rapidly dissociates from said receptor and hence produces antipsychotic effects but does not bind to the receptor long enough to produce extrapyramidal side effects and hyperprolactinaemia.
|-
| Remoxipride || || || || || || || || || || Removed from the market amidst concerns about an alarmingly high rate of aplastic anaemia.
|-
| Risperidone || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || ?
|-
| Sertindole || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || Not licensed for use in the US.
|-
| Sulpiride || }}|| || || || || || || || || Not licensed for use in the US.
|-
| Thioridazine || |}}|| || || || || || || || || Dose-dependent risk for degenerative retinopathies. Found utility in reducing the resistance of multidrug and even extensively resistant strains of tuberculosis to antibiotics.
|-
| Tiotixene || || || || || || || || || || ?
|-
| Trifluoperazine || |}} || || || || || || || || || ?
|-
| Ziprasidone || |}} || || || || || || }} || || || ?
|-
| Zotepine || |}} || || || || || || || || || Dose-dependent risk of seizures. Not licensed for use in the US.
|-
| Zuclopenthixol || || || || || || || || || || Not licensed for use in the US.
|-
| colspan11 style"font-size:88%;" |
Note: "Notable" is to mean side-effects that are particularly unique to the antipsychotic drug in question. For example, clozapine is notorious for its ability to cause agranulocytosis. If data on the propensity of a particular drug to cause a particular AE is unavailable an estimation is substituted based on the pharmacologic profile of the drug.
Acronyms used:
:AE – Adverse effect
:OR – Odds ratio
:CI – Confidence Interval
:EPSE – Extrapyramidal Side Effect
:QTc – Corrected QT interval
:PE – Prolactin elevation
Legend:<br />
:- very low propensity for this AE
:+ low propensity/severity for this AE
:++ moderate propensity/severity for this AE
:+++ high propensity/severity for this AE
|}
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:small; width:100%;"
! colspan=6 | Efficacy
|-
! Generic drug name !! Schizophrenia!! Bipolar depression!! Bipolar maintenance!! Adjunct in major depression
|-
| Amisulpride || || || || ||
|-
| Aripiprazole || || || || ||
|-
| Asenapine || || || || ||
|-
| Chlorpromazine || || || || ||
|-
| Clozapine || || || || ||
|-
| Haloperidol || || || || ||
|-
| Iloperidone || || || || ||
|-
| Loxapine || || || || ||
|-
| Lurasidone || || || || ||
|-
| Melperone || || || || ||
|-
| Olanzapine || || || || ||
|-
| Paliperidone || || || || ||
|-
| Perospirone|| || || || ||
|-
| Quetiapine || || || || ||
|-
| Risperidone || || || || ||
|-
| Sertindole || || || || ||
|-
| Ziprasidone || || || || ||
|-
| Zotepine || || || || ||
|}
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:80%; text-align:center; width:100%;"
! colspan"19" style"font-size:120%;" | Binding affinity
|-
|
{|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="19"
|-
! colspan"19" | K<sub>i</sub> [nM] toward cloned human receptors (unless otherwise specified)
|-
! Drug name!! SERT !! 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2C</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>6</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>7</sub> !! α<sub>1A</sub> !! α<sub>2A</sub> !! α<sub>2C</sub> !! NET !! D<sub>1</sub> !! D<sub>2</sub> !! D<sub>3</sub> !! D<sub>4</sub> !! 5-HT<sub>2A</sub>/D<sub>2</sub> !!H<sub>1</sub> !! M<sub>1</sub> !! M<sub>3</sub>
|-
| Amisulpride || >10,000 || >10,000 || 8,304 || >10,000 || 4,154 || 73.5 || >10,000 || 1,114 || 1,540 || >10,000 || >10,000 || 2.2 || 2.4 || 2,370 || 3774.5 || >10,000 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Aripiprazole || 1,081 || 5.6 || 8.7 || 22.4 || 642.4 || 9.97 || 25.85 || 74.1 || 37.63 || 2091.5 || 1,173.5 || 1.64 || 5.35 || 514 || 5.3 || 27.93 || 6,778 || 4,678
|-
| Asenapine || ND || 2.5 || 0.06 || 0.03 || 0.25 || 0.13 || 1.2 || 1.2 || 1.2 || ND || 1.4 || 1.3 || 0.42 || 1.1 || 0.0462 || 1.0 || 8,128 || 8,128
|-
| Blonanserin || ND || 804 || 0.812 || 26.4 || 41.9 || 183 || 26.7 (RB) || 530 (RC) || ND || ND || 1,070 || 0.142 || 0.494 || 150 || 5.72 || 765 || 100 ||ND
|-
| Brexpiprazole || ND || 0.12 || 0.47 || ND || 58 || 3.7 || 3.8 || 15 || 0.59 || ND || 160 || 0.3 || 1.1 || 6.3 || 1.567 || 19 || ND || >10,000
|-
| N-DEBN || ND || 6.8 || 2.0 || 415 || ND || 0.5 || 48 || 1.6 || 10.8 || ND || 262 || 1.7 || ND || ND || 1.18 || >10,000 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Melperone || ND || 2,200 (HB) || 230 || 2,100 (HB) || 1,254 (RC) || 578 (HB) || 180 (HB) || 150 (HB) || ND || ND || ND || 194 || 8.95 || 555 || 1.186 || 580 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Molindone || ND || 3,797 || 3773 || >10,000 || 1,008 || 3,053 || 2,612 || 1,097 || 172.6 || ND || ND || 6.0 || 72.5 || 2,950 || 628.83 || 2,130 || ND || >10,000
|-
| Olanzapine || 3,676 || 2282 || 3.73 || 10.2 || 8.07 || 105.2 || 112 || 314 || 28.9 || >10,000 || 70.33 || 34.23 || 47.0 || 14.33 || 0.109 || 2.19 || 2.5 || 56.33
|-
| Paliperidone || 3,717 || 616.6 || 0.71 || 48 || 2,414 || 2.7 || 2.5 || 17.35 || 7.35 || >10,000 || 41.04 || 0.7 || 0.5 || 54.3 || 1.104 || 18.8 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Perphenazine || ND || 421 || 5.6 || 132 || 17 || 23 || 10 || 810.5 || 85.2 || ND || ND || 0.14 || 0.13 || 17 || 40 || 8 || 1,500 || 1,848
|-
| Pimozide || ND || 650 || 48.35 || 2,112 || 71 || 0.5 || 197.7 || 1,593 || 376.5 || ND || >10,000 || 1.45 || 0.25 || 1.8 || 33.34 || 692.2 || 800 (HB) || 1,955
|-
| Prochlorperazine || ND || 5,900 (HC) || 15 (HC) || 122 || 148 (RC) || 196 (RC) || 23.8 (HB) || 1,694.91 (HB) || ND || ND || ND || 0.65 || 2.90 || 5.40 || 23.1 || 18.86 (HB) || 555.55 (HB) || ND
|-
| Quetiapine || >10,000 || 394.2 || 912 || 1,843 || 948.75 || 307.6 || 22 || 3,630 || 28.85 || >10,000 || 994.5 || 379 || 340 || 2,019 || 2.41 || 6.90 || 489 || 1631.5
|-
| Norquetiapine || ND || 45 || 48 || 107 || ND || 76 || 144 || 237 || ND || 12 || 99.8 (RC) || 196 || ND || ND || 0.245 || 3.5 || 38.3 (RC) || ND
|-
| Risperidone || >10,000 || 422.88 || 0.17 || 12 || 2057.17 || 6.6 || 5 || 16.5 || 1.3 || >10,000 || 243.53 || 3.57 || 2.0 || 4.66 || 0.0476 || 20.05 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Sertindole || ND || 280 || 0.39 || 0.9 || 5.4 || 28 || 1.8 || 640 || 450 || ND || ND || 2.35 || 2.30 || 4.92 || 0.166 || 130 || >5,000 || 2,692
|-
| Sulpiride || ND || >10,000 || >10,000 (RC) || >10,000 (RC) || 5,000 (RC) || 4,000 (RC) || >10,000 (RB) || 4,893 (RB) || ND || ND || >10,000 || 9.80 || 8.05 || 54 || >1,000 || >10,000 (RB) || >10,000 (RB) || >10,000 (RB)
|-
| Thioridazine || 1,259 || 144.35 || 27.67 || 53 || 57.05 || 99 || 3.15 || 134.15 || 74.9 || 842 || 94.5 || 2.20 || 1.50 || 6.00 || 12.58 || 16.5 || 12.8 || 29
|-
| Tiotixene || 3,878|| 410.2 || 50 || 1355.5 || 245.47 || 15.25 || 11.5 || 79.95 || 51.95 || >10,000 || 51 || 0.12 || 0.40 || 203 || 416.7 || 8 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Trifluoperazine || ND || 950 || 74 || 378 || 144 || 290.8 || 24 || 653.7 || 391.5 || ND || ND || 1.12 || ND || 38.1 || 66.07 || 63 || ND || 1,001
|-
| Ziprasidone || 112 || 54.67 || 0.73 || 13 || 60.95 || 6.31 || 18 || 160 || 68 || 44 || 30 || 4.35 || 7.85 || 52.9 || 0.1678 || 62.67 || >10,000 || >10,000
|-
| Zotepine || 151 || 470.5 || 2.7 || 3.2 || 6 || 12 || 7 || 208 || 106 || 530 || 71 || 25 || 6.4 || 18 || 0.108 || 3.21 || 18 || 73
|-
| colspan19 style"font-size:88%;" |
Acronyms used:
:HFC – Human frontal cortex receptor
:RB – Rat brain receptor
:RC – Cloned rat receptor
:ND – No data
:HB – Human brain receptor
:HC – Human cortex receptor
:N-DEBN – N-desethylblonanserin
|}
|}
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"font-size:85%; width:100%;"
! colspan11 style"font-size:small;" | Pharmacokinetics
|-
|
{|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:small; width:100%;" colspan="11"
|-
! Drug!! Bioavailability !! t<sub>1/2</sub> parent drug <br />(active metabolite) !! Protein binding !! t<sub>max</sub> !!C<sub>max</sub> !! V<sub>d</sub> !! Excretion !! Routes !! Metabolism enzymes || 55% || 10.7–16.2 h (single dosing), 67.9 h (repeated dosing) || ≥ 99.7% || 1.5–2 h || 0.14–0.76 ng/mL (0.57 ng/mL for repeated dosing) || 8560–9500 L || Urine (59%), faeces (30%) || Oral || CYP3A4 || N-desethylblonanserin
|-
| Chlorpromazine || 20% || 30 h || 92–97% || || || 20 L/kg || Urine || Oral, IM, IV ||CYP2D6 || Several active metabolites
|-
| Clozapine || 50–60% || 12 h || 97% || 1.5–2.5 h || 102–771 ng/mL || 4.67 L/kg || Urine (50%), faeces (30%) || Oral || CYP1A2, CYP2D6, CYP3A4 || Norclozapine
|-
| Droperidol || || 2 h (8–12 h) || Extensive || 60 min (IM) || || 2 L/kg (adults), 0.58 L/kg (children) || Urine (75%), faeces (22%) || IM, IV || || None
|-
| Flupentixol || 40–55% (Oral) || 35 h || || 7 days (depot) || || 12–14 L/kg || Urine || Oral, IM (including depot) || || None
|-
| Fluphenazine || 2.7% (Oral) || 14–16 h, 14 days (depot) || || 2 h (Oral), 8–10 h (depot) || || || Urine, faeces || Oral, IM (including depot) || || None
|-
| Haloperidol || 60–70% (Oral) || 10–20 h (short-acting IM), 3 weeks (depot) || 92% || 2–6 h (Oral), 10–20 min (short-acting IM), 6–7 days (depot) || || 8–18 L/kg || Urine (30%), faeces (15%) || Oral, IM, IV || CYP3A4 || None
|-
| Iloperidone || 96% || || 95% || 2–4 h || || 1340–2800 L || Urine (45–58%), faeces (20–22%) || Oral || CYP3A4, CYP2D6|| None notable.
|-
| Levomepromazine || || 30 h || || 2–3 h || || || Urine, faeces || IM, IV || || Methotrimeprazine sulfoxide
|-
| Loxapine || High || 6–8 h (Inhaled), 4–12 h (Oral) || 96.6% || 2 min (inhaled), 2 h (oral), 5 h (IM) || 257 ng/mL (inhaled), 6–13 ng/mL (Oral) || || Urine (56–70%), faeces [Only oral data available] || Oral, IM, Inhalation || CYP1A2, CYP3A4, CYP2D6|| Amoxapine (a tricyclic antidepressant), 7-OH loxapine, 8-OH loxapine
|-
| Lurasidone || 9–19% || 18 h || 99% || 1–3 h || || 6173 L || Urine (9%), faeces (80%) || Oral || CYP3A4 || 2 active
|-
| Melperone || 54% (Oral via syrup), 65% (Oral via tablets), 87% (IM) || 2.1–6.4 h (Oral), (IM) || 50% || 1.6–2.4 h (Oral, tablets), 1 h (Oral, syrup) || (25 mg, orally), 2228–3416 ng/mL (50 mg, orally), (100 mg, orally) || (10 mg), (20 mg) || Urine (70% as metabolites, 5.5–10.4% as parent drug) || Oral, IM || || None
|-
| Olanzapine || 87% (Oral) || 30 h || 93% || 6 h (Oral), 15–45 min (short-acting IM), 7 days (depot) || 4–20.4 mg/mL || 1000 L || Urine (57%), faeces (30%) || Oral, IM (including depot) || CYP1A2 || None
|-
| Paliperidone || 28% (Oral) || 23 h (Oral), 25–49 days (IM) || 74% || 24 h (Oral), 13 days (IM) || 8.85–11.7 ng/mL || 390–487 L || Urine (80%), faeces (11%) || Oral, IM (depot) ||CYP3A4, CYP2D6 || None
|-
| Periciazine || || 12 h || || 2 h || 150 ng/mL || || Urine || Oral || || ?
|-
| Perospirone || 6–14 L/kg || Urine (73%), faeces (20%) || Oral || CYP3A4 || Norquetiapine (a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonist)
|-
| Risperidone || 70% || 3–17 h (24 h) || 90% (active metabolite: 77%) || 3–17 h || || 1–2 L/kg || Urine (70%), faeces (14%) ||Oral, IM (including depot) || CYP2D6 || Paliperidone
|-
| Sertindole || || 3 days || 99.5% || 10 h || || 20 L/kg || Urine (4%), faeces (46–56%) || Oral || CYP2D6 || None
|-
| Sulpiride || 27 ± 9% || 8 h || 40% || 3-6 h || || || Urine, faeces || Oral || || None
|-
| Thioridazine || || 24 h || 95% || || || || || Oral || CYP2D6 || None
|-
| Tiotixene || || 24 h || 90% || || || || || Oral || CYP1A2 || None
|-
| Trifluoperazine || || 24 h || || || || || || Oral || || None
|-
| Ziprasidone || 60% (Oral), 100% (IM) || 7 h (Oral), 2–5 h (IM) || 99% || 6–8 h (Oral), ≤ 60 min (IM) || || 1.5 L/kg || Faeces (66%), urine (20%) || Oral, IM || CYP3A4, CYP1A2 || None
|-
| Zotepine || 7–13%|| 13.7–15.9 h (12 h) || 97% || 1-4 h || 31–240 || 10 L/kg || Urine (17%) || Oral || CYP1A2, CYP3A4 || Norzotepine (a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor)
|-
| Zuclopenthixol || 49% || 20 h || 98% || 2–12 h (mean: 4 h) || || 20 L/kg || Faeces, urine (10%) || Oral, IM (including depot)|| CYP2D6 || None
|}
|}
History
) from the 1950s, reflecting the perceptions of psychosis, including the now-discredited perception of a tendency towards violence, from the time when antipsychotics were discovered]]
The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a non-permanent "pharmacological lobotomy". Lobotomy at the time was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its effect was to markedly reduce behavior and mental functioning of all types. However, chlorpromazine proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than lobotomy, even though it was known to be capable of causing severe sedation. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent antipsychotic drugs have been developed by rational drug design.
The discovery of chlorpromazine's psychoactive effects in 1952 led to further research that resulted in the development of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and the majority of other drugs now used in the management of psychiatric conditions. In 1952, Henri Laborit described chlorpromazine only as inducing indifference towards what was happening around them in nonpsychotic, nonmanic patients, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker described it as controlling manic or psychotic agitation. The former claimed to have discovered a treatment for agitation in anyone, and the latter team claimed to have discovered a treatment for psychotic illness.
Until the 1970s there was considerable debate within psychiatry on the most appropriate term to use to describe the new drugs. In the late 1950s the most widely used term was "neuroleptic", followed by "major tranquilizer" and then "ataraxic". In 1953 Frederik F. Yonkman, a chemist at the Swiss-based Cibapharmaceutical company, first used the term tranquilizer to differentiate reserpine from the older sedatives. The word neuroleptic was coined in 1955 by Delay and Deniker after their discovery (1952) of the antipsychotic effects of chlorpromazine. This term derived from the Greek adjective "ἀτάρακτος" (ataraktos''), which means "not disturbed, not excited, without confusion, steady, calm". They are potentially addictive sedatives.
Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two groups, the typical or first-generation antipsychotics and the atypical or second-generation antipsychotics. The difference between first- and second-generation antipsychotics is a subject of debate. The second-generation antipsychotics are generally distinguishable by the presence of 5HT2A receptor antagonism and a corresponding lower propensity for extrapyramidal side effects compared to first-generation antipsychotics.
Antipsychotics are a type of psychoactive or psychotropic medication.
Sales
Antipsychotics were once among the biggest selling and most profitable of all drugs, generating $22 billion in global sales in 2008. By 2003 in the US, an estimated 3.21 million patients received antipsychotics, worth an estimated $2.82 billion. Over 2/3 of prescriptions were for the newer, more expensive atypicals, each costing on average $164 per year, compared to $40 for the older types. By 2008, sales in the US reached $14.6 billion, the biggest selling drugs in the US by therapeutic class.
In the five years since July 2017 the number of antipsychotic medicines dispensed in the community in the United Kingdom has increased by 11.2%. There have also been substantial price rises. Risperidone 6 mg tablets, the largest, increased from £3.09 in July 2017 to £41.16 in June 2022. The NHS is spending an additional £33 million annually on antipsychotics. Haloperidol 500 microgram tablets constituted £14.3 million of this. Overprescription Antipsychotics in the nursing home population are often overprescribed, often for the purposes of making it easier to handle dementia patients. Federal efforts to reduce the use of antipsychotics in US nursing homes has led to a nationwide decrease in their usage in 2012.
Legal
Antipsychotics are sometimes administered as part of compulsory psychiatric treatment via inpatient (hospital) commitment or outpatient commitment.
Formulations
They may be administered orally or, in some cases, through long-acting (depot) injections administered in the dorsgluteal, ventrogluteal or deltoid muscle. Short-acting parenteral formulations also exist, which are generally reserved for emergencies or when oral administration is otherwise impossible. The oral formulations include immediate release, extended release, and orally disintegrating products (which are not sublingual, and can help ensure that medications are swallowed instead of "cheeked"). Sublingual products (e.g., asenapine) also exist, which must be held under the tongue for absorption. The first transdermal formulation of an antipsychotic (transdermal asenapine, marketed as Secuado), was FDA-approved in 2019.Recreational use
Certain second-generation antipsychotics are misused or abused for their sedative, tranquilizing, and (paradoxically) "hallucinogenic" effects. The most commonly implicated second-generation antipsychotic is quetiapine.
Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff. In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year. In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson for allegedly paying kickbacks to Omnicare to promote its antipsychotic risperidone (Risperdal) in nursing homes.
There has also been controversy about the role of pharmaceutical companies in marketing and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One case involved Eli Lilly and Company's antipsychotic Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra. In the Bextra case, the government also charged Pfizer with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, Geodon. By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $5.5 billion and $5.4 billion respectively.Special populationsIt is recommended that persons with dementia who exhibit behavioral and psychological symptoms should not be given antipsychotics before trying other treatments. When taking antipsychotics this population has increased risk of cerebrovascular effects, parkinsonism or extrapyramidal symptoms, sedation, confusion and other cognitive adverse effects, weight gain, and increased mortality.
See also
* List of investigational antipsychotics
* Antipsychotic switching
* Conditioned avoidance response test
Notes
References Further reading
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140613015650/http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/evidence/psychosis/q1/en/ Recommendations for the use of antipsychotics for treating psychosis], World Health Organization 2012
* , Australian Prescriber 2005 (note: pharmaceutical company conflict of interest statement at the end)
* , Australian Prescriber 2005
* [http://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/antipsychotics/first-generation-antipsychotics/ First Generation Antipsychotics: An Introduction], Psychopharmacology Institute, 2012
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060218075500/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01350.html FDA Public Health Advisory] – Public Health Advisory for Antipsychotic Drugs used for Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Elderly Patients, fda.gov
* [http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinfo/treatments/antipsychoticmedication.aspx Antipsychotic Medication] – information from mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061012215858/http://www.medicina.ufrj.br/cursos/FROTA%20LIVRO%20I%20%26%20II.pdf FROTA LH. Fifty Years of Antipsychotic Drugs in Psychiatry. "Cinqüenta Anos de Medicamentos Antipsicóticos em Psiquiatria."] 1st ed; Ebook: CD-Rom/On-Line Portuguese, , File .pdf (Adobe Acrobat) 6Mb, Informática, Rio de Janeiro, August 2003, 486pp., medicina.ufrj.br
Category:Psychiatry controversies
Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects
Category:Dopamine antagonists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotic | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.472577 |
2871 | Akita | is a Japanese name and may refer to:
Places
Akita Prefecture, region in northeastern Japan
Akita (city), capital city of the prefecture
Akita Station, railway station in the city of Akita
Port of Akita, seaport on the Sea of Japan coast in the city of Akita
Akita Domain, also known as Kubota Domain, feudal domain in Edo period Japan
Akita, Kumamoto, former town in southwestern Japan
8182 Akita, main-belt asteroid
People
Akita clan, Japanese samurai clan of northern Honshū
Akita (surname), people with the surname
Art, entertainment, and media
Akita (Ninjago), character in the animated series Ninjago
Other uses
Akita (dog), large spitz breed from the mountainous regions of northern Japan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akita | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.481008 |
2875 | Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen | | issue =
| issue-link = #Issue
| full name = Karl Ludwig Johann Josef Lorenz
| house = Habsburg-Lorraine
| father = Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor
| mother = Maria Luisa of Spain
| signature = Signatur Karl von Österreich-Teschen.PNG
| religion = Roman Catholicism
}}<!-- end of infobox royalty -->
<br />
| branch = Imperial Army<br />Imperial and Royal Army
| serviceyears = 1792–1809
| rank = Lieutenant Field Marshal
| commands = Imperial and Royal Army
| battles =
* French Revolutionary Wars
** War of the First Coalition
*** Battle of Jemappes
*** Battle of Aldenhoven
*** Battle of Neerwinden
*** Battle of Fleurus
*** Battle of Wetzlar (1796)
*** Battle of Kehl (1796)
*** Battle of Ettlingen
*** Battle of Neresheim
*** Battle of Theiningen
*** Battle of Amberg
*** Battle of Würzburg
*** Battle of Limburg (1796)
*** Battle of Emmendingen
*** Battle of Schliengen
*** Battle of Valvasone
*** Battle of Tarvis (1797)
** War of the Second Coalition
*** Battle of Ostrach
*** Battle of Stockach
*** First Battle of Zurich
*** Battle of Mannheim (1799)
* Napoleonic Wars
** War of the Third Coalition
*** Battle of Verona (1805)
*** Battle of Caldiero
** War of the Fifth Coalition
*** Battle of Teugen-Hausen
*** Battle of Abensberg
*** Battle of Eckmühl
*** Battle of Ratisbon
*** Battle of Aspern-Essling
*** Battle of Wagram
*** Battle of Znaim
}}<!-- end of infobox officeholder -->
}}<!-- end of infobox person -->
<!-- end of infobox emblem -->
}}
Archduke Charles Louis John Joseph Lawrence of Austria, Duke of Teschen (; 5 September 177130 April 1847) was an Austrian field-marshal, the third son of Emperor Leopold II and his wife, Maria Luisa of Spain. He was also the younger brother of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. He was epileptic, but achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of the Austrian army. He was considered one of Napoleon's most formidable opponents and one of the greatest generals of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
He began his career fighting the revolutionary armies of France. Early in the wars of the First Coalition, he saw victory at Neerwinden in 1793, before being defeated at Wattignies in 1793 and Fleurus in 1794. In 1796, as chief of all Austrian forces on the Rhine, Charles defeated Jean-Baptiste Jourdan at Amberg, Würzburg and Limburg, and then won victories at Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen that forced Jean Victor Marie Moreau to withdraw across the Rhine. He also defeated opponents at Zürich, Ostrach, Stockach, and Mannheim in 1799. He reformed Austria's armies to adopt the nation-at-arms principle. In 1809, he entered the War of the Fifth Coalition and inflicted Napoleon's first major setback at Aspern-Essling, before suffering a defeat at the bloody Battle of Wagram. After Wagram, Charles saw no more significant action in the Napoleonic Wars.
As a military strategist, Charles was able to successfully execute complex and risky manoeuvres of troops. However, his contemporary Carl von Clausewitz criticised his rigidity and adherence to "geographic" strategy. Many Austrians nevertheless remember Charles as a hero of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
Youth and early career
'' by Thomas Lawrence, 1819]]
Charles was born in Florence, Tuscany. His father, then Grand Duke of Tuscany, generously permitted Charles's childless aunt Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria and her husband Albert of Saxe-Teschen to adopt and raise the boy in Vienna. Charles spent his youth in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the wars of the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Jemappes (1792), and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the Action of Aldenhoven and the Battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, an office he lost with the occupation of the Low Countries by the French revolutionaries in 1794. The year he became Governor he also received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal. Shortly thereafter another promotion saw him made Feldzeugmeister (equivalent of Lieutenant General). In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and was present at the Battle of Fleurus (1794).
In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year, he was entrusted with chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first, falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan, he beat him in the battles of Amberg (August), Würzburg and Limburg (September), and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany after the battles of Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen.Napoleonic Wars
In 1797 he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he once more opposed Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Ostrach and Stockach, following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna in the First Battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine after winning at Mannheim in 1799.
Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to Bohemia, but he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the Battle of Hohenlinden had, however, doomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of Steyr. His popularity was now such that the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions.
In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations; Austria sustained defeat on the Danube, and the archduke was defeated by Massena in the Battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace he began his active work of army reorganisation, which was first tested on the field in 1809.
In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles, already a field marshal, as Commander in Chief of the Austrian army and Head of the Council of War. Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th century. The chief characteristics of the new order were the adoption of the nation in arms principle and the adoption of French war organization and tactics. The army reforms were not yet completed by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old and was only defeated after a desperate struggle involving Austrian victories and large loss of life on both sides.
Its initial successes were neutralised by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmühl but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won a strong victory at the Battle of Aspern-Essling but soon afterwards lost at the Battle of Wagram after heavy casualties on both sides. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices.
In 1808, when Napoleon had crowned his brother Joseph king of Spain, Archduke Charles had said to his brother, Emperor Francis II, "Now we know what Napoleon wants – he wants everything".
Later life
When Austria joined the ranks of the allies during the War of the Sixth Coalition, Charles was not given a command and the post of commander-in-chief of the allied Army of Bohemia went to the Prince of Schwarzenberg. Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was military governor of the Fortress Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. In 1830 Charles was a candidate for the throne of Belgium.
On 15 September/17 September 1815 in Weilburg, Charles married Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (1797–1829). She was a daughter of Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg (1768–1816) and his wife Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg.
Charles died at Vienna on 30 April 1847. He is buried in tomb 122 in the New Vault of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the Heldenplatz in Vienna in 1860.
Assessment of his achievements
The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategic works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, although his education certainly prejudiced him in favor of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of most leaders of his time, with only a few exceptions. Arthur Wellesley named Charles as the greatest general of his time. Charles was arguably the best commander ever produced by the House of Habsburg, and undoubtedly the most able Habsburg general of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. Archduke Charles is credited with handing Napoleon his first major defeat. He has been described as the best general Republican France ever fought, with the exception of Alexander Suvorov.
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, his campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavorable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless, they cannot but be considered antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that "this principle is never to be departed from."
Again and again he repeated the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says, not the defeat of the enemy's army, decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main concern, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defense against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to "cover a retreat."
in Vienna]]
The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgrätz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies, and in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible Battle of Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.
He was the 831st Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria.
Creation of the Austrian staff
by Johann Peter Krafft, 1820]]
When Karl Mack von Leiberich became chief of staff of the army under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in the Netherlands, he issued the Instruktionspunkte fur die gesamte Herren Generals, the last of 19 points setting out the roles of staff officers, dealing with offensive and defensive operations, while helping the Commander-in-chief. In 1796, Archduke Charles augmented these with his own Observationspunkte'', writing of the Chief of Staff: "he is duty bound to consider all possibilities related to operations and not view himself as merely carrying out those instructions". On 20 March 1801, Feldmarschalleutnant Duka became the world's first peacetime Generalquartiermeister at the head of the staff and the wartime role of the Chief of Staff was now focused on planning and operations to assist the Commander. Archduke Charles produced a new Dienstvorschrift on 1 September 1805, which divided the staff into three: 1) Political Correspondence; 2) the Operations Directorate, dealing with planning and intelligence; 3) the Service Directorate, dealing with administration, supply and military justice. The Archduke set out the position of a modern Chief of Staff: "The Chief of Staff stands at the side of the Commander-in-Chief and is completely at his disposal. His sphere of work connects him with no specific unit". "The Commander-in-Chief decides what should happen and how; his chief assistant works out these decisions, so that each subordinate understands his allotted task". With the creation of the Korps in 1809, each had a staff, whose chief was responsible for directing operations and executing the overall headquarters plan.
Issue
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! width="250" | Name
! width="125" | Birth
! width="125" | Death
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria || 31 July 1816 || 8 August 1867|| Married Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, had issue.
|-
| Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen || 3 August 1817 || 2 February 1895 || Married Princess Hildegard of Bavaria, had issue.
|-
| Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria || 29 July 1818 || 20 November 1874 || Married Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria, had issue.
|-
| Archduke Friedrich of Austria || 14 May 1821 || 5 October 1847 || Died unmarried.
|-
| Archduke Rudolph of Austria || 25 September 1822 || 11 October 1822 || Died in childhood.
|-
|Archduchess Maria Karoline of Austria || 10 September 1825 || 17 July 1915 || Married her first cousin Archduke Rainer of Austria, third son of Archduke Rainer of Austria and Princess Elisabeth of Savoy-Carignano.
|-
| Archduke Wilhelm Franz of Austria || 21 April 1827 || 29 July 1894 || Died unmarried.
|}
Honours
:
** Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1790
** Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, in Diamonds, 1793
* : Grand Cross of the Southern Cross
** Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class
* :
}}
Ancestry
Works
* Grundsätze der Kriegskunst für die Generale (1806)
* Grundsätze der Strategie erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs 1796 (1814)
* Geschichte des Feldzugs von 1799 in Deutschland und in der Schweiz (1819)
References
*
Further reading
* Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
* Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
* Criste, Oscar "Erzherzog Carl" (3 vols) (Vienna 1912)
* Eysturlid, Lee "The Formative Influences, Theories, and Campaigns of the Archduke Carl of Austria" (2000)
* Hertenberger, H & Wiltschek, F "Erzherzog Karl: der Sieger von Aspern" (1983)
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. ''Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792-1814''. Staplehurst: Spellmount, 1995.
External links
*
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Category:Sons of counts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.522006 |
2877 | Augustine of Canterbury | | diocese = Canterbury
| see = Canterbury
| appointed = Before 601
| ended = Probably 26 May 604
| predecessor = None''
| successor = Laurence of Canterbury
| other_post = Prior of Abbey of St Andrew's
| consecration
| birth_date = early 6th century, probably in Italy
| death_date = probably 26 May 604
| death_place = Canterbury, Kingdom of Kent
| buried = St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury
| feast_day
| venerated =
| canonized_date = Pre-congregation
| shrine =
}}
Augustine of Canterbury (early 6th century – most likely 26 May 604) was a Christian monk who became the first archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English".
Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was likely chosen because Æthelberht commanded major influence over neighbouring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in addition to his marriage to Bertha, a Frankish princess, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury.
King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint.
Background to the mission
After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius. Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360. After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning "church". There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures.
It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595. The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, and perhaps earlier than 560. Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage, she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent. Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman timespossibly the current St Martin's Church. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife's influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries. Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved.
Aside from Æthelberht's granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the bretwalda, or leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht's kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area. There is some evidence, including Gregory's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Bertha's Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well.
In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife's relatives and people. Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings.
Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine's knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior. Arrival and first efforts Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks. In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent. but it probably took place in 597. Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted. His baptism likely took place at Canterbury.
Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury. The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place.
Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine's Abbey, In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place. One other effect of the king's conversion by Augustine's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased.
After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success, along with questions about the mission. Bede records the letter and Gregory's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum.
Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books. The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. This move never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason, but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht's domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht's nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604. The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede's version of events, however. Additional work imagined in a statue at Canterbury Cathedral|altStone statue of a crowned man holding a sceptre.]]
In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester. Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, "recovered" a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury. The Latin word recuperauit could be translated either "repaired" or "recovered". Leo Sherley-Price translates the sentence as "Having been granted his episcopal see in the royal capital, as already recorded, Augustine proceeded with the king's help to repair a church he was informed had been built long ago by Roman Christians."}} It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral. The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity.
Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him, apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case. According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine's part. In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn. These guests retired early to confer with their people, they refused to recognise him as their archbishop. Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons.
Further success
Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use, and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr's life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus.
Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries' conduct.
The King's School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world's oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century. Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission. Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome. Death and legacy Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office. Although at the time of Augustine's death, 26 May 604, Much of his success came about because of Augustine's close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself. Augustine's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church.
Augustine's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine's, Canterbury, King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine's Abbey a six-day fair around the date on which Augustine's relics were translated to his new shrine, from 8 September through 13 September.
A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life portrays Augustine in a different light, compared to Bede's account. Goscelin's account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches. Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine's life, often quite fanciful. These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey, the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine, and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances. Another problem with investigating Augustine's saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo, a fourth-century saint. Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often, however. During the English Reformation, Augustine's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost.
Augustine's shrine was re-established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, Kent, very close to the mission's landing site. St Augustine's Cross, a Celtic cross erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where the newly arrived Augustine is said to have first met and preached to the awaiting King Ethelbert.
See also
* List of members of the Gregorian mission
Notes
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Category:Anglican saints | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.584440 |
2881 | Alexander of Hales | | image = Alexanderofhales.png
| caption = Doctor Alexander of (H)ales by George Glover. Line engraving, mid 17th century.
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Hales, Shropshire, England
| death_date = 21 August 1245
| death_place = Paris, France (aged 59-60)
| alma_mater = University of Paris
| institutions | school_tradition Scholasticism
| main_interests = Metaphysics, theology
| notable_works | notable_ideas }}
Alexander of Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius ; 21 August 1245)—known also as , or "Irrefutable Teacher" (so-called by Pope Alexander IV in the bull ), and as (or "King of Theologians")—was a Franciscan friar, theologian, and philosopher instrumental to the development of scholasticism.
Life
Alexander was born at Hales, Shropshire (today Halesowen, West Midlands), England, between 1180 and 1186. He came from a rather wealthy country family, studied at the University of Paris, and became a master of arts sometime before 1210. He began to read theology in 1212 or 1213, and became a regent master in 1220 or 1221. He introduced the Sentences of Peter Lombard as the basic textbook for the study of theology. During the University strike of 1229, Alexander participated in an embassy to Rome to discuss the place of Aristotle in the curriculum. Having held a prebend at Holborn (prior to 1229) and a canonry of St. Paul's in London (1226–1229), he visited England in 1230 and received a canonry and an archdeaconry in Coventry and Lichfield, his native diocese. He taught at Paris in the academic year 1232–33, but was appointed to a delegation by Henry III of England in 1235, along with Simon Langton and Fulk Basset, to negotiate the renewal of the peace between England and France.
In 1236 or 1237, aged about 50, Alexander entered the Franciscan Order after considering both the Cistercians and the Dominicans. He thus became the first Franciscan friar to hold a university chair. His doctrinal positions became the starting point of the Franciscan school of theology. He continued to teach and to represent the university, and participated in the First Council of Lyon in the winter of 1245.
After returning to Paris, Alexander fell ill, possibly due to an epidemic then sweeping the city. He passed his chair on to John of La Rochelle, setting the precedent for that chair to be held by a Franciscan, and soon after died in Paris on 21 August 1245.
As the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris, Alexander had many significant disciples. He was called Doctor Irrefragibilis (Irrefutable Teacher) and Doctor Doctorum (Teacher of Teachers). The latter title is especially suggestive of his role in educating several Franciscans who later became influential thinkers in the faculty, among them Bonaventure, John of La Rochelle, Odo Rigaldus, William of Middleton, and Richard Rufus of Cornwall. Bonaventure, who may not have studied under Alexander directly, nevertheless referred to him as his "father and master" and wished to "follow in his footsteps."Works
Alexander is known for reflecting the works of several other Middle Age thinkers, especially those of Anselm of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo. He was also known to quote thinkers such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Richard of Saint-Victor. He differs from those in his genre as he is known to reflect his own interests and those of his generation. When using the works of his authorities, Alexander does not only review their reasoning but also gives conclusions, expands on them, and offers his agreements and disagreement with them. He also differed in that he appealed to pre-Lombardian figures, and by referencing Anselm of Canterbury and Bernard of Clairvaux, whose works were not cited as frequently by other 12th-century scholastics. Aristotle is also quite frequently quoted in Alexander's works. Alexander was fascinated by the Pseudo-Dionysian hierarchy of angels and in how their nature can be understood, given Aristotelian metaphysics.
Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are the thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum (treasury of supererogatory merits) and the character indelibilis (sacramental character) of baptism, confirmation, and ordination. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by Augustine and was eventually defined a dogma by the Council of Trent. He also posed an important question about the cause of the Incarnation: would Christ have been incarnated if humanity had never sinned? The question eventually became the focal point for a philosophical issue (the theory of possible worlds) and a theological topic on the distinction between God's absolute power (potentia absoluta) and His ordained power (potentia ordinata).
Summa Universae Theologiae
Alexander wrote a summary and commentary of Peter Lombard's four books of the Sentences. It had exposed the trinitarian theology of the Greeks. This had been the most important writing that Alexander had claimed, and it had been the earliest in the genre. While it is common for scholars to state that Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is not quite accurate. Authorship is more contentious for this work; although he started this work, he died before it could be finished, and it most likely was more a product of people other than Alexander. There were a number of "commentaries" on the Sentences, but Alexander's appears to have been the first magisterial commentary. Although it was Alexander's most significant writing, it had not been completed, therefore leaving historians with many questions on the reliability and quality of the writing. This was taken into consideration when the Summa had been examined by Victorin Doucet for different editions of them. The sources has seem to be the resulting problem of the Summa, "counted there were 4814 explicit quotations and 1372 implicit quotations from Augustine, more than one quarter of texts were cited in the body of the Summa.
Of Alexander's Summa, which was on one occasion proclaimed by an assembly of seventy doctors to be infallible, Roger Bacon declared that, though it was as heavy as the weight of a horse, it was full of errors and displayed ignorance of physics, of metaphysics, and even of logic.
Other historical works
Alexander also influenced and sometimes is confused with Alexander Carpenter, Latinized as Fabricius (fl. 1429), who was the author of the Destructorium viciorum, a religious work popular in the 15th and 16th centuries. Carpenter also authored other works, such as Homiliae eruditae ("Learned Sermons").Historiographical contributionAlexander was said to have been among the earliest scholastics to engage with Aristotle's newly translated writings. Between 1220 and 1227, he wrote Glossa in quatuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (A Gloss on the Four Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard) (composed in the mid-12th century), which was particularly important because it was the first time that a book other than the Bible was used as a basic text for theological study. This steered the development of scholasticism in a more systematic direction, inaugurating an important tradition of writing commentaries on the Sentences as a fundamental step in the training of master theologians.
A medieval scholastic
In doing so, he elevated Lombard's work from a mere theological resource to the basic framework of questions and problems from which masters could teach. The commentary (or more correctly titled a Gloss) survived in student reports from Alexander's teaching in the classroom and so it provides a major insight into the way theologians taught their discipline in the 1220s. As is the case with Glossa and Quaestiones Disputatae, much of his work is probably written in the form of notes on his oral teachings by students, though the content is definitely his.
For his contemporaries, however, Alexander's fame was his inexhaustible interest in disputation. His disputations prior to his becoming a Franciscan cover over 1,600 pages in their modern edition. His disputed questions after 1236 remain unpublished. Alexander was also one of the first scholastics to participate in the Quodlibeta, a university event in which a master had to respond to any question posed by any student or master over a period of three days. Alexander's Quodlibetal Questions also remain unedited.
Theologian
At the beginning of 1236, he entered the Franciscan order (he was at least 50) and was the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris. He held this post until shortly before his death in Paris in 1245. When he became a Franciscan and thus created a formal Franciscan school of theology at Paris, it was soon clear that his students lacked some of the basic tools for the discipline. Alexander responded by beginning a Summa theologiae that is now known as the Summa fratris Alexandri. Alexander drew mainly from his own disputations, but also selected ideas, arguments and sources from his contemporaries. It treats in its first part the doctrines of God and his attributes; in its second, those of creation and sin; in its third, those of redemption and atonement; and, in its fourth and last, those of the sacraments. This massive text, which Roger Bacon would later sarcastically describe as weighing as much as a horse, was unfinished at his death; his students, William of Middleton and John of Rupella, were charged with its completion. It was certainly read by the Franciscans at Paris, including Bonaventure.
Alexander was an innovative theologian. He was part of the generation that first grappled with the writings of Aristotle. While there was a ban on using Aristotle's works as teaching texts, theologians like Alexander continued to exploit his ideas in their theology. Two other uncommon sources were promoted by Alexander: Anselm of Canterbury, whose writings had been ignored for almost a century, gained an important advocate in Alexander and he used Anselm's works extensively in his teaching on Christology and soteriology; and, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whom Alexander used in his examination of the theology of Orders and ecclesiastical structures.
Though he also continued the tradition of Aristotle- and Augustine-focused thought in the Franciscan school, he did so through an Anselm-directed lens. In fact, Alexander was one of the major influences for the advancement of Anselmian thought in the 13th century. One such example is the idea of original sin as a lack of justice. Alexander believed that original sin is both a punishment as well as a cause for punishment. That is to say, the body is corrupt, but the soul is clean. Alexander advances the idea that it would not be God's fault to create a being that would bind the ‘corrupt’ with the ‘clean’. He advanced a highly original response that the soul naturally desires the body. Consequently, God is both merciful in giving the soul what it wants, as well as just in punishing the soul for binding with the corrupt flesh. Either the soul knew that the body was corrupt, or it did not (in which case it would be “laboring under ignorance”); both of these considerations are cause for divine punishment.
Alexander is also known for rejecting the idea that there are many things in God's mind, instead claiming that it is more perfect to know just one thing. He did not start off with this view, though. In the Glossa, he openly suggests the idea of the multiplicity of divine ideas. In his later work, Quaestio disputata antequam erat Frater 46, he finally rejects the plurality of divine ideas, and this theme continues through the rest of his works. Specifically, in one of his last works, De scientia divina, he concludes that the idea of plurality itself is strictly temporal, a human notion.
One of his more famous works, the Summa, is important because of its system for determining if a war is just. There are six requirements for determining this: authority and attitude (in reference to who declares the war), intention and condition (in reference to the soldiers), merit (of the enemy) and just cause. Just cause becomes the overarching moral principle for declaring war in three ways: the relief of good people, coercion of the wicked, and peace for all. It is important to note that Alexander put ‘peace for all’ at the end of the list to amplify its importance.
Writings
]]
*Alexander of Hales. Glossa in quatuor libros sententiarum Petri Lombardi. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 12–15. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1951–1957.
*Alexander of Hales. Quaestiones disputatae antequam esset frater. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 19–21. Quaracchi: Collegii S. Bonaventurae,1960.
*Alexander of Hales (attributed). Summa universis theologiae, (Summa fratris Alexandri), edited by Bernardini Klumper and the Quaracchi Fathers, 4 vols. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1924–1948.
Notes
Further reading
*
*
* Boehner, Philotheus. The History of the Franciscan School, I. Alexander of Hales; II. John of Rupella – Saint Bonaventure; III. Duns Scotus; Pt. IV. William Ockham, St. Bonaventure, N.Y. : St. Bonaventure University, 1943–1946.
* Brady, Ignatius. C. “Sacred Scripture in the early franciscan school', in La Sacra Scrittura e i francescani. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Rome, 1973, 65-82.
*
* Coolman, Boyd Taylor. “Alexander of Hales,” in The Spiritual Senses: Perceiving God in Western Christianity, edited by Paul L. Gavrilyuk and Sarah Coakley. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011, 121–139.
* }}Cullen, Christopher M. “Alexander of Hales,” in Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, edited by Jorge J.E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, 104–109.
*
* Fornaro, Italo. ''La teologia dell'immagine nella Glossa di Alessandro di Hales Vicenza, 1985.
* Osborne, Kenan B. “Alexander of Hales,” in The History of Franciscan Theology edited by idem. St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994.
* Peter Lombard. Sententiarum libri quattuor. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Spicilegium Bonaventurianum 4, 5. Grottaferrata: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1971–1981. English translation by Giulio Silano, The Sentences''. 4 vols. Toronto: PIMS, 2007–2010.
*
*
*
*Young, Abigail A. “Accessus ad Alexandrum: the Prefatio to the Postilla in Iohannis Euangelium of Alexander of Hales (1186?-1245).” Mediaeval Studies 52 (1990), 1-23.
External links
*
*
Category:1180s births
Category:1245 deaths
Category:People from Halesowen
Category:13th-century English Roman Catholic priests
Category:Catholic philosophers
Category:English Roman Catholic theologians
Category:English Friars Minor
Category:Scholastic philosophers
Category:13th-century English philosophers
Category:13th-century English Roman Catholic theologians
Category:Writers from Shropshire
Category:Scholasticism
Category:Clergy from Shropshire
Category:Systematic theologians
Category:University of Paris alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.619920 |
2883 | Active Server Pages | }}
| genre = Web application framework
| license = Proprietary software
| website =
}}
Active Server Pages (ASP) is Microsoft's first server-side scripting language and engine for dynamic web pages.
It was first released in December 1996, before being superseded in January 2002 by ASP.NET.
History
Initially released as an add-on to Internet Information Services (IIS) via the Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack (1996), it is included as a component of Windows Server (since the initial release of Windows 2000 Server). There have been three versions of ASP, each introduced with different versions of IIS:
* ASP 1.0 was released in December 1996 as part of IIS 3.0
* ASP 2.0 was released in September 1997 as part of IIS 4.0
* ASP 3.0 was released in November 2000 as part of IIS 5.0
ASP 2.0 provides six built-in objects: Application, ASPError, Request, Response, Server, and Session. A <code>Session</code> object, for example, represents a session that maintains the state of variables from page to page. The Active Scripting engine's support of the Component Object Model enables ASP websites to access functionality in compiled libraries such as dynamic-link libraries.
ASP 3.0 does not differ greatly from ASP 2.0 but it does offer some additional enhancements such as Server.Transfer method, Server.Execute method, and an enhanced ASPError object. ASP 3.0 also enables buffering by default and optimized the engine for better performance.
ASP was supported until 14 January 2020 on Windows 7. The use of ASP pages will be supported on Windows 8 for a minimum of 10 years from the Windows 8 release date. Architecture ASP uses scripting on the server to generate content that is sent to the client's web browser via HTTP response. The ASP interpreter reads and executes all script code between <% and %> tags, the result of which is content generation. These scripts were written using VBScript, JScript, or PerlScript. The <code>@Language</code> directive, the syntax or server configuration can be used to select the language. In the example below, Response.Write Now() is in an HTML page; it would be dynamically replaced by the current time of the server.
{|
! Server side !! Client Side
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|<syntaxhighlight lang="aspx-vb">The server's current time:
<%
Response.Write Now()
%>
</syntaxhighlight>
|<syntaxhighlight lang="output">The server's current time:
8/11/2015 6:24:45 PM</syntaxhighlight>
|}
Web pages with the .asp filename extension use ASP, although some web sites disguise their choice of scripting language for security purposes by using the more common .htm or .html extensions. Pages with the .aspx extension use compiled ASP.NET; however, ASP.NET pages may still include some ASP scripting. The introduction of ASP.NET led to use of the term Classic ASP for the original technology.
Sun Java System ASP (formerly ChiliSoft ASP) was a popular and reportedly complete emulator, but it has been discontinued.
The Server object
The server object allows connections to databases (ADO), filesystem, and use of components installed on the server.
<syntaxhighlight lang="vbscript">
<%
Dim oAdoCon, oAdoRec, oAdoStm, oCdoCon, oCdoMsg, oSciDic, oSciFsm, oMswAdr
Set oAdoCon = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Connection")
Set oAdoRec = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Recordset")
Set oAdoStm = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Stream")
Set oCdoCon = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Configuration")
Set oCdoMsg = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Message")
Set oSciDic = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.Dictionary")
Set oSciFsm = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.FileSystemObject")
Set oMswAdr = Server.CreateObject("MSWC.Swingbridge")
%>
</syntaxhighlight>
The Application object
This object stores global variables, which are variables accessible to all users.
<syntaxhighlight lang="aspx-vb">
<%
Application("Ali") = "My ASP Application"
Response.Write "Welcome to " & Server.HTMLEncode(Application("Ali")) & "!"
%>
</syntaxhighlight>
The Session object
Stores variables accessible only to a single visitor, which are local variables.
<syntaxhighlight lang="vbscript">
<%
If Len(Request.QueryString("name")) > 0 Then
Session("name") = Request.QueryString("name")
End If
Response.Write "Welcome " & Server.HTMLEncode(Session("name")) & "!"
%>
</syntaxhighlight>
The session object is file based and multiple concurrent read and/or write requests will be blocked and processed in turn.
The Err object
Allows the management and fixing of non-fatal errors.
<syntaxhighlight Lang="vbscript">
<%
On Error Resume Next
Response.Write 1 / 0 ' Division by zero
If Err.Number <> 0 Then
Response.Write "Error Code: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Number) & "<br />"
Response.Write "Error Source: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Source) & "<br />"
Response.Write "Error Description: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Description) & "<br />"
Err.Clear
End If
%>
</syntaxhighlight>
See also
* ASP.NET
* Template processor
* Comparison of web template engines
* Jakarta Server Pages
* PHP
* Common Gateway Interface
References
External links
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* [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa286483.aspx ASP on MSDN]
* [http://support.microsoft.com/kb/2669020 Microsoft Support for ASP on Windows]
* [http://www.iis.net/learn/application-frameworks/running-classic-asp-applications-on-iis-7-and-iis-8/classic-asp-applications-on-iis-overview Classic ASP Applications on IIS 7.0 and IIS 7.5 Overview]
* [http://www.classicasp.org/ Primitive Classic ASP Framework (XML, JSON, BENCODE)]
Category:Microsoft server technology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Server_Pages | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.628477 |
2885 | Amoxicillin | | tradename Amoxil, Trimox, others
| legal_US = Rx-only
| legal_US_comment
| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV -->
| legal_UN_comment | legal_status Rx-only
<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->
| bioavailability Oral: 60%
| protein_bound 17%
| density_notes | melting_point
| melting_high | melting_notes
| boiling_point | boiling_notes
| solubility | sol_units
| specific_rotation =
}}
<!-- Definition and uses -->
Amoxicillin is an antibiotic medication belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to treat bacterial infections
<!-- Adverse effects and mechanism -->
Common adverse effects include nausea and rash. It should not be used in those who are allergic to penicillin. Amoxil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1974, It is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics in children. Amoxicillin is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses
]]
Amoxicillin is used in the treatment of a number of infections, including acute otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, skin infections, urinary tract infections, Salmonella infections, Lyme disease, and chlamydia infections.
Acute otitis media
Children with acute otitis media who are younger than six months of age are generally treated with amoxicillin or other antibiotics. Although most children with acute otitis media who are older than two years old do not benefit from treatment with amoxicillin or other antibiotics, such treatment may be helpful in children younger than two years old with acute otitis media that is bilateral or accompanied by ear drainage. In the past, amoxicillin was dosed three times daily when used to treat acute otitis media, which resulted in missed doses in routine ambulatory practice. There is now evidence that two-times daily dosing or once-daily dosing has similar effectiveness.
Respiratory infections
Most sinusitis infections are caused by viruses, for which amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate are ineffective, and the small benefit gained by amoxicillin may be overridden by the adverse effects.
Amoxicillin is considered the first-line empirical treatment for most cases of uncomplicated bacterial sinusitis in children and adults when culture data is unavailable. Amoxicillin is recommended as the preferred first-line treatment for community-acquired pneumonia in adults by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, either alone (mild to moderate severity disease) or in combination with a macrolide. Research suggests that is as effective as co-amoxiclav (a broad-spectrum antibiotic) for people admitted to hospital with pneumonia, regardless of its severity. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends amoxicillin as first-line treatment for pneumonia that is not "severe". Amoxicillin is used in post-exposure inhalation of anthrax to prevent disease progression and for prophylaxis.Lyme borreliosisAmoxicillin is effective for the treatment of early cutaneous Lyme borreliosis; the effectiveness and safety of oral amoxicillin is neither better nor worse than common alternatively-used antibiotics.Odontogenic infectionsAmoxicillin is used to treat odontogenic infections, infections of the tongue, lips, and other oral tissues. It may be prescribed following a tooth extraction, particularly in those with compromised immune systems.Skin infectionsAmoxicillin is occasionally used for the treatment of skin infections, It is often an effective treatment for cases of acne vulgaris that have responded poorly to other antibiotics, such as doxycycline and minocycline.Infections in infants in resource-limited settingsAmoxicillin is recommended by the World Health Organization for the treatment of infants with signs and symptoms of pneumonia in resource-limited situations when the parents are unable or unwilling to accept hospitalization of the child. Amoxicillin in combination with gentamicin is recommended for the treatment of infants with signs of other severe infections when hospitalization is not an option.Prevention of bacterial endocarditisIt is also used to prevent bacterial endocarditis and as a pain-reliever in high-risk people having dental work done, to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae and other encapsulated bacterial infections in those without spleens, such as people with sickle-cell disease, and for both the prevention and the treatment of anthrax. These recommendations do not appear to have changed the rates of infection for infectious endocarditis.
Combination treatment
Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by β-lactamase-producing bacteria, which are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin. For this reason, it may be combined with clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor. This drug combination is commonly called co-amoxiclav.
Spectrum of activity
It is a moderate-spectrum, bacteriolytic, β-lactam antibiotic in the aminopenicillin family used to treat susceptible Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is usually the drug of choice within the class because it is better absorbed, following oral administration, than other β-lactam antibiotics.
In general, Streptococcus, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus, Haemophilus, Helicobacter, and Moraxella are susceptible to amoxicillin, whereas Citrobacter, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are resistant to it. Some E. coli and most clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus have developed resistance to amoxicillin to varying degrees.Adverse effects
Adverse effects are similar to those for other β-lactam antibiotics, including nausea, vomiting, rashes, and antibiotic-associated colitis. Diarrhea (loose bowel movements) may also occur.
Rarer adverse effects include mental and behavioral changes, lightheadedness, insomnia, hyperactivity, agitation, confusion, anxiety, sensitivity to lights and sounds, and unclear thinking. Immediate medical care is required upon the first signs of these adverse effects. Amoxicillin-induced neurotoxicity has been especially associated with concentrations of greater than 110mg/L.
The onset of an allergic reaction to amoxicillin can be very sudden and intense; emergency medical attention must be sought as quickly as possible. The initial phase of such a reaction often starts with a change in mental state, skin rash with intense itching (often beginning in the fingertips and around the groin area and rapidly spreading), and sensations of fever, nausea, and vomiting. Any other symptoms that seem even remotely suspicious must be taken very seriously. However, more mild allergy symptoms, such as a rash, can occur at any time during treatment, even up to a week after treatment has ceased. For some people allergic to amoxicillin, the adverse effects can be fatal due to anaphylaxis.
There is poor reporting of adverse effects of amoxicillin from clinical trials. For this reason, the severity and frequency of adverse effects from amoxicillin are probably higher than reported in clinical trials.
The rash is described as maculopapular or morbilliform (measles-like; therefore, in medical literature, it is called "amoxicillin-induced morbilliform rash".). It starts on the trunk and can spread from there. This rash is unlikely to be a true allergic reaction and is not a contraindication for future amoxicillin usage, nor should the current regimen necessarily be stopped. However, this common amoxicillin rash and a dangerous allergic reaction cannot easily be distinguished by inexperienced persons, so a healthcare professional is often required to distinguish between the two.
A nonallergic amoxicillin rash may also be an indicator of infectious mononucleosis. Some studies indicate about 80–90% of patients with acute Epstein–Barr virus infection treated with amoxicillin or ampicillin develop such a rash.
<gallery mode"packed" widths"360px" heights="220">
Image:Amoxicillin rash 3 hours after 17th dose.JPG|Nonallergic amoxicillin rash eight days after first dose: This photo was taken 24 hours after the rash began.
Image:Amoxicillin rash 11 hours after 17th dose.JPG|Eight hours after the first photo, individual spots have grown and begun to merge.
Image:Amoxicillin rash 26 hours after 17th dose.JPG|At 23 hours after the first photo, the color appears to be fading, and much of rash has spread to confluence.
</gallery>
Interactions
Amoxicillin may interact with these drugs:
* Anticoagulants (dabigatran, warfarin).
* Methotrexate (chemotherapy and immunosuppressant).
* Allopurinol (gout treatment).
* Mycophenolate (immunosuppressant) Amoxicillin diffuses easily into tissues and body fluids. It will cross the placenta and is excreted into breastmilk in small quantities. It is metabolized by the liver and excreted into the urine. It has an onset of 30 minutes and a half-life of 3.7 hours in newborns and 1.4 hours in adults. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the bacterial cell wall. It has two ionizable groups in the physiological range (the amino group in alpha-position to the amide carbonyl group and the carboxyl group).
Chemistry
Amoxicillin is a β-lactam and aminopenicillin antibiotic in terms of chemical structure. It is described as an "ambiphilic"—between hydrophilic and lipophilic—antibiotic.
History
Amoxicillin was one of several semisynthetic derivatives of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) developed by the Beecham Group in the 1960s. It was invented by Anthony Alfred Walter Long and John Herbert Charles Nayler, two British scientists. It became available in 1972 and was the second aminopenicillin to reach the market (after ampicillin in 1961). Co-amoxiclav became available in 1981. In 2022, a survey of eight generic antibiotics commonly prescribed in the United States found their average cost to be about $42.67, while amoxicillin was sold for $12.14 on average.
Modes of delivery
Pharmaceutical manufacturers make amoxicillin in trihydrate form, for oral use available as capsules, regular, chewable and dispersible tablets, syrup and pediatric suspension for oral use, and as the sodium salt for intravenous administration.
An extended-release is available. The intravenous form of amoxicillin is not sold in the United States. When an intravenous aminopenicillin is required in the United States, ampicillin is typically used. When there is an adequate response to ampicillin, the course of antibiotic therapy may often be completed with oral amoxicillin.
Research with mice indicated successful delivery using intraperitoneally injected amoxicillin-bearing microparticles.Names
<!-- DO NOT ADD DRUG NAMES HERE. THERE ARE TOO MANY TO LIST IN WIKIPEDIA -->
Amoxicillin is the international nonproprietary name (INN), British Approved Name (BAN), and United States Adopted Name (USAN), while amoxycillin is the Australian Approved Name (AAN).
Amoxicillin is one of the semisynthetic penicillins discovered by the former pharmaceutical company Beecham Group. The patent for amoxicillin has expired, thus amoxicillin and co-amoxiclav preparations are marketed under various brand names across the world.
<!-- DO NOT ADD DRUG NAMES HERE. THERE ARE TOO MANY TO LIST IN WIKIPEDIA -->
Veterinary uses
Amoxicillin is also sometimes used as an antibiotic for animals. The use of amoxicillin for animals intended for human consumption (chickens, cattle, and swine for example) has been approved.
References
Further reading
*
Category:Carboxylic acids
Category:Enantiopure drugs
Category:Drugs developed by GSK plc
Category:Lyme disease
Category:Penicillins
Category:Phenethylamines
Category:4-Hydroxyphenyl compounds
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Category:World Health Organization essential medicines | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoxicillin | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.671192 |
2889 | Amorphous solid | In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is a characteristic of a crystal. The terms "glass" and "glassy solid" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition. Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers.
Etymology
The term "Amorphous" comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form").
Structure
Amorphous materials have an internal structure of molecular-scale structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units in the crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range regularity exists: amorphous materials cannot be described by the repetition of a finite unit cell. Statistical measures, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids. Medium range order may extend beyond the short range order by 1-2 nm. For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids.
On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunnelling two-level systems. Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research.
Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials. This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunnelling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett.
Nano-structured materials
Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding. Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short-size scales. Characterization of amorphous solids Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids. A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials.
X-ray and neutron diffraction
Unlike crystalline materials, which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks. As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data. Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance. From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated.
X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy
X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long-range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found. Atomic electron tomography The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question and then used to reconstruct a 3D image. After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion. Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode. According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (T<sub>h</sub>) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature. Superconductivity
s have low toughness, but high strength]]
Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch. The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity. Thermal protection Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity. Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO<sub>2</sub> layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells.
Pharmaceutical use
In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together. Studies of GDC-0810 ASDs show a strong interrelationship between microstructure, physical properties and dissolution performance. In soils Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials.
Phase
Amorphous phases were a phenomenon of particular interest for the study of thin-film growth. The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films. Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald's rule of stages that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability.<ref name"Buck1961"/><ref name"Birk2001"/>
Notes
References
Further reading
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*
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Category:Phases of matter
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2890 | A Wizard of Earthsea | | country = United States
| language = English
| series = Earthsea
| genre = Fantasy, Bildungsroman
| published = 1968
| publisher Parnassus Press
| pages 205 (first edition)
| oclc = 1210
| congress = PZ7.L5215 Wi
| preceded_by_quotation_marks = The Rule of Names
| followed_by = The Tombs of Atuan
}}
A Wizard of Earthsea is a fantasy novel written by American author Ursula K. Le Guin and first published by the small press Parnassus in 1968. It is regarded as a classic of children's literature and of fantasy, within which it is widely influential. The story is set in the fictional archipelago of Earthsea and centers on a young mage named Ged, born in a village on the island of Gont. He displays great power while still a boy and joins a school of wizardry, where his prickly nature drives him into conflict with a fellow student. During a magical duel, Ged's spell goes awry and releases a shadow creature that attacks him. The novel follows Ged's journey as he seeks to be free of the creature.
The book has often been described as a bildungsroman, or coming-of-age story, as it explores Ged's process of learning to cope with power and come to terms with death. The novel also carries Taoist themes about a fundamental balance in the universe of Earthsea, which wizards are supposed to maintain, closely tied to the idea that language and names have power to affect the material world and alter this balance. The structure of the story is similar to that of a traditional epic, although critics have also described it as subverting this genre in many ways, such as by making the protagonist dark-skinned in contrast to more typical white-skinned heroes.
A Wizard of Earthsea received highly positive reviews, initially as a work for children and later among a general audience. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969 and was one of the final recipients of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1979. Margaret Atwood called it one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature. Le Guin wrote five subsequent books that are collectively referred to as the Earthsea Cycle, together with A Wizard of Earthsea: The Tombs of Atuan (1971), The Farthest Shore (1972), Tehanu (1990), The Other Wind (2001), and Tales from Earthsea (2001). George Slusser described the series as a "work of high style and imagination", while Amanda Craig said that A Wizard of Earthsea was "the most thrilling, wise, and beautiful children's novel ever". Background Early concepts for the Earthsea setting were developed in two short stories, "The Rule of Names" (1964) and "The Word of Unbinding" (1964), both published in Fantastic. The stories were later collected in anthology ''The Wind's Twelve Quarters (1975). Earthsea was also used as the setting for a story she wrote in 1965 or 1966, which was never published. In 1967, Herman Schein (the publisher of Parnassus Press and the husband of Ruth Robbins, the illustrator of the book) asked Le Guin to try writing a book "for older kids", giving her complete freedom over the subject and the approach. She had no previous experience specifically with the genre of young adult literature, which rose in prominence during the late 1960s. Drawing from her short stories, she began work on A Wizard of Earthsea''. She has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to wondering where they come from. She later said that she chose the medium of fantasy, and the theme of coming of age, with her intended adolescent audience in mind.
The short stories published in 1964 introduced the world of Earthsea and important concepts in it, such as Le Guin's treatment of magic. "The Rule of Names" also introduced Yevaud, a dragon who features briefly in A Wizard of Earthsea. Her depiction of Earthsea was influenced by her familiarity with Native American legends as well as Norse mythology. Her knowledge of myths and legends, as well as her familial interest in anthropology, have been described by scholar Donna White as allowing her to create "entire cultures" for the islands of Earthsea. The influence of Norse lore in particular can be seen in the characters of the Kargs, who are blonde and blue-eyed, and worship two gods who are brothers. The influence of Taoist thought on Le Guin's writing is also visible in the idea of a cosmic "balance". Book Setting
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Earthsea itself is an archipelago, or group of islands. In the fictional history of this world, the islands were raised from the ocean by a being called Segoy. The world is inhabited by both humans and dragons, and most or all humans have some innate magical gift, some are more gifted sorcerers or wizards. The world is shown as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. Earthsea is pre-industrial and has diverse cultures within the widespread archipelago. Most of the characters are of the Hardic peoples, who are dark-skinned, and who populate most of the islands. Four large eastern islands are inhabited by the white-skinned Kargish people, who despise magic and see the Hardic folk as evil sorcerers: the Kargs, in turn, are viewed by the Hardic people as barbarians. The far western regions of the archipelago are the realm of the dragons.
Plot summary
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The novel follows a young boy called Duny, nicknamed "Sparrowhawk", born on the island of Gont. Discovering that the boy has great innate power, his aunt, a witch, teaches him the little magic she knows. When his village is attacked by Kargish raiders, Duny summons a fog to conceal the village and its inhabitants, enabling the residents to drive off the Kargs. Hearing of this, the powerful mage Ogion takes him as an apprentice, and later gives him his "true name"—Ged. Ogion tries to teach Ged about the "equilibrium", the concept that magic can upset the natural order of the world if used improperly. In an attempt to impress a girl, however, Ged searches Ogion's spell books and inadvertently summons a strange shadow, which has to be banished by Ogion. Sensing Ged's eagerness to act and impatience with his slow teaching methods, Ogion asks if he would rather go to the renowned school for wizards on the island of Roke. Ged loves Ogion, but decides to go to the school.
At the school, Ged meets Jasper, and is immediately on bad terms with him. He is befriended by an older student named Vetch, but generally remains aloof from anyone else. Ged's skills inspire admiration from teachers and students alike. He finds a small creature—an otak, named Hoeg, and keeps it as a pet. During a festival, Jasper acts condescendingly towards Ged, provoking the latter's proud nature. Ged challenges him to a duel of magic, and casts a powerful spell intended to raise the spirit of a legendary dead woman. The spell goes awry and instead releases a shadow creature, which attacks him and scars his face. The Archmage Nemmerle drives the shadow away, but at the cost of his life.
Ged spends many months healing before resuming his studies. The new Archmage, Gensher, describes the shadow as an ancient evil that wishes to possess Ged, and warns him that the creature has no name. Ged eventually graduates and receives his wizard's staff. He then takes up residence in the Ninety Isles, providing the poor villagers protection from the dragons that have seized and taken up residence on the nearby island of Pendor, but discovers that he is still being sought by the shadow. Knowing that he cannot guard against both threats at the same time, he sails to Pendor and gambles his life on a guess of the adult dragon's true name. When he is proved right, the dragon offers to tell him the name of the shadow, but Ged instead extracts a promise that the dragon and his offspring will never threaten the archipelago.
Chased by the shadow, Ged flees to Osskil, having heard of the stone of the Terrenon. He is attacked by the shadow, and barely escapes into the Court of Terrenon. Serret, the lady of the castle, and the same girl that Ged had tried to impress, shows him the stone, and urges Ged to speak to it, claiming it can give him limitless knowledge and power. Recognizing that the stone harbors one of the Old Powers—ancient, powerful, malevolent beings—Ged refuses. He flees and is pursued by the stone's minions, but transforms into a swift falcon and escapes as Serret, having taken the form of a gull, is killed. Ged also loses his otak to the shadow.
Ged flies back to Ogion on Gont. Unlike Gensher, Ogion insists that all creatures have a name and advises Ged to confront the shadow. Ogion is proved right; when Ged seeks out the shadow, it flees from him. Ged pursues it in a small sailboat, until it lures him into a fog where the boat is wrecked on a reef. Ged recovers with the help of an elderly couple marooned on a small island since they were children; the woman gives Ged part of a broken bracelet as a gift. Ged patches his boat and resumes his pursuit of the creature into the East Reach. On the island of Iffish, he meets his friend Vetch, who insists on joining him. They journey east far beyond the last known lands before they finally come upon the shadow. Naming it with his own name, Ged merges with it and joyfully tells Vetch he is healed and whole. Illustrations The first edition of the book, published in 1968, was illustrated by Ruth Robbins. The cover illustration was in color, and the interior of the book contained a map of the archipelago of Earthsea. In addition, each chapter had a black-and-white illustration by Robbins, similar to a woodcut image. The images represented topics from each chapter; for instance, the very first image depicted the island of Gont, while the illustration for the chapter "The Dragon of Pendor" pictured a flying dragon. The image shown here depicts Ged sailing in his boat Lookfar, and was used in the 10th chapter, "The Open Sea", in which Ged and Vetch travel from Iffish eastward past all known lands to confront the shadow creature.PublicationA Wizard of Earthsea was first published in 1968 by Parnassus Press in Berkeley, a year before The Left Hand of Darkness, Le Guin's watershed work. It was a personal landmark for Le Guin, as it represented her first attempt at writing for children; she had written only a handful of other novels and short stories prior to its publication. The book was also her first attempt at writing fantasy, rather than science fiction. A Wizard of Earthsea was the first of books to receive widespread critical attention, and has been described as her best known work, as part of the Earthsea series. The book has been released in numerous editions, including an illustrated Folio Society edition released in 2015. It was also translated into a number of other languages. An omnibus edition of all of Le Guin's Earthsea works was released on the 50th anniversary of the publication of A Wizard of Earthsea in 2018.
Le Guin originally intended for A Wizard of Earthsea to be a standalone novel, but decided to write a sequel after considering the loose ends in the first book, and The Tombs of Atuan was released in 1971. The Farthest Shore was written as a third volume after further consideration, and was published in 1972. The Tombs of Atuan tells of the story of Ged's attempt to make whole the ring of Erreth Akbe, half of which is buried in the tombs of Atuan in the Kargish lands, from where he must steal it. There, he meets the child priestess Tenar, on whom the book focuses. In The Farthest Shore, Ged, who has become Archmage, tries to combat a dwindling of magic across Earthsea, accompanied by Arren, a young prince. The first three books are together seen as the "original trilogy"; in each of these, Ged is shown as trying to heal some imbalance in the world. They were followed by Tehanu (1990), Tales from Earthsea (2001), and The Other Wind (2001), which are sometimes referred to as the "second trilogy".
Reception
As children's literature
Initial recognition for the book was from children's-book critics, among whom it garnered acclaim. A Wizard of Earthsea received an even more positive response in the United Kingdom when it was released there in 1971, which, according to White, reflected the greater admiration of British critics for children's fantasy. In her 1975 annotated collection Fantasy for Children, British critic Naomi Lewis described it in the following terms: "[It is not] the easiest book for casual browsing, but readers who take the step will find themselves in one of the most important works of fantasy of our time." Similarly, literary scholar Margaret Esmonde wrote in 1981 that "Le Guin has ... enriched children's literature with what may be its finest high fantasy", while a review in The Guardian by author and journalist Amanda Craig said it was "The most thrilling, wise and beautiful children's novel ever, [written] in prose as taut and clean as a ship's sail."
In discussing the book for a gathering of children's librarians, Eleanor Cameron praised the world building in the story, saying "it is as if [Le Guin] herself has lived on the archipelago." Author David Mitchell called the titular character Ged a "superb creation", and argued that he was a more relatable wizard than those featured in prominent works of fantasy at the time. According to him, characters such as Gandalf were "variants on the archetype of Merlin, a Caucasian scholarly aristocrat amongst sorcerers" with little room to grow, whereas Ged developed as a character through his story. Mitchell also praised the other characters in the story, who he said seemed to have a "fully thought-out inner life" despite being fleeting presences. The 1995 Encyclopedia of Science Fiction said that the Earthsea books had been considered the finest science fiction books for children in the post-World War II period.As fantasy
Commentators have noted that the Earthsea novels in general received less critical attention because they were considered children's books. Le Guin herself took exception to this treatment of children's literature, describing it as "adult chauvinist piggery". In 1976, literary scholar George Slusser criticized the "silly publication classification designating the original series as 'children's literature. Barbara Bucknall stated that "Le Guin was not writing for young children when she wrote these fantasies, nor yet for adults. She was writing for 'older kids.' But in fact she can be read, like Tolkien, by ten-year-olds and by adults. These stories are ageless because they deal with problems that confront us at any age." Only in later years did A Wizard of Earthsea receive attention from a more general audience. Literary scholar Tom Shippey was among the first to treat A Wizard of Earthsea as serious literature, assuming in his analysis of the volume that it belonged alongside works by C. S. Lewis and Fyodor Dostoevsky, among others. Margaret Atwood said that she saw the book as "a fantasy book for adults", and added that the book could be categorized as either young adult fiction or as fantasy, but since it dealt with themes such as "life and mortality and who are we as human beings", it could be read and enjoyed by anybody older than twelve. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction echoed this view, saying the series's appeal went "far beyond" the young adults for whom it was written. It went on to praise the book as "austere but vivid", and said the series was more thoughtful than the Narnia books by C. S. Lewis.
In his 1980 history of fantasy, Brian Attebery called the Earthsea trilogy "the most challenging and richest American fantasy to date". Slusser described the Earthsea cycle as a "work of high style and imagination", and the original trilogy of books a product of "genuine epic vision". In 1974, critic Robert Scholes compared Le Guin's work favorably to that of C. S. Lewis, saying, "Where C. S. Lewis worked out a specifically Christian set of values, Ursula LeGuin works not with a theology but with an ecology, a cosmology, a reverence for the universe as a self-regulating structure." He added that Le Guin's three Earthsea novels were themselves a sufficient legacy for anybody to leave. In 2014, David Pringle called it "a beautiful story—poetic, thrilling, and profound".
Accolades
A Wizard of Earthsea won or contributed to several awards for Le Guin. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969, and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award ten years later. In 1984 it won the or the "Golden Sepulka" in Poland. In 2000 Le Guin was given the Margaret A. Edwards Award by the American Library Association for young adult literature. The award cited six of her works, including the first four Earthsea volumes, The Left Hand of Darkness, and The Beginning Place. A 1987 poll in Locus ranked A Wizard of Earthsea third among "All-Time Best Fantasy Novels", while in 2014 Pringle listed it at number 39 in his list of the 100 best novels in modern fantasy.
Influence
The book has been seen as widely influential within the genre of fantasy. Margaret Atwood has called A Wizard of Earthsea one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature. The book has been compared to major works of high fantasy such as J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The notion that names can exert power is also present in Hayao Miyazaki's 2001 film Spirited Away; critics have suggested that that idea originated with Le Guin's Earthsea series. Novelist David Mitchell, author of books such as Cloud Atlas, described A Wizard of Earthsea as having a strong influence on him, and said that he felt a desire to "wield words with the same power as Ursula Le Guin".
Modern writers have credited A Wizard of Earthsea for introducing the idea of a "wizard school", which would later be made famous by the Harry Potter series of books, and with popularizing the trope of a boy wizard, also present in Harry Potter. Reviewers have also commented that the basic premise of A Wizard of Earthsea, that of a talented boy going to a wizard's school and making an enemy with whom he has a close connection, is also the premise of Harry Potter. Ged also receives a facial scar from the shadow, as Harry Potter does from Voldemort. Commenting on the similarity, Le Guin said that she did not feel that J. K. Rowling "ripped her off", but that Rowling's books received too much praise for supposed originality, and that Rowling "could have been more gracious about her predecessors. My incredulity was at the critics who found the first book wonderfully original. She has many virtues, but originality isn't one of them. That hurt."
Themes
Coming of age
A Wizard of Earthsea focuses on Ged's adolescence and coming of age, and along with the other two works of the original Earthsea trilogy forms a part of Le Guin's dynamic portrayal of the process of growing old. The three novels together follow Ged from youth to old age, and each of them also follow the coming of age of a different character. The novel is frequently described as a Bildungsroman. Scholar Mike Cadden stated that the book is a convincing tale "to a reader as young and possibly as headstrong as Ged, and therefore sympathetic to him". Ged's coming of age is also intertwined with the physical journey he undertakes through the novel.
Ged is depicted as proud and yet unsure of himself in multiple situations: early in his apprenticeship he believes Ogion to be mocking him, and later, at Roke, feels put upon by Jasper. In both cases, he believes that others do not appreciate his greatness, and Le Guin's sympathetic narration does not immediately contradict this belief. Cadden writes that Le Guin allows young readers to sympathize with Ged, and only gradually realize that there is a price to be paid for his actions, as he learns to discipline his magical powers. Similarly, as Ged begins his apprenticeship with Ogion, he imagines that he will be taught mysterious aspects of wizardry, and has visions of transforming himself into other creatures, but gradually comes to see that Ogion's important lessons are those about his own self.
The passage at the end of the novel, wherein Ged finally accepts the shadow as a part of himself and is thus released from its terror, has been pointed to by reviewers as a rite of passage. Jeanne Walker, for example, wrote that the rite of passage at the end was an analogue for the entire plot of A Wizard of Earthsea, and that the plot itself plays the role of a rite of passage for an adolescent reader. Walker goes on to say, "The entire action of A Wizard of Earthsea ... portrays the hero's slow realization of what it means to be an individual in society and a self in relation to higher powers." Many readers and critics have commented on similarities between Ged's process of growing up and ideas in Jungian psychology. The young Ged has a scary encounter with a shadow creature, which he later realizes is the dark side of himself. It is only after he recognizes and merges with the shadow that he becomes a whole person. Le Guin said that she had never read Jung before writing the Earthsea novels.
Le Guin described coming of age as the main theme of the book, and wrote in a 1973 essay that she chose that theme since she was writing for an adolescent audience. She stated that "Coming of age ... is a process that took me many years; I finished it, so far as I ever will, at about age thirty-one; and so I feel rather deeply about it. So do most adolescents. It's their main occupation, in fact." She also said that fantasy was best suited as a medium for describing coming of age, because exploring the subconscious was difficult using the language of "rational daily life". The coming of age that Le Guin focused on included not just psychological development, but moral changes as well. Ged needs to recognize the balance between his power and his responsibility to use it well, a recognition which comes as he travels to the stone of Terrenon and sees the temptation that that power represents.
Equilibrium and Taoist themes
The world of Earthsea is depicted as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. This includes an equilibrium between land and sea (implicit in the name Earthsea), and between people and their natural environment. In addition to physical equilibrium, there is a larger cosmic equilibrium, which everybody is aware of, and which wizards are tasked with maintaining. Describing this aspect of Earthsea, Elizabeth Cummins wrote, "The principle of balanced powers, the recognition that every act affects self, society, world, and cosmos, is both a physical and a moral principle of Le Guin's fantasy world." The concept of balance is related to the novel's other major theme of coming of age, as Ged's knowledge of the consequences of his own actions for good or ill is necessary for him to understand how the balance is maintained. While at the school of Roke, the Master Hand tells him: }}
The influence of Taoism on Le Guin's writing is evident through much of the book, especially in her depiction of the "balance". At the end of the novel, Ged may be seen to embody the Taoist way of life, as he has learned not to act unless absolutely necessary. He has also learned that seeming opposites, like light and dark or good and evil, are actually interdependent. Light and dark themselves are recurring images within the story. Reviewers have identified this belief as evidence of a conservative ideology within the story, shared with much of fantasy. In emphasizing concerns over balance and equilibrium, scholars have argued, Le Guin essentially justifies the status quo, which wizards strive to maintain. This tendency is in contrast to Le Guin's science fiction writing, in which change is shown to have value.
The nature of human evil forms a significant related theme through A Wizard of Earthsea as well as the other Earthsea novels. As with other works by Le Guin, evil is shown as a misunderstanding of the balance of life. Ged is born with great power in him, but the pride that he takes in his power leads to his downfall; he tries to demonstrate his strength by bringing a spirit back from the dead, and in performing this act against the laws of nature, releases the shadow that attacks him. Slusser suggests that although he is provoked into performing dangerous spells first by the girl on Gont and then by Jasper, this provocation exists in Ged's mind. He is shown as unwilling to look within himself and see the pride that drives him to do what he does. When he accepts the shadow into himself, he also finally accepts responsibility for his own actions, and by accepting his own mortality he is able to free himself. His companion Vetch describes the moment by saying }}
Thus, although there are several dark powers in Earthsea (like the stone of Terrenon and the Nameless Ones of Atuan), the true evil was not one of these powers, or even death, but Ged's actions that went against the balance of nature. This is contrary to conventional Western and Christian storytelling, in which light and darkness are often considered opposites, and are seen as symbolizing good and evil, which are constantly in conflict. On two different occasions, Ged is tempted to try to defy death and evil, but eventually learns that neither can be eliminated: instead, he chooses not to serve evil, and stops denying death.
True names
In Le Guin's fictional universe, to know the true name of an object or a person is to have power over it. Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends. Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them. In A Wizard of Earthsea, however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name. Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin's depiction of a cosmic balance. According to Cummins, this is Le Guin's way of demonstrating the power of language in shaping reality. Since language is the tool we use for communicating about the environment, she argues that it also allows humans to affect the environment, and the wizards' power to use names symbolizes this. Cummins went on to draw an analogy between the wizards' use of names to change things with the creative use of words in fictional writing. Shippey wrote that Earthsea magic seems to work through what he called the "Rumpelstiltskin theory", in which names have power. He argued that this portrayal was part of Le Guin's effort to emphasize the power of words over objects, which, according to Shippey, was in contrast to the ideology of other writers, such as James Frazer in The Golden Bough. Esmonde argued that each of the first three Earthsea books hinged on an act of trust. In A Wizard of Earthsea, Vetch trusts Ged with his true name when the latter is at his lowest ebb emotionally, thus giving Ged complete power over him. Ged later offers Tenar the same gift in The Tombs of Atuan, thereby allowing her to learn trust.
Style and structure
Language and mood
A Wizard of Earthsea and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin's early Hainish cycle works, although they were written at a similar time. George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the "excessive pessimism" of the Hainish novels. He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as "Vaster than Empires and More Slow". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction said the book was pervaded by a "grave joyfulness". In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be clear and direct with language, because there is no known framework for the reader's mind to rest upon.
The story often appears to assume that readers are familiar with the geography and history of Earthsea, a technique which allowed Le Guin to avoid exposition: a reviewer wrote that this method "gives Le Guin's world the mysterious depths of Tolkien's, but without his tiresome back-stories and versifying". In keeping with the notion of an epic, the narration switches from looking ahead into Ged's future and looking back into the past of Earthsea. At the same time, Slusser described the mood of the novel as "strange and dreamlike", fluctuating between objective reality and the thoughts in Ged's mind; some of Ged's adversaries are real, while others are phantoms. This narrative technique, which Cadden characterizes as "free indirect discourse", makes the narrator of the book seem sympathetic to the protagonist, and does not distance his thoughts from the reader.
Myth and epic
A Wizard of Earthsea has strong elements of an epic; for instance, Ged's place in Earthsea history is described at the very beginning of the book in the following terms: "some say the greatest, and surely the greatest voyager, was the man called Sparrowhawk, who in his day became both dragonlord and Archmage." The story also begins with words from the Earthsea song "The Creation of Éa", which forms a ritualistic beginning to the book. The teller of the story then goes on to say that it is from Ged's youth, thereby establishing context for the rest of the book. In comparison with the protagonists of many of Le Guin's other works, Ged is superficially a typical hero, a mage who sets out on a quest. Reviewers have compared A Wizard of Earthsea to epics such as Beowulf. Scholar Virginia White argued that the story followed a structure common to epics in which the protagonist begins an adventure, faces trials along the way, and eventually returns in triumph. White went on to suggest that this structure can be seen in the series as a whole, as well as in the individual volumes.
Le Guin subverted many of the tropes typical to such "monomyths"; the protagonists of her story were all dark-skinned, in comparison to the white-skinned heroes more traditionally used; the Kargish antagonists, in contrast, were white-skinned, a switching of race roles that has been remarked upon by multiple critics. Critics have also cited her use of characters from multiple class backgrounds as a choice subversive to conventional Western fantasy. At the same time, reviewers questioned Le Guin's treatment of gender in A Wizard of Earthsea, and the original trilogy as a whole. Le Guin, who later became known as a feminist, chose to restrict the use of magic to men and boys in the first volume of Earthsea. Initial critical reactions to A Wizard of Earthsea saw Ged's gender as incidental. In contrast, The Tombs of Atuan saw Le Guin intentionally tell a female coming-of-age story, which was nonetheless described as perpetuating a male-dominated model of Earthsea. Tehanu (1990), published as the fourth volume of Earthsea 18 years after the third, has been described both by Le Guin and her commentators as a feminist re-imagining of the series, in which the power and status of the chief characters are reversed, and the patriarchal social structure questioned. Commenting in 1993, Le Guin wrote that she could not continue [Earthsea after 1972] until she had "wrestled with the angels of the feminist consciousness".
Several critics have argued that by combining elements of epic, Bildungsroman, and young adult fiction, Le Guin succeeded in blurring the boundaries of conventional genres. In a 1975 commentary Francis Molson argued that the series should be referred to as "ethical fantasy", a term which acknowledged that the story did not always follow the tropes of heroic fantasy, and the moral questions that it raised. The term did not become popular. A similar argument was made by children's literature critic Cordelia Sherman in 1985; she argued that A Wizard of Earthsea and the rest of the series sought "to teach children by dramatic example what it means to be a good adult". Adaptations A condensed, illustrated version of the first chapter was printed by World Book in the third volume of Childcraft in 1989. Multiple audio versions of the book have been released. BBC Radio produced a radioplay version in 1996 narrated by Judi Dench, and a six-part series adapting the Earthsea novels in 2015, broadcast on Radio 4 Extra. In 2011, the work was produced as an unabridged recording performed by Robert Inglis.
Two screen adaptations of the story have also been produced. An original mini-series titled Legend of Earthsea was broadcast in 2004 on the Sci Fi Channel. It is based very loosely on A Wizard of Earthsea and The Tombs of Atuan. In an article published in Salon, Le Guin expressed strong displeasure at the result. She stated that by casting a "petulant white kid" as Ged (who has red-brown skin in the book) the series "whitewashed Earthsea", and had ignored her choice to write the story of a non-white character, a choice she said was central to the book. This sentiment was shared by a review in The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy, which said that Legend of Earthsea "totally missed the point" of Le Guin's novels, "ripping out all the subtlety, nuance and beauty of the books and inserting boring cliches, painful stereotypes and a very unwelcome 'epic' war in their place".
Studio Ghibli released an adaptation of the series in 2006 titled Tales from Earthsea. The film very loosely combines elements of the first, third, and fourth books into a new story. Le Guin commented with displeasure on the film-making process, saying that she had acquiesced to the adaptation believing Hayao Miyazaki would be producing the film himself, which was eventually not the case. Le Guin praised the imagery of the film, but disliked the use of violence. She also expressed dissatisfaction with the portrayal of morality, and in particular the use of a villain who could be slain as a means of resolving conflict, which she said was antithetical to the message of the book. The film received generally mixed responses.
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Category:Earthsea novels
Category:1968 American novels
Category:1968 children's books
Category:1968 fantasy novels
Category:American young adult novels
Category:American bildungsromans
Category:Books illustrated by Anne Yvonne Gilbert
Category:Books illustrated by Ruth Robbins
Category:Young adult fantasy novels
Category:Novels set on islands
Category:Novels set in schools
Category:American fantasy novels adapted into films
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sv:Övärlden#Trollkarlen från Övärlden | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Wizard_of_Earthsea | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.746993 |
2893 | Alex Lifeson | | image = TaylorHawkTributeWemb030922 (174 of 281) (52334835950) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Lifeson performing in 2022
| birth_name = Aleksandar Živojinović
| alias = Lerxst
| birth_date
| birth_place = Fernie, British Columbia, Canada
| origin = Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| genre =
| occupations =
| instruments = Guitar
| years_active = 1963–present
| label =
| current_member_of = Envy of None
| past_member_of =
| website =
| spouse =
}}
Aleksandar Živojinović (born 27 August 1953), known professionally as Alex Lifeson (), is a Canadian musician, best known as the guitarist for the rock band Rush. In 1968, Lifeson co-founded a band that would later become Rush, with drummer John Rutsey and bassist and lead vocalist Jeff Jones. Jones was replaced by Geddy Lee a month later, and Rutsey was replaced by Neil Peart in 1974, after which the lineup remained unchanged until the band's dissolution in 2018. Lifeson was the only member of Rush who stayed in the band throughout its entire existence, and he and Lee were the only members to appear on all of the band's albums.
With Rush, Lifeson played electric and acoustic guitar, as well as other various string instruments such as mandola, mandolin, and bouzouki. He also performed backing vocals in live performances and select studio recordings, and occasionally played keyboards and bass pedal synthesizers. Like the other members of Rush, Lifeson performed real-time on-stage triggering of sampled instruments. Along with his bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart, Lifeson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on 9 May 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured as a group. In 2013, he was inducted with Rush into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. Lifeson was ranked 98th on Rolling Stone's list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time and third (after Eddie Van Halen and Brian May) in a Guitar World readers' poll listing the 100 greatest guitarists.
The bulk of Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush, although Lifeson has contributed to a body of work outside the band as well, including a solo album titled Victor (1996). Aside from music, Lifeson has been a painter, a licensed aircraft pilot, an actor, and the former part-owner of a Toronto bar and a restaurant called The Orbit Room, which closed in 2020.Biography
Early life
Lifeson was born Aleksandar Živojinović (Serbian: Александар Живојиновић) in Fernie, British Columbia. His parents, Nenad and Melanija Živojinović, were Serb immigrants from Yugoslavia. He was raised in Toronto. His formal musical education began on the viola, but he abandoned it in favor of the guitar at the age of 12. Lifeson recalls what inspired him to play guitar in a 2008 interview:
His first guitar was a Christmas gift from his father, a six-string Kent classical acoustic which was later replaced by an electric Japanese model. During his adolescent years, he was influenced primarily by the likes of Jimi Hendrix, Pete Townshend, Tony Iommi, Jeff Beck, Ritchie Blackmore, Hank Marvin, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Jimmy Page, Steve Hackett, Denny Laine, and Allan Holdsworth; he explained in 2011 that "Clapton's solos seemed a little easier and more approachable. I remember sitting at my record player and moving the needle back and forth to get the solo in 'Spoonful.' But there was nothing I could do with Hendrix." In 1963, Lifeson met future Rush drummer John Rutsey in school. Both interested in music, they decided to form a band. Lifeson was primarily a self-taught guitarist with the only formal instruction coming from a high school friend in 1971 who taught classical guitar lessons. This training lasted for roughly a year and a half.
When Lifeson was 17, he had an argument with his parents about his future; he wanted to drop out of high school to pursue his dream of becoming a professional guitarist. A video of the argument was part of a 1973 Canadian documentary, Come on Children, about the struggles of 10 adolescents. The argument was also included in two documentaries about Rush, Beyond the Lighted Stage (2010) and Time Stand Still (2016).
Lifeson's first girlfriend, Charlene, gave birth to their eldest son, Justin, in October 1970. The couple married in 1975; their second son, Adrian, was born two years later. Adrian is also involved in music, and performed on "At the End" and "The Big Dance" from Lifeson's 1996 solo project, Victor.
Rush
, Ahoy, Rotterdam, the Netherlands (27 May 2011).]]
Lifeson's neighbour John Rutsey began experimenting on a rented drum kit. In 1968, Lifeson and Rutsey formed The Projection, which disbanded a few months later. In August 1968, following the recruitment of original bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones, Lifeson and Rutsey founded Rush. Geddy Lee, a high school friend of Lifeson, assumed Jones's role soon after.
Instrumentally, Lifeson is renowned for his signature riffing, electronic effects and processing, unorthodox chord structures, and the copious arsenal of equipment he has used over the years.
Rush was on hiatus for several years starting in 1997 owing to personal tragedies in Neil Peart's life, and Lifeson had not picked up a guitar for at least a year following those events. However, after some work in his home studio and on various side projects, Lifeson returned to the studio with Rush to begin work on 2002's Vapor Trails. Vapor Trails is the first Rush album since the 1970s to lack keyboards—as such, Lifeson used over 50 different guitars in what Shawn Hammond of Guitar Player called "his most rabid and experimental playing ever." Geddy Lee was amenable to leaving keyboards off the album due in part to Lifeson's ongoing concern about their use. Lifeson's approach to the guitar tracks for the album eschewed traditional riffs and solos in favour of "tonality and harmonic quality."
In 2006, Lifeson founded the Big Dirty Band, which he created for the purpose of providing original soundtrack material for Trailer Park Boys: The Movie. Lifeson jammed regularly with the Dexters (the Orbit Room house band from 1994 to 2004). Lifeson made a guest appearance on the 2007 album Fear of a Blank Planet by UK progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, contributing a solo during the song "Anesthetize". He also appeared on the 2008 album Fly Paper by Detroit progressive rockers Tiles. He plays on the track "Sacred and Mundane". Outside band related endeavours, Lifeson composed the theme for the first season of the science-fiction TV series Andromeda. He also produced three songs from the album Away from the Sun by 3 Doors Down. He was executive producer and contributor to the 2014 album "Come to Life" by Keram Malicki-Sanchez - playing guitar on the songs "Mary Magdalene", "Moving Dark Circles" and "The Devil Knows Me Well," and later on Keram's subsequent singles "Artificial Intelligence," (2019), "That Light," (2020) and "Rukh." (2021). Alex Lifeson is featured on Marco Minnemann's 2017 release Borrego, on which he played guitars on three songs and co-wrote the track "On That Note". In 2018, he played lead guitar on Fu Manchu's 18-minute mostly instrumental track "Il Mostro Atomico" from the group's Clone of the Universe album. In 2019 he was featured on the song "Charmed" from the Don Felder solo album American Rock 'n' Roll.
On 15 June 2021, Lifeson released two new instrumental songs, "Kabul Blues" and "Spy House" on his website alexlifeson.com. The songs were released as a self titled project. Andy Curran played bass on both songs, and drums on "Spy House" were done by David Quinton Steinberg.Envy of NoneThe first single, "Liar", from Envy of None's debut album was released on 12 January 2022. Envy of None consists of Lifeson, Curran, singer Maiah Wynne, and producer and engineer Alfio Annibalini. Envy of None's self-titled debut album, which includes "Liar," "Kabul Blues," and "Spy House," was released on 8 April.
Television and film appearances
Lifeson made his film debut as himself under his birth name in the 1973 Canadian documentary film Come on Children.
He has appeared in several installments of the Canadian mockumentary franchise Trailer Park Boys. In 2003, he was featured in an episode titled "Closer to the Heart", playing a partly fictional version of himself. In the episode, he is kidnapped by Ricky and held as punishment for his inability (or refusal) to provide the main characters with free tickets to a Rush concert. In the end of the episode, Alex reconciles with the characters, and performs a duet of "Closer to the Heart" with Bubbles at the trailer park. In 2006, Lifeson appeared in Trailer Park Boys: The Movie as a traffic cop in the opening scene and in 2009 he appeared in their follow up movie, Trailer Park Boys: Countdown to Liquor Day, as an undercover vice cop in drag.
In 2017, Lifeson appeared in an episode of the spin-off series Trailer Park Boys: Out of the Park: USA titled "Memphis." He also voiced Big Chunk in the first season of Trailer Park Boys: The Animated Series.
In 2008, Lifeson and the rest of Rush played "Tom Sawyer" at the end of an episode of The Colbert Report. According to Colbert, this was their first appearance on American television as a band in 33 years.
In 2009, he and the rest of the band appeared as themselves in the comedy I Love You, Man.
Lifeson appears as the border guard in the 2009 movie Suck.
Lifeson and bandmate Geddy Lee appeared in the series Chicago Fire, season 4, episode 6, called "2112", which first aired on 17 November 2015.
The role of Dr. Funtime in The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Funtime Hour was originally written with Lifeson in mind, but due to scheduling conflicts the role was given to Maury Chaykin instead.Book forewordsLifeson has penned forewords to four books: Behind the Stage Door by Rich Engler in 2013; Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More) by Greg Prato in 2017; ''Geddy Lee's Big Beautiful Book of Bass'' by Geddy Lee in 2018; and Domenic Troiano: His Life and Music by Mark Doble and Frank Troiano in 2021.
Personal life
Lifeson disclosed that he had surgery on his stomach in 2023, and as an aftereffect, he suffers from gastroparesis, and that a visit to a wellness clinic in Austria that focuses on digestive system in January 2025 helped. In an interview with AllMusic, he said, "I was miserable for pretty much a year and a half...until I went to Vivamayr, and they just taught me how to take control of how I'm eating, what to eat, when to eat. And it's just remarkable."
Guitar equipment
in the 'Heritage Cherry Sunburst'. This guitar has been modified to incorporate a Floyd Rose tremolo.]]
Early Rush (1970s)
In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a Gibson ES-335 for the first tour. In 1976, Lifeson bought a 1974 Gibson Les Paul. He used both guitars until the late 1970s. He had a Fender Stratocaster with a Bill Lawrence humbucker and Floyd Rose vibrato bridge as backup "and for a different sound." and his main guitar became a white Gibson ES-355. He played a twelve-string Gibson B-45 on songs like "Closer to the Heart." He would start using them again twenty years later. He also played a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion and an Ovation Adamas acoustic/electric guitar. He would continue to play PRS for the next sixteen years through the recording and touring of Counterparts, Test for Echo and Vapor Trails as well as the R30 tour. During this period, he also played several Fender Telecasters.2000s onward: Return to Gibson guitarsIn 2011, Lifeson said that for the past few years he "used Gibson almost exclusively. There's nothing like having a low-slung Les Paul over my shoulder."Gibson "Alex Lifeson Axcess"In early 2011, Gibson introduced the "Alex Lifeson Axcess", a guitar specially designed for him. These are custom made Les Pauls with Floyd Rose tremolo systems and piezoacoustic pick-ups. He used these two custom Les Pauls on the Time Machine Tour. These guitars are also available through Gibson, in a viceroy Brown or Crimson colour. Lifeson used these two guitars heavily on the tour.Gibson R40 Signature Les Paul AxcessGibson introduced an Alex Lifeson R40 Les Paul Axcess signature guitar in June 2015. This is a limited edition with 50 guitars signed and played by Lifeson, and another 250 available without the signature.
Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow
At the 2017 Winter NAMM Show, Gibson representative Mike Voltz introduced an Antique White Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow guitar, a hybrid of a Les Paul Custom & an ES 335, with only 200 made. Voltz also introduced the Antique White as a new color from Gibson for this Custom (note: Gibson names this color as 'Classic White' on their web site which may be an error due to other Gibson reps labeling it as Antique White). Alex played this Custom on the last Rush tour.
Amplification
In 2005, Hughes & Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; Lifeson donates his royalties from the sale of these signature models to UNICEF.EffectsFor effects, Lifeson is known to use chorus, phase shifting, delay and flanging. Throughout his career, he has used well-known pedals such as the Echoplex delay pedal, Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress flanger, the BOSS CE-1 chorus and the Dunlop crybaby wah, among others.
Lifeson and his guitar technician Scott Appleton have discussed in interviews Lifeson's use of Fractal Audio's Axe-FX, Apple Inc.'s MainStage, and Native Instruments' Guitar Rig.
Other instruments played
Stringed instruments
In addition to acoustic and electric guitars, Lifeson has also played mandola, mandolin and bouzouki on some Rush studio albums, including Test for Echo, Vapor Trails and Snakes & Arrows. For his Victor project and Little Drummer Boy for the Merry Axemas album, he also played bass and programmed synthesizers.
Electronic instruments
During live Rush performances, Lifeson used MIDI controllers that enabled him to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds from digital samplers and synthesizers, without taking his hands off his guitar. (Prior to this, Lifeson used Moog Taurus Bass Pedals before they were replaced by Korg MIDI pedals in the 1980s.) Lifeson and his bandmates shared a desire to accurately depict songs from their albums when playing live performances. Toward this goal, beginning in the late 1980s the band equipped their live performances with a capacious rack of samplers. The band members used these samplers in real-time to recreate the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound "events" that are familiarly heard on the studio versions of the songs. In live performances, the band members shared duties throughout most songs, with each member triggering certain sounds with his available limbs, while playing his primary instrument(s). John Petrucci of Dream Theater, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, Jim Martin of Faith No More, Denis "Piggy" D'Amour of Voivod, Parris Mayhew formerly of Cro-Mags, and John Wesley. Marillion guitarist Steve Rothery has expressed his admiration for Lifeson's "dexterity" as a live performer; he also described Rush as a "fantastic live band". Jazz guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, after citing him as an influence, praised his "incredible sound and imagination". Awards and honours
* "Best Rock Talent" by Guitar for the Practicing Musician in 1983
* "Best Rock Guitarist" by Guitar Player Magazine in 1984 and May 2008
* Runner-up for "Best Rock Guitarist" in Guitar Player in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986
* Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame, 1991
* 1996 – Officer of the Order of Canada, along with bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart
* 2007 – Main belt asteroid "(19155) Lifeson" named after Alex Lifeson
* "Best Article" for "Different Strings" in Guitar Player (September 2007 issue).
* Most Ferociously Brilliant Guitar Album (Snakes & Arrows) – Guitar Player Magazine, May 2008
* 2013 – With Rush, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee
Discography
With Rush
Solo
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Alias
|-
|1996
|Victor
|Victor
|}
With Envy of None
Following Rush's dissolution in 2018 and Neil Peart's death in 2020, Lifeson formed the supergroup Envy of None with himself on guitar, mandola and banjo, Alfio Annibalini on guitar and keyboards, Andy Curran on bass, guitar and backing vocals and Maiah Wynne on lead vocals and keyboards.
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Type
|-
| rowspan="3" |2022
|Envy of None
|Album
|-
|Liar
| rowspan="2" |Single
|-
|Enemy/You'll Be Sorry
|}
Collaborations
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Collaborator
!Notes
|-
|2002
|''Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda
|Matthew McCauley
|Released on GNP Crescendo
|-
|2019
|Lovers Calling (single)
|Marco Minnemann
|Featuring Lifeson on guitar, Minnemann on drums, Mohini Dey on bass and Maiah Wynne on vocals
|}
Appearances
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Artist
!Notes
|-
|1980
|Universal Juveniles
|Max Webster
|On the track Battle Scar, Lifeson along with fellow Rush band members, Geddy Lee and Neil Peart play their respective instruments with Lee performing co-lead vocals.
|-
|1985
|Alien Shores''
|Platinum Blonde
|Features Lifeson's guitar solos on two tracks including "Crying Over You" single.
|-
|1988
|Serious Business
|Greenway
|Album by fellow Canadian Brian Greenway (of bands April Wine, Mashmakhan and the Dudes), featuring Lifeson on guitar on the first track and single "In The Danger Zone"
|-
|1989/1990
|Smoke On The Water
|Rock Aid Armenia
|Charity single re-recording song by British rock band Deep Purple organised by frontman Ian Gillan, Lifeson played alongside many other musicians including members of Deep Purple, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Iron Maiden, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin and ELP.
|-
|1990
|Lost Brotherhood
|Gowan
|Lifeson plays guitar on this album by fellow Canadian Lawrence Gowan of Styx and also on the albums self titled single.
|-
| rowspan="2" |1995
|Hip To The Tip - Live At The Orbit Room
|The Dexters
|Album by Canadian band The Dexters (house band of The Orbit Room, a bar in Toronto), the band featured Lifeson (under the pseudonym "Alex Dexter") and other members where called Lou, on Hammond B3, Peter on bass, Bernie on guitar and Mike on drums (all members were under the surname "Dexter.")
|-
|Ragged Ass Road
|Tom Cochrane
|Lifeson is credited with guitar and guitar solo on this album by fellow Canadian musician, Tom Cochrane. A frequent collaborator with Cochrane is early Rush bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones.
|-
|1996
|Scenery And Fish
|I Mother Earth
|Lifeson played additional guitars on one track on this album by Canadian rock band I Mother Earth.
|-
|1997
|Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas
|Various
|Lifeson played a version of "The Little Drummer Boy" on this Christmas oriented tribute album organised by fellow guitarist Steve Vai, also featured guitarists Joe Satriani, Joe Perry, Steve Morse, Jeff Beck and Eric Johnson.
|-
|Have You Seen Lucky?
|John Kastner
|Lifeson is credited on this album by fellow Canadian John Kastner, Kastner is most famous for being a former member of hardcore punk band Asexuals.
|-
|Better Days
|Edwin
|Lifeson plays guitar on two track on this album by alternative rock singer Edwin, who also participated in Lifeson's solo project Victor 10 years prior.
|-
|2007
|Fear Of A Blank Planet
|Porcupine Tree
|Lifeson plays a guitar solo on the first movement of one track of this album by English progressive rock band Porcupine Tree. His solo would later be re-imagined and performed by touring guitarist John Wesley in live shows. The album also features a contribution by King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp. The album also features artwork and design from frequent Rush collaborator Hugh Syme.
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014
|Disconnect
|John Wesley
|Lifeson plays guitar on one track on this album by American guitarist John Wesley, Wesley had performed with Lifeson on the previously mentioned song by Porcupine tree (when Lifeson contributed guitar and Wesley contributed backing vocals).
|-
|Come to Life
|Keram
|Lifeson is credited, alongside 4 other guitarists, with electric guitar on this album by Keram (full name Keram Malicki-Sánchez), who is a member of band Blue Dog Pict.
|-
|2016
|RES 9
|Rik Emmett & RESolution9
|Lifeson is features on two tracks on this album by Rk Emmett of the Canadian rock band Triumph, one track on his own and on another with Dream Theatre frontman and fellow Canadian James LaBrie.
|-
|2017
|Borrego
|Marco Minnemann
|Lifeson is featured on guitars on this album by German rock drummer and musician Marco Minnemann, who has performed with Steven Wilson, U.K. and Jordan Rudess, Lifeson plays guitars on 3 tracks (including one bonus track), as well as writing one, Lifeson is credited with acoustic guitar, guitar reverse and FX and guitar solos.
|-
| rowspan="3" |2018
|Clone Of The Universe
|Fu Manchu
|Lifeson is credited with additional guitars on one track on this album by America stoner rock band Fu Manchu.
|-
|Walking In The Wild Land
|Jim McCarty
|Lifeson is credited with lead guitar on one track on Yardbirds member Jim McCarty. The album also features keyboards from Rush collaborator Hugh Syme.
|-
|A Holiday Greeting From West End Phoenix
|Various
|Christmas release featuring vocals from Lifeson and Lee.
|-
| rowspan="4" |2019
|My Sister
|Marco Minnemann
|Lifeson is credited as a special guest on this album by German drummer Marco Minnemann, he is credited with writing and with electric and acoustic guitars on two tracks and additional guitars on one.
|-
|Nobody Told Me
|John Mayall
|Lifeson is credited (along with a variety on other guitarist, including, Joe Bonamassa, Todd Rundgren and Steven Van Zandt) on this album by legendary blues and rock singer and musician John Mayall. He plays guitar on one track.
|-
|''American Rock 'N' Roll''
|Don Felder
|Lifeson is credited with rhythm acoustic and solo electric on one track on this album by former Eagles lead guitarist Don Felder. The album also features Chad Smith, Slash, Mick Fleetwood and Joe Satriani.
|-
|Atheists And Believers
|The Mute Gods
|Lifeson is credited with 12-string guitar, ambient guitar and mandolin on this album by The Mute Gods, a progressive rock project formed of Nick Beggs (bass, chapman stick, guitar keyboads and vocals known for performing with Steve Hackett and Steven Wilson), Roger King (keyboards and guitar, known for performing with Steve Hackett) and Marco Minnemann (drums and guitar)
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
|II
|McStine & Minnemann
|Lifeson performs on this album by musicians Randy McStine (guitar, bass, keyboards, vocals) and Marco Minnemann (drums, perucussion, guitar, keyboards and bass). He performs guitar on the final track.
|-
|Eternity Now
|Big Sugar
|Lifeson performs guitar on the first and self titled track on this album by Canadian rock band Big Sugar.
|-
|2021
|The Atlas Underground Flood
|Tom Morello
|Lifeson plays guitar as well as writing (alongside Kirk Hammett of Metallica) on one track on this album by Rage Against the Machine member Tom Morello.
|}
References
External links
*[https://alexlifeson.com Official website]
*[http://www.audio-technica.com/cms/happenings/ae60b79aa073a3be/index.html Audio-Technica interview with Alex]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080705045834/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/Music/05/27/lifeson.transcript/index.html Read 2002 CNN interview with Alex]
*
*[http://archive.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?lange&TypeIDorc&id=3595 Order of Canada citation]
*[http://Lerxstamps.com Lerxst Amplification]
*
*
Category:1953 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from the Regional District of East Kootenay
Category:Musicians from British Columbia
Category:Canadian people of Serbian descent
Category:Officers of the Order of Canada
Category:Canadian atheists
Category:Canadian male film actors
Category:Canadian male television actors
Category:Canadian male voice actors
Category:Canadian rock guitarists
Category:Canadian male guitarists
Category:Canadian heavy metal guitarists
Category:Canadian lead guitarists
Category:Progressive rock guitarists
Category:Rush (band) members
Category:Anthem Records artists
Category:Anthem Records
Category:Big Dirty Band members
Category:Envy of None members
Category:20th-century Canadian guitarists
Category:21st-century Canadian guitarists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Lifeson | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.823819 |
2894 | AZ | AZ or az may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Authority Zero, an Arizona punk rock band
AZ (record label), a French record label
Abendzeitung, a newspaper based in Munich, Germany
Assignment Zero, a crowdsourced journalism project
Companies and organizations
Alkmaar Zaanstreek, formerly AZ '67, a Dutch Eredivisie football club
AZ (women), the affiliated women's football club (2007–2011)
AstraZeneca, a UK-based pharmaceutical company
Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine (AZ), their COVID-19 vaccine
ITA Airways (IATA code: AZ), the national airline of Italy
Alitalia (former IATA code: AZ), a former Italian airline
Ministry of General Affairs (), a Dutch Government ministry
People
Az people, Turkophone people from present-day Russia
AZ (rapper) (born 1972), rapper from Brooklyn, New York, US
Azie Faison (born 1964; known as AZ), former drug dealer from New York, US
Places
Arizona (postal abbreviation: AZ), a US state
Azerbaijan (ISO 3166-1 country code: AZ), a Eurasian country
Science and technology
.az, the country code top level domain for the nation of Azerbaijan
AlphaZero, game-playing artificial intelligence
Azimuth, the horizontal component of a compass direction
Toyota AZ engine, an engine family
Other uses
Azerbaijani language (ISO 639-1 code: az)
Lighter-than-air aircraft tender (AZ), a US Navy hull classification symbol
Az, the acrophonic name of the letter A (Cyrillic) in the old Russian alphabet
See also
A–Z (disambiguation)
AZ1 (disambiguation)
ZA (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZ | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.833390 |
2899 | ArgoUML | | latest release date =
| latest preview version | latest preview date
| programming language = Java
| platform = Java SE
| genre = Software development, UML Tool
| license = Eclipse Public License 1.0
| website =
}}
ArgoUML is an UML diagramming application written in Java and released under the open source Eclipse Public License. By virtue of being a Java application, it is available on any platform supported by Java SE.
History
ArgoUML was originally developed at UC Irvine by Jason E. Robbins, leading to his Ph.D. It was an open source project hosted by Tigris.org and moved in 2019 to GitHub. The ArgoUML project included more than 19,000 registered users and over 150 developers.
In 2003, ArgoUML won the Software Development Magazine's annual Readers' Choice Award in the “Design and Analysis Tools” category.
ArgoUML development has suffered from lack of manpower. For example, Undo has been a perpetually requested feature since 2003 but has not been implemented yet.
Features
According to the official feature list, ArgoUML is capable of the following:
*All 9 UML 1.4 diagrams are supported.
*Closely follows the UML standard.
*Platform independent – Java 1.5+ and C++.
*Click and Go! with Java Web Start (no setup required, starts from your web browser).
*Standard UML 1.4 Metamodel.
*XMI support.
*Export diagrams as GIF, PNG, PS, EPS, PGML and SVG.
*Available in ten languages: EN, EN-GB, DE, ES, IT, RU, FR, NB, PT, ZH.
*Advanced diagram editing and zoom.
*Built-in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements.
*Extensible modules interface.
*OCL support.
*Forward engineering (code generation supports C++ and C#, Java, PHP 4, PHP 5, Ruby and, with less mature modules, Ada, Delphi and SQL).
*Reverse engineering / JAR/class file import.
Weaknesses
*ArgoUML does not yet completely implement the UML standard.
* Partial undo feature (working for graphics edits )
* Java Web Start launching may no longer work reliably. See Java Web Start.
See also
*List of UML tools
*MetaCASE tool
References
External links
*
Category:Java platform software
Category:Free UML tools
Category:1999 software
Category:Software using the Eclipse Public License | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArgoUML | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.873306 |
2900 | File archiver | In computing, a file archiver is utility software that combines files into a single archive file or in less common cases, multiple files.
A minimally designed archiver might concatenate the content of files along with file name and length. A more advanced archiver stores additional metadata, such as the timestamps, file attributes and access control information. An archiver might compress input file content to reduce the size of the resulting archive.
The process of making an archive file is called archiving or packing. Reconstructing the original files from an archive is called unarchiving, unpacking or extracting.
Multics
In the early days of computing, Multics provided the command a basic archiver without compression that descended from the CTSS command of the same name. Multics also provided a magnetic tape archiver command, , which was perhaps the forerunner of the Unix command .
Unix
As the Unix archive tools ar, tar, and cpio do not provide compression, other tools, such as gzip, bzip2, or xz, are used to compress an archive file after it is created and to decompress before extracting.
Not only does separating archiving from compressing follow the Unix philosophy that each tool should provide a single capability; not attempt to accomplish everything with one tool, it has the following advantages:
As compression technology progresses, users may use a different compression tool without having to change how they use the archiver
Solid compression allows the compressor can exploit redundancy across multiple archived files to achieve better compression than compressing each file individually
Disadvantages include:
Extracting a single file requires decompressing the entire file, which can be costly in terms of time and storage space; adding a file to an existing archive requires both decompression and recompression
The archive becomes damage-prone; corruption in any part of the file might cause all files to be lost
A challenge:
Compression cannot take advantage of redundancy between files unless the compression window is larger than the size of an individual file; for example, gzip uses DEFLATE, which typically operates with a 32768-byte window, whereas bzip2 uses a Burrows–Wheeler transform roughly 27 times bigger; xz defaults to 8 MiB but supports significantly larger windows
Generally, extensions are successively added to the file name to indicate the operations performed and therefore required to read a file. For example, archiving with command and then compressing with command might be indicated with the .tar.gz extension.
Windows
Archiving tools on Windows tend to have a graphical user interface (GUI) and to include compression including the built-in Windows feature as well as commonly used, third-party tools such as WinRAR and 7-Zip. Unlike the built-in feature, WinRAR and 7-zip also provide a command-line interface (CLI) and solid compression.
See also
Comparison of file archivers
Archive format
List of archive formats
Comparison of archive formats
References
Category:Computer storage systems
Category:Computer file systems
Category:Computer archives
Category:Utility software types | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_archiver | 2025-04-05T18:26:11.879243 |
2905 | Artemis | In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. In later times, she was identified with Selene, the personification of the Moon. She was often said to roam the forests and mountains, attended by her entourage of nymphs. The goddess Diana is her Roman equivalent.
In Greek tradition, Artemis is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and twin sister of Apollo. In most accounts, the twins are the products of an extramarital liaison. For this, Zeus' wife Hera forbade Leto from giving birth anywhere on solid land. Only the island of Delos gave refuge to Leto, allowing her to give birth to her children. In one account, Artemis is born first and then proceeds to assist Leto in the birth of the second twin, Apollo. Artemis was a kourotrophic (child-nurturing) deity, that is the patron and protector of young children, especially young girls. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia and Hera.
Artemis was also a patron of healing and disease, particularly among women and children, and believed to send both good health and illness upon women and children.
Artemis was one of the three major virgin goddesses, alongside Athena and Hestia. Artemis preferred to remain an unmarried maiden and was one of the three Greek goddesses over whom Aphrodite had no power.
In myth and literature, Artemis is presented as a hunting goddess of the woods, surrounded by her chaste band of nymphs. In the myth of Actaeon, when the young hunter sees her bathing naked, he is transformed into a deer by the angered goddess and is then devoured by his own hunting dogs, who do not recognize their master. In the story of Callisto, the girl is driven away from Artemis' company after breaking her vow of virginity, having lain with and been impregnated by Zeus. In the Epic tradition, Artemis halted the winds blowing the Greek ships during the Trojan War, stranding the Greek fleet in Aulis, after King Agamemnon, the leader of the expedition, shot and killed her sacred deer. Artemis demanded the sacrifice of Iphigenia, Agamemnon's young daughter, as compensation for her slain deer. In most versions, when Iphigenia is led to the altar to be offered as a sacrifice, Artemis pities her and takes her away, leaving a deer in her place. In the war that followed, Artemis supported the Trojans against the Greeks, and she challenged Hera in battle.
Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities; her worship spread throughout ancient Greece, with her multiple temples, altars, shrines, and local veneration found everywhere in the ancient world. Her great temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, before it was burnt to the ground. Artemis' symbols included a bow and arrow, a quiver, and hunting knives, and the deer and the cypress were sacred to her. Diana, her Roman equivalent, was especially worshipped on the Aventine Hill in Rome, near Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills, and in Campania. although various sources have been proposed. R.S.P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus. Georgios Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, also states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Greek origin. this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshipped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek }}, a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ (gen.) and }}, a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/ (dat.), written in Linear B at Pylos. Charles Anthon argued that the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from *arta, *art, *arte, all meaning "great, excellent, holy", thus Artemis "becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshiped at Ephesus". or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to }}, artemḗs, i.e. "safe", "unharmed", "uninjured", "pure", "the stainless maiden". A. J. van Windekens tried to explain both }} and Artemis from }}, atremḗs, meaning "unmoved, calm; stable, firm" via metathesis.Description
pottery, 675–600 BCE. Hypothetical restoration (only some parts have been preserved). Archaeological Museum of Mykonos.]]
Artemis is presented as a goddess who delights in hunting and punishes harshly those who cross her. Artemis' wrath is proverbial, and represents the hostility of wild nature to humans.
Artemis was one of the most popular goddesses in Ancient Greece. The most frequent name of a month in the Greek calendars was Artemision in Ionic, territories Artemisios or Artamitios in the Doric and Aeolic territories and in Macedonia. Also Elaphios in Elis, Elaphebolion in Athens, Iasos, Apollonia of Chalkidice and Munichion in Attica. In the calendars of Aetolia, Phocis and Gytheion there was the month Laphrios and in Thebes, Corcyra, and Byzantion the month Eucleios. The goddess was venerated in festivals during spring.
In some cults she retains the theriomorphic form of a Pre-Greek goddess who was conceived with the shape of a bear (άρκτος árktos: bear). Kallisto in Arcadia is a hypostasis of Artemis with the shape of a bear, and her cults at Brauron and at Piraeus (Munichia) are remarkable for the arkteia where virgin girls before marriage were disguised as she-bears.
The ancient Greeks called potnia theron the representation of the goddess between animals; on a Greek vase from circa 570 BCE, a winged Artemis stands between a spotted panther and a deer. "Potnia theron" is very close to the daimons and this differentiates her from the other Greek divinities. This is the reason that Artemis was later identified with Hecate, since the daimons were tutelary deities. Hecate was the goddess of crossroads and she was the queen of the witches.
seal from Knossos. A goddess flanked by two lionesses, probably the "Mother of the Mountains", in the presence of her consort or the dedicant.]]
Laphria is the Pre-Greek "mistress of the animals" at Delphi and Patras. There was a custom to throw animals alive into the annual fire of the fest. Other epithets that relate Artemis to the animals are Amarynthia and Kolainis.}}
According to the beliefs of the first Greeks in Arcadia Artemis is the first nymph, a goddess of free nature. She is an independent free woman, and she does not need any partner. She is hunting surrounded by her nymphs. This idea of freedom and women's skill is expressed in many Greek myths.
Artemis is the leader of the nymphs (Hegemone) and she is hunting surrounded by them. The nymphs appear during the festival of the marriage, and they are appealed by the pregnant women. The female dancers wore masks and were famous in antiquity. The goddess of vegetation was also related to the tree-cult with temples near the holy trees and the surnames Apanchomene, Caryatis and Cedreatis.
According to Greek beliefs the image of a god or a goddess gave signs or tokens and had divine and magic powers. With these conceptions she was worshipped as Tauria (the Tauric, goddess), Aricina (Italy) and Anaitis (Lydia). In the bucolic (pastoral) songs the image of the goddess was discovered in bundles of leaves or dry sticks and she had the surnames Lygodesma and Phakelitis.
, Italy, between 62 CE and 79 CE (Destruction of Pompeii).]]
In the European folklore, a wild hunter is chasing an elfish woman who falls in the water. In the Greek myths the hunter is chasing a female deer (doe) and both disappear into the waters. In relation to these myths Artemis was worshipped as Saronia and Stymphalia . The myth of a goddess who is chased and then falls in the sea is related to the cults of Aphaea and Diktynna. In Athens and Tegea, she was worshipped as Artemis Kalliste, "the most beautiful". Sometimes the goddess had the name of an Amazon like Lyceia (with a helmet of a wolf-skin) and Molpadia. The female warriors Amazons embody the idea of freedom and women's independence.
In spite of her status as a virgin who avoided potential lovers, there are multiple references to Artemis' beauty and erotic aspect; in the Odyssey, Odysseus compares Nausicaa to Artemis in terms of appearance when trying to win her favor, Libanius, when praising the city of Antioch, wrote that Ptolemy was smitten by the beauty of (the statue of) Artemis; whereas her mother Leto often took pride in her daughter's beauty. Epithets and functions
, Palermo]]
Artemis is rooted to the less developed personality of the Mycenean goddess of nature. The goddess of nature was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic aspects. The Mycenean goddess was related to the Minoan mistress of the animals, who can be traced later in local cults, however we do not know to what extent we can differentiate the Minoan from the Mycenean religion. Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths. In Greek religion we must see less tractable elements which have nothing to do with the Olympians, but come from an old, less organized world–exorcisms, rituals to raise crops, gods and goddesses conceived not quite in human shape. Some cults of Artemis retained the pre-Greek features which were consecrated by immemorial practices and connected with daily tasks. Artemis shows sometimes the wild and darker side of her character and can bring immediate death with her arrows, however she embodies the idea of "the free nature" which was introduced by the first Greeks. The Dorians came later in the area, probably from Epirus and the goddess of nature was mostly interpreted as a vegetation goddess who was related to the ecstatic Minoan tree-cult. She was worshipped in orgiastic cults with lascivious and sometimes obscene dances, which have pure Greek elements introduced by the Dorians. The feminine (sometimes male) dancers wore usually masks, and they were famous in the antiquity. The great popularity of Artemis corresponds to the Greek belief in freedom and she is mainly the goddess of women and children. The goddess of free nature is independent and celibate. Artemis is frequently depicted carrying a torch and she was occasionally identified with Hecate. Like other Greek deities, she had a number of other names applied to her, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the goddess.
, Berlin]]
Aeginaea, probably huntress of chamois or the wielder of the javelin, at Sparta However the word may mean "from the island Aegina", that relates Artemis with Aphaia (Britomartis).
Aetole, of Aetolia at Nafpaktos. A marble statue represented the goddess in the attitude of one hurling a javelin.
Agoraea, guardian of popular assemblies in Athens. She was considered to be the protector of the assemblies of the people in the agora. At Olympia the cult of "Artemis Agoraea" was related to the cult of Despoinai. (The double named goddesses Demeter and Persephone). It was believed that she first hunted at Agrae of Athens after her arrival from Delos. There was a custom of making a "slaughter sacrifice", to the goddess before a battle. The deer always accompanies the goddess of hunting. Her epithet Agraea is similar with Agrotera.
Alphaea, in the district of Elis. The goddess had an annual festival at Olympia and a temple at Letrinoi near the river Alpheus.
, Paris.]]
Amarynthia, or Amarysia, with a famous temple at Amarynthus near Eretria. The goddess was related to the animals, however she was also a healer goddess of women. She is identified with Kolainis.
Amphipyros, with fire at each end, a rare epithet of Artemis as bearing a torch in either hand. Sophocles calls her, "Elaphebolos, (deer slayer) Amphipyros", reminding the annual fire of the festival Laphria The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades).
Anaitis, in Lydia. The fame of Tauria (the Tauric goddess) was very high, and the Lydians claimed that the image of the goddess was among them. It was considered that the image had divine powers. The Athenians believed that the image became booty to the Persians and was carried from Brauron to Susa.
Angelos, messenger, envoy, title of Artemis at Syracuse in Sicily.
Apanchomene, the strangled goddess, at Caphyae in Arcadia. She was a vegetation goddess related to the ecstatic tree cult. The Minoan tree goddesses Helene, Dentritis, and Ariadne were also hanged. This epithet is related to the old traditions where icons and puppets of a vegetation goddess would be hung on a tree. It was believed that the plane tree near the spring at Caphyae, was planted by Menelaus, the husband of Helen of Troy. The tree was called "Menelais". The previous name of the goddess was most likely Kondyleatis.
Aphaea, or Apha, unseen or disappeared, a goddess at Aegina and a rare epithet of Artemis. Aphaea is identified with Britomartis. In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her. She travelled to Aegina on a wooden boat and then she disappeared. The myth indicates an identity in nature with Diktynna.
. Antique fresco from Pompei, probably a copy of a painting by Timanthes. Agamemnon (right) and Clytemnestra crying (left). In the sky appears the fawn which will replace her. National Archaeological Museum, Naples.]]
Aricina, derived from the town Aricia in Latium, or from Aricia, the wife of the Roman forest god Virbius (Hippolytus). The goddess was related with Artemis Tauria (the Tauric Artemis). Her statue was considered the same with the statue that Orestes brought from Tauris. Near the sanctuary of the goddess there was a combat between slaves who had run away from their masters and the prize was the priesthood of Artemis.
Ariste, the best, a goddess of the women. Pausanias describes xoana of "Ariste" and "Kalliste" in the way to the academy of Athens and he believes that the names are surnames of the goddess Artemis, who is depicted carrying a torch. Kalliste is not related to Kalliste of Arcadia.
Astrateia, she that stops an invasion, at Pyrrichos in Laconia. A wooden image (xoanon), was dedicated to the goddess, because she stopped the invasion of the Amazons in this area. Another xoanon represented "Apollo Amazonios".
Basileie, at Thrace and Paeonia. The women offered wheat stalks to the goddess. In this cult, which reached Athens, Artemis is relative to the Thracian goddess Bendis.
(with her Thracian cap), Apollo, Hermes and a young warrior. Apulian red-figure bell-shaped krater, c. 380–370 BCE by the Bendis Painter. Louvre, Paris.]]
Brauronia, worshipped at Brauron in Attica. Her cult is remarkable for the "arkteia", young girls who dressed with short saffron-yellow chitons and imitated bears (she-bears: arktoi). In the Acropolis of Athens, the Athenian girls before puberty should serve the goddess as "arktoi".
Boulaia, of the council, in Athens.
Caryatis, the lady of the nut-tree, at Caryae on the borders between Laconia and Arcadia. Artemis was strongly related to the nymphs, and young girls were dancing the dance Caryatis. The dancers of Caryai were famous in antiquity. In a legend, Carya, the female lover of Dionysos was transformed into a nut tree and the dancers into nuts. The city is considered to be the place of the origin of the bucolic (pastoral) songs.
on Eurystheus, who, frightened, hides in a jar. Goddesses Artemis (left) and Athena (right). Attic Amphora 500–515 BCE by Rycroft Painter. National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).]]
Chitonia, wearing a loose tunic, at Syracuse in Sicily, as goddess of hunting. The festival was distinguished by a peculiar dance and by a music on the flute. In a legend, when the old goddess became wrathful, she would send the terrible Erymanthian boar to lay waste to fields. Artemis can bring an immediate death with her arrows. In the Iliad, Hera stresses the wild and darker side of her character and she accuses her of being "a lioness between women".
Chrisinios, of the golden reins, as a goddess of hunting in her chariot. In the Iliad, in her wrath, she kills the daughter of Bellerophon.
Cnagia, near Sparta in Laconia. In a legend the native Cnageus was sold as a slave in Crete. He escaped to his country taking with him the virgin priestess of the goddess Artemis. The priestess carried with her from Crete the statue of the goddess, who was named Cnagia.
Cynthia, as goddess of the moon, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthos at Delos. Selene, the Greek personification of the moon, and the Roman Diana were also sometimes called Cynthia.
Daphnaea, as goddess of vegetation. Her name is most likely derived from the "laurel-branch" which was used as "May-branch", or an allusion to her statue being made of laurel-wood (daphne) Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia.
Diktynna, from Mount Dikti, who is identified with the Minoan goddess Britomartis. Her name is derived from the mountain Dikti in Crete. A folk etymology derives her name from the word "diktyon" (net). In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) was hunting together with Artemis who loved her desperately. She escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her, by jumping into the sea and falling into a net of fishes.
, Paris]]
Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth in Boeotia and other local cults especially in Crete and Laconia. During the Bronze Age, in the cave of Amnisos, she was related to the annual birth of the divine child. In the Minoan myth the child was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by the powers of nature.
Elaphia, goddess of hunting (deer). Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia. and the name of a month in several local cults. Sophocles calls Artemis "Elaphebolos, Amphipyros", carrying a torch in each hand. This was used during the annual fire of the festival of Laphria at Delphi.
Ephesia, at the city Ephesus of Minor Asia. The city was a great center of the cult of the goddess, with a magnificent temple, (Artemision). Ephesia belongs to the series of the Anatolian goddesses (Great mother, or mountain-mother). However she is not a mother-goddess, but the goddess of free nature. In the Homeric Ionic sphere she is the goddess of hunting. "Eukleios" was the name of a month in several cities and "Eucleia" was the name of a festival at Delphi. In Athens Peitho, Harmonia and Eucleia can create a good marriage. The bride would sacrifice to the virgin goddess Artemis.
Eupraxis, fine acting. On a relief from Sicily the goddess is depicted holding a torch in one hand and an offering on the other. The torch was used for the ignition of the fire on the altar.
, 460-450 BCE by the Niobid Painter. Louvre, Paris.]]
Eurynome, wide ruling, at Phigalia in Arcadia. Her wooden image (xoanon) was bound with a roller golden chain. The xoanon depicted a woman's upper body and the lower body of a fish. Pausanias identifies her as one of the Oceanids daughters of Oceanus and Tethys
Hagemo, or Hegemone, leader, as the leader of the nymphs. Artemis was playing and dancing with the nymphs who lived near springs, waters and forests and she was hunting surrounded by them. The nymphs joined the festival of the marriage and then they returned to their original form. The pregnant women appealed to the nymphs for help. In Greek popular culture the commandress of the Neraiden (fairies) is called "Great lady", "Lady Kalo" or "Queen of the mountains".
Hemeresia, the soothing goddess worshipped at well Lusoi
Heurippa, horse finder, at Pheneus in Arcadia. Her sanctuary was near the bronze statue of Poseidon Hippios (horse). In a legend, Odysseus lost his mares and travelled throughout Greece to find them. He found his mares at Pheneus, where he founded the temple of "Artemis Heurippa".
Hymnia, at Orchomenos in Boeotia. She was a goddess of dance and songs, especially of female choruses. The priestesses of Artemis Hymnia could not have a normal life like the other women. They were at first virgins and were to remain celibate in the priesthood. They could not use the same baths and they were not allowed to enter the house of a private man.
Iakinthotrophos, nurse of Hyacinthos at Knidos. Hyacinthos was a god of vegetation with Minoan origin. After his birth he was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by Artemis who represents the first power of nature. In the European and Greek popular religion the arrow-shots from invisible beings can bring diseases and death.
Painter. National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).]]
Issora, or Isora, at Sparta, with the surname Limnaia or Pitanitis. Issorium was a part of a great summit which advances into the level of Eurotas a Pausanias identifies her with the Minoan Britomartis. Kallisto the attendant of Artemis, bore Arcas the patriarch of the Arcaden. In a legend Kallisto was transformed into a bear and in another myth Artemis shot her. Kallisto is a hypostasis of Artemis with a theriomorphic form from a pre-Greek cult.
'Keladeini, echoing chasing (noisy) in Homer's Iliad because she hunts wild boars and deer surrounded by her nymphs.
'Kithone, as a goddess of childbirth at Millet. Her name is probably derived from the custom of clothes consecration to the goddess, for a happy childbirth. The goddess became a healer goddess of women.
Kondyleatis, named after the village Kondylea, where she had a grove and a temple. In a legend some boys tied a rope around the image of the goddess and said that Artemis was hanged. The boys were killed by the inhabitants and this caused a divine punishment. All the women brought dead children in the world, until the boys were honourably buried. An annual sacrifice was instituted to the divine spirits of the boys. Kondyleatis was most likely the original name of Artemis Apanchomeni.
Kordaka, in Elis. Τhe dancers performed the obscene dance kordaka, which is considered the origin of the dance of the old comedy. The dance is famous for its nudge and hilarity and gave the name to the goddess.
Korythalia, derived from Korythale, probably the "laurel May-branch", as a goddess of vegetation at Sparta. The epheboi and the girls who entered the marriage age placed the Korythale in front of the door of the house. In the cult the female dancers (famous in the antiquity) performed boisterous dances and were called Korythalistriai. In Italy, the male dancers wore wooden masks and they were called kyrritoi (pushing with the horns).
Kourotrophos, protector of children. During the Apaturia the front hair of young girls and young boys (koureion) were offered to the goddess. "Laphria" was the name of the festival. The characteristic rite was the annual fire and there was a custom to throw animals alive in the flames during the fest. The cult of "Laphria" at Patras was transferred from the city Calydon of Aetolia In a legend during the Calydonian boar hunt the fierce-huntress Atalanta was the first who wounded the boar. Atalanta was a Greek heroine, symbolizing the free nature and independence
Lecho, protector of a woman in childbed, or of one who has just given birth.
Lochia, as goddess of childbirth and midwifery. Women consecrated clothes to the goddess for a happy childbirth. Other less common epithets of Artemis as goddess of childbirth are Eulochia and Geneteira. at Troezen in Argolis. It was believed that her temple was built by the hunter Hippolytus who abstained from sex and marriage. Lyceia was probably a surname of Artemis among the Amazons from whom Hippolytus descended from his mother. (Hippolyta).
Lycoatis, with a bronze statue at the city Lycoa in Arcadia. The city was near the foot of the mountain Mainalo, which was sacred to, Pan. On the south slope the Mantineians fetched the bones of Arcas, the son of Kallisto.(Kalliste).
.]]
Lygodesma, willow bound, at Sparta (another name of Orthia). In a legend her image was discovered in a thicket of willows.
Melissa, bee or beauty of nature, as a moon goddess. In Neoplatonic philosophy melissa is any pure being of souls coming to birth. The goddess took suffering away from mothers giving birth. It was Melissa who drew souls coming to birth.
Molpadia, singer of divine songs, a rare epithet of Artemis as a goddess of dances and songs and leader of the nymphs.
Munichia, in a cult at Piraeus, related to the arkteia of Brauronian Artemis. According to legend, if someone killed a bear, he should be punished by sacrificing his daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter by dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter.
Mysia, with a temple on the road from Sparta to Arcadia near the "Tomb of the Horse".
Oenoatis, derived from the city Oenoe in Argolis. Above the town there was the mountain Artemisium, with the temple of the goddess on the summit.
In a Greek legend the mountain was the place where Heracles chased and captured the terrible Ceryneian Hind, an enormous female deer with golden antlers and hooves of bronze. The deer was sacred to Artemis.
Orthia, upright, with a famous festival at Sparta. Her cult was introduced by the Dorians. She was worshipped as a goddess of vegetation in an orgiastic cult with boisterous cyclic dances.
Among the offerings, there were terracotta masks representing grotesque faces and it seems that animal-masks were also used. In literature there was a great fight for taking the pieces of cheese that were offered to the goddess. The whipping of the epheboi near the altar was a ritual of initiation, preparing them for their future life as soldiers. During this ritual the altar was full of blood.
.]]
Paidotrophos, protector of children at Corone in Messenia. During a festival of Korythalia the wet-nurses brought the infants in the sanctuary of the goddess, to get her protection. In Pelopponnese Peitho is related to Artemis. In Athens Peitho is the consensual force in civilized society and emphasizes civic armony.
Pheraia, from the city Pherai, at Argos, Athens and Sicyon. It was believed that the image of the goddess was brought from the city Pherai of Thessaly. This conception relates Artemis with the distinctly Thessalian goddess Enodia. Enodia had similar functions with Hecate and she carried the common epithet "Pheraia".
Phakelitis, of the bundle, at Tyndaris in Sicily. In the local legend the image of the goddess was found in a bundle of dry sticks.
Phosphoros, carrier of light. In Ancient Messene she is carrying a torch as a moon-goddess and she is identified with Hecate. In a legend Arethusa, was a chaste nymph and tried to escape from the river god Alpheus who fell in love with her. She was transformed by Artemis into a stream, traversed underground and appeared at Ortygia, thus providing water for the city. (Alfaea) (of the river god).
Potnia Theron, mistress of the animals. The origin of her cult is Pre-Greek and the term is used by Homer for the goddess of hunting. She is the only Greek goddess who stands close to the daimons and she has a wild side which differentiates her from other Greek gods. In Arcadia and during the festival of Laphria, there is evidence of barbaric animal sacrifices.
or Artemis is depicted with a bow, twin flaming torches and a large dog. Archaic Attic black figure kylix, attributed to Kleibolos Painter. Museum of the University of Tübingen, Baden.]]
Saronia, of Saron, at Troezen across the Saronic gulf. In a legend the king Saron was chasing a doe that dashed into the sea. He followed the doe in the waters and he was drowned in the waves of the sea. He gave his name to the Saronic gulf.
Selasphoros, carrier of light, flame, as a moon-goddess identified with Hecate, in the cult of Munichia at Piraeus.
Stymphalia, of Stymphalus, a city in Arcadia. In a legend the water of the river descended in a chasm which was clogged up and the water overflowed creating a big marsh on the plain. A hunter was chasing a deer and both fell into the mud at the bottom of the chasm. The next day the whole water of the marsh dried up and the land was cultivated. Her image was considered to have been carried from Tauris by Orestes and Iphigenia and was brought to Brauron, Sparta or Aricia.
with Artemis, deer, bull, club and quiver. c. 320–290 BCE. Diagora-, magistrate. CHER, Artemis Parthenos left. DIAGORA, Bull butting right; Christopher Markom Collection]]
Tauropolos, usually interpreted as hunting bull goddess. Tauropolos was not original in Greece and she has similar functions with foreign goddesses, especially with the mythical bull-goddess. The cult can be identified at Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar festival, a man was sacrificed. He was killed in the ritual with a sword cutting his throat. Strabo mentions that during the night-fest of Tauropolia a girl was raped. Triclaria was a priestess of Artemis who made love with her lover in the sanctuary. They were punished to be sacrificed in the temple and each year the people should sacrifice a couple to the goddess. Europylus came carrying a chest with the image of Dionysos who put an end to the killings.
Issoria (Ἰσσωρία), a name given to her from her shrine at Mount Issorion in Laconia.Mythology
Birth
Various conflicting accounts are given in Greek mythology regarding the birth of Artemis and Apollo, her twin brother. In terms of parentage, though, all accounts agree that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. In some sources, she is born at the same time as Apollo; but in others, earlier or later.
Although traditionally stated to be twins, the author of The Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo (the oldest extant account of Leto's wandering and birth of her children) is only concerned with the birth of Apollo, and sidelines Artemis; in fact in the Homeric Hymn they are not stated to be twins at all.
It is a slightly later poet, Pindar, who speaks of a single pregnancy. The two earliest poets, Homer and Hesiod, confirm Artemis and Apollo's status as full siblings born to the same mother and father, but neither explicitly makes them twins.
According to Callimachus, Hera, who was angry with her husband Zeus for impregnating Leto, forbade her from giving birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island, but the island of Delos disobeyed and allowed Leto to give birth there. According to some, this rooted the once freely floating island to one place.
According to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, however, the island where she and her twin were born was Ortygia. In ancient Cretan history, Leto was worshipped at Phaistos, and in Cretan mythology, Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis on the islands known today as Paximadia .
A scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) to prevent Hera from finding out about his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form, Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when she lays an egg.
from Heracles. Detail of an Attic black-figure amphora c. 530–520 BCE. Louvre, Paris ]]
The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as firstborn, becoming her mother's midwife upon the birth of her brother Apollo. Servius, a late fourth/early fifth-century grammarian, wrote that Artemis was born first because at first it was night, whose instrument is the Moon, which Artemis represents, and then day, whose instrument is the Sun, which Apollo represents. Pindar however writes that both twins shone like the Sun when they came into the bright light.
After their troubling childbirth, Leto took the twin infants and crossed over to Lycia, in the southwest corner of Asia Minor, where she tried to drink from and bathe the babies in a spring she found there. However, the local Lycian peasants tried to prevent the twins and their mother from making use of the water by stirring up the muddy bottom of the spring, so the three of them could not drink it. Leto, in her anger that the impious Lycians had refused to offer hospitality to a fatigued mother and her thirsty infants, transformed them all into frogs, forever doomed to swim and hop around the spring.
]]
Relations with men
The river god Alpheus was in love with Artemis, but as he realized he could do nothing to win her heart, he decided to capture her. When Artemis and her companions at Letrenoi go to Alpheus, she becomes suspicious of his motives and covers her face with mud so he does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities the girl and saves her, transforming her into a spring in the temple Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink.
Bouphagos, son of the Titan Iapetus, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him down at Mount Pholoe.
Daphnis was a young boy, a son of Hermes, who was accepted by and became a follower of the goddess Artemis; Daphnis would often accompany her in hunting and entertain her with his singing of pastoral songs and playing of the panpipes.
Artemis taught a man, Scamandrius, how to be a great archer, and he excelled in the use of a bow and arrow with her guidance.
Broteas was a famous hunter who refused to honour Artemis, and boasted that nothing could harm him, not even fire. Artemis then drove him mad, causing him to walk into fire, ending his life.
According to Antoninus Liberalis, Siproites was a Cretan who was metamorphized into a woman by Artemis, for, while hunting, seeing the goddess bathing. Artemis also changed a Calydonian man named Calydon, the son of Ares and Astynome, into stone when he saw the goddess bathing naked.
Divine retribution
Actaeon
, Paris.]]
Multiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core, they involve the great hunter Actaeon whom Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression, and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually, the dogs are his own, but no longer recognize their master. Occasionally they are said to be the hounds of Artemis.
Various tellings diverge in terms of the hunter's transgression: sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele. Apollodorus, who records the Semele version, notes that the ones with Artemis are more common.
According to Lamar Ronald Lacey's The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies, the standard modern text on the work, the most likely original version of the myth portrays Actaeon as the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris, he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions, Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon Artemis.
and her nymph surprised by Actaeon.Mosaic, 2nd century CE Ruins of Volubilis, Morocco]]
A single line from Aeschylus's now lost play Toxotides ("female archers") is among the earlier attestations of Actaeon's myth, stating that "the dogs destroyed their master utterly", with no confirmation of Actaeon's metamorphosis or the god he offended (but it is heavily implied to be Artemis, due to the title). Ancient artwork depicting the myth of Actaeon predate Aeschylus. Euripides, coming in a bit later, wrote in the Bacchae that Actaeon was torn to shreds and perhaps devoured by his "flesh-eating" hunting dogs when he claimed to be a better hunter than Artemis. Like Aeschylus, he does not mention Actaeon being deer-shaped when that happens. Callimachus writes that Actaeon chanced upon Artemis bathing in the woods, and she caused him to be devoured by his own hounds for the sacrilege, and he makes no mention of transformation into a deer either.
Diodorus Siculus wrote that Actaeon dedicated his prizes in hunting to Artemis, proposed marriage to her, and even tried to forcefully consummate said "marriage" inside the very sacred temple of the goddess; for this he was given the form "of one of the animals which he was wont to hunt", and then torn to shreds by his hunting dogs. Diodorus also mentioned the alternative of Actaeon claiming to be a better hunter than the goddess of the hunt. Hyginus also mentions Actaeon attempting to rape Artemis when he finds her bathing naked, and her transforming him into the doomed deer.
'' by Titian (1556–1559), oil in canvas. National Gallery and Scottish National Gallery, London and Edinburg.]]
Apollodorus wrote that when Actaeon saw Artemis bathing, she turned him into a deer on the spot, and intentionally drove his dogs into a frenzy so that they would kill and devour him. Afterward, Chiron built a sculpture of Actaeon to comfort his dogs in their grief, as they could not find their master no matter how much they looked for him.
Pausanias says that Actaeon saw Artemis naked and that she threw a deerskin on him so that his hounds would kill him, in order to prevent him from marrying Semele.
Niobe
The story of Niobe, queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, who blasphemously boasted of being superior to Leto. This myth is very old; Homer knew of it and wrote that Niobe had given birth to twelve children, equally divided in six sons and six daughters (the Niobids).
Other sources speak of fourteen children, seven sons, and seven daughters. Niobe claimed of being a better mother than Leto, for having more children than Leto's own two, "but the two, though they were only two, destroyed all those others." Leto was not slow to catch up on that and grew angry at the queen's hubris. She summoned her children and commanded them to avenge the slight against her.
depicting Niobe attempting to shield her children from Artemis and Apollo. Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas.]]
Swiftly Apollo and Artemis descended on Thebes. While the sons were hunting in the woods, Apollo crept up on them and slew all seven with his silver bow. The dead bodies were brought to the palace. Niobe wept for them, but did not relent, saying that even now she was better than Leto, for she still had seven children, her daughters.
On cue, Artemis then started shooting the daughters one by one. Right as Niobe begged for her youngest one to be spared, Artemis killed that last one.Orion
's 1685 painting of Diana over Orion's dead body, before he is placed in the heavens. Louvre, Paris.]]
Orion was Artemis' hunting companion; after giving up on trying to find Oenopion, Orion met Artemis and her mother Leto, and joined the goddess in hunting. A great hunter himself, he bragged that he would kill every beast on earth. Gaia, the earth, was not too pleased to hear that, and sent a giant scorpion to sting him. Artemis then transferred him into the stars as the constellation Orion. In one version Orion died after pushing Leto out of the scorpion's way.
In another version, Orion tries to violate Opis, one of Artemis' followers from Hyperborea, and Artemis kills him. In a version by Aratus, Orion grabs Artemis' robe and she kills him in self-defense. Other writers have Artemis kill him for trying to rape her or one of her attendants.
Istrus wrote a version in which Artemis fell in love with Orion, apparently the only time Artemis ever fell in love. She meant to marry him, and no talk from her brother Apollo would change her mind. Apollo then decided to trick Artemis, and while Orion was off swimming in the sea, he pointed at him (barely a spot in the horizon) and wagered that Artemis could not hit that small "dot". Artemis, ever eager to prove she was the better archer, shot Orion, killing him. She then placed him among the stars.
In Homer's Iliad, the goddess of the dawn Eos seduces Orion, angering the gods who did not approve of immortal goddesses taking mortal men for lovers, causing Artemis to shoot and kill him on the island of Ortygia.Callisto
and other nymphs. Antique fresco from Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum, Naples.]]
Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia,
was one of Artemis' hunting attendants, and, as a companion of Artemis, took a vow of chastity.
According to Hesiod in his lost poem Astronomia, Zeus appeared to Callisto, and seduced her, resulting in her becoming pregnant. Though she was able to hide her pregnancy for a time, she was soon found out while bathing. Enraged, Artemis transformed Callisto into a bear, and in this form she gave birth to her son Arcas. Both of them were then captured by shepherds and given to Lycaon, and Callisto thus lost her child. Sometime later, Callisto "thought fit to go into" a forbidden sanctuary of Zeus, and was hunted by the Arcadians, her son among them. When she was about to be killed, Zeus saved her by placing her in the heavens as a constellation of a bear.
In his De astronomia, Hyginus, after recounting the version from Hesiod, presents several other alternative versions. The first, which he attributes to Amphis, says that Zeus seduced Callisto by disguising himself as Artemis during a hunting session, and that when Artemis found out that Callisto was pregnant, she replied saying that it was the goddess's fault, causing Artemis to transform her into a bear. This version also has both Callisto and Arcas placed in the heavens, as the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.
Hyginus then presents another version in which, after Zeus lay with Callisto, it was Hera who transformed her into a bear. Artemis later, while hunting, kills the bear, and "later, on being recognized, Callisto was placed among the stars". Hyginus also gives another version, in which Hera tries to catch Zeus and Callisto in the act, causing Zeus to transform her into a bear. Hera, finding the bear, points it out to Artemis, who is hunting; Zeus, in panic, places Callisto in the heavens as a constellation.
, c. 1556–1559, by Titian. Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh.]]
Ovid gives a somewhat different version: Zeus seduced Callisto once again disguised as Artemis, but she seems to realise that it is not the real Artemis, and she thus does not blame Artemis when, during bathing, she is found out. Callisto is, rather than being transformed, simply ousted from the company of the huntresses, and she thus gives birth to Arcas as a human. Only later is she transformed into a bear, this time by Hera. When Arcas, fully grown, is out hunting, he nearly kills his mother, who is saved only by Zeus placing her in the heavens.
In the Bibliotheca, a version is presented in which Zeus raped Callisto, "having assumed the likeness, as some say, of Artemis, or, as others say, of Apollo". He then turned her into a bear himself so as to hide the event from Hera. Artemis then shot the bear, either upon the persuasion of Hera, or out of anger at Callisto for breaking her virginity. Once Callisto was dead, Zeus made her into a constellation, took the child, named him Arcas, and gave him to Maia, who raised him.
Pausanias, in his Description of Greece, presents another version, in which, after Zeus seduced Callisto, Hera turned her into a bear, which Artemis killed to please Hera. Hermes was then sent by Zeus to take Arcas, and Zeus himself placed Callisto in the heavens.
Minor myths
Painter. Louvre, Paris.]]
When Zeus' gigantic son Tityos tried to rape Leto, she called out to her children for help, and both Artemis and Apollo were quick to respond by raining down their arrows on Tityos, killing him.
Chione was a princess of Phokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was more beautiful than Artemis because she had made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with an arrow, or struck her mute by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath.
Artemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to nurse the baby, who was then raised by hunters. In some stories, Artemis later sent a bear to injure Atalanta because others claimed Atalanta was a superior hunter. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the Calydonian boar hunt, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices.
In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood and was awarded the prize of the boar's hide. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis. Meleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus ordered him to gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turns his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids, into guineafowl that Artemis favoured.
In Nonnus' Dionysiaca, Aura, the daughter of Lelantos and Periboia, was a companion of Artemis. When out hunting one day with Artemis, she asserts that the goddess's voluptuous body and breasts are too womanly and sensual, and doubts her virginity, arguing that her own lithe body and man-like breasts are better than Artemis' and a true symbol of her own chastity. In anger, Artemis asks Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity. Nemesis agrees, telling Artemis that Aura's punishment will be to lose her virginity, since she dared question that of Artemis.
Museum.]]
Nemesis then arranges for Eros to make Dionysus fall in love with Aura. Dionysus intoxicates Aura and rapes her as she lies unconscious, after which she becomes a deranged killer. While pregnant, she tries to kill herself or cut open her belly, as Artemis mocks her over it. When she bore twin sons, she ate one, while the other, Iacchus, was saved by Artemis.
The twin sons of Poseidon and Iphimedeia, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive and skilled hunters who could not be killed except by each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer that jumped out between them. In another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe and jumped between them. In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis is a favorite of Aphrodite, who was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a hunter of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus's death. In yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares as punishment for being with Aphrodite.
Polyphonte was a young woman who fled home in pursuit of a free, virginal life with Artemis, as opposed to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment, Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to mate and have children with a bear. Artemis, seeing that, was disgusted and sent a horde of wild animals against her, causing Polyphonte to flee to her father's house. Her resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the entire family was transformed into birds who became ill portents for mankind.
Coronis was a princess from Thessaly who became the lover of Apollo and fell pregnant. While Apollo was away, Coronis began an affair with a mortal man named Ischys. When Apollo learnt of this, he sent Artemis to kill the pregnant Coronis, or Artemis had the initiative to kill Coronis on her own accord for the insult done against her brother. The unborn child, Asclepius, was later removed from his dead mother's womb.
When two of her hunting companions who had sworn to remain chaste and be devoted to her, Rhodopis and Euthynicus, fell in love with each other and broke their vows in a cavern, Artemis turned Rhodopis into a fountain inside that very cavern as punishment. The two had fallen in love not on their own but only after Eros had struck them with his love arrows, commanded by his mother Aphrodite, who had taken offence in that Rhodopis and Euthynicus rejected love and marriage in favour of a chaste life.
When the monstrous Typhon attacked Olympus, all the terrified gods transformed into various animals and fled to Egypt. Artemis became a cat, as she was identified by the Greeks with the Egyptian feline goddess Bastet.
When the queen of Kos Echemeia ceased to worship Artemis, she shot her with an arrow; Persephone then snatched the still-living Euthemia and brought her to the Underworld.
Trojan War
, Greece.]]
Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city, and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. Artemis plays a significant role in the war; like Leto and Apollo, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. In the Iliad, Artemis on her chariot with the golden reins, kills the daughter of Bellerophon.
, Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans]]
When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to commence the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas erroneously advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. In some version of the myth, Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer; in others, Artemis allowed Iphigenia to be sacrificed. In versions where Iphigenia survived, a number of different myths have been told about what happened after Artemis took her; either she was brought to Tauris and led the priests there, or she became Artemis' immortal companion. Crying, Artemis left her bow and arrows where they lay and ran to Olympus to cry at her father Zeus' knees, while her mother Leto picked up her bow and arrows and followed her weeping daughter.
Worship
. The stoa and the sacred spring from the SW.]]
Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos
(her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows and accompanied by a deer.
The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign.
Athenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta.
Pre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears.
'' in Jerash, Jordan, built during the reign of Antoninus Pius]]
A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls "act the bear" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death.
Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia. Dedications of clothing to her sanctuaries after a successful birth was common in the Classical era. Artemis could be a deity to be feared by pregnant women, as deaths during this time were attributed to her. As childbirth and pregnancy was a very common and important event, there were numerous other deities associated with it, many localized to a particular geographic area, including but not limited to Aphrodite, Hera and Hekate. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. Older sources, such as Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo (in Line 115), have the arrival of Eileithyia on Delos as the event that allows Leto to give birth to her children. Contradictory is Hesiod's presentation of the myth in Theogony, where he states that Leto bore her children before Zeus' marriage to Hera with no commentary on any drama related to their birth.
Despite her being primarily known as a goddess of hunting and the wilderness, she was also connected to dancing, music, and song like her brother Apollo; she is often seen singing and dancing with her nymphs, or leading the chorus of the Muses and the Graces at Delphi. In Sparta, girls of marriageable age performed the partheneia (choral maiden songs) in her honor.
During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hekate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya).
There was a women's cult at Cyzicus worshiping Artemis, which was called Dolon (Δόλων).FestivalsArtemis was born on the sixth day of the month Thargelion (around May), which made it sacred for her, as her birthday. On the seventh day of the same month was Apollo's birthday. Artemis was worshipped in many festivals throughout Greece mainland and the islands, Asia Minor and south Italy. Most of these festivals were celebrated during spring.
; Attica
. Archaeological Museum of Piraeus.]]
* Athens. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated on the sixth day of the month Elaphebolion (ninth month). The name is related to elaphos (deer) and Artemis is the Deer Huntress. Cakes made from flour, honey, and sesame and in the shape of stags were offered to the goddess during the festival.
* Brauron. The festival was remarkable for the arkteia, where girls, aged between five and ten, were dressed in saffron robes and played at being bears, or "act the bear" to appease the goddess after she sent the plague when her bear was killed. Another commentator says that girls had to placate the goddess for their virginity (parthenia), so that they would not be the object of revenge from her.
* Piraeus. The festival of Artemis Munichia was celebrated on the 6th or 16th day of the month Munichion (tenth month). Young girls were dressed up as bears, as for the Brauronia. In the temple have been found sherds from the geometric period. The festival commemorated the victory of the Greek fleet over the Persians at Salamis. On the 6th day of the month Boedromion, an armed procession would take a large number of goats to the temple. They would all be sacrificed in honor of the victory at the Battle of Marathon. The festival was called "Charisteria," also known as the Athenian "Thanksgiving." Kolainis is usually identified with Artemis Amarysia in Euboia. Some rites and animal sacrifices were probably similar with the rites of Laphria.
*Halae Araphenides, a deme near Brauron. The fest Tauropolia was celebrated in honour of Artemis Tauropolos. During the festival a human sacrifice was represented in a ritual. The Phocians achieved a great victory and each year they celebrated their victory in the festival Elaphebolia-Laphria in honour of Artemis. All kinds of offerings were burned in an annual fire, reminding the great pyre of the battle.
*Delphi in Phocis. The festival Laphria was celebrated in the month Laphrios. The cult of Artemis Laphria was introduced by the priests of Delphi Lab(r)yaden who had probably Cretan origin. Laphria is certainly the Pre-Greek "Mistress of the animals".
, California.]]
*Tithorea in Ancient Phocis. It seems that the festival of Isis was a reform of the festival of Artemis Laphria.
*Erineos in Doris. Festival of Artemis Laphria, indicated by the month Laphrios in the local calendar.
*Thebes in Boeotia. Before marriage a premilinary sacrifice should be made by the bride and the groom to Artemis-Eucleia.
*Nafpaktos in Aetolia. Cult of Artemis Laphria.
*Acarnania. Cult of Artemis-Agrotera (huntress) in a society of hunters.
*Patras. The Ionians who lived in Ancient Achaea celebrated the annual festival of Artemis Triclaria. Pausanias mentions the legend of human sacrifices to the outraged goddess. The new deity Dionysus, put an end to the sacrifices.
*Aigeira in Achaea. Festival of Artemis Agrotera (huntress). When the Sicyonians attacked the city, the Aigeirians tied torches on all goats of the area and during night they set the torches alight. The Sicyonians believed that Aigeira had a great army and they retreated.
*Sparta. Festival of Artemis-Orthia. The goddess was associated with the female initiatory rite Partheneion. Women performed round dances. In a legend Theseus stole Helene from the dancing floor of Orthia, during the round-dancing. The significant prize of the competitions was an iron sickle (drepanē) indicating that Orthia was a goddess of vegetation.
*Sparta on the road to Amyklai. Artemis-Korythalia was a goddess of vegetation. Women performed lascivious dances. The fest was celebrated in round huts covered with leaves. The nurses brought the infants in the temple of Korythalia during the fest Tithenedia.
]]
*Messene near the borders with Laconia. Festival of Artemis Limnatis (of the lake). The festival was celebrated with cymbals and dances. The goddess was worshipped by young women during the festivals of transition from childhood to adulthood.
*Dereion on Taygetos in Laconia. Cult of Artemis -Dereatis. The festival was celebrated with the hymns calavoutoi and with the obscene dance callabis.
*Epidauros Limera in Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis.
*Hypsus . Annual fest of Artemis Daphnaia.(Of the laurel-branch).
*Tegea in Arcadia, on the road to Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis (of the lake).
*Troizen in Argolis. Festival of Artemis-Saronia. Near the temple was the grave of the king Saron who was drowned into the sea.
*Apollonia of Chalcidice. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated in honor of Artemis in the month Elaphebolion the temple of Artemis Tauropolos was built at Oinoe. There was another smaller temenos that was sacred to Artemis-Tauropolos on the coast of the island.
*Cephalonia. Cult of Artemis-Laphria who is related to the legend of Britomartis.
*Corcyra. Cult of Artemis-Laphria in the month Laphrios.
*Perga in Ionia. Famous festival of Artemis-Pergaia. Under Roman rule Diana-Pergaia is identified with Selene. Furthermore, some have described Artemis along with the goddesses Hestia and Athena as being asexual; this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, Aphrodite is described as having "no power" over the three goddesses.
As a mother goddess
Despite her virginity, both modern scholars and ancient commentaries have linked Artemis to the archetype of the mother goddess. Artemis was traditionally linked to fertility and was petitioned to assist women with childbirth. According to Herodotus, Greek playwright Aeschylus identified Artemis with Persephone as a daughter of Demeter. Her worshipers in Arcadia also traditionally associated her with Demeter and Persephone. In Asia Minor, she was often conflated with local mother-goddess figures, such as Cybele, and Anahita in Iran.
In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!" Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple's location.
As a lunar deity
bronze head of a goddess (probably Artemis), wearing a lunate crown, 4th century BCE. Found at Issa, Vis, Croatia).]]
No records have been found of the Greeks referring to Artemis as a lunar deity, as their lunar deity was Selene, but the Romans identified Artemis with Selene leading them to perceive her as a lunar deity, though the Greeks did not refer to her or worship her as such. As the Romans began to associate Apollo more with Helios, the personification of the Sun, it was only natural that the Romans would then begin to identify Apollo's twin sister, Artemis, with Helios' own sister, Selene, the personification of the Moon.
Active references to Artemis as an illuminating goddess start much later.
- Vatican Museums.]]
Artemis' connection to childbed and women's labour naturally led to her becoming associated with the menstrual cycle in course of time, thus the Moon. Selene, just like Artemis, was linked to childbirth, as it was believed that women had the easiest labours during the full moon, paving thus the way for the two goddesses to be seen as the same.</blockquote>
Association to health was another reason Artemis and Selene were syncretized; Strabo wrote that Apollo and Artemis were connected to the Sun and the Moon, respectively, which was due to the changes the two celestial bodies caused in the temperature of the air, as the twins were gods of pestilential diseases and sudden deaths.
Roman authors applied Artemis/Diana's byname, "Phoebe", to Luna/Selene, the same way as "Phoebus" was given to Helios due to his identification with Apollo. Another epithet of Artemis that Selene appropriated is "Cynthia", meaning "born in Mount Cynthus." The goddesses Artemis, Selene, and Hecate formed a triad, identified as the same goddess with three avatars: Selene in the sky (moon), Artemis on earth (hunting), and Hecate beneath the earth (Underworld).
In Italy, those three goddesses became a ubiquitous feature in depictions of sacred groves, where Hecate/Trivia marked intersections and crossroads along with other liminal deities. The Romans enthusiastically celebrated the multiple identities of Diana as Hecate, Luna, and Trivia. In Virgil's Aeneid, when Nisus addresses Luna/the Moon, he calls her "daughter of Latona."
In works of art, the two goddesses were mostly distinguished; Selene is usually depicted as being shorter than Artemis, with a rounder face, and wearing a long robe instead of a short hunting chiton, with a billowing cloak forming an arc above her head. Artemis was sometimes depicted with a lunate crown.As Hecate
, Vatican Museums]]
Hecate was the goddess of crossroads, boundaries, ghosts and witchcraft. She is the queen of the witches. Artemis absorbed the Pre-Greek goddess Potnia Theron who was closely associated with the daimons.
Some scholars believe that Hecate was an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon.
Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshipped separately under her title Hecate.
Both goddesses carried torches, and were accompanied by a dog. It seems that the character of Artemis in Arcadia was original. At Acacesium Artemis Hegemone is depicted
holding two torches, and at Lycosura Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch. A bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side. At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer.DeerDeer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden-horned deer and harnessed them to her chariot. At Lycosura in isolated Arcadia Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch and dressed with a deer skin, besides Demeter and Persephone. It seems that the depictions of Artemis and Demeter-Melaina (black) in Arcadia correspond to the earliest conceptions of the first Greeks in Greece. At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer.Hunting dogIn a legend Artemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one – these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race, but Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time. In the earliest conceptions of Artemis at Lycosura, a bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side.
, bronze statue of the 4th century]]
An etiological myth tries to explain the origin of the Arkteia. Every year, a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. A bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear's blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple (played the bear for the goddess).
In a legend of the cult of Munichia if someone killed a bear, then they were to be punished by sacrificing their daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter.
Boar
The boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oeneus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis' boar. In The Odyssey, she descends from a peak and she travels along the ridges of Mount Erymanthos, that was sacred to the "Mistress of the animals".
Ovid describes the boar as follows:
:A dreadful boar.—His burning, bloodshot eyes
:seemed coals of living fire, and his rough neck
:was knotted with stiff muscles, and thick-set
:with bristles like sharp spikes. A seething froth
:dripped on his shoulders, and his tusks
:were like the spoils of Ind [India]. Discordant roars
:reverberated from his hideous jaws;
:and lightning—belched forth from his horrid throat—
:scorched the green fields.
::— Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.284–289 (Brookes More translation)
Guinea fowl
Artemis felt pity for the Calydonian princesses Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleager, so she transformed them into Guinea fowl to be her favorite animals.
Bee
The bee as a symbol of abundance was associated with Artemis Ephesia. Bees appear on the statue of the goddess, while the priestesses of the goddess received the name of 'Melissa' ('Bee' 'Μέλισσα'), possibly as a late Hellenistic worship element addition. The bee was also related to the Cretan tradition of worship, whereby Artemis was designated as 'Britomartis' (Βριτομάρτις), a word possibly deriving from the root vrito- (βρίτο-) a variant of 'melissa' ('μέλισσα' or 'bee').Buzzard hawk
Hawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included.
c Chersonesus with Artemis, deer, bull, club and quiver ()]]
Bull
Artemis is sometimes identified with the mythical bull-goddess in a cult foreign in Greece. The cult can be identified in Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar fest the sacrifice of a man was represented in a ritual.
Torch
Artemis is often depicted holding one or two torches. There is not any sufficient explanation for this depiction. The character of the goddess in Arcadia seems to be original. The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades). with hunting boots, a quiver, a golden or silver bow and arrows.
Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a lunar deity, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe.
Artemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others.
On June 7, 2007, a Roman-era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby's auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million.
Gallery
<gallery mode"heights"160"" caption="Ancient art">
Funeral pithos, Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850-800 BC, AMH, 079075.jpg|Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850–800 BCE
Niobid Krater - Niobid massacre.jpg|Apollo and Artemis kill the children of Niobe, 460–450 BCE by the Niobid Painter. Louvre, Paris.
Artemis Hekate. Apollonia, Albania.jpg|Artemis Hecate, as a goddess protector of the necropolis. Marble, 3rd century CE, Apollonia, Albania.
Plaque votive figurant Artémis ou Hécate.jpg|Votive figure Artemis and Hecate
</gallery>
<gallery mode"heights"160"" caption="Modern art">
Diana and her hound.jpg|Artemis-Diana and her hound
Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre 2712.jpg|Boucher, Artemis-Diana, Louvre
Artemis (BM 1899,0120.160).jpg|Artemis in a landscape
Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier.jpg|Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier
Orion aveugle cherchant le soleil.jpg|Nicolas Poussin (1658) "Landscape with blind Orion seeking the sun". Metropolitan Museum of Arts, Manhattan, New York.
</gallery>
Legacy
In astronomy
*105 Artemis (an asteroid discovered in 1868)
*Artemis (crater) (a tiny crater on the Moon, named in 2010)
*Artemis Chasma (a nearly circular fracture on the surface of the planet Venus, described in 1980)
*Artemis Corona (an oval feature largely enclosed by the Artemis Chasma, also described in 1980)
*Acronym (ArTeMiS) for "Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub-Millimetrique au Sol", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.In taxonomyThe taxonomic genus Artemia, which entirely comprises the family Artemiidae, derives from Artemis. Artemia species are aquatic crustaceans known as brine shrimp, the best-known species of which, Artemia salina, or sea monkeys, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758. Artemia species live in salt lakes, and although they are almost never found in an open sea, they do appear along the Aegean coast near Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis once stood.In modern spaceflightThe Artemis program is an ongoing robotic and crewed spaceflight program which has the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region no earlier than 2025. The program is being carried out by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as the European Space Agency, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency.
Genealogy
See also
*Bendis
*Dali (goddess)
*Janus
*Lunar deity
*Palermo Fragment
*Regarding Tauropolos:
**Bull (mythology)
**Iphigenia in Tauris
**Taurus (Mythology)
References
Bibliography
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*Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidC431BA809CA4DEA22A15DA9C666F3400?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0022%3atext%3dLibrary Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Aratus Solensis, Phaenomena translated by G. R. Mair. Loeb Classical Library Volume 129. London: William Heinemann, 1921. [https://topostext.org/work/551 Online version at the Topos Text Project].
*
*Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, Volume V: Books 10.420e-11. Edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson. Loeb Classical Library 274. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
*Budin, Stephanie, Artemis, Routledge publications, 2016, . [https://books.google.com/books?id=yL0BCgAAQBAJ Google books].
*Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. .
*Callimachus. Hymns, translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928). London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921. [https://archive.org/stream/callimachuslycop00calluoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. [https://topostext.org/work/120 Online version at the Topos Text Project].
*Celoria, Francis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis: A Translation with a Commentary, Routledge, 1992. .
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*Collins-Clinton, Jacquelyn, Cosa: The Sculpture and Furnishings in Stone and Marble, University of Michigan Press, 2020, . [https://books.google.com/books?id=U6vdDwAAQBAJ Google books].
*Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Evelyn-White, Hugh, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://books.google.com/books?idgYBiAAAAMAAJ Google Books]. [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/n7/mode/2up?viewtheater Internet Archive].
*Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Orion: The Myth of the Hunter and the Huntress, University of California Press, 1981. .
*Forbes Irving, P. M. C., Metamorphosis in Greek Myths, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1990. .
*Freeman, Kathleen, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Harvard University Press, 1983. .
*Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).
*Robert Graves (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths (Penguin)
*Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. .
*Hansen, William, Handbook of Classical Mythology, ABC-CLIO, 2004. .
*Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC Google Books].
*Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Hesiod, Astronomia, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/hesiodhomerichym00hesiuoft/page/66/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].
*Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De astronomia, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/207 Online version at ToposText].
*Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/206 Online version at ToposText].
*
*Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951.
*
*
*Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1940. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidE61EDD48E4F1A22F839AA4DC149C0955?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Mikalson, Jon D., The Sacred and Civil Calendar of the Athenian Year, Princeton University Press, 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d4p9BgAAQBAJ Google books].
*Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology, Eighth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007. . [https://archive.org/details/classicalmytholo0000morf_8ed/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].
*Most, G.W., Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia, Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL057/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
*Most, G.W., Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library, No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL503/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
*Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, in three volumes. Loeb Classical Library No. 346, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive].
*Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL042/1916/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
*Ovid, Ovid's Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer, London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. [https://archive.org/stream/ovidsfasti00oviduoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive].
*The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal: Volume 24, 1996, . [https://books.google.com/books?id=oHAmAgAAQBAJ Google books].
*The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. .
*Pannen, Imke, When the Bad Bleeds: Mantic Elements in English Renaissance Revenge Tragedy, Volume 3 of Representations & Reflections; V&R unipress GmbH, 2010. .
*Papathomopoulos, Manolis, Antoninus Liberalis: Les Métamorphoses, Collection Budé, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1968. .
*Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0161%3Abook%3DN. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library].
*
*
*
*Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873).
*Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
*.
*Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). .
*West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, edited and translated by Martin L. West, Loeb Classical Library No. 497, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL497/2003/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
*
*
*
External links
*[http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Artemis.html Theoi Project, Artemis, information on Artemis from original Greek and Roman sources, images from classical art].
*Marindin, G. E., Smith, William, LLD, & Wayte, William, eds., [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0063&querylabel%3D%23290&word=Amarysia A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities] (London: John Murray, 1890).
*[https://books.google.com/books?id2garBSREfywC&dqeileithyia&pg=PA27 Fischer-Hansen T., Poulsen B. (eds.) From Artemis to Diana: the goddess of man and beast''. Collegium Hyperboreum and Museum Tusculanum Press, Copenhagen, 2009]
*[https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000101 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,150 images of Artemis)]
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Category:Delian mythology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.010757 |
2906 | Arbeit macht frei | Arbeit macht frei (album)}}
]]
in the Czech Republic]]
() is a German phrase translated as "Work makes one free" or, more idiomatically, "Work sets you free" or "Work liberates".
The phrase originates from the title of an 1873 novel by Lorenz Diefenbach and alludes to John 8:31–32. Following the Nazi Party's rise to power in 1933, the phrase became a slogan used in programs implemented to combat mass unemployment in Germany.
Today, it is primarily known for its use above the entrance of Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps. Because prisoners were generally not released from the camps and performed forced labor under horrific conditions, the phrase has come to be understood as meaning that the only way for prisoners to gain a sort of freedom was to work until they died.OriginThe expression comes from the title of an 1873 novel by the German philologist Lorenz Diefenbach, , in which gamblers and fraudsters find the path to virtue through labour. "The truth will set you free" () is a statement of Jesus found in John 8:32—"And ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" (KJV).
The phrase was also used in French () by Auguste Forel, a Swiss entomologist, neuroanatomist and psychiatrist, in his () (1920). In 1922, the of Vienna, an ethnic nationalist "protective" organization of Germans within Austria, printed membership stamps with the phrase .
The phrase is also evocative of the medieval German principle of ("urban air makes you free"), according to which serfs were liberated after being a city resident for one year and one day.
Use by the Nazis
]]
]]
]]
In 1933, the first communist prisoners were being rounded up for an indefinite period without charges. They were held in a number of places in Germany. The slogan was first used over the gate of the Oranienburg concentration camp, which was set up in an abandoned brewery in March 1933 (it was later rebuilt in 1936 as Sachsenhausen).
The slogan's use was implemented by (SS) officer Theodor Eicke at Dachau concentration camp. From Dachau, it was copied by the Nazi officer Rudolf Höss, who had previously worked there. Höss was appointed to create the original camp at Auschwitz, which became known as Auschwitz (or Camp) 1 and whose intended purpose was to incarcerate Polish political detainees.
The Auschwitz I sign was made by prisoner-laborers including master blacksmith Jan Liwacz, and features an upside-down 'B', which has been interpreted as an act of defiance by the prisoners who made it.
In The Kingdom of Auschwitz, Otto Friedrich wrote about Rudolf Höss, regarding his decision to display the motto so prominently at Auschwitz:
In 1938, the Austrian political cabaret writer Jura Soyfer and the composer Herbert Zipper, while prisoners at Dachau, wrote the or "The Dachau Song". They had spent weeks marching in and out of the camp's gate to daily forced labour, and considered the motto over the gate an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a "lesson" taught by Dachau.
An example of ridiculing the slogan was a popular saying used among Auschwitz prisoners:
(idiomatically, "everyone gets what he deserves"), a motto used at the Buchenwald concentration camp.
References
External links
*
*
Category:German words and phrases
Category:Signage
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Category:Nazi forced labour
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Category:1870s quotations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeit_macht_frei | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.044016 |
2907 | Axayacatl | | reign 3 House – 2 House<br/>(1469–1481)
| predecessor = Atotoztli II
| successor = Tizoc
| father = Prince Tezozomoc
| mother = Princess Atotoztli II
| spouse = Xochicueyetl
| issue =
* Moctezuma II
* Cuitláhuac
| birth_date =
| death_date = 2 House<br/>|
}}
Axayacatl (; ; ; meaning "face of water"; –1481) was the sixth of the of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance.
Biography
Early life and background
Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin.
He was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac.
Rise to power
During his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl.
It is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. An earthquake in Tenochtitlán occurred and destroyed many homes.
is visible, being carved under his orders in 1479]]
Military actions and death
Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy.
.]]
Axayacatl largely dedicated his twelve-year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring of Tlatelolco in 1473 (see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans of Michoacán in 1476. Despite some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl's defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc.
Axayacatl the poet
Axayacatl wrote two poems. The first, Ycuic Axayayatzin (English: "Song of Axayacatl") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second, Huehue cuicatl (English: "Song of the Ancients") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan.
In popular culture
* The Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc, with their youngest brother Ahuitzotl appearing as a primary character.
Notes
See also
* List of Tenochtitlan rulers
References
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
**
**
**
}}
Category:Tenochca tlatoque
Category:Nahuatl-language poets
Category:15th-century monarchs in North America
Category:15th-century Aztec nobility
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:1440s births
Category:1481 deaths
Category:Moctezuma family | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axayacatl | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.055720 |
2908 | Ahuitzotl | | successor = Moctezuma II
| predecessor = Tizoc
| queen | issue Chimalpilli II<br>Cuauhtémoc<br>Unidentified daughter
| father = Tezozomoc
| mother = Atotoztli II
| birth_date = 15th century
| death_date = 10 Rabbit (1502)
| death_place = Tenochtitlan, Aztec Triple Alliance
| image_size = 200px
| succession = Huey Tlatoani of the Aztec Empire <br> Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan
| religion = Aztec polytheism
| birth_place = Tenochtitlan, Aztec Triple Alliance
}}
Ahuitzotl (, ) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the Huey Tlatoani of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means "Water Thorny" and was also applied to the otter. It is also theorized that more likely, the animal called ahuitzotl is actually the water opossum, the hand symbolizing its prehensile tail, which otters notably lack.
Either Ahuitzotl or his predecessor Tizoc was the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan to assume the title Huey Tlatoani ("supreme tlatoani") to make their superiority over the other cities in the Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire) clear. Ahuitzotl was responsible for much of the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire's power after emulating his predecessor. He took power as Emperor in the year 7 Rabbit (1486), after the death of his predecessor and brother, Tizoc.
He had two sons, the kings Chimalpilli II and Cuauhtémoc, and one daughter.Biography
Perhaps the greatest known military leader of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, Ahuizotl began his reign by suppressing a Huastec rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the Mixtec, Zapotec, and other peoples from Pacific Coast of Mexico down to the western part of Guatemala. Ahuizotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlan on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor in the year 8 Reed (1487).
He presided over the introduction of the great-tailed grackle into the Valley of Mexico, the earliest documented case of human-mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere.
Ahuizotl died in the year 10 Rabbit (1502) and was succeeded by his nephew, Moctezuma II.
Ahuizotl took his name from the animal ahuizotl, which the Aztecs considered to be a legendary creature in its own right rather than a mere mythical representation of the king.
In January 2021 the INAH proposed moving the statues of Ahuizotl and Itzcóatl, known as the Indios Verdes, from the Parque del Mestizaje in Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City to the Paseo de la Reforma. “The transfer means a reading of the urban space, recovering the historical discourse that gave rise to the formation of a set of monuments and roundabouts on Paseo de la Reforma, conceived at the end of the 19th century, with the idea of honoring the Reformation, a great transformation that it meant for Mexico, but to recover a historical reading that began precisely by underlining the Mexican splendor and the importance of the pre-Hispanic or Mesoamerican antecedents of our country”, Diego Prieto, director of INAH said.
In popular culture
Under the name Teomitl, Ahuitzotl is a primary character in the Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard, which are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc.
In the historical fiction novel Aztec by Gary Jennings, Ahuitzotl is a prominent character. Set in the time just before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, it accounts his construction of the many expansions of Tenochtitlan, and wars of conquest, trade, and proclivities.
Citations
General and cited references
* Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
* Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (revised ed.). New York: Thames and Hudson.
*
| before = Tizoc
| after = Moctezuma II
| years = 7 Rabbit 10 Rabbit<br>(14861502)
}}
Category:1502 deaths
Category:15th-century Aztec nobility
Category:15th-century births
Category:15th-century monarchs in North America
Category:Tenochca tlatoque
Category:Year of birth unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahuitzotl | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.062059 |
2909 | Albinism in humans | , or )
| symptoms | complications
| onset | duration
| types | causes
| risks | diagnosis
| differential | prevention
| treatment | medication
| prognosis | frequency
|
}}
<!-- Definition and symptoms -->
Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells, leading to increased susceptibility to infection.
<!-- Cause -->
Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin albus, "white".Signs and symptoms
]]There are two principal types of albinism: oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only.
There are different types of oculocutaneous albinism depending on which gene has undergone mutation. With some there is no pigment at all. The other end of the spectrum of albinism is "a form of albinism called rufous oculocutaneous albinism, which usually affects dark-skinned people".
According to the US National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation, "With ocular albinism, the color of the iris of the eye may vary from blue to green or even brown, and sometimes darkens with age. However, when an optometrist or ophthalmologist examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present."
Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.
The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate "red eye", due to the red of the retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity.
Those with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality,Visual problems
an Mandinka singer Salif Keita with albinism]]
Development of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin. For this reason, the reduction or absence of this pigment in people with albinism may lead to:
* Misrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres
* Reduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage. The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses or brimmed hats. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body.
The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes.
There are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis, and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis.Enzyme
The enzyme defect responsible for OCA1-type albinism is tyrosine 3-monooxygenase (tyrosinase), which synthesizes melanin from the amino acid tyrosine.
Evolutionary theoriesIt is suggested that the early genus Homo (humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape-like Australopithecus to early Homo is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto-humans would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection. In two separate studies in Nigeria, very few people with albinism appear to survive to old age. One study found that 89% of people diagnosed with albinism are between 0 and 30 years of age, while the other found that 77% of albinos were under the age of 20.
Diagnosis
Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits, except in the case of non-OCA disorders. Such disorders cause other medical problems in conjunction with albinism, and may be treatable. Genetic tests are currently available for parents who want to find out if they are carriers of ty-neg albinism. Diagnosis of albinism involves carefully examining a person's eyes, skin and hairs. Genealogical analysis can also help.
Albinism can also be a feature of several syndromes:
* ABCD syndrome
* Albinism-hearing loss syndrome
* Deafness, congenital, with total albinism
* Ermine phenotype
* Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 1 to 11 (excluding 9)
* Microcephaly-albinism-digital anomalies syndrome
* Ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness
* Ocular albinism, type II
* Oculocutaneous albinism types 1B, 3 to 7
* Tyrosinase-negative oculocutaneous albinism
* Tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism
* Vici syndrome
* Waardenburg syndrome type 2A
Management
Since there is no cure for albinism, it is managed through lifestyle adjustments. People with albinism need to take care not to get sunburnt and should have regular healthy skin checks by a dermatologist.
For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the extra-ocular muscles to decrease strabismus. The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.
Glasses (often with tinted lenses), low vision aids, large-print materials, and bright angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars or wearable devices like eSight
and Brainport.
The condition may lead to abnormal development of the optic nerve and sunlight may damage the retina of the eye as the iris cannot filter out excess light due to a lack of pigmentation. Photophobia may be ameliorated by the use of sunglasses which filter out ultraviolet light. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles. (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids".)
There are a number of national support groups across the globe which come under the umbrella of the World Albinism Alliance.EpidemiologyAlbinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population, and is highest overall in people of sub-Saharan African descent. Today, the prevalence of albinism in sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5,000, while in Europe and the US it is around 1 in 20,000 of the European derived population. and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism.
Society and culture
<!--************************************************
** DO NOT add new entries for people, fiction **
** characters, legends and myths, paintings **
** or any other aspect of popular culture in **
** this section; those go instead in the **
** Albinism in popular culture article. **
** This section summarizes that article and **
** provides a place to add SOURCED material **
** about albinism and CULTURE, not POP CULTURE **
** (e.g. news reports of abuse of people with **
** albinism, or the rare counter-example). **
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Special status of albinos in Native American culture
people and other indigenous tribes of the American Southwest have a very high incidence of albinism.]]
In some Native American and South Pacific cultures, people with albinism have been traditionally revered, because they were considered heavenly beings associated with the sky. Among various indigenous tribes in South America, albinos were able to live luxurious lives due to their divine status. This special status was applied mainly to male albinos. It has been theorized that the very high level of albinism among some Native American tribes can be attributed to sexual privileges given to male albinos, which allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women in their tribes, leading to the spread of genes that are associated with albinism.
Persecution of people with albinism
Humans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. It is especially socially stigmatised in many African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that "they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Furthermore, affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners". Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism.
In African countries such as Tanzania and Burundi, there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witch doctors. Numerous authenticated incidents have occurred in Africa during the 21st century. For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes. Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts,
Another harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes (and subsequent HIV infection).
Albinism in popular culture
Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston "Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie "Piano Red" Perryman, Kalash Criminel; actor-rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan "La Burnt" Byrne and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have albinism because he was said to have been born with white hair.<!--
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** DO NOT add new entries for people, fiction **
** characters, legends or folklore, paintings **
** or any other aspect of popular culture in **
** this section; those go instead in the **
** Albinism in popular culture article. **
** This section summarizes that article and **
** provides a place to add SOURCED material **
** about albinism and CULTURE, not POP CULTURE **
** (e.g. news reports of abuse of people with **
** albinism, or the rare counter-example). **
************************************************-->
International Albinism Awareness Day
International Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted on 18 December 2014 by the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day as of 2015. This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism.See also
References
External links
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?bookgene&partoca2 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 2]
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?bookgene&partoca4 GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 4]
*
| ICD10 =
| ICD9 =
| ICDO | OMIM 203100
| MedlinePlus = 001479
| eMedicineSubj = derm
| eMedicineTopic = 12
| MeshID = D000417
| oMIM_mult = , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
}}
Category:Autosomal recessive disorders
Category:Dermatologic terminology
Category:Disturbances of human pigmentation
Category:Human skin color | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albinism_in_humans | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.085695 |
2911 | Amr Diab | }}
| birth_name = Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab<br />
| other_names = El Hadaba<br /> ("The Plateau", "The Hill")
| birth_date
| birth_place = Port Said, Egypt
| years_active = 1983–present
| occupation =
| spouse =
*
* |2018|2020|end=separated}}
}}
| children = 4
| module =
| label =
| instruments =
}}
| website =
}}
Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab (, ; born 11 October 1961) is an Egyptian singer, composer and actor. He has established himself as a globally acclaimed recording artist and author.Early lifeDiab was born as Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab on 11 October 1961 in Port Saidto a middle-class Egyptian Muslim family from the countryside of Menia Elamh in Sharqia Governorate. Diab graduated with a bachelor's degree in music from the Cairo Academy of Arts in 1986.Music career
Diab released his first album entitled in 1983. Diab's second album, (1984), was the first of a series of records he released with Delta Sound; including (1986), (1987), and (1988). His later releases include (1989), (1990), (1991), (1992), (1993), (1994), and (1995).
By 1992, he became the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern artist to start making high-tech music videos.
In the summer of 2004, Diab, having left Alam El Phan, released his first album with Rotana Records, , which he followed up with the hugely successful (2005), and (2007).
was released for sale on the internet on 27 June 2009; however, the album was leaked online and was downloaded illegally amid complaints of slow download speed on the official site. Diab's fans initiated a massive boycott of the sites with the illegal copies.
On 18 October 2009, Diab won four 2009 African Music Awards in the categories of best artist, album, vocalist and song for ""; Diab had been nominated by the Big Apple Music Awards.
In February 2011, Diab released his hit single ("Egypt spoke"), followed by the release of his album in September, produced by Rotana. In 2012, Diab hosted the first Google Hangout in the Middle East during his performance in Dubai. In October 2014, Diab released his album , which topped his last album (2013) and again became the best-selling album in Egypt on iTunes andp eaked at No. 1 on the Billboard World Albums Charts, making him the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern performer to accomplish such a feat. In July 2015, Diab released a music video for his song "" from his album . In March 2016, he released , his first album since he left Rotana Music. The album was produced by the record label Nay For Media. His new album was released in July 2017 with Nay Records.
In October 2018, he released a new album called . In 2019, he released a mini-album, , and in February 2020, he released his 30th album, , which included 16 songs. In the same year, Amr Diab released another album, Ya Ana Ya La, at the end of the year, December 31, 2020.
From April 2021 to July 2023, Amr Diab released a huge amount of singles, many of which topped the charts on digital listening platforms until his album release in 2023.
In December 2023, Amr Diab released an album called “Makanak” which contains 12 songs exclusively on Anghami.
Then released two singles called El Kelma El Helwa it was an Ad for Vodafone MUSIC (Egypt) and Hekyatna Helwa for Hyde Park both of them on the same March 11, 2024.
In April 2024, Rolling Stone picked Tamally Maak to top the Best Arabic Pop Songs of the 21st Century. In July of that year, his exclusive contract with Anghami expired.Musical styleDiab is known as the "father of Mediterranean music". David Cooper and Kevin Dawe refer to his music as "the new breed of Mediterranean music". According to author Michael Frishkopf, Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially with his international hit, "". The film was featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive's new program "Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" at James Bridges Theater at UCLA on 6, 8 and 10 April 1999. David Chute of the LA Weekly termed it "observant" and "a big leap". His third movie was released in 1993, and was named (Laughter and Fun). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Diab played alongside international Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif (Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago) and Yousra. Overall, Diab did not experience the same level of success in film that he had with his music career. Since 1993, Diab has focused on his singing career.
Amr Diab in movies
Diab's songs have been used in several films, including:
* "" in Divine Intervention (2002)
* "" in The Dancer Upstairs (2002)
* "" and "" in O Clone (2001)
* "" in Double Whammy (2001)
* "" and "" in Coco (2009)
* "" in The Dictator (2012)
Egyptian Revolution
During the 2011 uprising, some protesters criticized Diab for staying silent, and for fleeing Egypt for London. A few days after former President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Diab composed and sang a memorial song, "" (Egypt Said), and released it in conjunction with a music video showing pictures of the martyrs who died in the uprising. He initiated a charity campaign "" ("Truly Egyptian"). His online radio station Diab FM often presents talks and discussions about what the Diab FM team can offer to the community as well as applying it practically by being present in different sites across Egypt with a new humanitarian project each week.
Personal life
Diab has an elder daughter from his first marriage to Egyptian actress Shereen Reda. In 1994, he was married to Saudi businesswoman Zeina Ashour. They have three children. In 2018, he went on to marry Egyptian actress, Dina El Sherbiny, after his relationship with Ashour ended. It is unknown whether they were separated or divorced. However, Diab and El Sherbiny separated in late 2020.
Discography
Main Studio Albums
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"2"
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Original Title
! scope="col" | Translation
! scope="col" | Label
|-
| 1983 || || O Road || Sawt Al Madina
|-
| 1984 || Ghanni Min Albak || Sing From Your Heart || rowspan="11" |Delta Sound
|-
| 1986 || || Welcome Welcome
|-
| 1987 || || ''We're Done
|-
| 1988 || Mayal || Leaning
|-
| 1989 || || Make Us Miss You
|-
| 1990 || || Don't Be Afraid
|-
| 1991 || || Baby
|-
| 1992 || Ayamna || Our Days
|-
| 1993 || Ya Omrena || O Our Life
|-
| 1994 || || Let Them Blame Me
|-
|1995
|Ragein
|We're Coming Back
|-
| 1996 || || Light of the Eye || Alam El Phan
|-
| 1998 || Awedony || Made Me Used To You || Delta Sound
|-
| 1999 || || Two Moons || rowspan="4"|Alam El Phan
|-
| 2000 || Tamally Maak || Always With You
|-
| 2001 || Aktar Wahed || The One That Loves You The Most
|-
| 2003 || Allem Alby || Teach My Heart
|-
| 2004 || Lealy Nahary || Night and Day || rowspan="7"|Rotana
|-
| 2005 || || Keep Talking
|-
| 2007 || || Tonight
|-
| 2009 || || With Her
|-
| 2011 || || Come I'm Calling You
|-
| 2013 || El Leila || This Night
|-
| 2014 || || I saw the days
|-
|2016 || Ahla W Ahla || Prettier and Prettier || rowspan="7" |Nay For Media
|-
| 2017 || Meaddy El Nas || Greater than People
|-
| 2018 || || All My Life
|-
| rowspan="2"|2020 || || Up All Night
|-
| Ya Ana Ya La || Either Me or No One
|-
|2023
|Makanak
|Your Place
|-
|}
Singles
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"4"
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Original Title
! scope="col" | Translation
! scope="col" | Label
|-
| rowspan="2" |1999
|Eleos - with Angela Dimitriou
|Mercy
|EMI
|-
|Ana Mahma Kibirt
|Whatever I Get Old, I Still Young
|Alam El Phan
|-
| rowspan="2" |2000
|El Quds De Aredna
| Quds is Our "Arabs" Land
| rowspan="2" |Rotana
|-
|El Helm Da Helmena
|This Dream is Ours
|-
|2002
|Bahebak Nefsi Aaolhalak
|I Hope to Say I Love You
| rowspan="2" |Alam El Phan
|-
|2003
|Rouh Alby
|Soul of My Heart
|-
|2005
|Elly Beiny We Beinak
|That Between You and Me
| rowspan="7" |Rotana
|-
|2007
|Allah Aliha
| God Bless Her
|-
|2008
|Oldies Singles
|-
| rowspan="2" |2009
|Leh Youm Ma Abeltak
| Why That Happened When I Met You?
|-
|Makontsh Nawy
|I didn't intend to
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010
|Nokia 5800 Releases
|-
|Aslaha Betefre’a
|It's different
|-
| rowspan="2" |2011
|Masr Alet
|Egypt Said
|Nay for Media
|-
| La' Yestaheil
|She deserves
| rowspan="7" |Rotana
|-
| rowspan="3" |2012
|Fe Haga Feek
|There's Something With You
|-
|We Redet
| I'm Satisfied
|-
|Ayesh Maak
| I Spend Days With You
|-
|2013
|Dawam El Haal
| What Goes around Comes around
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014
|Mesh Kol Wahed
|Not Everybody
|-
|Ya Hob Dawebna
|Oh love, Melt us in you
|-
|2015
|Balash Teb'ed
|Don't Go Far
| rowspan="13" |Nay for Media
|-
|2016
|Al Qahera - ft. Mohamed Mounir
|Cairo
|-
|2017
|El Farha El Leila
|The Joy is tonight
|-
|2018
|Bahebak Ana
|Me, Love You
|-
| rowspan="4" |2019
|Maa'darsh Al Nesyan
|I cannot afford to forget
|-
|Gamaa Habybak
|Gather Your Loved Ones
|-
|Africa (2019 Edition)
|-
|Aha Gheir
| I'm Different
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
|Ya Baladna Ya Helwa
|Our Country is Beautiful
|-
|Amaken El Sahar
|Nightlife places
|-
|2021
|Inta El Haz
|You're the Luck
|-
|2022
|El Ser
| The Secret
|-
|2023
|Shokran Min Hena Le Bokra
| Thank you from here on out
|}
Famous Songs
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"2"
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Original Title
! scope="col" | Translation
! scope="col" | Composers
!Producers
! scope="col" | Album
|-
| rowspan="2"|1984
|Ghanni Min Albak
|Sing From Your Heart
|Hani Zaki, Azmi Al Kilany
|rowspan="3"|Mohamed Helal
| rowspan="2" |Ghanni Min Albak
|-
|Ashof Ainaik
|I See Your Eyes
|Traditional, adaptation Issam Abdallah
|-
|1986
|
|Welcome Welcome
|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab
|
|-
|1987
|
|We're Done
|Reda Ameen, Khalil Mostafa
|rowspan="2"|Fathy Salama
|
|-
|1988
|Mayal
|Leaning
|rowspan="2"|Magdi El Naggar, Haggag Abdel Rahman
|Mayal
|-
|1989
|
|Make Us Miss You
|rowspan="2"|Hamid El Shaeri
|
|-
|1990
|
|Don't Be Afraid
|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab
|
|-
|1991
|Aeh Pas Ille Ramak
|What made you love?
|rowspan="4"|Medhat El Adl, Amr Diab
|rowspan="4"|Hossam Hosny
|Habibi
|-
| rowspan="4"|1992
|Ice Cream Fi Glym
|Ice Cream in Glym
| rowspan="3" |Ice Cream in Glym
|-
|Raseef Nemra Khamsa
|Sidewalk Number Five
|-
|Wehna Maak
|We'll Sing With You
|-
|El Mady
|The Past
|Magdi El Naggar, Abdel Azeez Al Nasir
|Hamid El Shaeri
|Ayamna
|-
|1993
|
|Our Days Together
| rowspan="2"|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Diab
|Tarek Madkour
|
|-
|1994
|Africa
|Africa
|Modi El Emam
|Zekrayat
|-
|1995
|Ragein
|We're Coming Back
|Medhat El Adl, Reyad El Hamshari
|Tarek Madkour
|Ragein
|-
|1996
|
|Light of the Eye
|Ahmed Sheta, Nasser Al Mezdawy
|rowspan="2"|Hamid El Shaeri
|
|-
|1998
|Awedouny
|Made Me Used to You
|Abdel Monem Taha, Amr Tantawy
|Awedouny
|-
| rowspan="3"|1999
| <small>(featuring Khaled)</small>
|My Heart
|Magdi El Naggar, Amr Mahmoud
|Farid Awamer
| rowspan="3" |
|-
|
|Two Moons
|Mohamed Refahey, Sherif Tag
|rowspan="9"|Tarek Madkour
|-
|Bahebbak Aktar <small>(featuring Angela Dimitriou)</small>
|I Love You More
|Mohamed Refahy, Sherif Tag, Panos Falaras
|-
| rowspan="3" |2000
|El Alem Allah
|God Knows
|Amir Teima, Amr Mostafa, Amr Diab
| rowspan="3" |Tamally Maak
|-
|Tamally Maak
|Always With You
|Ahemd Ali Mousa, Sherif Tag
|-
|We Heya Amleh Eih
|And How is She Doing
|Bahaa El Din Mohamed, Essam Karika
|-
| rowspan="4"|2001
|Wala Ala Balo
|Not On Her Mind
|Mohamed Refahey, Mohamed Rahim
| rowspan="4" |Aktar Wahed
|-
|Aktar Wahed
|The One Who Loves You Most
|Ahmed Ali Mousa, Amr Mostafa
|-
|Kan Tayeb
|He Was Good
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Amr Diab
|-
|Baed El Layaly
|I Count The Nights
|Mohamed Refahey, Khaled Ezz
|-
| rowspan="2"|2003
|Allem Alby
|Teach My Heart
|Waleed Galal, Amr Diab, Khaled Ezz
|Fahd
| rowspan="2" |Allem Alby
|-
|Ana Ayesh
|I'm Alive
|Rabea El Seuofey, Amr Diab, Amr Mostafa
|Hani Yacoub
|-
|rowspan="2"|2004
|Lealy Nahary
|Night and Day
|rowspan="3"|Khaled Tag Eldeen, Amr Mostafa
|rowspan="2"|Nader Hamdy
|rowspan="2"|Lealy Nahary
|-
|Qusad Einy
|In front of My Eyes
|-
| rowspan="2"|2005
|
|Why Not?
|rowspan="2"|Tarek Madkour
|rowspan="2" |
|-
|Kammel Kalamak
|Keep Talking
|Amir Teima, Nasser El Mezdawi
|-
| rowspan="2"|2007
|
|Tonight
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Amr Mostafa
|rowspan="4"|Hassan El Shafei
|rowspan="2" |
|-
|Khalik Ma'aya
|Stay With Me
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia
|-
|rowspan="2"|2009
|
|With Her
|Tamer Hussien, Amr Mostafa
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|Yehemak Fe Eih
|What does it matter to you?
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia
|-
|2010
|Aslaha Betifrek
|It's Different
|Magdy El Naggar, Amr Diab
|rowspan="3"|Adel Hakki
|Single Release
|-
|rowspan="2"|2011
|
|Come I'm Calling You
|Tamer Hussien, Amr Diab
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|Ma'drrsh Ana
|I Can't Handle
|rowspan="2"|Tamer Hussien, Amr Tantawi
|-
|rowspan="2"|2013
|El Leila
|This Night
|Osama Elhendy
| rowspan="2" |El Leila
|-
|Sebt Faragh Kebeer
|You've left a trail
|Magdi El Naggar, Khalil Mostafa
|rowspan="2"|Adel Hakki
|-
| rowspan="2"|2014
|
|Did You See the Days
| rowspan="2"|Tamer Hussien, Shady Hassan
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|
|Her Beauty
|rowspan="7"|Osama Elhendy
|-
|rowspan="2"|2016
|Ragea
|You're Back!
|Tamer Hussien, Islam Zaki
| rowspan="2" |Ahla W Ahla
|-
|Amentak
|I have Placed a Trust in You
|Tamer Hussien, Mohamed El Nady
|-
|2017
|Ya Agmal Eyoun
|Most Beautiful Eyes
|Turki Al Alsheikh, Amr Mostafa
|Meaddy El Nas
|-
|rowspan="2"|2018
|Yetalemo
|They Learn from You
|Tamer Hussien, Amr Mostafa
| rowspan="2" |Kol Hayaty
|-
|Da Law Etsab
|If It Got Left
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia
|-
|rowspan="2"|2019
|Youm Talat
|On Tuesday
|rowspan="2"|Tamer Hussien, Aziz El Shafei
| rowspan="3" |Sahran
|-
|Odam Merayetha
|In Front of her Mirror
|Tarek Madkour
|-
| rowspan="3"|2020
|Zay Manty
|You are as You are
|Aziz El Shafei
|Nader Hamdy
|-
|Ya Ana Ya La
|Either Me or No One
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia
|Adel Hakki
|Ya Ana Ya La
|-
|Amaken El Sahar
|Nightlife places
|rowspan="2"|Tamer Hussien, Aziz El Shafei
|Osama Elhendy
| rowspan="6" |Single Release
|-
|rowspan="2"|2021
|Inta El Haz
|You're the Luck
|Wesam Adel Munem
|-
|Ray'a
|When You're in the Mood
|Ayman Bahgat Kamar, Mohamed Yehia
|Tarek Madkour
|-
|rowspan="2"|2022
|Hatedalaa
|You'll be spoiled
|Mohamed El Kayaty, Mohamed Yehia
|Ahmed Ibrahim
|-
|Elly Beina Hayah
|What Between Us, is a Life
|Aziz El Shafei
|Wesam Abdel Munem
|-
| rowspan="3"|2023
|El Hafla
|The Party
|Ahmed Marzouk, Mohamed Kammah
|Mohamed Kammah
|-
|Makanak
|Your Place
|Tamer Hussien, Amr Diab
|Ahmed Ibrahim
| rowspan="3" |Makanak
|-
|Ya Amar
|Oh Moon
|Mostafa Hadouta, Amr Diab
|Wesam Abdel Munem
|}
Awards
He has been awarded the World Music Award for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist four times: 1996 for album , 2001 for album Akter Wahed, 2007 for album El Lillady and 2013 for '' album. He has also won (Best Egyptian Artist, Best Male Arab Artist and World's Best Arab Male Artist Voted Online) at the World Music Awards 2014. Amr Diab is the only Middle Eastern artist to have received 7 World Music Awards. Five of his albums reached the top 10 of Billboard's World Albums chart, with reaching No. 1 in 2014, the first for an Arabic performer. Alongside that accomplishment, two of his albums (2014's and 2016's ) both peaked at 29 and 14 respectively on Billboard's Heatseekers charts.
On 28 September 2016, Diab announced that he achieved a Guinness World Records title for "Most World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist".
List of awards received by Amr Diab
* Seven World Music Awards (1997/2001/2007/2014)
* Six African Music Awards (2009/2010)
* Two All Africa Music Awards (2016/2017)
* Guinness World Record (2016) Program "Al-helm" A program produced by Amr Afifi, consisting of 12 parts aired on Rotana Music, Rotana Cinema and Egyptian Channel 1 station. The program detailed the biography of Diab and was scheduled to be launched simultaneously with the release of Amr Diab's new album, but the album's release was postponed to a later date. References External links
*
* [https://amrdiab.net/biography/ Official Biography]
* [https://youtube.com/@AmrDiab Youtube Channel]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180220033213/https://amrdiab.world/ Amr Diab World (archive)]
*
* [https://music.apple.com/us/artist/amr-diab/15869915 Amr Diab] on Apple Music
Category:1961 births
Category:Living people
Category:Actors from Port Said
Category:Egyptian male film actors
Category:Egyptian male television actors
Category:Egyptian male actors
Category:Egyptian composers
Category:20th-century Egyptian male singers
Category:21st-century Egyptian male singers
Category:Egyptian Muslims
Category:Egyptian singer-songwriters
Category:Musicians from Port Said
Category:Singers who perform in Classical Arabic
Category:Singers who perform in Egyptian Arabic
Category:World Music Awards winners
Category:Arabic-language singers of Egypt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amr_Diab | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.137173 |
2916 | Belgian hip-hop | Belgian hip hop music has a few rappers stemming from Africa and Italy. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Rwanda, and Burundi until the early 1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium.
The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late 1980s with a U.S.-based techno/hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like "Pump up the Jam" and "Shake That Body". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack.
However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office's report on Music in Europe, this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene.
Also in the late 1980s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/rapping groups like 't Hof van Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects.
Today, the Belgian hip hop scene is growing. Rappers like Coely, Roméo Elvis and Damso are achieving commercial success in their country and abroad. Other contemporary rappers/formations are Stikstof, Woodie Smalls, L'Or Du Commun and .
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_hip-hop | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.147856 |
2917 | Dutch hip-hop | }}
ouali is perhaps Holland's best-known rapper, also successful in many other public roles.]]
Dutch hip hop or Nederhop ("Netherhop") is hip hop / rap music created by Dutch speaking musicians in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). Although the first Dutch rappers in Europe typically wrote in the English language, this began to change when Osdorp Posse gained a big following of fans. They were the first to record and release hip hop in the Dutch language, perform for big crowds and to achieve chart success with their albums.
In 1995, the same year Osdorp Posse had a top 20 chart hit with their album Afslag Osdorp, rapper Extince was the first Dutch rap artist to achieve a top 10 hit in the singles charts with Spraakwater.
After rapper Def Rhymz was the first to reach the Dutch main chart with number 1 hits such as Doekoe (Sranan Tongo for 'money'; 1999), and Schudden ("Shake (it)"/"Shaking"; 2001) with a more pop, R&B and dance influenced sound, Dutchlanguage hip hop has grown into a staple of mainstream pop music in the Netherlands and Flanders in the 21st century.
In 2021, Netherlands music streaming charts were dominated by Dutch rap music artists like Boef, Josylvio, Broederliefde, Lil' Kleine, Snelle, and Sevn Alias.
However, in the late 1980s Nederhop ("Netherhop") emerged, as artists began to rap in Dutch, such as Def Rhymz, Blonnie B, Alex and the CityCrew, Dynamic Rockers, and the Osdorp Posse. Though there is disagreement about who were the first, the pioneers' work was at first only experimental, except for the Osdorp Posse, a group from Osdorp, a "hood" in Amsterdam, who were first to release tracks in Dutch, for instance the single Moordenaar ("Murderer") in 1989, marking a beginning milestone of Nederhop. The result was described by rapper Ali B as highly visual and captivating. Their beats, created by producer Seda on Amiga 500 with Protracker, had a heavy sound and was similar to U.S. old-school hip hop, while also embracing an own style by making use of samples from metal music. The lyrics were often focussed on social criticism, with frontman Def P describing it as hardcore rap. In Deventer they found their first following, and the first Dutch language hip hop scene was born. The first hip hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid-Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen.
Dutch rap kept on reaching a bigger crowd, though it still could be considered as an underground genre. A year after the debut album of Osdorp Posse, they released 2 more albums, Roffer Dan Ooit and Vlijmscherp. Paving the way like this, many Dutch rap acts popped up. In 1994 a breakthrough took place with the release of compilation record De Posse: Nederhop Groeit (meaning "Nederhop is growing"), presenting no less than 7 different new Dutch rap acts on one record. These groups performed all across the Netherlands, gaining even a bigger audience. By 1996, Djax Records released material by Ouderkerk Kaffers, White Wolf, West Klan, Dr. Doom, Spookrijders, Zuid Oost Posse, Klaas Vaak, Cut, Mach, Vuurwerk, Loco-Motief, Lijkenpikkers, Bitchez & Cream, Space Marines, Jesse, Neuk! and De Uitverkorenen.
The media still largely boycotted Dutch rap, while often expressing criticism on the harsh lyrics and lo-fi beats. Despite this, Osdorp Posse managed to build a large following of fans by 1995, resulting in nation-wide sold-out tours and big spots at Dutch festivals. They performed at the Lowlands Festival in 1995, with their popularity getting completely underestimated by the bookers, causing fans to even climb up lightning rigs and poles of the festival tent to be able to experience the set. In 1997 Osdorp Posse did two shows at the biggest festival of The Netherlands, the Pinkpop Festival. On the main day of the festival they performed at the main stage for a packed field of fans, resulting in the biggest Dutch rap show of the decade.
By that year the band had 2 albums which charted in the Dutch album charts, while still on an indie label and with virtually no airplay on radio and TV. In 1995 Afslag Osdorp, their fourth album, was the first Dutch language rap album to enter the Album Top 100, for a total of 14 weeks and even a ranking in the top 20. A unique achievement, with a peak position in the charts that would only be matched 7 years later by Brainpower.
By then, the band and Dutch rap in general got taken more seriously as well. After the undeniable success live on stage and in the album charts by Osdorp Posse, the lyrical content was getting cautious praise. By the mid-90's Def P collaborated with renowned and highly esteemed writers like Remco Campert and was often invited to recite his lyrics at poetry rap festivals like the Double Talk Festival at Paradiso.
At the same time a shift took place, when rapper Extince took rap in the Dutch language to a new commercial level and a different audience in 1995. While Osdorp Posse already had big chart successes with their albums, Extince's Spraakwater became the first single to make the mainstream pop single charts in the country. The song even made the top 10 of the singles charts and got airplay at the radio.
From then on there were two styles dominating the Dutch hip hop landscape. On one side the hardcore rap performers like Osdorp Posse, De Uitverkorenen, Casto and West Klan, who focussed on the content of their lyrics with social criticism, political subjects and knowledge, on often energetic and rough beats. With on the other side Extince, who was more of a storyteller with a slick flow and a knack for wordplay and metaphoric imagery, on funky and laidback beats.
A mix of these two styles gave birth to the Spookrijders, a three-man hip-hop group founded in 1996. With MCs Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, the Spookrijders even gained respect from non-hip-hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/DJ Cliff 'the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album De Echte Shit ("The Real Shit"). In 1999, Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits "Klokkenluiders" and "Ik ben de man." Both these songs appeared on the second album, Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam. After some personal arguments among the three crewmembers, Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing a third and final album Hey... Spookies!!
In 1999 The Postmen released their rap/reggae mix De Bom ("The Bom"), a top three hit-single. They were active across Europe from 1998 to 2003.
2000s
topped charts with Dansplaat and received both MTV Award and TMF Awards.]]
From 2000 onward, Dutch language hiphop grew considerably, both in number of artists, as well as in popularity, both underground and mainstream.
In the early 2000s the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, mainly impressing with their albums. Since 2002, they released four albums, the first three of which made the Dutch album top 40.
Def Rhymz, Spookrijders & Brainpower helped develop the art. Def Rhymz & Brainpower dropped multiple hit records. Described by Ali B. as "..a white library boy with glasses..", Brainpower made Dutch rapping accessible to a much greater demographic. unique for Dutch language rap at the time. Having let a permanent mark on their fanbase, when the album was re-released on vinyl in 2019, it became the best-selling album on vinyl the week of release.
, from Zwolle, stems from one of the 'regional' Dutch rappers scenes.]]
From the late 1990s, a flourishing underground scene in provincial town Zwolle included rappers Blaxtar, Jawat!, and Kubus, and centered around the group Opgezwolle. Formed in 1998 by rappers Sticky Steez and Phreaco Rico, together with DJ Delic, the band Opgezwolle (punning their town's name into "Swollen"), was a group making raw hiphop.
In 2015, a self-titled "New Wave" generation of 'social media' (em)powered artists broke through with their eponymous New Wave album, as a temporary collaboration, including Bokoesam, D-Double, Jonna Fraser, Lil' Kleine, Ronnie Flex, and SFB. Nine of their singles also charted in the singles Top 40.
In 2016, album WOP! by Lil' Kleine was the first hip-hop album to reach number 1 on the Album Top 100. In the same year, Ali B's third album, Een klein beetje geluk ("ALittle Bit of Happiness"), proved his best yet, reaching number 7.
Starting 2016, rapper Sevn Alias released five consecutive top-10 albums, with his second reaching nr. 1, and the last three consistently reaching top-2 positions. He is highly productive, and is also enjoying extensive success with singles, collaborations, and other track releases.
2020s
Conflicts
The Dutch hip-hop scene also saw many conflicts between rappers, followed by diss tracks. The following were among the biggest Dutch feuds in hip-hop:
Osdorp Posse vs. Extince, BrainPower vs. Extince, T.H.C vs. Negativ, Kempi vs. Nino, Yukkie B vs. Negativ, T.H.C. vs. Lexxxus, Baas B vs. Kimo, Kempi vs. Mini, Kempi vs. Bloedserieus, Heist Rockah vs. Negativ, and Regga vs. Lexxxus.
The feud between T.H.C. and Lexxxus resulted in a fistfight on a hip-hop event, when T.H.C. frontman Rocks got into an argument with Lexxxus and then started the fistfight.
Genres in Dutch hip hop
Gangsta
Dutch gangsta hip hop is currently a large scene together with underground hip-hop. Among the most notable acts and performers are THC, Heinek'n, Keizer, Kempi, Steen, Hef, Crooks, Adonis and Negativ. The rhythms are influenced by the American rap scene, and the lyrics are often about crime, drugs, money, women and other criminal things.
Often coming from Dutch ghettos, lyrics often include themes occurring in these areas.
Dutch gangsta hip hop mostly comes from the five largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven.
Commercial success
The commercial success of Dutch hip hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes-R, Ali B, Lange Frans & Baas B and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip hop community Yes-R, Ali B and Lange Frans & Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 2-man group, having had success with hits such as "Stuk" (Broken), and "Dat is Die Shit" (That's the shit), with other popular songs in the background such as "Non Stop" ft. Brainpower, "We Gaan Los" (we're going crazy {because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and "Wat Wil Je Doen" (What do you want to do?).
Dutch oldskool
The Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, LTH, Osdorp Posse, Extince, Sugacane and Duvelduvel. Osdorp Posse make to what they themselves call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N.W.A. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution, police and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Duvelduvel is known as a conceptual hip hop group.
Notable artists
Notable Dutch hip hop artists, listed by locality include:
See also
* European hip hop
References
<references /> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_hip-hop | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.162266 |
2919 | Anaïs Nin | | birth_place = Neuilly-sur-Seine, France
| death_date =
| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| occupation = Author
| parents =
| relatives = Joaquín Nin-Culmell (brother)
| spouse =
* (bigamy)
}}
| signature = Anaïs Nin signature.svg
}}
Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell ( ; ; February 21, 1903 – January 14, 1977) was a French-born American diarist, essayist, novelist, and writer of short stories and erotica. Born to Cuban parents in France, Nin was the daughter of the composer Joaquín Nin and the classically trained singer Rosa Culmell. Nin spent her early years in Spain and Cuba, about sixteen years in Paris (1924–1940), and the remaining half of her life in the United States, where she became an established author.
Nin wrote journals prolifically from age eleven until her death. Her journals, many of which were published during her lifetime, detail her private thoughts and personal relationships. Her journals also describe her marriages to Hugh Parker Guiler and Rupert Pole, in addition to her numerous affairs, including those with psychoanalyst Otto Rank and writer Henry Miller, both of whom profoundly influenced Nin and her writing.
In addition to her journals, Nin wrote several novels, critical studies, essays, short stories, and volumes of erotic literature. Much of her work, including the collections of erotica Delta of Venus and Little Birds, was published posthumously amid renewed critical interest in her life and work. Nin spent her later life in Los Angeles, California, where she died of cervical cancer in 1977. She was a finalist for the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1976.
Early life
Anaïs Nin was born in Neuilly, France, to Joaquín Nin, a Cuban pianist and composer, and Rosa Culmell, a classically trained Cuban singer. Her father's grandfather had fled France during the French Revolution, going first to Saint-Domingue, then New Orleans, and finally to Cuba, where he helped build the country's first railway.
Nin was raised a Roman Catholic but left the church when she was 16 years old. She spent her childhood and early life in Europe. Her parents separated when she was two; her mother then moved Nin and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and Joaquín Nin-Culmell, to Barcelona, and then to New York City, where she attended high school. Nin dropped out of high school in 1919 at age sixteen, and according to her diaries, Volume One, 1931–1934, later began working as an artist's model. After being in the United States for several years, Nin had forgotten how to speak Spanish, but retained her French and became fluent in English.On March 3, 1923, in Havana, Cuba, Nin married her first husband, American Hugh Parker Guiler (1898–1985), a banker and artist from Boston, later known as "Ian Hugo", when he became an experimental filmmaker in the late 1940s. The couple moved to Paris the following year, where Guiler pursued his banking career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing; in her diaries she also mentions having trained as a flamenco dancer in Paris in the mid-to-late 1920s with Francisco Miralles Arnau. Her first published work was a critical 1932 evaluation of D. H. Lawrence called D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study, which she wrote in sixteen days. Both men eventually became her lovers, as she recounts in her Journal. On her second visit to Rank, Nin reflects on her desire to be reborn as a woman and artist. Rank, she observes, helped her move between what she could verbalize in her journals and what remained unarticulated. She discovered the quality and depth of her feelings in the wordless transitions between what she could and could not say. "As he talked, I thought of my difficulties with writing, my struggles to articulate feelings not easily expressed. Of my struggles to find a language for intuition, feeling, instincts which are, in themselves, elusive, subtle, and wordless."
In late summer 1939, when residents from overseas were urged to leave France due to the approaching war, Nin left Paris and returned to New York City with her husband (Guiler was, according to his own wishes, edited out of the diaries published during Nin's lifetime; his role in her life is therefore difficult to evaluate). During the war, Nin sent her books to Frances Steloff of the Gotham Book Mart in New York for safekeeping.
In New York, Nin rejoined Otto Rank, who had previously moved there, and moved into his apartment. She actually began to act as a psychoanalyst herself, seeing patients in the room next to Rank's. She quit after several months, however, stating: "I found that I wasn't good because I wasn't objective. I was haunted by my patients. I wanted to intercede." Nin felt that French was the language of her heart, Spanish was the language of her ancestors, and English was the language of her intellect. The writing in her diaries is explicitly trilingual; she uses whichever language best expresses her thought.
In the second volume of her unexpurgated journal, Incest, she wrote about her father candidly and graphically (207–15), detailing her incestuous adult sexual relationship with him.
Previously unpublished works were released in A Café in Space, the Anaïs Nin Literary Journal, which includes "Anaïs Nin and Joaquín Nin y Castellanos: Prelude to a SymphonyLetters between a father and daughter".
So far sixteen volumes of her journals have been published. All but the last five of her adult journals are in expurgated form.
Erotic writings
Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest writers of female erotica. She was one of the first women known to explore fully the realm of erotic writing, and certainly the first prominent woman in the modern West known to write erotica. Before her, erotica acknowledged to be written by women was rare, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Kate Chopin. Nin often cited authors Djuna Barnes and D. H. Lawrence as inspirations, and she states in Volume One of her diaries that she drew inspiration from Marcel Proust, André Gide, Jean Cocteau, Paul Valéry, and Arthur Rimbaud.
According to Volume One of her diaries, 1931–1934, published in 1966, Nin first came across erotica when she returned to Paris with her husband, mother and two brothers in her late teens. They rented the apartment of an American man who was away for the summer, and Nin came across a number of French paperbacks: "One by one, I read these books, which were completely new to me. I had never read erotic literature in America... They overwhelmed me. I was innocent before I read them, but by the time I had read them all, there was nothing I did not know about sexual exploits... I had my degree in erotic lore."
Faced with a desperate need for money, Nin, Henry Miller and some of their friends began in the 1940s to write erotic and pornographic narratives for an anonymous "collector" for a dollar a page, somewhat as a joke. (It is not clear whether Miller actually wrote these stories or merely allowed his name to be used.) Nin considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricatures and never intended the work to be published, but changed her mind in the early 1970s and allowed them to be published as Delta of Venus and Little Birds. In 2016, a previously undiscovered collection of Nin's erotica, Auletris, was published for the first time.
Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many literary figures, including Miller, John Steinbeck, Antonin Artaud, Edmund Wilson, Gore Vidal, James Agee, James Leo Herlihy, and Lawrence Durrell. Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller strongly influenced her both sexually and as an author. Claims that Nin was bisexual were given added circulation by the 1990 Philip Kaufman film Henry & June about Miller and his second wife June Miller. The first unexpurgated portion of Nin's journal to be published, Henry and June, makes clear that Nin was stirred by June to the point of saying (paraphrasing), "I have become June", though it is unclear to what extent she consummated her feelings sexually. To both Anaïs and Henry, June was a femme fataleirresistible, cunning, and erotic. Nin gave June money, jewelry, and clothes, often leaving herself without money.
Novels and other publications
In addition to her journals and collections of erotica, Nin wrote several novels, which critics frequently associated with the surrealist movement. Her first book of fiction, House of Incest (1936), contains heavily veiled allusions to a brief sexual relationship Nin had with her father in 1933: while visiting her estranged father in France, the then-30-year-old Nin had a brief incestuous sexual relationship with him. In 1944, she published a collection of short stories, Under a Glass Bell, which was reviewed by Edmund Wilson. The two began a relationship and traveled to California together; Pole was 16 years her junior. On March 17, 1955, while still married to Guiler, she married Pole at Quartzsite, Arizona, returning with him to live in California. Guiler remained in New York City and was unaware of Nin's second marriage until after her death in 1977, though biographer Deirdre Bair alleges that Guiler knew what was happening while Nin was in California but consciously "chose not to know". but she and Pole continued to live together as if married until her death. According to Barbara Kraft, Nin wrote to Guiler asking for his forgiveness. He responded by saying how meaningful his life had been because of her.
After Guiler's death in 1985, Pole commissioned the unexpurgated versions of Nin's journals. Six volumes have been published: Henry and June, Fire, Incest, Nearer the Moon, Mirages, and Trapeze. Pole arranged for Guiler's ashes to be scattered in the same area where Nin's ashes were, Mermaid Cove in Santa Monica Bay. Pole died in 2006.
Nin once worked at Lawrence R. Maxwell Books, at 45 Christopher Street in New York City. In addition to her work as a writer, Nin appeared in the Kenneth Anger film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954) as Astarte; in the Maya Deren film Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946); and in Bells of Atlantis (1952), a film Guiler directed under the name "Ian Hugo" with a soundtrack of electronic music by Louis and Bebe Barron. In her later life, Nin worked as a tutor at the International College in Los Angeles. Nin died of the cancer at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, on January 14, 1977.
Her body was cremated and her ashes scattered over Santa Monica Bay in Mermaid Cove. Her first husband, Hugh Guiler, died in 1985, and his ashes were scattered in the same cove.
Legacy
The explosion of the feminist movement in the 1960s gave feminist perspectives on Nin's writings of the past twenty years, which made Nin a popular lecturer at various universities; contrarily, Nin dissociated herself from the political activism of the movement.
The Italian film La stanza delle parole (dubbed into English as The Room of Words) was released in 1989 based on the Henry and June diaries. Philip Kaufman directed the 1990 film Henry & June based on Nin's diaries published as Henry and June: From the Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin. She was portrayed in the film by actress Maria de Medeiros.
In February 2008, poet Steven Reigns organized Anaïs Nin at 105 at the Hammer Museum in Westwood, Los Angeles. Reigns said: "Nin bonded and formed very deep friendships with women and men decades younger than her. Some of them are still living in Los Angeles and I thought it'd be wonderful to have them share their experiences with [Nin]." Bebe Barron, an electronic music pioneer and longtime friend of Nin, made her last public appearance at this event. Reigns also published an essay refuting Bern Porter's claims of a sexual relationship with Nin in the 1930s. Reigns is the President of the Board of the non-profit organization devoted to Nin's legacy, the Anaïs Nin Foundation.
Cuban-American writer Daína Chaviano paid homage to Anaïs Nin and Henry Miller in her novel Gata encerrada (2001), where both characters are portrayed as disembodied spirits whose previous lives they shared with Melisa, the main character—and presumably Chaviano's alter ego—, a young Cuban obsessed with Anaïs Nin.
The Cuban poet and novelist Wendy Guerra, long fascinated with Nin's life and works, published a fictional diary in Nin's voice, Posar desnuda en la Habana (Posing Nude in Havana) in 2012. She explained that "[Nin's] Cuban Diary has very few pages and my delirium was always to write an apocryphal novel; literary conjecture about what might have happened".
On September 27, 2013, screenwriter and author Kim Krizan published an article in The Huffington Post
In 2015, a documentary film directed by Sarah Aspinall called The Erotic Adventures of Anais Nin was released, in which Lucy Cohu portrayed Nin's character.
In 2019, Kim Krizan published Spy in the House of Anaïs Nin, an examination of long-buried letters, papers, and original manuscripts Krizan found while doing archival work in Nin's Los Angeles home. Also that year, Routledge published the book Anaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own by Clara Oropeza, that analyzes Nin's literature and literary theory through the perspective of mythological studies and depth psychology.
In 2002, Alissa Levy Caiano produced a short film called "The All-Seeing" based on Nin's short story of the same name in Under a Glass Bell.
In 2021, the porn film company Thousand Faces released a short film called "Mathilde" based on Nin's story of the same name in Delta of Venus.BibliographyDiaries
* The Diary of Anaïs Nin, in 7 volumes, edited by herself
* The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin (1914–1931) in 4 volumes
**Linotte: 1914-20 (1987)
**1920-23 (1983)
**The Journal of a Wife: 1923-27 (1984)
**1927-31 (1985)
* Henry and June: From a Journal of Love. The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin (1931–1932) (1986), edited by Rupert Pole after her death
* Incest: From a Journal of Love (1992)
* Fire: From a Journal of Love (1995)
* Nearer the Moon: From a Journal of Love (1996)
* Mirages: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1939–1947 (2013)
* Trapeze: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1947–1955 (2017)
* The Diary of Others: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1955–1966 (2021)
* A Joyous Transformation: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1966–1977 (2023)
Correspondence
* A Literate Passion: Letters of Anaïs Nin & Henry Miller 1932–1953 (1988)
* Letters to a friend in Australia (1992)
* Arrows of Longing: Correspondence Between Anaïs Nin & Felix Pollack, 1952–1976 (1998)
* Morale des épicentres (2004)
* Reunited: The Correspondence of Anaïs and Joaquin Nin, 1933–1940 (2020)
* Letters to Lawrence Durrell 1937–1977 (2020)
Novels
* House of Incest (1936)
* Winter of Artifice (1939)
* Cities of the Interior (1959), in five volumes:
** Ladders to Fire
** Children of the Albatross
** The Four-Chambered Heart
** A Spy in the House of Love
** Seduction of the Minotaur, originally published as Solar Barque (1958).
* Collages (1964)
Short stories
* Waste of Timelessness: And Other Early Stories (written before 1932, published posthumously in 1977)
* Under a Glass Bell (1944)
* Delta of Venus (1977)
* Little Birds (1979)
* Auletris (2016)
Non-fiction
* D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study (1932)
* The Novel of the Future (1968)
* A Woman Speaks (1975)
* In Favor of the Sensitive Man (1976)
* Conversations with Anaïs Nin (Edited by Wendy M. DuBow, 1994)
* The Mystic of Sex: Uncollected Writings: 1930-1974 (1995)
Filmography
*Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946): Short film, dir. Maya Deren
*[https://www.instagram.com/anaisninfoundation/reel/C70wSvAR9kL Lascivious Folk Ballet] (1946) - (Outtakes from Ritual in Transfigured Time).
*Bells of Atlantis (1952): Short film, dir. Ian Hugo
*''Tropical Noah's Ark (1952).
*Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954): Short film, dir. Kenneth Anger
*Jazz of Lights (1954)
*Melodic Inversion (1958)
*Lectures pour tous (1964)
*Anaïs Nin Her Diary (1966)
*Un moment avec une grande figure de la littérature, Anaïs Nin (3 May 1968)
*The Henry Miller Odyssey (1969).
*Through the Magiscope (1969).
*Apertura (1970).
*Anaïs Nin at the University of California, Berkeley (December 1971)
*Anaïs Nin at Hampshire College, (1972)
*'Ouvrez les guillemets (11 November 1974)
*Journal de Paris (21 November 1974)
*Anais Nin Observed (1974): Documentary, dir. Robert SnyderSee also
* List of Cuban American writers
* List of Cuban Americans
Notes
Citations
Works cited
*
*
*
*
*
* Further reading
* Oropeza, Clara. (2019) Anaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own, Routledge
*
*
* Yaguchi, Yuko. (2022) Anaïs Nin's Paris Revisited The English–French Bilingual Edition (French Edition), Wind Rose-Suiseisha
* Bita, Lili. (1994) "Anais Nin". EI'' Magazine of [https://web.archive.org/web/20181105160436/https://euarceblog.wixsite.com/euarce European Art Center (EUARCE)], Is. 7/1994 pp. 9, 24–30
External links
* [https://www.sky-blue-press.com/blog/ The Official Anaïs Nin Blog]
* [http://www.theanaisninfoundation.org Anaïs Nin Foundation] Contact the Anaïs Nin estate for rights and permissions requests
* [http://www.instagram.com/anaisninfoundation Official Instagram account]
*
*
* [http://www.roberthaller.com/firstlight/hugo.html Ian Hugo (Nin's husband)]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/21/t-magazine/anais-nin-los-angeles-home.html Anais Nin's Hideaway Home in Los Angeles] (2022-03-21 in The New York Times)
<!---Inactive links below - as/of 20220322--->
<!---* [http://www.oldkewgardens.com/ss-2-homes-0125.html Anaïs Nin: 82nd Avenue] --->
<!---* [https://archives.lib.siu.edu/?pcollections/controlcard&id2079 Anaïs Nin Letters, 1932–1946] at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center--->
<!---* [http://segundaviola.com.ar/natvideos/#04 Anaïs Nin video text] --->
Category:1903 births
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Category:Writers from Paris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaïs_Nin | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.189995 |
2923 | AIM (software) | the AIM alliance}}
| discontinued = yes
| latest release version = <!--?-->
| latest release date = <!--?-->
| programming language = C++, Adobe Flash
| operating system = Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, macOS, Android, iOS, BlackBerry OS, Android TV
| genre = Instant messaging
| license = Proprietary
| website =
}}
AOL Instant Messenger (AIM, sometimes stylized as aim) was an instant messaging and presence computer program created by AOL, which used the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time.
AIM was popular by the late 1990s; teens and college students were known to use the messenger's away message feature to keep in touch with friends, often frequently changing their away message throughout a day or leaving a message up with one's computer left on to inform buddies of their ongoings, location, parties, thoughts, or jokes. AIM's popularity declined as AOL subscribers started decreasing and steeply towards the 2010s, as Gmail's Google Talk, SMS, and Internet social networks, like Facebook gained popularity. Its fall has often been compared with other once-popular Internet services, such as Myspace.
In June 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications. In June 2017, Verizon combined AOL and Yahoo into its subsidiary Oath Inc. (now called Yahoo). The company discontinued AIM as a service on December 15, 2017.HistoryIn May 1997, AIM was released unceremoniously as a stand-alone download for Microsoft Windows. AIM was an outgrowth of "online messages" in the original platform written in PL/1 on a Stratus computer by Dave Brown. At one time, the software had the largest share of the instant messaging market in North America, especially in the United States (with 52% of the total reported ). This does not include other instant messaging software related to or developed by AOL, such as ICQ and iChat.
During its heyday, its main competitors were ICQ (which AOL acquired in 1998), Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger. AOL particularly had a rivalry or "chat war" with PowWow and Microsoft, starting in 1999. There were several attempts from Microsoft to simultaneously log into their own and AIM's protocol servers. AOL was unhappy about this and started blocking MSN Messenger from being able to access AIM. This led to efforts by many companies to challenge the AOL and Time Warner merger on the grounds of antitrust behaviour, leading to the formation of the OpenNet Coalition.
Official mobile versions of AIM appeared as early as 2001 on Palm OS through the AOL application. Third-party applications allowed it to be used in 2002 for the Sidekick. A version for Symbian OS was announced in 2003 as were others for BlackBerry and Windows Mobile
After 2012, stand-alone official AIM client software included advertisements and was available for Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Classic Mac OS, macOS, Android, iOS, and BlackBerry OS.Usage decline and product sunsetAround 2011, AIM started to lose popularity rapidly, partly due to the quick rise of Gmail and its built-in real-time Google Chat instant messenger integration in 2011 and because many people migrated to SMS or iMessages text messaging and later, social networking websites and apps for instant messaging, in particular, Facebook Messenger, which was released as a standalone application the same year. AOL made a partnership to integrate AIM messaging in Google Talk, and had a feature for AIM users to send SMS messages directly from AIM to any number, as well as for SMS users to send an IM to any AIM user.
As of June 2011, one source reported AOL Instant Messenger market share had collapsed to 0.73%. However, this number only reflected installed IM applications, and not active users. The engineers responsible for AIM claimed that they were unable to convince AOL management that free was the future. On October 6, 2017, it was announced that the AIM service would be discontinued on December 15; however, a non-profit development team known as Wildman Productions started up a server for older versions of AOL Instant Messenger, known as AIM Phoenix.
The "Running Man"
The AIM mascot was designed by JoRoan Lazaro and was implemented in the first release in 1997. This was a yellow stickman-like figure, often called the "Running Man". AIM's popularity in the late 1990s and the 2000s led to the “Running Man” becoming a familiar brand on the Internet. After over 14 years, the iconic logo disappeared as part of the AIM rebranding in 2011. However, in August 2013, the "Running Man" returned. It was used for other AOL services like AOL Top Speed and is still featured in a theme on AOL Mail.
In 2014, a Complex editor called it a "symbol of America". In April 2015, the Running Man was officially featured in the Virgin London Marathon, dressed by a person for the AOL-partnered Free The Children charity.
Protocol
The standard protocol that AIM clients used to communicate is called Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime (OSCAR). Most AOL-produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR's features, but was sometimes used for clients that only require basic chat functionality. The TOC/TOC2 protocol specifications were made available by AOL, while OSCAR is a closed protocol that third parties had to reverse-engineer.
In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support for AIM, allowing AIM users to communicate using the standardized, open-source XMPP. However, in March 2008, this service was discontinued. In May 2011, AOL started offering limited XMPP support. On March 1, 2017, AOL announced (via XMPP-login-time messages) that the AOL XMPP gateway would be desupported, effective March 28, 2017.
Privacy
For privacy regulations, AIM had strict age restrictions. AIM accounts are available only for people over the age of 13; children younger than that were not permitted access to AIM.
Under the AIM Privacy Policy, AOL had no rights to read or monitor any private communications between users. The profile of the user had no privacy.
If public content was accessed, it could be used for online, print or broadcast advertising, etc. This was outlined in the policy and terms of service: "... you grant AOL, its parent, affiliates, subsidiaries, assigns, agents and licensees the irrevocable, perpetual, worldwide right to reproduce, display, perform, distribute, adapt and promote this Content in any medium". This allowed anything users posted to be used without a separate request for permission. Though one could block a user from communicating with them and seeing their status, this did not prevent that user from creating a new account that would not automatically be blocked and therefore able to track their status. A more conservative privacy option was to select a menu feature that only allowed communication with users on one's buddy list; however, this option also created the side-effect of blocking all users who were not on one's buddy list. Users could also choose to be invisible to all.
Chat robots
AOL and various other companies supplied robots (bots) on AIM that could receive messages and send a response based on the bot's purpose. For example, bots could help with studying, like StudyBuddy. Some were made to relate to children and teenagers, like Spleak.
Others gave advice. The more useful chat bots had features like the ability to play games, get sport scores, weather forecasts or financial stock information. Users were able to talk to automated chat bots that could respond to natural human language. They were primarily put into place as a marketing strategy and for unique advertising options. It was used by advertisers to market products or build better consumer relations.
Before the inclusions of such bots, the other bots DoorManBot and AIMOffline provided features that were provided by AOL for those who needed it. ZolaOnAOL and ZoeOnAOL were short-lived bots that ultimately retired their features in favor of SmarterChild.
URI scheme
AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installed an extra URI scheme ("protocol") handler into some Web browsers, so URIs beginning with <code>aim:</code> could open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This was similar in function to the <code>mailto:</code> URI scheme, which created a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a webpage might have included a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user notarealuser:
<a href"aim:goim?screennamenotarealuser">Send Message</a>
To specify a message body, the <code>message</code> parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this:
aim:goim?screennamenotarealuser&messageThis+is+my+message
To specify an away message, the message parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this:
aim:goaway?message=Hello,+my+name+is+Bill
When placing this inside a URL link, an AIM user could click on the URL link and the away message "Hello, my name is Bill" would instantly become their away message.
To add a buddy, the addbuddy message was used, with the "screenname" parameter
aim:addbuddy?screenname=notarealuser
This type of link was commonly found on forum profiles to easily add contacts.
Vulnerabilities
AIM had security weaknesses that have enabled exploits to be created that used third-party software to perform malicious acts on users' computers. Although most were relatively harmless, such as being kicked off the AIM service, others performed potentially dangerous actions, such as sending viruses. Some of these exploits relied on social engineering to spread by automatically sending instant messages that contained a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) accompanied by text suggesting the receiving user click on it, an action which leads to infection, i.e., a trojan horse. These messages could easily be mistaken as coming from a friend and contain a link to a Web address that installed software on the user's computer to restart the cycle.
Extra features
iPhone application
On March 6, 2008, during Apple Inc.'s iPhone SDK event, AOL announced that they would be releasing an AIM application for iPhone and iPod Touch users. The application was available for free from the App Store, but the company also provided a paid version, which displayed no advertisements. Both were available from the App Store. The AIM client for iPhone and iPod Touch supported standard AIM accounts, as well as MobileMe accounts. There was also an express version of AIM accessible through the Safari browser on the iPhone and iPod Touch.
In 2011, AOL launched an overhaul of their Instant Messaging service. Included in the update was a brand new iOS application for iPhone and iPod Touch that incorporated all the latest features. A brand new icon was used for the application, featuring the new cursive logo for AIM. The user-interface was entirely redone for the features including: a new buddy list, group messaging, in-line photos and videos, as well as improved file-sharing.
Version 5.0.5, updated in March 2012, it supported more social stream features, much like Facebook and Twitter, as well as the ability to send voice messages up to 60 seconds long.
iPad application
On April 3, 2010, Apple released the first generation iPad. Along with this newly released device AOL released the AIM application for iPad. It was built entirely from scratch for the new version of iOS with a specialized user-interface for the device. It supported geolocation, Facebook status updates and chat, Myspace, Twitter, YouTube, Foursquare, and many other social networking platforms.
AIM Express
AIM Express ran in a pop-up browser window. It was intended for use by people who are unwilling or unable to install a standalone application or those at computers that lack the AIM application. AIM Express supported many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but did not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, video conferencing, or buddy info. It was implemented in Adobe Flash. It was an upgrade to the prior AOL Quick Buddy, which was later available for older systems that cannot handle Express before being discontinued. Express and Quick Buddy were similar to MSN Web Messenger and Yahoo! Web Messenger. This web version evolved into AIM.com's web-based messenger.AIM PagesAIM Pages was a free website released in May 2006 by AOL in replacement of AIMSpace. Anyone who had an AIM user name and was at least 16 years of age could create their own web page (to display an online, dynamic profile) and share it with buddies from their AIM Buddy list. Layout AIM Pages included links to the email and Instant Message of the owner, along with a section listing the owners "buddies", which included AIM user names. It was possible to create modules in a Module T microformat. Video hosting sites like Netflix and YouTube could be added to ones AIM Page, as well as other sites like Amazon.com. It was also possible to insert HTML code.
The main focus of AIM Pages was the integration of external modules, like those listed above, into the AOL Instant Messenger experience. Discontinuation By late 2007, AIM Pages were discontinued. AOL Lifestream was shut down February 24, 2017.AIM for MacAOL released an all-new AIM for the Mac on September 29, 2008, and the final build on December 15, 2008. The redesigned AIM for Mac is a full universal binary Cocoa API application that supports both Tiger and Leopard — Mac OS X 10.4.8 (and above) or Mac OS X 10.5.3 (and above). On October 1, 2009, AOL released AIM 2.0 for Mac.AIM real-time IMThis feature was available for AIM 7 and allowed for a user to see what the other is typing as it is being done. It was developed and built with assistance from Trace Research and Development Centre at University of Wisconsin–Madison and Gallaudet University. The application provides visually impaired users the ability to convert messages from text (words) to speech. For the application to work users must have AIM 6.8 or higher, as it is not compatible with older versions of AIM software, AIM for Mac or iChat.
Discontinued features
AIM Phoneline
AIM Phoneline was a Voice over IP PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC service provided via the AIM application. It was also known to work with Apple's iChat Client. The service was officially closed to its customers on January 13, 2009. The closing of the free service caused the number associated with the service to be disabled and not transferable for a different service. AIM Phoneline website was recommending users switch to a new service named AIM Call Out, also discontinued now.
Launched on May 16, 2006, AIM Phoneline provided users the ability to have several local numbers, allowing AIM users to receive free incoming calls. The service allowed users to make calls to landlines and mobile devices through the use of a computer. The service, however, was only free for receiving and AOL charged users $14.95 a month for an unlimited calling plan. In order to use AIM Phoneline users had to install the latest free version of AIM Triton software and needed a good set of headphones with a boom microphone. It could take several days after a user signed up before it started working. It did not depend on the AIM client and could be used with only an AIM screenname via the WebConnect feature or a dedicated SIP device. The AIM Call Out service was shut down on March 25, 2009.SecurityOn November 4, 2014, AIM scored one out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. AIM received a point for encryption during transit, but lost points because communications are not encrypted with a key to which the provider has no access, i.e., the communications are not end-to-end encrypted, users can't verify contacts' identities, past messages are not secure if the encryption keys are stolen, (i.e., the service does not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to independent review, (i.e., the code is not open-source), the security design is not properly documented, and there has not been a recent independent security audit. BlackBerry Messenger (BBM), Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail, Kik Messenger, Skype, Viber, and Yahoo! Messenger also scored one out of seven points.<ref name"secure-messaging-scorecard" />See also
* Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
* List of defunct instant messaging platforms
References
External links
*
Category:1997 software
*
Category:Android (operating system) software
Instant Messenger
Category:BlackBerry software
Category:Classic Mac OS instant messaging clients
Category:Cross-platform software
Category:Defunct instant messaging clients
Category:Instant messaging clients
Category:Internet properties disestablished in 2017
Category:IOS software
Category:MacOS instant messaging clients
Category:Online chat
Category:Symbian software
Category:Unix instant messaging clients
Category:Videotelephony
Category:Windows instant messaging clients | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM_(software) | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.233479 |
2925 | Ackermann function | In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive.
After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. This function is defined from the recurrence relation <math>\operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) = \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n))
</math> with appropriate base cases. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, <math>\operatorname{A}(4, 2)</math> results in <math>2^{65536} - 3</math>, an integer with 19,729 decimal digits.
History
In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply "recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function <math>\varphi</math> (from Greek, the letter phi). Ackermann's three-argument function, <math>\varphi(m, n, p)</math>, is defined such that for <math>p=0,1,2</math>, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\varphi(m, n, 0) &= m+n \\
\varphi(m, n, 1) &= m\times n \\
\varphi(m, n, 2) &= m^n
\end{align}</math>
and for <math>p > 2</math> it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\varphi(m, n, 3) &= m[4](n+1) \\
\varphi(m, n, p) &\gtrapprox m[p+1](n+1) && \text{for } p > 3
\end{align}</math>
(Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose—such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.)
In On the Infinite, David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper ''On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers''.
Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors.
The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e.g. <math>G(m, a, b) a[m]b</math>, is a version of the Ackermann function as well.
In 1963 R.C. Buck based an intuitive two-variable variant <math>\operatorname{F}</math> on the hyperoperation sequence:
<math display"block">\operatorname{F}(m,n) 2[m]n.</math>
Compared to most other versions, Buck's function has no unessential offsets:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\operatorname{F}(0,n) &2[0]n n + 1 \\
\operatorname{F}(1,n) &2[1]n 2 + n \\
\operatorname{F}(2,n) &2[2]n 2 \times n \\
\operatorname{F}(3,n) &2[3]n 2^n \\
\operatorname{F}(4,n) &2[4]n 2^{2^{2^{{}^{.^{.^{{}_.2}}}}}} \\
&\quad\vdots
\end{align}</math>
Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated.
Definition
Definition: as m-ary function
Ackermann's original three-argument function <math>\varphi(m, n, p)</math> is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers <math>m,n,</math> and <math>p</math>:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\varphi(m, n, 0) &= m + n \\
\varphi(m, 0, 1) &= 0 \\
\varphi(m, 0, 2) &= 1 \\
\varphi(m, 0, p) &= m && \text{for } p > 2 \\
\varphi(m, n, p) &= \varphi(m, \varphi(m, n-1, p), p - 1) && \text{for } n, p > 0
\end{align}</math>
Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called "the" Ackermann function by most authors) is defined for nonnegative integers <math>m</math> and <math>n</math> as follows:
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lcl}
\operatorname{A}(0, n) & = & n + 1 \\
\operatorname{A}(m+1, 0) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, 1) \\
\operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n))
\end{array}
</math>
The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence:
<math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases}
n+1 & m=0 \\
2[m](n+3)-3 & m>0 \\
\end{cases}</math>
or, written in Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices <math>\geq -2</math>):
<math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases}
n+1 & m=0 \\
2\uparrow^{m-2} (n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\
\end{cases}</math>
or, equivalently, in terms of Buck's function F:
<math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases}
n+1 & m=0 \\
F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\
\end{cases}</math>
Definition: as iterated 1-ary function
Define <math>f^{n}</math> as the n-th iterate of <math>f</math>:
<math display="block">\begin{array}{rll}
f^{0}(x) & = & x \\
f^{n+1}(x) & = & f(f^{n}(x))
\end{array}</math>
Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation, so <math>f(f^{n}(x)) = f^{n}(f(x))</math>.
Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions, one can set <math>\operatorname{A}_{m}(n) = \operatorname{A}(m,n)</math>.
The function then becomes a sequence <math>\operatorname{A}_0, \operatorname{A}_1, \operatorname{A}_2, ...</math> of unary functions, defined from iteration:
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lcl}
\operatorname{A}_{0}(n) & = & n+1 \\
\operatorname{A}_{m+1}(n) & = & \operatorname{A}_{m}^{n+1}(1) \\
\end{array}
</math>
Computation
The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system (TRS).
TRS, based on 2-ary function
The definition of the <u>2-ary</u> Ackermann function leads to the obvious reduction rules
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(r1)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\
\text{(r2)} & A(S(m),0) & \rightarrow & A(m,S(0)) \\
\text{(r3)} & A(S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & A(m,A(S(m),n))
\end{array}
</math>
Example
Compute <math>A(1,2) \rightarrow_{*} 4</math>
The reduction sequence is
{| style="border-collapse:collapse"
|style="text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|Leftmost-outermost (one-step) strategy:
|style="text-align:left; padding-left: 0.5em"|Leftmost-innermost (one-step) strategy:
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\underline</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\underline</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} \underline)</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,\underline)</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(\underline)</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,\underline))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} S(\underline)</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(0,A(0,\underline))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(\underline))</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,\underline)</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r2} S(S(\underline))</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(S(S(0))))</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} S(S(S(S(0))))</math>
|-
|}
To compute <math>\operatorname{A}(m, n)</math> one can use a stack, which initially contains the elements <math>\langle m,n \rangle</math>.
Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rules
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lllllllll}
\text{(r1)} & 0 &,& n & \rightarrow & (n+1) \\
\text{(r2)} & (m+1) &,& 0 & \rightarrow & m &,& 1 \\
\text{(r3)} & (m+1) &,& (n+1) & \rightarrow & m &,& (m+1) &,& n
\end{array}
</math>
Schematically, starting from <math>\langle m,n \rangle</math>:
WHILE stackLength <> 1
{
POP 2 elements;
PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, applying the rules r1, r2, r3
}
The pseudocode is published in .
For example, on input <math>\langle 2,1 \rangle</math>,
{| style="border-collapse:collapse"
|style="text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|the stack configurations
|style"text-align:left; padding-left: 0.5em"|reflect the reduction
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\underline{2,1}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\underline{A(2,1)}</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{2,0}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(1,\underline{A(2,0)})</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{1,1}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(1,\underline{A(1,1)})</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 1,0,\underline{1,0}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(1,A(0,\underline{A(1,0)}))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 1,0,\underline{0,1}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(1,A(0,\underline{A(0,1)}))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 1,\underline{0,2}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(1,\underline{A(0,2)})</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow \underline{1,3}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline{A(1,3)}</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,\underline{1,2}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,\underline{A(1,2)})</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,0,\underline{1,1}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,\underline{A(1,1)}))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,0,0,\underline{1,0}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r3} A(0,A(0,A(0,\underline{A(1,0)})))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,0,0,\underline{0,1}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r2} A(0,A(0,A(0,\underline{A(0,1)})))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,0,\underline{0,2}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,A(0,\underline{A(0,2)}))</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 0,\underline{0,3}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} A(0,\underline{A(0,3)})</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow \underline{0,4}</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} \underline{A(0,4)}</math>
|-
|style="border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow 5</math>
|style="padding-left: 0.5em"|<math>\rightarrow_{r1} 5</math>
|}
Remarks
*The leftmost-innermost strategy is implemented in 225 computer languages on Rosetta Code.
*For all <math>m,n</math> the computation of <math>A(m,n)</math> takes no more than <math>(A(m,n) + 1)^m</math> steps.
* pointed out that in the computation of <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math> the maximum length of the stack is <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math>, as long as <math>m>0</math>.<p> Their own algorithm, inherently iterative, computes <math>\operatorname{A}(m,n)</math> within <math>\mathcal{O}(m \operatorname{A}(m,n))</math> time and within <math>\mathcal{O}(m)</math> space.</p>
TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function
The definition of the iterated <u>1-ary</u> Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rules
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(r4)} & A(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\
\text{(r5)} & A(S(0),S(m),n) & \rightarrow & A(S(n),m,S(0)) \\
\text{(r6)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(0),m,A(S(x),m,n))
\end{array}
</math>
As function composition is associative, instead of rule r6 one can define
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(r7)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(x),m,A(S(0),m,n))
\end{array}
</math>
Like in the previous section the computation of <math>\operatorname{A}^1_m(n)</math> can be implemented with a stack.
Initially the stack contains the three elements <math>\langle 1,m,n \rangle</math>.
Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rules this computation is more efficient in that respect.
TRS, based on hyperoperators
As — or — showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence:
<math display"block">A(m,n) \begin{cases}
n+1 & m=0 \\
2[m](n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\
\end{cases}</math>
or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck's function
<math>A(m,n) = \begin{cases}
n+1 & m=0 \\
F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\
\end{cases}</math>
Buck's function <math>\operatorname{F}(m,n) = 2[m]n</math>, a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules:
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(b1)} & F(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\
\text{(b2)} & F(S(0),S(0),0) & \rightarrow & S(S(0)) \\
\text{(b3)} & F(S(0),S(S(0)),0) & \rightarrow & 0 \\
\text{(b4)} & F(S(0),S(S(S(m))),0) & \rightarrow & S(0) \\
\text{(b5)} & F(S(0),S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & F(S(n),m,F(S(0),S(m),0)) \\
\text{(b6)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(0),m,F(S(x),m,n))
\end{array}
</math>
Instead of rule b6 one can define the rule
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(b7)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(x),m,F(S(0),m,n))
\end{array}
</math>
To compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rules
<math display="block">
\begin{array}{lll}
\text{(r8)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\
\text{(r9)} & A(S(m),n) & \rightarrow & P(F(S(0),S(m),S(S(S(n))))) \\
\text{(r10)} & P(S(S(S(m)))) & \rightarrow & m \\
\end{array}
</math>
These rules take care of the base case A(0,n), the alignment (n+3) and the fudge (-3).
Example
Compute <math>A(2,1) \rightarrow_{*} 5</math>
{| style="border-collapse:collapse"
|style"text-align:left; border-right: solid thin black; padding-right: 0.5em"|using reduction rule <math>\text{b7}</math>: The nesting is limited to <math>(i+1)</math>, one recursion level per iterated function. showed this correspondence.
*These considerations concern the recursion depth only. Either way of iterating leads to the same number of reduction steps, involving the same rules (when the rules b6 and b7 are considered "the same"). The reduction of <math>A(2,1)</math> for instance converges in 35 steps: 12 × b1, 4 × b2, 1 × b3, 4 × b5, 12 × b6/b7, 1 × r9, 1 × r10. The modus iterandi only affects the order in which the reduction rules are applied.
*A real gain of execution time can only be achieved by not recalculating subresults over and over again. Memoization is an optimization technique where the results of function calls are cached and returned when the same inputs occur again. See for instance . published a cunning algorithm which computes <math>A(i,n)</math> within <math>\mathcal{O}(i A(i,n))</math> time and within <math>\mathcal{O}(i)</math> space.
Huge numbers
To demonstrate how the computation of <math>A(4, 3)</math> results in many steps and in a large number:<ref group"n" name"letop1"/>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
A(4, 3) & \rightarrow A(3, A(4, 2)) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(4, 1))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(4, 0)))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(3, 1)))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(3, 0))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(2, 1))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(2, 0)))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(1, 1)))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(1, 0))))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(0, 1))))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, 2)))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, 3))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(1, 2)))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(1, 1))))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(1, 0)))))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(0, 1)))))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, 2)) )) )) ) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, 3)))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, 4))))) \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, 5)))) \\
& \qquad\vdots \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, A(3, 13))) \\
& \qquad\vdots \\
& \rightarrow A(3, A(3, 65533)) \\
&\qquad\vdots \\
& \rightarrow A(3, 2^{65536} - 3) \\
&\qquad\vdots \\
& \rightarrow 2^{2^{65536}} - 3. \\
\end{align}</math>
Table of values
Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed "1" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Values of A(m, n)
|-
!
! 0
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! n
|-
! 0
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || <math>n + 1</math>
|-
! 1
| 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || <math>n + 2 = 2 + (n + 3) - 3</math>
|-
! 2
| 3 || 5 || 7 || 9 || 11 || <math>2n + 3 = 2\cdot(n + 3) - 3</math>
|-
! 3
| 5 || 13 || 29 || 61 || 125 || <math>2^{(n + 3)} - 3</math>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
! rowspan"3" style"vertical-align:middle" | 4
| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" | 13
| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" | 65533
| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" | 2<sup>65536</sup> − 3
| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" | <math>{2^{2^{65536}}} - 3</math>
| rowspan"1" style"border-bottom:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2^{65536}}}} - 3</math>
| rowspan"2" style"border-bottom:0" | <math>\begin{matrix}\underbrace{{2^2}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^2}}}}_{n+3} - 3\end{matrix}</math>
|- style="vertical-align:bottom"
| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math>
| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math>
| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math>
| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math>
| rowspan"2" style"border-top:0" | <math>{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2^{2}}}}}}}-3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math>
|-
| rowspan"1" style"border-top:0" | <math>=2\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math>
|- style="vertical-align:bottom"
! style="vertical-align:middle" | 5
| 65533 <br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow(2\uparrow\uparrow 2) - 3</math><br /><math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math>
|-
! 6
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 4 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 5 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 6 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 7 - 3</math>
| <math>2\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow (n+3) - 3</math>
|-
! m
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 3)-3</math>
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 4)-3</math>
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 5)-3</math>
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 6)-3</math>
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2} 7)-3</math>
| <math>(2\uparrow^{m-2}(n+3))-3</math>
|}
The numbers here which are only expressed with recursive exponentiation or Knuth arrows are very large and would take up too much space to notate in plain decimal digits.
Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively.
This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Values of A(m, n)
|-
!
! 0
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! n
|-
! 0
| 0+1 || 1+1 || 2+1 || 3+1 || 4+1 || n + 1
|-
! 1
| A(0, 1) || A(0, A(1, 0))<br />A(0, 2) || A(0, A(1, 1))<br /> A(0, 3) || A(0, A(1, 2))<br />A(0, 4) || A(0, A(1, 3))<br /> A(0, 5) || A(0, A(1, n−1))
|-
! 2
| A(1, 1) || A(1, A(2, 0))<br />A(1, 3) || A(1, A(2, 1))<br /> A(1, 5) || A(1, A(2, 2))<br />A(1, 7) || A(1, A(2, 3))<br /> A(1, 9) || A(1, A(2, n−1))
|-
! 3
| A(2, 1) || A(2, A(3, 0))<br />A(2, 5) || A(2, A(3, 1))<br /> A(2, 13) || A(2, A(3, 2))<br />A(2, 29) || A(2, A(3, 3))<br /> A(2, 61) || A(2, A(3, n−1))
|-
! 4
| A(3, 1) || A(3, A(4, 0))<br />A(3, 13) || A(3, A(4, 1))<br /> A(3, 65533) || A(3, A(4, 2)) || A(3, A(4, 3)) || A(3, A(4, n−1))
|-
! 5
| A(4, 1) || A(4, A(5, 0)) || A(4, A(5, 1)) || A(4, A(5, 2)) || A(4, A(5, 3)) || A(4, A(5, n−1))
|-
! 6
| A(5, 1) || A(5, A(6, 0)) || A(5, A(6, 1)) || A(5, A(6, 2)) || A(5, A(6, 3)) || A(5, A(6, n−1))
|}
Properties
General remarks
*It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of <math>A(m, n)</math> always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either <math>m</math> decreases, or <math>m</math> remains the same and <math>n</math> decreases. Each time that <math>n</math> reaches zero, <math>m</math> decreases, so <math>m</math> eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair <math>(m,n)</math> decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when <math>m</math> decreases there is no upper bound on how much <math>n</math> can increase — and it will often increase greatly.
*For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For <math>m\geq 4</math>, however, it grows much more quickly; even <math>A(4,2)</math> is about 2.00353, and the decimal expansion of <math>A(4, 3)</math> is very large by any typical measure, about 2.12004}}.
*An interesting aspect is that the only arithmetic operation it ever uses is addition of 1. Its fast growing power is based solely on nested recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see above.
*A single-argument version <math>f(n)A(n,n)</math> that increases both <math>m</math> and <math>n</math> at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that <math>f(n)</math> is roughly comparable to <math>f_{\omega}(n)</math> in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that <math>f</math> which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. Not primitive recursive
The Ackermann function grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore is not itself primitive recursive. Proof sketch: primitive recursive function defined using up to k recursions must grow slower than <math>f_{k+1}(n)</math>, the (k+1)-th function in the fast-growing hierarchy, but the Ackermann function grows at least as fast as <math>f_\omega(n)</math>.
Specifically, one shows that, for every primitive recursive function <math>f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)</math>, there exists a non-negative integer <math>t</math>, such that for all non-negative integers <math>x_1,\ldots,x_n</math>,<math display"block">f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)<A(t,\max_i x_i).</math>Once this is established, it follows that <math>A</math> itself is not primitive recursive, since otherwise putting <math>x_1x_2=t</math> would lead to the contradiction <math>A(t,t)<A(t,t).</math>
The proof proceeds as follows: define the class <math>\mathcal{A}</math> of all functions that grow slower than the Ackermann function
<math display"block">\mathcal{A}\left\{ f\,\bigg|\,\exists t\ \forall x_1\cdots \forall x_n:\ f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)<A(t, \max_i x_i) \right\} </math>
and show that <math>\mathcal{A}</math> contains all primitive recursive functions. The latter is achieved by showing that <math>\mathcal{A}</math> contains the constant functions, the successor function, the projection functions and that it is closed under the operations of function composition and primitive recursion.
Inverse
Since the function considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f<sup>−1</sup> is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since is on the order of <math>2^{2^{2^{2^{16}}}}</math>.
This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms.
A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where <math>\lfloor x \rfloor</math> is the floor function:
<math display"block">\alpha(m,n) \min\{i \geq 1 : A(i,\lfloor m/n \rfloor) \geq \log_2 n\}.</math>
This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of exist; for example, is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling.
Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row.
The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive, since it is graph primitive recursive, and it is upper bounded by a primitive recursive function.
Usage
In computational complexity
The Ackermann function appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as vector addition systems and Petri net reachability, thus showing they are computationally infeasible for large instances.
The inverse of the Ackermann function appears in some time complexity results. For instance, the disjoint-set data structure takes amortized time per operation proportional to the inverse Ackermann function, and cannot be made faster within the cell-probe model of computational complexity.
In discrete geometry
Certain problems in discrete geometry related to Davenport–Schinzel sequences have complexity bounds in which the inverse Ackermann function <math>\alpha(n)</math> appears. For instance, for <math>n</math> line segments in the plane, the unbounded face of the arrangement of the segments has complexity <math>O(n\alpha(n))</math>, and some systems of <math>n</math> line segments have an unbounded face of complexity <math>\Omega(n\alpha(n))</math>.
As a benchmark
The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad.
Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.
See also
<!-- keep alphabetical -->
* Computability theory
* Double recursion
* Fast-growing hierarchy
* Goodstein function
* Primitive recursive function
* Recursion (computer science)
<!-- keep alphabetical -->
Notes
ReferencesBibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Original version 1980, published in ACM SIGACT News, modified on 20 October 2012 and 23 January 2016 (working paper)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
*
* [http://www.gfredericks.com/main/sandbox/arith/ackermann An animated Ackermann function calculator]
*
* [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/ackermnn.htm Ackermann functions]. Includes a table of some values.
*
* describes several variations on the definition of A.
*
*
* [http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Ackermann_Function The Ackermann function written in different programming languages], (on Rosetta Code)
* ) Some study and programming.
*
Category:Arithmetic
Category:Large integers
Category:Special functions
Category:Theory of computation
Category:Computability theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.415393 |
2926 | Antarctic | and the 60th parallel south]]
]]
The Antarctic (, ; commonly ), but the spelling pronunciation has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation without the first k sound and the first t sound is however widespread and a typical phenomenon of English in many other similar words too. The "c" was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.|group="Note"}} is a polar region around Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole.
The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau, and other island territories located on the Antarctic Plate or south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic region includes the ice shelves, waters, and all the island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, a zone approximately wide and varying in latitude seasonally. The region covers some 20 percent of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5.5 percent (14 million km<sup>2</sup>) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administered under the Antarctic Treaty System.
Biogeographically, the Antarctic realm is one of eight biogeographic realms on Earth's land surface. Climate change in Antarctica is particularly important because the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet has a high potential to add to the global sea level rise. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which would have significant effects on the local climate and marine ecosystem functioning. There is no permanent country in Antarctica.
Geography
satellite image of the Antarctic without its periphery of unattached sea ice]]
]]
As defined by the Antarctic Treaty System, the Antarctic region is everything south of the 60°S latitude. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the archipelagos of the Balleny Islands, Peter I Island, Scott Island, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands. However, this area does not include the Antarctic Convergence, a transition zone where the cold waters of the Southern Ocean collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region. Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance.
The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the Antarctic Convergence to the north and their respective exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom), Bouvet Island (Norway), and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia).
Kerguelen Islands (France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Isla de los Estados, Hornos Island with Cape Horn, Diego Ramírez Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Gough Island, and Tristan da Cunha group remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region.
Ecology
Antarctica
A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including:
* Seals
* Penguins
* South Georgia pipits
* Albatrosses
* Antarctic petrels
* Whales
* Fish, such as Antarctic icefish, Antarctic toothfish
* Squid, including the colossal squid
* Antarctic krill
Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi.
Sub-Antarctic Islands
Biodiversity among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source.
* Isla de los Estados (Argentina)
* Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Chile)
Conservation
and Mount Herschel in Eastern Antarctica]]
The Antarctic hosts the world's largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km<sup>2</sup>, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012. The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the Greenland National Park's . (While the Ross Sea Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million km<sup>2</sup>, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the Polar Code, adopted by the International Maritime Organization (in force since 1 January 2017). Climate change
Society
and others in the Southern Ocean]]
People
The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, visited by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675.
Although such myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of Antarctica is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny.
The Australian James Kerguelen Robinson (1859–1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the sealing ship Offley in the Gulf of Morbihan (Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859. The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia.
in Argentina is the most active gateway to Antarctica.]]
Emilio Marcos Palma (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the Esperanza Base. His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma's birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed Argentine Antarctica. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican.
, the geographic South Pole, with its signpost in the background]]
The Antarctic region had no indigenous population when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient scientific and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen research stations maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the Antarctic Peninsula area (especially the South Shetland Islands) and South Georgia Island.
In December 2009, the growth of tourism, with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010.
Time zones
Because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on territorial claims or the time zone of a station's owner country or supply base.
List of offshore islands
North of 60°S latitude
, Grytviken]]
(Norway)
* (Australia)
** Heard Island
** McDonald Islands
* Kerguelen Islands (France)
* (United Kingdom)
** South Georgia Islands
*** Shag Rocks
*** South Georgia
** South Sandwich Islands
}}
South of 60°S latitude
Balleny Islands (Antarctic Treaty System)
* Peter I Island (Antarctic Treaty System)
* Scott Island (Antarctic Treaty System)
* South Orkney Islands (Antarctic Treaty System)
* South Shetland Islands (Antarctic Treaty System)
}}
See also
* Anthony de la Roché
* Antarctic Circle
* Antarctic ice sheet
* History of Antarctica
Notes
References Further reading
* Krupnik, Igor; Michael A. Lang; Scott E. Miller (eds). [http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?seriesIPY&toplevel1 Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science]. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.
External links
* [http://www.bsae2012.co.uk/ British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012]
* [http://www.cep.aq/ Committee for Environmental Protection of Antarctica]
* [http://www.ats.aq/ Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.ccamlr.org/ CCAMLR Commission]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090106182938/http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/AHT/HistoryHutPointCrew/ Antarctic Heritage Trusts]
* [http://www.iaato.org/ International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318122231/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/the_antarctic_convergence Map of the Antarctic Convergence]
* [http://www.subantarctic.org.uk/ The South Atlantic and Subantarctic Islands]
* [https://adventuresallaround.com/ushuaia-gateway-to-antarctica-a-beginners-guide/ Ushuaia is the most popular gateway to Antarctica]
Category:Geography of Antarctica | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.431302 |
2927 | Albanians | | image = Map of the Albanian Diaspora in the World.svg
| native_name_lang = sq
| pop 7 to 10 million
| popplace 2,182,917 (2023)<br /> 1,454,963 (2024)
| tablehdr = Other regions
| region1 =
| pop1 = 970,000
| ref1
| region2 =
| pop2 = 500,000–600,000
| ref2
| region3 =
| pop3 = 446,245
| ref3
| region36 =
| pop36 = 500,000–6,000,000
| ref36 <!--gives 0.5 to 1.3 mil-->
| region4 =
| pop4 = 30,439
| ref4
| region5 =
| pop5 = 61,687
| ref5
| region6 =
| pop6 = 17,513
| ref6
| region7 =
| pop7 = 6,186
| ref7
| region8 =
| pop8 = 3,998
| ref8
| region9 =
| pop9 = 99
| ref9
| region10 =
| pop10 = 54,000
| ref10
| region11 =
| pop11 = 19,891
| ref11
| region12 =
| pop12 13,000
| ref12
| region14 =
| pop14 = 10,391
| ref14
| region15 =
| pop15 = 8,223
| ref15
| region16 =
| pop16 = 953–2,133
| ref16
| region17 =
| pop17 = 10,000
| ref17
| region18 =
| pop18 = 5,000
| ref18 =
| region19 =
| pop19 = 1,512
| ref19
| region20 =
| pop20 = 17 - 31
| ref20
| region21 =
| pop21 = 200,000–300,000
| ref21
| region23 =
| pop23 = 28,212
| ref23
| region24 =
| pop24 = 27,200 (2019)
| ref24
| region25 =
| pop25 = 12,969
| ref25
| region26 =
| pop26 = 5,600–30,000
| ref26
| region27 =
| pop27 = 2,155
| ref27
| region28 =
| pop28 = 194,028
| ref28
| region29 =
| pop29 = 50,000
| ref29
| region30 =
| pop30 = 39,055
| ref30
| region31 =
| pop31 = 348
| ref31
| region32 =
| pop32 = 101
| ref32
| region33 =
| pop33 = 9
| ref33
| region34 =
| pop34 = 11,315
| ref34
| region35 =
| pop35 = 243
| ref35
| region37 =
| pop37 = 18,000
| ref37
| region39 =
| pop39 = 275
| ref39
| region40 =
| pop40 = 268
| ref40
| region41 =
| pop41 = 200–300
| ref41
| languages = Albanian
| rels = Majority:<br /> Islam<br />Sunni}}BektashiNon-denominational<br />Minority:<br /> Christianity<br />Catholicism}} (Eastern Rites Albanian Greek-Catholic ChurchItalo-Albanian Church}})Eastern Orthodoxy}} (Albanian American Orthodox Church}})Protestantism ()<br />Other:<br />Irreligion
| footnotes 502,546 Albanian citizens, an additional 43,751 Kosovar Albanians, 260,000 Arbëreshë people and 169,644 Albanians who have acquired the Italian citizenship <br />
Albanians are not recognized as a minority in Turkey. However approximately 500,000 people are reported to profess an Albanian identity. Of those with full or partial Albanian ancestry and others who have adopted Turkish language, culture and identity their number is estimated at 1,300,000–5,000,000 many whom do not speak Albanian. They are the main ethnic group of Albania and Kosovo, and they also live in the neighboring countries of North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia, as well as in Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Albanians also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe and the other continents.
The language of the Albanians is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group. Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkanic origin, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians, but besides the Illyrians which specific Paleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate.
The first mention of the ethnonym Albanoi occurred in the 2nd century AD by Ptolemy describing an Illyrian tribe who lived around present-day central Albania. The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in the theme of Dyrrhachium.
The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after the Great Schism, the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and the south with Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1190 Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in central Albania with the capital in Krujë.
The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties.
The Albanians () and their country Albania () have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is "Shqiptar", plural "Shqiptarë"; the name "Albanians" (Byzantine Greek: Albanoi/Arbanitai/Arbanites; Latin: Albanenses/Arbanenses) was used in medieval documents and gradually entered European Languages from which other similar derivative names emerged,}}
The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί) is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (2nd century CE) Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners".
The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians. The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285).
The national ethnonym Albanian and its variants are derived from Albanoi, first mentioned as an Illyrian tribe in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis, located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in the hinterland of Durrës. Linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as alps are derived. Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban, albar, and arbar, the term in Albanian became rendered as Arbëneshë/Arbëreshë for the people and Arbënia/Arbëria for the country. While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as Shqip(ë)tarë and to their country as Shqipëria. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' (me shqiptue) from the Latin "excipere". The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers.
Historical records
Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them.
<blockquote>It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian, Greek, Syrian, Iberian (Georgian) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian (Georgian). There are twelve languages of half-believers: Alamanians, Franks, Magyars (Hungarians), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians, Saxons, Lechs (Poles), Arbanasi (Albanians), Croatians, Hizi and Germans.</blockquote>
Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080) mentions the term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term Arvanitai is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography. The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed.
The Albanian language is spoken today by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia. The language is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia.
There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk. The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin river, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken in Croatia (Arbanasi and Istrian), Kosovo, Montenegro and northwestern North Macedonia are classified as Gheg, while those spoken in Greece, southwestern North Macedonia and Italy as Tosk.
in the Paleo-Balkanic branch as suggested by Brian D. Joseph and Adam Hyllested in "The Indo-European Language Family" (2022)]]
The Arbëresh and Arvanitika dialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by the Arbëreshë and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece, respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified as endangered languages in the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages. The Cham dialect is spoken by the Cham Albanians, a community that originates from Chameria in what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, while Cham communities in Albania and the diaspora have preserved it.
Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language. As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania, 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) and Greek (22.9%).
The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of the Illyrian languages (Messapic language) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred.
History
Late Antiquity
]]
The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs (Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.
Middle Ages
served as the royal seat of the Principality of Arbanon and later as the noble residence of the Kastrioti family.]]
The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited a hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. They have Paleo-Balkan origins, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians, but besides the Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate.
The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080). Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon), with its seat based in Krujë. Immediately after the decline of the Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Gregorios Kamonas and next his son-in-law Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philippe Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint. In 1266 after defeating Manfred's forces and killing him, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania. Local noblemen such as Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated.
In 1272 the Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles. Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint. Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as dowry. In 1302, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule.
Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers, and the Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë. In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance with Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336. In 1336, Serbian king Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had captured Kanina and Valona in southern Albania. Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the Pelister mountain. that Andrea II captured from Prince Marko after the Battle of Marica in 1371. A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions.
Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around Devoll river in what is now central Albania and the other around the region known as Arbanon. Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the Sorgo family who came from the Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to Dalmatia. By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans. The upcoming invasion of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the death of Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries.
In the 14th century a number of Albanian principalities were created. These included Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Dukagjini, Princedom of Albania, and Principality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance called League of Lezha.
Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as stratioti. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern).
Ottoman Empire
Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered kingdoms and principalities such as the Principalities of Arbanon, Kastrioti and Thopia. Before and after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from Albania, Epirus and Peloponnese escaped to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania.
Under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (Dominus Albaniae in Latin). Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa.
The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy taxes such as the Devshirme system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the Balkans and elsewhere to compose the Janissary. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from Egypt to Algeria and the rest of the Maghreb.
in 1815–1821]]
In the late 18th century, Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the Pashalik of Yanina within the Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern Albania, Epirus, Thessaly and southwestern Macedonia region. During his rule, the town of Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks.
The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus. Thus, he obtained control of Arta and took control over the ports of Butrint, Preveza and Vonitsa. He also gained control of the pashaliks of Elbasan, Delvina, Berat and Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the British, French and Russians and formed alliances with them at various times.
In the 19th century, the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century. After a brief French invasion led by Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt. As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries.
Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries. The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire.
With the advent of increasing suppression on Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south. At this point, the urban centers of central and southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and takyas were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as Berat, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Shkodër started to flourish. In the far north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain.
The motives for conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues.
As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them Zagan Pasha, Bayezid Pasha and members of the Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III were both Albanian on their maternal side.
Areas such as Albania, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as Arnavudluk or Albania.
Albanian Renaissance
was one of the earliest figures of the early Albanian Renaissance.]]
The Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within the Albanian communities in Italy and Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles.
Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them Naum Veqilharxhi, Girolamo de Rada, Dora d'Istria, Thimi Mitko, Naim and Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future.
The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the Mësonjëtorja in Korçë, the first secular school in the Albanian language.
was a well known rilindas and is considered to be the pioneer of modern Albanian literature.]]
The Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire.
The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition. It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity.
It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated churches, monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment.
Protests coinciding with the emerging revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including Shkodër and Tirana which eventually lead to the fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as Greece and Italy followed.
Bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concrete bunkers were built on strategic locations across Albania's territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains. These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltering the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes.
Independence of Kosovo
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and major European Union countries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it as Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244.
The overwhelming majority of Kosovo's population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7 million people. Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of Toplica and Morava is recorded since the Middle Ages. As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878 Congress of Berlin had given to the Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo.
in Pristina was unveiled at the celebration of the Independence of Kosovo.]]
After being an integral section of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution. Rights to use the Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution of the later formed Socialist Yugoslavia and was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part of Serbia and Montenegro.
In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and Serb population of Kosovo culminated in the Kosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. NATO launched a 78-day air campaign in 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war.
Distribution
Balkans
Approximately five million Albanians are geographically distributed across the Balkan Peninsula with about half this number living in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro as well as to a more lesser extent in Croatia and Serbia. There are also significant Albanian populations in Greece.
Approximately 1.8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognised Republic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of the municipality of North Mitrovica and constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory.
In Montenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30,000 forming one of the constituent ethnic minority groups of the country. They predominantly live in the coastal region of Montenegro around the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar but also Tuz and around Plav in the northern region as well as in the capital city of Podgorica in the central region.]]
In North Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500,000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country. The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar in the northwestern region, Struga and Debar in the southwestern region as well as around the capital of Skopje in the central region.
In Croatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17.500 mostly concentrated in the counties of Istria, Split-Dalmatia and most notably in the capital city of Zagreb. The Arbanasi people who historically migrated to Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine live in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia and Southern Ukraine. They are significantly concentrated in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preševo in the Pčinja District. In Romania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10,000 mainly distributed in Bucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented in Parliament of Romania.
Italy
was of Albanian origin and served as the Pope from 1700 to 1721.]]
The Italian Peninsula across the Adriatic Sea has attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of the Albanian Renaissance and maintaining the Albanian culture. The Arbëreshë people came sporadically in several small and large cycles initially as Stratioti mercenaries in service of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Republic of Venice. Larger migration waves occurred after the death of Skanderbeg and the capture of Krujë and Shkodër by the Ottomans to escape the forthcoming political and religious changes.
]]
Today, Arbëreshë constitute one of the largest ethnolinguistic minority groups and their language is recognized and protected constitutionally under the provisions of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The total number of Arbëreshës is approximately 260,000 scattered across Sicily, Calabria and Apulia. There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Canada and the United States.
After 1991, a mass migration of Albanians towards Italy occurred. Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence in Italy was numbered to be around 480,000 and 500,000. Tuscany, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna represent the regions with the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy. As of 2018, an additional ca. 200,000 Albanian migrants have obtained Italian citizenship (children born in Italy not included).
As of 2012, 41.5% of the Albanian in Italy population were counted as Muslim, 38.9% as Christian including 27.7% as Roman Catholic and 11% as Eastern Orthodox and 17.8% as Irreligious.
Greece
, London]]
The Arvanites and Albanians of Western Thrace are a group descended from Tosks who migrated to southern and central Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries. They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect of Tosk Albanian known as Arvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians. Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century.
The Cham Albanians were a group that formerly inhabited a region of Epirus known as Chameria, nowadays Thesprotia in northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece during World War II, by an anti-communist resistance group (EDES). The causes of the expulsion were multifaceted and remain a matter of debate among historians. Different narratives in historiography argue that the causes involved pre-existing Greek policies which targeted the minority and sought its elimination, the Cham collaboration with the Axis forces and local property disputes which were instrumentalized after WWII. The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus to Albania and Turkey varies: figures include 14,000, 19,000, 20,000, 25,000 and 30,000. According to Cham reports this number should be raised to c. 35,000.
Large-scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. During this period, at least 500,000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700,000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500,000 Albanians in Greece at the very least without accounting for their children. They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania. , in total, there might have been more than 500,000 Albanian-born migrants and their children who received Greek citizenship over the years. In recent years, many Albanian workers and their families have left Greece in search of better opportunities elsewhere in Europe.
in Filiates in 1915, by Fred Boissonas]]
Albanians in Greece have a long history of Hellenisation, assimilation and integration. Many ethnic Albanians have been naturalised as Greek nationals, others have self-declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated.
Diaspora
Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population.
Europe
celebrating the declaration of independence of Kosovo]]
During the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the conflicts in the Balkans and the Kosovo War set in motion large population movements of Albanians to Central, Western and Northern Europe. The gradual collapse of communism in Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries as Greece and Italy.
In Central Europe, there are approximately 200,000 Albanians in Switzerland with the particular concentration in the cantons of Zürich, Basel, Lucerne, Bern and St. Gallen. The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250,000 to 300,000 Albanians while in Austria there are around 40,000 to 80,000 Albanians concentrated in the states of Vienna, Styria, Salzburg, Lower and Upper Austria.
In Western Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10,000 people living in the Benelux countries is in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6,000 Albanian people living in Belgium and 2,800 in the nearby Netherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found in Luxembourg with a population of 2,100.
In Turkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1.300,000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey. As of that report, more than 500,000 Albanian descendants still recognise their ancestry and or their language, culture and traditions.
in Cairo by Charles Bargue, 1877]]
There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5 million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to the German Americans.
In Egypt there are 18,000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers. Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included major Renaissance figures (Rilindasit), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time. Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule.
Americas and Oceania
Cathedral of St. George Historic District in South Boston, Massachusetts]]
The first Albanian migration to North America began in the 19th and 20th centuries not long after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However the Arbëreshë people from Southern Italy were the first Albanian people to arrive in the New World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento.
Since then several Albanian migration waves have occurred throughout the 20th century as for instance after the Second World War with Albanians mostly from Yugoslavia rather than from Communist Albania, then after the Breakup of Communist Albania in 1990 and finally following the Kosovo War in 1998.
The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States. New York metropolitan area in the State of New York is home to the most sizeable Albanian population of the United States. As of 2017, there are approximately 205,000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in the states of New York, Michigan, Massachusetts and Illinois.
In Canada, there are approximately 39,000 Albanians in the country, including 36,185 Albanians from Albania and 2,870 Albanians from Kosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude of provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia.
Albanian immigration to Australia began in the late 19th century and most took place during the 20th century.
Italy's annexation of Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat. Post-war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by the communist government in Albania.
Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia (modern North Macedonia) arrived and settled in Melbourne in the 1960s-1970s. Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came from Montenegro and Serbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the Albanian nun and missionary Mother Teresa.
In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. In 2016, approximately 4,041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born in Albania and Kosovo, while 15,901 persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry.
Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following the Second World War. A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland. In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400-500 people and are mainly concentrated in Auckland.
Culture
Traditions
Tribal social structure
The Albanian tribes () form a historical mode of social organization (farefisní) in Albania and the southwestern Balkans characterized by a common culture, often common patrilineal kinship ties tracing back to one progenitor and shared social ties. The fis (; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based on kinship relations, a concept which can be found among southern Albanians also with the term farë (). Inherited from ancient Illyrian social structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians. It also remained in a less developed system in southern Albania where large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the Kanun, a code of Albanian oral customary laws. Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources.
, 1890s]]
Until the early years of the 20th century, the Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power of communist regime in 1944, and is considered as the only example of a tribal social system structured with tribal chiefs and councils, blood feuds and oral customary laws, surviving in Europe until the middle of the 20th century. Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism. Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality". Throughout history the territory northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and peripheral so northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways. This peripheral position also affected their national program which significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania. Kanun
, a Medieval Albanian lord, transcribed by Shtjefën Gjeçovi]]
The Kanun is a set of Albanian traditional customary laws, which has directed all the aspects of the Albanian tribal society. For at least the last five centuries and until today, Albanian customary laws have been kept alive only orally by the tribal elders. The success in preserving them exclusively through oral systems highlights their universal resilience and provides evidence of their likely ancient origins. Strong pre-Christian motifs mixed with motifs from the Christian era reflect the stratification of the Albanian customary law across various historical ages. Over time, Albanian customary laws have undergone their historical development, they have been changed and supplemented with new norms, in accordance with certain requirements of socio-economic development. Besa and nderi (honour) are of major importance in Albanian customary law as the cornerstone of personal and social conduct. The Kanun is based on four pillars – Honour (), Hospitality (), Right Conduct () and Kin Loyalty ().
Besa
Besa (pledge of honor) is an Albanian cultural precept, usually translated as "faith" or "oath", that means "to keep the promise" and "word of honor". The concept is based upon faithfulness toward one's word in the form of loyalty or as an allegiance guarantee. The besa was an important institution within the tribal society of the Albanian tribes, who swore oaths to jointly fight against invaders, and in this aspect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy. The besa was used toward regulating tribal affairs between and within the Albanian tribes.
Cuisine
is a traditional welcoming custom traced back to medieval Albanian law. The Albanian code of honour, called Besa, resulted to look after guests as an act of hospitality.]]
The traditional cuisine of the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their varied environment in the Balkans and turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries. There is a considerable diversity between the Mediterranean and Balkan-influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and the Italian and Greek-influenced cuisines of the Arbëreshës and Chams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebrating religious festivals such as Ramadan, Eid, Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah or Novruz
Ingredients include many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs and olives, herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary and thyme and vegetables such as garlic, onion, peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to the Mediterranean Sea, Prespa Lake and Ohrid Lake are able to complement their diet with fish, shellfish and other seafood. Otherwise, lamb is often considered the traditional meat for different religious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply.
Tavë Kosi is a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes and cottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë or mish. Desserts include Flia, consisting of multiple crepe-like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar to Berliner.
Visual arts
Painting
is considered the most renowned painter of the Albanian Renaissance.]]
The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people are sacred in nature and represented by numerous frescoes, murals and icons which has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries.
The rise of the Byzantines and Ottomans during the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art often apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania. The Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism.
by Kostandin and Athanas Zografi in the Monastery of Ardenica. It illustrates the seven saints Clement, Naum, Sava, Angelar, Gorazd, Cyril, Method and the Albanian Jan Kukuzeli.]]
Onufri, founder of the Berat School, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others the Renaissance influenced artists such as Marco Basaiti, Viktor Karpaçi and Andrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece, Eleni Boukouras is noted as being the first great female painter of post independence Greece.
In 1856, Pjetër Marubi arrived in Shkodër and established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entire Balkans, the Marubi Museum. The collection of 150,000 photographs, captured by the Albanian-Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history.
The Kulla, a traditional Albanian dwelling constructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region of Kosovo and northern region of Albania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregular stone ashlars, river pebbles and chestnut woods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources.
Literature
is currently the earliest published book in the Albanian language written by Gjon Buzuku.]]
The roots of literature of the Albanian people can be traced to the Middle Ages with surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from the Renaissance.
The earliest known use of written Albanian is a baptismal formula (1462) written by the Archbishop of Durrës Paulus Angelus. In 1555, a Catholic clergyman Gjon Buzuku from the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titled Meshari (The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian. Other Christian clergy such as Luca Matranga in the Arbëresh diaspora published (1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and included Pjetër Budi, Frang Bardhi, and Pjetër Bogdani.
In the 17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by the Arbëreshë people of Southern Italy who played an influential role in encouraging the Albanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such as Demetrio Camarda, Gabriele Dara, Girolamo de Rada, Giulio Variboba and Giuseppe Serembe who produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise the Albanian language.
on Skanderbeg in Latin was translated into many different European languages.]]
The Bejtexhinj in the 18th century emerged as the result of the influences of Islam and particularly Sufism orders moving towards Orientalism.
The Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century is important both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas of Romanticism and Enlightenment characterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind. Dora d'Istria, Girolamo de Rada, Naim Frashëri, Naum Veqilharxhi, Sami Frashëri and Pashko Vasa maintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works.
The 20th century was centred on the principles of Modernism and Realism and characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature.
After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene. Martin Camaj wrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors like Adem Demaçi, Rexhep Qosja, Jusuf Buxhovi. The literary scene of the 21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers.
Performing arts
Apparel
dressed in the traditional Albanian costume traditionally consisting of the Fustanella and a Dollama decorated with filigree. Lord Byron in Albanian Dress by Thomas Phillips, 1813.]]
The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source of attire, clothing and fabrics. Their traditional apparel was primarily influenced by nature, the lifestyle and has continuously changed since ancient times. Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape.
The traditional costume of Albanian men includes a white skirt called Fustanella, a white shirt with wide sleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as the Xhamadan or Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warm woolen or fur coat known as Flokata or Dollama made from sheepskin or goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felt trousers mostly white, sometimes dark brown or black.
The Albanian women's costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women's clothing often has been decorated with filigree ironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is called Xhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part.
Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people. Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn with Çorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks. Headdresses remain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is a Plis and Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver.
Music
is the first Albanian to ever win a Grammy Award.]]
For the Albanian people, music is a vital component to their culture and characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting the history, language and way of life. It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of the Ghegs and Tosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanying instruments and dances.
singers]]
singing and playing an oud. Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1868.]]
Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks. Traditional iso-polyphony perhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry often about the tumultuous history of the Albanian people.
There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such as Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Rita Ora, and rappers such as Action Bronson, Dardan, Gashi and Loredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the former Yugoslavia include Selma Bajrami and Zana Nimani.
In international competitions, Albania participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest: Anna Oxa for Italy in 1989, Adrian Gaxha for North Macedonia in 2008, Ermal Meta for Italy in 2018, Eleni Foureira for Cyprus in 2018, as well as Gjon Muharremaj for Switzerland in 2020 and 2021. Kosovo has never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of the EBU and therefore debut in the contest.
Religion
, Albania]]
Many different spiritual traditions, religious faiths and beliefs are practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe. They are traditionally both Christians and Muslims—Catholics and Orthodox, Sunnis and Bektashis and—but also to a lesser extent Evangelicals, Protestants and Jews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe.
Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church. Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope. Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin Church and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states.
in Tetovo, North Macedonia]]
The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime's change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country, Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country.
According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by the Council of Europe, in Albania, 58.79% of the population adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups. Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics. Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world.
For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation. Many left for Israel –1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania.
{| class="wikitable"
! Religion
! Albanians in Albania
! Albanians in Kosovo
! Albanians in North Macedonia
! Albanians in Montenegro
! Albanians in Serbia
! Albanians in Croatia
! Albanians in Italy
|-
|Islam
|' 21% to 82%
|88.8 to 95.60
|98.62
|0.16
| —
| -
|0.03
| —
| —
|-
|Other Christians
|0.07
|—
|—
|0.12
|0.07
|0.09
|—
|-
|Unaffiliated or Irreligious
|24.21% to 62.7%
|-
|Atheist
|2.50% to 9%
|0.07 to 2.9<ref name="SMRE" />
|—
|0.11
|2.95
|1.80
|17.81
|-
|Prefer to not answer
|1%<ref name="UNDP31" /> to 13.79%
|0.55
|0.19
|2.36
|1.58
|—
|—
|-
|Agnostic
|5.58<ref name="UNDP32" />
|
|
|
|0.02
|
|
|-
|Believers without denomination
|5.49
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|-
|Not relevant/not stated
|2.43
|0.06
|0.16
|0.36
|4.82
|—
|-
|Other religion
|1.19<ref name="UNDP31" />
|
|
|
|0.03
|
|1.85
|}
See also
* Culture of Albania
* Geography of Albania
* History of Albania
* Lists of Albanians
Notes
References Citations Cited sources
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External links
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/11444724/Books-about-Albania-and-the-Albanian-people Books about Albania and the Albanian people] (scribd.com)—Reference of books (and some journal articles) about Albania and the Albanian people; their history, language, origin, culture, literature, and so on public domain books, fully accessible online.
* —U.S. Institute of Peace Report, November 2001
* [https://archive.org/details/TheAlbaniansAndTheirTerritories The Albanians and Their Territories] by The Academy of Sciences of the PSR of Albania]
Category:Ethnic groups divided by international borders
Category:Ethnic groups in Albania
Category:Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Category:Ethnic groups in Croatia
Category:Ethnic groups in Greece
Category:Ethnic groups in Italy
Category:Ethnic groups in Kosovo
Category:Ethnic groups in Montenegro
Category:Ethnic groups in North Macedonia
Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia
Category:Ethnic groups in the Balkans
Category:Ethnic groups in Turkey
Category:History of the Albanians
Category:Indo-European peoples
Category:Muslim communities in Europe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.628305 |
2928 | Association for Computing Machinery | }}
| type = 501(c)(3) not-for-profit membership corporation
| headquarters = 1601 Broadway, Times Square, <br />New York City
| membership = 110,000
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Yannis Ioannidis
| key_people | num_staff
| budget | website
}}
The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is a US-based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society. The ACM is a non-profit professional membership group, reporting nearly 110,000 student and professional members . Its headquarters are in New York City.
The ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science (informatics). Its motto is "Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession".
History
In 1947, a notice was sent to various people:
<blockquote>
On January 10, 1947, at the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery at the Harvard computation Laboratory, Professor Samuel H. Caldwell of Massachusetts Institute of Technology spoke of the need for an association of those interested in computing machinery, and of the need for communication between them.
[...]
After making some inquiries during May and June, we believe there is ample interest to start an informal association of many of those interested in the new machinery for computing and reasoning. Since there has to be a beginning, we are acting as a temporary committee to start such an association:<br>
<br>
:E. C. Berkeley, Prudential Insurance Co. of America, Newark, N. J.
:R. V. D. Campbell, Raytheon Manufacturing Co., Waltham, Mass.
:, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
:H. E. Goheen, Office of Naval Research, Boston, Mass.
:J. W. Mauchly, Electronic Control Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
:T. K. Sharpless, Moore School of Elec. Eng., Philadelphia, Pa.
:R. Taylor, Mass. Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Mass.
:C. B. Tompkins, Engineering Research Associates, Washington, D.C.
</blockquote>
The committee (except for Curtiss) had gained experience with computers during World War II: Berkeley, Campbell, and Goheen helped build Harvard Mark I under Howard H. Aiken, Mauchly and Sharpless were involved in building ENIAC, Tompkins had used "the secret Navy code-breaking machines", and Taylor had worked on Bush's Differential analyzers.
The ACM was then founded in 1947 under the name Eastern Association for Computing Machinery, which was changed the following year to the Association for Computing Machinery. The ACM History Committee since 2016 has published the A.M.Turing Oral History project, the ACM Key Award Winners Video Series, and the India Industry Leaders Video project.
Activities
ACM is organized into over 180 local professional chapters and 38 Special Interest Groups (SIGs), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 680 student chapters.
Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGDA, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters.
ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer.ServicesPublications
ACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious Journal of the ACM, and two general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM (also known as Communications or CACM) and Queue. Other publications of the ACM include:
*ACM XRDS, formerly "Crossroads", was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US.
*ACM Interactions, an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication.
*ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)
*Computers in Entertainment (CIE)
*ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems (JETC)
*ACM Special Interest Group: Computers and Society (SIGCAS)
*A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. Some of the more notable transactions include:
**ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG)
**ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS)
**ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS)
**IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics (TCBB)
**ACM Transactions on Computational Logic (TOCL)
**ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI)
**ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS)
**ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG)
**ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS)
**ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM)
**IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON)
**ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS)
**Games: Research and Practice
Although Communications no longer publishes primary research and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages.
ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members.
In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing (), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach. The book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry.<span id"Portal"></span><span id"Digital Library"></span>Portal and Digital LibraryThe ACM Portal is an online service of the ACM. Its core are two main sections: ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature.
The ACM Digital Library was launched in October 1997. It is the full-text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries.
ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access (OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement.
ACM was a "green" publisher before the term was invented. Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library's permanently maintained Version of Record.
All metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts, linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full-texts are accessed by subscription. In addition, starting on April 7, 2022, ACM made its publications from 1951 to 2000 open access through the Digital Library in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the organization's founding.
In 2020, ACM launched a major push to become a fully open access publisher by 2026. ACM restructured its pricing for the ACM Digital Library on the basis of publishing activity by affiliated lead authors in ACM's journals, magazines, and conference proceedings. Under this model, termed "ACM Open," institutions pay set fees for full access to ACM Digital Library contents as well as unlimited open access publishing by their affiliated authors. Authors not affiliated with a participating institution will be expected to pay an article processing charge. As of May 2024, ACM reported that more than 1,340 institutions worldwide had signed on for ACM Open, putting ACM at just over halfway to meeting its target of 2,500 participating institutions by 2026.
Membership grades
In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and "demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers".
The number of Fellows, Distinguished Members, and Senior Members cannot exceed 1%, 10%, and 25% of the total number of professional members, respectively.
Fellows
The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 "to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are 1,310 Fellows out of about 100,000 members.Distinguished Members
In 2006, ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members (Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and "have made a significant impact on the computing field". In 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called "Distinguished Member" and was changed about two years later to "Distinguished Educator". Those who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles.
List of Distinguished Members of the Association for Computing Machinery
Senior Members
Also in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. According to the ACM, "The Senior Members Grade recognizes those ACM members with at least 10 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous Professional Membership who have demonstrated performance through technical leadership, and technical or professional contributions". Senior membership also requires 3 letters of reference
Distinguished Speakers
While not technically a membership grade, the ACM recognizes distinguished speakers on topics in computer science. A distinguished speaker is appointed for a three-year period. There are usually about 125 current distinguished speakers. The ACM website describes these people as 'Renowned International Thought Leaders'. The distinguished speakers program (DSP) has been in existence for over 20 years and serves as an outreach program that brings renowned experts from Academia, Industry and Government to present on the topic of their expertise. The DSP is overseen by a committee
Chapters
ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups, Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters.
, ACM has professional & SIG Chapters in 56 countries.
, there exist ACM student chapters in 41 countries.
Special Interest Groups
* SIGACCESS: Accessible Computing
* SIGACT: Algorithms and Computation Theory
* SIGAda: Ada Programming Language
* SIGAI: Artificial Intelligence
* SIGAPP: Applied Computing
* SIGARCH: Computer Architecture
* SIGBED: Embedded Systems
* SIGBio: Bioinformatics
* SIGCAS: Computers and Society
* SIGCHI: Computer–Human Interaction
* SIGCOMM: Data Communication
* SIGCSE: Computer Science Education
* SIGDA: Design Automation
* SIGDOC: Design of Communication
* SIGecom: Electronic Commerce
* SIGEVO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation
* SIGGRAPH: Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques
* SIGHPC: High Performance Computing
* SIGIR: Information Retrieval
* SIGITE: Information Technology Education
* SIGKDD: Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining
* SIGLOG: Logic and Computation
* SIGMETRICS: Measurement and Evaluation
* SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture
* SIGMIS: Management Information Systems
* SIGMM: Multimedia
* SIGMOBILE: Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing
* SIGMOD: Management of Data
* SIGOPS: Operating Systems
* SIGPLAN: Programming Languages
* SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control
* SIGSAM: Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation
* SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling
* SIGSOFT: Software Engineering
* SIGSPATIAL: Spatial Information
* SIGUCCS: University and College Computing Services
* SIGWEB: Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web
Conferences
ACM and its Special Interest Groups (SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences worldwide. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, SIGGRAPH 2007 attracted about 30000 attendees, while CIKM 2005 and RecSys 2022 had paper acceptance rates of only accepted 15% and 17% respectively.
* AIES: Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society
* ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems
* CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
* CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management
* COMPASS: International Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies
* DAC: Design Automation Conference
* DEBS: Distributed Event Based Systems
* FAccT: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency
* FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference
* GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference
* HT: Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia
* JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
* MobiHoc: International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing
* SC: Supercomputing Conference
* SIGCOMM: ACM SIGCOMM Conference
* SIGCSE: SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education
* SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques
* RecSys: ACM Conference on Recommender Systems
* TAPIA: Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference
The ACM is a co–presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology.
Some conferences are hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM. In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended.
For additional non-ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences.
Awards<!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER -->
The ACM presents or co–presents a number of awards for outstanding technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology.
* ACM A. M. Turing Award
* ACM – AAAI Allen Newell Award
* ACM Athena Lecturer Award
* ACM/CSTA Cutler-Bell Prize in High School Computing
* ACM Distinguished Service Award
* ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award
* ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award
* ACM Fellowship, awarded annually since 1993
* ACM Gordon Bell Prize
* ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award
* ACM – IEEE CS George Michael Memorial HPC Fellowships
* ACM – IEEE CS Ken Kennedy Award
* ACM – IEEE Eckert–Mauchly Award
* ACM India Doctoral Dissertation Award
* ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award
* ACM Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award
* ACM Policy Award
* ACM Presidential Award
* ACM Prize in Computing (formerly: ACM – Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences)
* ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award
* ACM Student Research Competition
* ACM Software System Award
* International Science and Engineering Fair
* Outstanding Contribution to ACM Award
* SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering
Over 30 of ACM's Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below.
* ACM Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award
* ACM Maurice Wilkes Award
* ISCA Influential Paper Award
Leadership
The President of ACM for 2022–2024 is Yannis Ioannidis, Professor at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He is successor of Gabriele Kotsis (2020–2022), Professor at the Johannes Kepler University Linz; Cherri M. Pancake (2018–2020), professor emeritus at Oregon State University and Director of the Northwest Alliance for Computational Science and Engineering (NACSE); Vicki L. Hanson (2016–2018), Distinguished Professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology and visiting professor at the University of Dundee; Alexander L. Wolf (2014–2016), Dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz; Vint Cerf (2012–2014), American computer scientist and Internet pioneer; Alain Chesnais (2010–2012); and Dame Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton, UK (2008–2010).
ACM is led by a council consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer, past president, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in Communications of the ACM.
Infrastructure
ACM has numerous boards, committees, and task forces which run the organization:
# ACM Council
# ACM Executive Committee
# Digital Library Board
# Education Board
l Practitioner Board
l Publications Board
SIG Governing BoarDEI Council
ACM Technology Policy Council
ACM Representatives to Other Organizations
Computer Science Teachers Association
ACM Council on Women in Computing
ACM-W, the ACM council on women in computing, supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM–W's main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM-W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM-W India and ACM-W Europe respectively. ACM-W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute, the National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT), and Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W).
The ACM-W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science. This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers.
Partner organizations
ACM's primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with ACM's agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards. ACM and its SIGs co-sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE-CS and other parts of IEEE. Eckert–Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award, both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE-CS. They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula.
ACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM).CriticismIn December 2019, the ACM co-signed a letter with over one hundred other publishers to President Donald Trump saying that an open access mandate would increase costs to taxpayers or researchers and hurt intellectual property. This was in response to rumors that he was considering issuing an executive order that would require federally funded research be made freely available online immediately after being published. It is unclear how these rumors started. Many ACM members opposed the letter, leading ACM to issue a statement clarifying that they remained committed to open access, and they wanted to see communication with stakeholders about the potential mandate. The statement did not significantly assuage criticism from ACM members.
The SoCG conference, while originally an ACM conference, parted ways with ACM in 2014 because of problems when organizing conferences abroad.
See also
* ACM Classification Scheme
* Franz Alt, former president
<!-- * Association of Information Technology Professionals -->
* Edmund Berkeley, co-founder
* Computer science
* Computing
* Bernard Galler, former president
* Fellows of the ACM (by year)
* Fellows of the ACM (category)
* Grace Murray Hopper Award
<!-- * Institution of Analysts and Programmers -->
* Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery
* Timeline of computing hardware before 1950
* Turing Award
* List of academic databases and search engines
References
External links
*
*
*[http://portal.acm.org/ ACM portal] for publications
*[http://portal.acm.org/dl.cfm ACM Digital Library]
*[http://purl.umn.edu/51982 Association for Computing Machinery Records, 1947–2009], Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
*[http://upe.acm.org/about.html ACM Upsilon Phi Epsilon]. honor society. .
Category:1947 establishments in the United States
Category:Computer science-related professional associations
Category:International learned societies
Category:Non-profit organizations based in New York City
Category:Scientific organizations established in 1947
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2934 | Anabaptism | Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized.
The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith in 1527 called the Schleitheim Confession. Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can.
Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though the Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed after the Radical Reformation, following their example. Though all Anabaptists share the same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life among them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren.
Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity, as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and the holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism:
Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his.
Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them." Lineage Medieval forerunners
Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.
Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations:
* The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with .
* The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right of the sword).
* Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed.
* Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated and excluded from the sacraments and from some level of interaction with believers until they repent, according to and , but no force is to be used towards them.
Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War
On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas MüntzerThomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression.
Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising.
Views on origins
Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements.
The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of (The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman, who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897).
Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following:
* The movement began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (monogenesis);
* It developed through several independent movements (polygenesis); and
* It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity).
Monogenesis
Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism.
Polygenesis
James M. Stayer, , and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony." Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted the influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia.
Apostolic succession
Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place.
A different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.
History
printed in 1550, displayed in the Anabaptist Room of the Local History Museum in Schleitheim, Switzerland.]]
thumb|Spread of the early anabaptists in Central Europe
]]
Switzerland
Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg, answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God."
This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children.
Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525.
to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli.]]
The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event:
Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day.
Tyrol
Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants.
Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529.
Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. Low Countries and northern Germany Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the Münster rebellion, even though he was "of a different spirit".
Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons. Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture".
Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites. Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America.
Moravia, Bohemia and Silesia
Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions.
Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the (sword-bearing) and the (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz.
Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874.
South and central Germany, Austria and Alsace
led the German peasants against the landowners]]
South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together.
However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists. Persecutions and migrations
was executed by drowning within two years of his rebaptism]]
of Anabaptist martyr Ursula, Maastricht, 1570; engraving by Jan Luyken from Martyrs Mirror]]
Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability.
The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed.
Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts."
Beliefs and practices
Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians). Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer.
As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing, the holy kiss, and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance, forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living. In Germany some Anabaptists, "excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations but did not totally reject the miraculous.
Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men." The Hutterite Chronicle and the Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished".
Holy Spirit leadership
The Anabaptists insisted upon the "free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists – Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying." Today Anabaptists
, Association of Evangelical Mennonite Churches of France.]]
at The Meeting Place in Winnipeg, Canadian Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches]]
In 2022, there were over 2.12 million baptized Anabaptists in 85 countries. Over 36% are found in Africa, another 30% in North America, 20% in Asia and the Pacific, 9% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and less than 3% in Europe.
The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof. Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets: (1) Old Order Anabaptists (2) Conservative Anabaptists and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the Old Order German Baptist Brethren (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the Dunkard Brethren (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress but use modern conveniences), and the Church of the Brethren (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population).
Although many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while Mennonites come from diverse backgrounds, with only a minority being classed as ethnic Mennonites. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness.
The Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II they moved to the United States.
Music Center in Goshen, Indiana, Mennonite Church USA.]]
Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist because of their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism.
Neo-Anabaptists
Neo-Anabaptism is a late 20th and early 21st century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty. The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement. Relationship with Baptists Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have advocated the view that General Baptists were influenced by Anabaptism. The similarities between these groups include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, similar perspectives on free will, predestination and original sin along with congregationalism. It is almost certain that the earliest Baptist church led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys interacted with the Mennonites and that Smyth borrowed ideas from Anabaptism. However, it has been debated if influences from Anabaptism ever found their way to the English General Baptists.
Those who held closer views with the Anabaptists switched to the Mennonite movement along with Smyth, while those who identified as Baptists did so under Helwys who disagreed with Smyth and the Mennonites on multiple issues, denying Melchiorite Christology and Anabaptist views of the civil magistrate. These English General Baptists may have had secondary influences from Anabaptism, although it is a matter of debate among historians. Despite the existing similarities between these two groups, the relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was strained in 1624 when five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. The theory that Anabaptism influenced Baptist theology has been believed by Philip Schaff, A.C. Underwood, and William R. Estep. Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback.
Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Confession of Faith 1644, "Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists".
There have been some discussions whether Anabaptist theology influenced Particular Baptists in a limited sense. This theory proposes that there existed a native Anabaptist population in England that may have given rise to ideas held by Particular Baptist theologians. There exists some evidence of there being native English Anabaptists during this time, however many historians have rejected the idea that Anabaptist influences gave rise to the Particular Baptists, and there appears to be no concrete evidence of any Anabaptist influence in Particular Baptists. According to Barrington Raymond White, the relationship between the English Separatists and the Radical Reformers was that of people coming to similar conclusions from their reading of the Bible based on the context of a similar situation.
In practice, Anabaptists have maintained a more literal obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, while Baptists generally do not require nonresistance, non-swearing of oaths, and no remarriage if the first legitimate spouse is living. Traditional Anabaptists also require a head covering for women, modest apparel, practical separation from the world, and plain dress, which most Baptists no longer require. However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together.
Influence on society
Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society.
*Voluntary church membership and believer's baptism
*Freedom of religion – liberty of conscience
*Separation or nonconformity to the world
*Nonresistance, interpreted as pacifism by modernized groups
*Priesthood of all believers
The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion. When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities.
According to Estep:
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Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22; James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella Candide; Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera (1849); and the central character in the novel Q, by the collective known as "Luther Blissett".
See also
* Adrianists
* Amish Mennonite
* Christian anarchism
* Christian communism
* Christian socialism
* Clancularii
* Conservative Mennonites
* Donatists (first historical occurrence of re-baptism)
* Funkite
* List of Anabaptist churches
* Martyrs Mirror
* Melchior Rink, a central-German Anabaptist leader during the 16th century
* Peace churches
* Plain people
* Restorationism
* Shtundists
* Tabor College (Kansas)
References
Explanatory notes
Citations General and cited sources
* Carroll, J. M. (1931). The Trail of Blood: Following the Christians Down Through the Ages, or, the History of Baptist Churches from the Time of Christ, Their Founder, to the Present Day. Lexington, KY: Ashland Avenue Baptist Church. 56 p. + fold. chart. Without ISBN
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* Knox, Ronald. Enthusiasm: a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1950. viii, 622 p.
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Further reading
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* Dipple, Geoffrey, [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/confessional-migration/geoffrey-dipple-confessional-migration-anabaptists-mennonites-hutterites-baptists-etc Confessional Migration: Anabaptists – Mennonites, Hutterites, Baptists etc.], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/ Institute of European History], 2015, retrieved: March 11, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/112555682X/34 pdf]).
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External links
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* [https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php?/ Global Anabaptist Wiki]
* [https://www.pilgrimministry.org/congregations/map Pilgrim Ministry: Anabaptist church directory]
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLE47816EA3F83120A Anabaptist History Complete Playlist (Parts 1–20)] history of the movement from the Bible to present. (YouTube videos, 27 hours)
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* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1903/anabaptists/index.htm The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists], by E. Belfort Bax 1903
Category:Christian terminology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptism | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.692717 |
2935 | Ans | Ans or ANS or variation, may refer to:
Places
Ans, Belgium, a municipality in Belgium
Ans, Denmark, a village in Denmark
Angus, Scotland, UK; a council area by its Chapman code
Ainsdale railway station, England, UK (by station code ANS)
Andahuaylas Airport, Peru (by IATA airport code ANS)
People
Ans (given name), a Dutch feminine given name
Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress
Organizations
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, a Dutch satellite
American Name Society
American Nuclear Society
American Numismatic Society, formerly the American Numismatic and Archaeological Society
ANS Group of Companies, a news organization in Azerbaijan
, a Cambodian resistance group; see Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea
Audubon Naturalist Society, an American environmental organization
Chemistry and biology
Adrenergic nervous system, adrenaline and noradrenaline neurotransmitters distribution in human body
8-Anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid, a fluorescent chemical compound used as a molecular probe
Anthocyanidin synthase, an enzyme in the leucocyanidin biosynthesis pathway
Approximate number system, a hypothesized physiological basis for the sense of number
Autonomic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system in the body
L-Aspartate-nitro-succinate pathway for production of nitrite
Technology
, an unofficial file extension for ANSI art
Advanced Network and Services, a non-profit network service provider in the 1990s
American National Standards, defined by the American National Standards Institute
ans, a variable in calculators referring to the most recent answer
ANS carriage control characters (or ASA control characters), for computer line printers
Asymmetric numeral systems, coding in data compression
Authoritative name server, a DNS server
Artificial neural system, or Artificial neural network
Air Navigation Services, as delivered by an Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP)
Apple Network Server, a late 1990's AIX based server machine from Apple Inc.
Music
ANS (album), a box set from the British band Coil
ANS synthesizer, a Russian photoelectric musical instrument
Other uses
Al Ansar FC, a Lebanese association football club
Amman National School, in Amman, Jordan
Ansvarlig selskap, a Norwegian personal responsibility company model
Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, a Dutch student magazine
Akademia Nauk Stosowanych, a vocational university in Nowy Targ, Poland
See also
AN (disambiguation)
Answer (disambiguation), for which "Ans." may be an abbreviation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ans | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.700327 |
2936 | Southeast Alaska | photograph of Southeast Alaska, February 2002. Border lines with Yukon and British Columbia have been artificially added.]]
Southeast Alaska, often abbreviated to southeast or southeastern, and sometimes called the Alaska(n) panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east and north by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia (and a small part of Yukon). The majority of southeast Alaska is situated in Tlingit Aaní, much of which is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy climate.
The largest cities in the region are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This region is also home to Hyder, the easternmost town in Alaska.
Geography
Southeast Alaska has a land area of , comprising much of the Alexander Archipelago. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait.
The archipelago is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Native peoples, as well as gold-rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships.
Demographics
, the most populous borough in southeast Alaska.]]
, the second most populous borough in southeast Alaska.]]
Southeast Alaska includes seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada.
The 2010 census population of southeast Alaska was 71,616 inhabitants, representing approximately 10% of the state's total population. About 45% of residents in the southeast Alaska region were concentrated in the city of Juneau, the state capital. As of 2018, the number of settlements in southeast Alaska that have a population of at least 1,000 people has grown to nine.
Boroughs
* Haines Borough
* Hoonah-Angoon Census Area
* Juneau Borough
* Ketchikan Gateway Borough
* Petersburg Borough
* Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area
* Sitka Borough
* Skagway Borough
* Wrangell Borough
* Yakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; , or about 63.12 percent of the borough)Major cities and townsPopulations are taken from the 2020 census.
* Juneau - 32,255 inhabitants
* Sitka - 8,458 inhabitants
* Ketchikan - 8,192 inhabitants
* Petersburg - 3,043 inhabitants
* Wrangell - 2,127 inhabitants
* Haines - 1,657 inhabitants
* Metlakatla - 1,454 inhabitants
* Skagway - 1,240 inhabitants
* Craig - 1,036 inhabitants
National protected areas
, near Ketchikan]]
Southeast Alaska includes the Tongass National Forest (which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, and Sitka National Historical Park. Glacier Bay is the sixth largest national park in the United States. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region.
* Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve
* Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park
* Sitka National Historical Park
* Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the most southeastern section only)
* Admiralty Island National Monument
* Misty Fjords National Monument
Climate
in southeast Alaska]]
The climate of southeast Alaska is dominated by a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) in the south, an oceanic, marine sub-polar climate (Köppen Cfc) in the central region around Juneau, and a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) to the far northwest and the interior highlands of the archipelago. Southeast Alaska is also the only region in Alaska where the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months, except for in the southern parts of the Aleutian islands such as Unalaska.
Ecology
Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock.
Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf packs, Sitka black-tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets.
The [https://indd.adobe.com/view/bb243dff-5852-44c5-bdf5-4b1be96bdc53 Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska], published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region's landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources.
Culture
at Sitka National Historical Park]]
This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally.
Industry
Major industries in southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry).
Logging
Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as "desperate" in 2011. Its members include Alcan Forest Products (owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America) and Viking Lumber, which is based in Craig, Alaska. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon.
Mining
Mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region.
In the 2010s, mines increasingly began to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the dam breach at the Mount Polley mine focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015.
The proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company (Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine. Healthcare
Major hospitals include Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau and PeaceHealth Ketchikan Medical Center in Ketchikan. Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell; although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time.
Shipbuilding
Due to the fishing and ferries in the region, ship building and maintenance are economically significant.
Ketchikan hosts a shipbuilding yard owned by Vigor Industrial. Tourism Tourists visit southeast Alaska primarily in the summer, and most visit via cruise ships, which run from April 15 to October 30. In 2019, around 1.3 million people visited Alaska by cruise ship.
The northbound Inside Passage cruise commonly starts from either Seattle or Vancouver, Canada and stops in various ports including Ketchikan, Juneau, and Skagway. One-way trips will end in Whittier or Seward.
The cruise ship industry became prominent in the 1960s after cruise ship entrepreneur Stanley B. McDonald repurposed a transport ship named Princess Pat, founding Princess Cruises to do leisure cruises which expanded into southeast Alaska by 1969. The TV series The Love Boat was set on a Princess cruise and featured episodes in Alaska; it also helped to popularize cruising generally which helped it grow rapidly between 1977 and 1987.<ref name"cruisecritic.com"/> History
The border between Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia was the subject of the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States and the United Kingdom claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada.Transportation
ferry routes]]
Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region.
Air transportation
Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of southeast, and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern southeast Alaska. Alaska's bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult to construct on the steep island slopes.
Marine transportation
Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships.
See also
* Alexander Archipelago
* Alexander Archipelago wolf
* Climate change in Alaska
* List of edible plants and mushrooms of Southeast Alaska
References
External links
* [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn123132311.pdf The regional economy of southeast Alaska: final report, 2007] / prepared for Alaska Conservation Foundation; prepared by Steve Colt, Darcy Dugan, Ginny Fay (EcoSystems). Hosted by [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program].
* [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn133148238.pdf Southeast Alaska energy export study: final report, 2006] / prepared for The Southeast Conference; by D. Hittle & Associates, Inc., in association with Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program].
* [http://library.state.ak.us/asp/edocs/2007/04/ocn123202025.pdf Swan - Tyee intertie economic analysis, 2006] / prepared for the Four Dam Pool Power Agency; prepared by Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012120420/http://library.state.ak.us/asp/ Alaska State Publications Program].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630010352/http://www.dot.state.ak.us/amhs/doc/reports/econ_15.pdf The Economic Impacts of the Alaska Marine Highway System, January 2016] / Prepared for Alaska Marine Highway System; Prepared by McDowell Group
Category:Geography of the Pacific Northwest
Category:Pacific temperate rainforests
Category:Regions of Alaska | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Alaska | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.717414 |
2938 | Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad | The Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.
Notable publications and controversies
In 1989 ANS started to publish the monthly comic strip DirkJan, before it moved to SjoSji. The magazine has published controversial articles that attracted nation-wide media attention, such as on the benefits of marihuana consumption for studying. In 2010 the university refused to distribute the magazine among freshmen because it did not endorse the editorial.
External links
http://www.ans-online.nl/ (Flash required)
References
Category:1985 establishments in the Netherlands
Category:Dutch-language magazines
Category:Independent magazines
Category:Magazines established in 1985
Category:Magazines published in the Netherlands
Category:Radboud University Nijmegen
Category:Student magazines
Category:Student societies in the Netherlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemeen_Nijmeegs_Studentenblad | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.722319 |
2939 | Interior Alaska | thumb|Interior Alaska.
thumb|Fall in Interior Alaska.
Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy, and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154.
__TOC__
Climate
thumb|Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.
Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.
Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over burned.
thumb|left|Lakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway
The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.
On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.
The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.
Image:Fires in Interior Alaska.jpg|Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009.
Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska (natural).jpg|The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009).
Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska.jpg|Visible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009).
Alaska Natives
While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks.
The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:
Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).
Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.
Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.
Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.
Notes
References
Category:Regions of Alaska
Category:Tourism regions of Alaska
Category:Alaskan Athabaskans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Alaska | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.736578 |
2940 | And did those feet in ancient time | "And did those feet in ancient time" is a poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic Milton: A Poem in Two Books, one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the title page is probably when the plates were begun, but the poem was printed . Today it is best known as the hymn "Jerusalem", with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. The famous orchestration was written by Sir Edward Elgar. It is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope and also by Blake, called Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion.
It is often assumed that the poem was inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin merchant, travelled to what is now England and visited Glastonbury during his unknown years. However, according to British folklore scholar A. W. Smith, "there was little reason to believe that an oral tradition concerning a visit made by Jesus to Britain existed before the early part of the twentieth century". Instead, the poem draws on an older story, repeated in Milton's History of Britain, that Joseph of Arimathea, alone, travelled to preach to the ancient Britons after the death of Jesus. The poem's theme is linked to the Book of Revelation (3:12 and 21:2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a New Jerusalem. Churches in general, and the Church of England in particular, have long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace.
In the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake asks whether a visit by Jesus briefly created heaven in England, in contrast to the "dark Satanic Mills" of the Industrial Revolution. Blake's poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christ's visit. The second verse is interpreted as an exhortation to create an ideal society in England, whether or not there was a divine visit.TextThe original text is found in the preface Blake wrote for inclusion with Milton, a Poem, following the lines beginning "The Stolen and Perverted Writings of Homer & Ovid: of Plato & Cicero, which all Men ought to contemn: ..."
'''Blake's poem'<!-- rendered literatim per WP:QUOTE; do not add apostrophes -->
mountains green:
And was the holy Lamb of God,
On Englands pleasant pastures seen!
And did the Countenance Divine,
Shine forth upon our clouded hills?
And was Jerusalem builded here,
Among these dark Satanic Mills?
Bring me my Bow of burning gold:
Bring me my Arrows of desire:
Bring me my Spear: O clouds unfold:
Bring me my Chariot of fire!
I will not cease from Mental Fight,
Nor shall my Sword sleep in my hand:
Till we have built Jerusalem,
In Englands green & pleasant Land.
</poem>}}
Beneath the poem Blake inscribed a quotation from the Bible:
people were Prophets"
Numbers XI. Ch 29.v That view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills in Southwark, the first major factory in London. The rotary steam-powered flour mill, built by Matthew Boulton, assisted by James Watt, could produce 6,000 bushels of flour per week. The factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire. There were rumours of arson, but the most likely cause was a bearing that overheated due to poor maintenance.
London's independent millers celebrated, with placards reading, "Success to the mills of Albion but no Albion Mills." Opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the fire shows a devil squatting on the building. The mill was a short distance from Blake's home.
Blake's phrase resonates with a broader theme in his works; what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually repressive ideology based on a quantified reality. Blake saw the cotton mills and collieries of the period as a mechanism for the enslavement of millions, but the concepts underpinning the works had a wider application:
|Jerusalem Chapter 3. William Blake}}
, copy C, object 4)]]
Another interpretation is that the phrase refers to the established Church of England, which, in contrast to Blake, preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system. Stonehenge and other megaliths are featured in Milton, suggesting they may relate to the oppressive power of priestcraft in general. Peter Porter observed that many scholars argue that the "[mills] are churches and not the factories of the Industrial Revolution everyone else takes them for". In 2007, the Bishop of Durham, N. T. Wright, explicitly recognised that element of English subculture when he acknowledged the view that "dark satanic mills" could refer to the "great churches". In similar vein, in 1967 the critic F. W. Bateson stated "the adoption by the Churches and women's organizations of this anti-clerical paean of free love is amusing evidence of the carelessness with which poetry is read".
An alternative theory is that Blake is referring to a mystical concept within his own mythology, related to the ancient history of England. Satan's "mills" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract: "the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell...To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of Shaddai / A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible".
"Chariots of fire"
The line from the poem "Bring me my Chariot of fire!" draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet Elijah is taken directly to heaven: "And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." The phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film Chariots of Fire, in which the hymn "Jerusalem" is sung during the final scenes. The plural phrase "chariots of fire" refers to 2 Kings 6:17.
"Green and pleasant land"
Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of Milton while living in a cottage, now Blake's Cottage, in the village of Felpham in Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake's "evident pleasure" in the Felpham countryside. However, local people say that records from Lavant, near Chichester, state that Blake wrote "And did those feet in ancient time" in an east-facing alcove of the Earl of March public house.
The phrase "green and pleasant land" has become a common term for an identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub-title in numerous articles and books. Sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside. In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle-class life. Sometimes it is used ironically, e.g. in the Dire Straits song "Iron Hand".
Revolution
Several of Blake's poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory. Even though the poem was written during the Napoleonic Wars, Blake was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution, and Napoleon claimed to be continuing this revolution. The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. In 1803 Blake was charged at Chichester with high treason for having "uttered seditious and treasonable expressions", but was acquitted. The trial was not a direct result of anything he had written, but comments he had made in conversation, including "Damn the King!".
The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from Numbers 11:29: <!-- rendered literatim per WP:QUOTE; do not add apostrophe -->"Would to God that all the Lords people were prophets." Christopher Rowland has argued that this includes
<blockquote>everyone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an "honest persuasion" that with personal struggle, things could be improved. A human being observes, is indignant and speaks out: it's a basic political maxim which is necessary for any age. Blake wanted to stir people from their intellectual slumbers, and the daily grind of their toil, to see that they were captivated in the grip of a culture which kept them thinking in ways which served the interests of the powerful. was included in the patriotic anthology of verse The Spirit of Man, edited by the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Robert Bridges, and published in 1916, at a time when morale had begun to decline because of the high number of casualties in World War I and the perception that there was no end in sight.
Under these circumstances, Bridges, finding the poem an appropriate hymn text to "brace the spirit of the nation [to] accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary," asked Sir Hubert Parry to put it to music for a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's Queen's Hall. Bridges asked Parry to supply "suitable, simple music to Blake's stanzas – music that an audience could take up and join in", and added that, if Parry could not do it himself, he might delegate the task to George Butterworth.
The poem's idealistic theme or subtext accounts for its popularity across much of the political spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election; Clement Attlee said they would build "a new Jerusalem". It has been sung at conferences of the Conservative Party, at the Glee Club of the British Liberal Assembly, the Labour Party and by the Liberal Democrats.Setting to musicBy Hubert Parry
| premiere_date
| premiere_location = Queen's Hall, Langham Place, London
| premiere_conductor = Hubert Parry
| text = "And did those feet in ancient time" by William Blake (1804)
| duration = 2:45
| language = English
| key = D major
| scoring =
| misc = }}
In adapting Blake's poem as a unison song, Parry deployed a two-stanza format, each taking up eight lines of Blake's original poem. He added a four-bar musical introduction to each verse and a coda, echoing melodic motifs of the song. The word "those" was substituted for "these" before "dark satanic mills".
Parry was initially reluctant to supply music for the campaign meeting, as he had doubts about the ultra-patriotism of Fight for Right; but knowing that his former student Walford Davies was to conduct the performance, and not wanting to disappoint either Robert Bridges or Davies, he agreed, writing it on 10 March 1916, and handing the manuscript to Davies with the comment, "Here's a tune for you, old chap. Do what you like with it." Davies later recalled,
Davies arranged for the vocal score to be published by Curwen in time for the concert at the Queen's Hall on 28 March and began rehearsing it. It was a success and was taken up generally.
But Parry began to have misgivings again about Fight for Right, and in May 1917 wrote to the organisation's founder Sir Francis Younghusband withdrawing his support entirely. There was even concern that the composer might withdraw the song from all public use, but the situation was saved by Millicent Fawcett of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The song had been taken up by the Suffragists in 1917 and Fawcett asked Parry if it might be used at a Suffrage Demonstration Concert on 13 March 1918. Parry was delighted and orchestrated the piece for the concert (it had originally been for voices and organ). After the concert, Fawcett asked the composer if it might become the Women Voters' Hymn. Parry wrote back, "I wish indeed it might become the Women Voters' hymn, as you suggest. People seem to enjoy singing it. And having the vote ought to diffuse a good deal of joy too. So they would combine happily". However, Parry always referred to it by its first title. He had originally intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice (this is marked in the score), but this is rare in contemporary performances. Sir Edward Elgar re-scored the work for very large orchestra in 1922 for use at the Leeds Festival. Elgar's orchestration has overshadowed Parry's own, primarily because it is the version usually used now for the Last Night of the Proms (though Sir Malcolm Sargent, who introduced it to that event in the 1950s, always used Parry's version).By WallenIn 2020 a new musical arrangement of the poem by Errollyn Wallen, a British composer born in Belize, was sung by South African soprano Golda Schultz at the Last Night of the Proms. Parry's version was traditionally sung at the Last Night, with Elgar's orchestration; the new version, with different rhythms, dissonance, and reference to the blues, caused much controversy.
However, some clergy in the Church of England, according to the BBC TV programme Jerusalem: An Anthem for England, have said that the song is not technically a hymn as it is not a prayer to God; consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England.
Many schools use the song, especially public schools in Great Britain (it was used as the title music for the BBC's 1979 series Public School about Radley College), and several private schools in Australia, New Zealand, New England and Canada. In Hong Kong, diverted version of "Jerusalem" is also used as the school hymn of St. Catherine's School for Girls, Kwun Tong and Bishop Hall Jubilee School. "Jerusalem" was chosen as the opening hymn for the London Olympics 2012, although "God Save the Queen" was the anthem sung during the raising of the flag in salute to the Queen. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words; examples include the state funeral of President Ronald Reagan in Washington National Cathedral on 11 June 2004, and the state memorial service for Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam on 5 November 2014.
It has been sung on BBC's Songs Of Praise for many years; in a countrywide poll to find the UK's favourite hymn in 2019, it was voted top, relegating previous favourite "How Great Thou Art" into second place.
Proposal as English anthem
Upon hearing the orchestral version for the first time, King George V said that he preferred "Jerusalem" over the British national anthem "God Save the King". "Jerusalem" is considered to be England's most popular patriotic song; The New York Times said it was "fast becoming an alternative national anthem," and there have been calls to give it official status. England has no official anthem and uses the British national anthem "God Save the King", also unofficial, for some national occasions, such as before English international football matches. However, some sports, including rugby league, use "Jerusalem" as the English anthem. "Jerusalem" is the official hymn of the England and Wales Cricket Board, although "God Save the Queen" has been sung before England's games on several occasions, including the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, the 2010–11 Ashes series and the 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup. Questions in Parliament have not clarified the situation, as answers from the relevant minister say that since there is no official national anthem, each sport must make its own decision.
As Parliament has not clarified the situation, Team England, the English Commonwealth team, held a public poll in 2010 to decide which anthem should be played at medal ceremonies to celebrate an English win at the Commonwealth Games. "Jerusalem" was selected by 52% of voters over "Land of Hope and Glory" (used since 1930) and "God Save the Queen".
In 2005 BBC Four produced Jerusalem: An Anthem For England highlighting the usages of the song/poem and a case was made for its adoption as the national anthem of England. Varied contributions come from Howard Goodall, Billy Bragg, Garry Bushell, Lord Hattersley, Ann Widdecombe and David Mellor, war proponents, war opponents, suffragettes, trade unionists, public schoolboys, the Conservatives, the Labour Party, football supporters, the British National Party, the Women's Institute, London Gay Men's Chorus, London Community Gospel Choir, Fat Les and naturists.Cultural significanceEnduring popularity
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The popularity of Parry's setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. The song has also had a large cultural impact in Great Britain. It is sung every year by an audience of thousands at the end of the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall and simultaneously in the Proms in the Park venues throughout the country. Similarly, along with "The Red Flag", it is sung each year at the closing of the annual Labour Party conference.
The song was used by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (indeed Parry transferred the copyright to the NUWSS in 1918; the Union was wound up in 1928 after women won the right to vote). During the 1920s many Women's Institutes (WI) started closing meetings by singing it, and this caught on nationally. Although it was never adopted as the WI's official anthem, in practice it holds that position, and is an enduring element of the public image of the WI.
A rendition of "Jerusalem" was included in the 1973 album Brain Salad Surgery by the progressive rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer. The arrangement of the hymn is notable for its use of the first polyphonic synthesizer, the Moog Apollo. It was released as a single, but failed to chart in the United Kingdom.
An instrumental rendition of the hymn was included in the 1989 album "The Amsterdam EP" by Scottish rock band Simple Minds.
Iron Maiden singer Bruce Dickinson incorporated the full text of the poem into his 6:42 track Jerusalem (co-written with Roy Z), a part of his William Blake inspired 1998 solo album The Chemical Wedding. Dickinson performed the track live in 2023 as part of the Jon Lord Concerto for Group and Orchestra tour.
"Jerusalem" is traditionally sung before rugby league's Challenge Cup Final, along with "Abide with Me", and before the Super League Grand Final, where it is introduced as "the rugby league anthem". Before 2008, it was the anthem used by the national side, as "God Save the Queen" was used by the Great Britain team: since the Lions were superseded by England, "God Save the Queen" has replaced "Jerusalem". Since 2004, it has been the anthem of the England cricket team, being played before each day of their home test matches.
It was also used in the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London and inspired several of the opening show segments directed by Danny Boyle. It was included in the ceremony's soundtrack album, Isles of Wonder.
Use in film, television and theatre
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"Bring me my Chariot of fire" inspired the title of the film Chariots of Fire.
The hymn has featured in many other films and television programmes including Four Weddings and a Funeral, How to Get Ahead in Advertising, The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, Saint Jack, Calendar Girls, Season 3: Episode 22 of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Goodnight Mister Tom, Women in Love, The Man Who Fell to Earth, Shameless, Jackboots on Whitehall, Quatermass and the Pit, ''Monty Python's Flying Circus, Spud 2: The Madness Continues, and Collateral (UK TV series).
An extract was heard in the 2013 Doctor Who'' episode "The Crimson Horror" although that story was set in 1893, i.e., before Parry's arrangement. A bawdy version of the first verse is sung by Mr Partridge in the third episode of Series 1 of Hi-de-Hi!. A punk version is heard in Derek Jarman's 1977 film Jubilee. In an episode of Peep Show, Jez (Robert Webb) records a track titled "This Is Outrageous" which uses the first and a version of the second line in a verse. A modified version of the hymn, replacing the word "England" with "Neo", is used in Neo Yokio as the national anthem of the eponymous city state.
In the theatre it appears in Jerusalem,
See also
* Civil religion
* Romanticism and the Industrial Revolution
* List of British anthems
Notes
References
External links
*[http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/comparison.xq?selectioncompare&copiesall&bentleynumB2©idmilton.a&java= Comparisons of the Hand Painted copies of the Preface] on the William Blake Archive
*
* [http://www.hymnary.org/text/and_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time And did those feet in ancient time] at Hymnary.org
* (Multiple versions)
Category:1804 poems
Category:1916 songs
Category:English Christian hymns
Category:English patriotic songs
Category:National symbols of England
Category:Anthems of non-sovereign states
Category:Poetry by William Blake
Category:British Israelism
Category:Musical settings of poems by William Blake
Category:British anthems
Category:Joseph of Arimathea
Category:Hymns in The New English Hymnal
Category:Works based on the Book of Revelation
Category:1800s neologisms
Category:1800s quotations
Category:Quotations from literature
Category:Quotations from music | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.758927 |
2941 | The Bush (Alaska) | In Alaska, the Bush typically refers to any region of the state that is not connected to the North American road network and does not have ready access to the state's ferry system. A large proportion of Alaska Native populations live in the Bush, often depending on subsistence hunting and fishing.
Geographically, the Bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior.
Some of the hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Utqiagvik, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor.
Most parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities or to and from hub communities is typically accomplished by snowmobiles, boats, or ATVs.
References
Category:Regions of Alaska
Category:Rural geography
Category:Decolonization | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bush_(Alaska) | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.763169 |
2942 | A Little Night Music | A Little Night Music is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the 1955 Ingmar Bergman film Smiles of a Summer Night, it involves the romantic lives of several couples. Its title is a literal English translation of the German name for Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525, Eine kleine Nachtmusik. The musical includes the popular song "Send In the Clowns", written for Glynis Johns.
Since its original 1973 Broadway production, the musical has enjoyed professional productions in the West End, by opera companies, in a 2009 Broadway revival, and elsewhere, and it is a popular choice for regional groups. It was adapted for film in 1977, with Harold Prince directing and Elizabeth Taylor, Len Cariou, Lesley-Anne Down, and Diana Rigg starring.
Synopsis
Act One
The setting is Sweden, around the year 1900. One by one, the Quintet – five singers who comment like a Greek chorus throughout the show – enter, tuning up. Gradually, their vocalizing becomes an overture blending fragments of "Remember," "Soon," and "The Glamorous Life." The other characters enter waltzing, each uncomfortable with their partner ("Night Waltz"). After they drift back off, the aging and sardonic Madame Armfeldt, a wealthy former courtesan, and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Madame Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night "smiles" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to watch the smiles occur.
Middle-aged, successful lawyer Fredrik Egerman has recently married an 18-year-old trophy wife, Anne, a naive girl who loves Fredrik but is not attracted to him. The two have been married for eleven months, and Anne still protects her virginity. Upon coming home from work, Fredrik surprises Anne with tickets to a play, starring Desiree Armfeldt, a glamorous actress whom Anne greatly admires. Anne giddily fantasizes about what it would be like to be as beautiful and beloved as Desiree, and starts talking at Fredrik about her day. Fredrik, distracted by his lust, considers various ways he might seduce his wife but ultimately rules each one out and elects to take a nap instead ("Now"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, a seminary student a year older than his stepmother, is frustrated and ignored ("Later"). Anne promises her husband that shortly she will consent to have sex even though she can't help recoiling at his touch ("Soon"), and all three of them lament at once. The number concludes with Fredrik sighing Desiree's name in his sleep, which Anne overhears. Anne's maidservant Petra, an experienced and forthright girl, slightly older than the teen herself, offers her worldly but crass advice.
Desiree Armfeldt, although once prominent, is now a fading flower clinging onto what's left of her past fame. Desiree tours in small, obscure towns with her theatre troupe. Madam Armfeldt, Desiree's mother, has taken over the care of Desiree's daughter Fredrika. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually delays seeing her, preferring, somewhat ironically, her life on tour ("The Glamorous Life"). As Fredrik and Anne take their seats at Desiree's play, Anne's previous excitement quickly devolves into anxiety, suspicious that Fredrik and Desiree have a romantic history that he never disclosed to her. The play begins and Desiree immediately notices Fredrik in the audience, and the Quintet reveals their shared memories and passionate relationship ("Remember"). Desiree, ironically playing a sexually irresistible countess, exchanges amorous glances with Fredrik and delivers her lines in an overtly suggestive tone, confirming Anne's suspicions as true. Anne, upset and overwhelmed, demands that Fredrik take her home. Meanwhile, Petra tries to seduce a nervous and petulant Henrik.
That night, as Fredrik remembers his past with Desiree, he sneaks out to see her. The two have a happy but strained reunion, reflecting on their new lives. Desiree sarcastically boasts of her own adultery, as she has been seeing the married dragoon, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm. Following, Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne, fending off Desiree's interjecting quips, but he ultimately reveals his sexual frustration ("You Must Meet My Wife"). Upon learning that Fredrik has gone for eleven months without sex, she agrees to accommodate him as a favor for an old friend.
Madam Armfeldt offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past and wonders what happened to prior refined styles of living ("Liaisons"). In Desiree's apartment, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm proclaims his unannounced arrival in his usual booming tones. Fredrik and Desiree fool the Count with an innocent explanation for their disheveled appearance, but he is still suspicious. He boasts of his many duels and the various wounds he has suffered before demonstrating his skills in knife-throwing. Fredrik responds sarcastically, causing the dragoon to dislike him immediately. Carl-Magnus returns to his wife, Countess Charlotte. Charlotte knows of her husband's infidelity, but Carl-Magnus is too absorbed in his suspicions of Desiree to talk to her ("In Praise of Women"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed—Charlotte's little sister is a schoolfriend of Anne's.
Charlotte visits Anne and describes Fredrik's tryst with Desiree. Anne is shocked and saddened, but Charlotte explains that such is the lot of a wife, and love brings pain ("Every Day a Little Death"). Meanwhile, Desiree asks Madam Armfeldt to host a party for Fredrik, Anne, and Henrik. Madam Armfeldt reluctantly agrees and sends out a personal invitation; its receipt sends Anne into a frenzy, imagining Desiree further seducing Fredrik at the estate. Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to heighten the contrast between the older Desiree and the young and beautiful teenager. Charlotte relates this to the Count, who (much to her chagrin) decides to visit the Armfeldts, uninvited, as well. Carl-Magnus plans to challenge Fredrik to a duel, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer to make her husband jealous and end his philandering. The act ends as all characters head to Madam Armfeldt's estate ("A Weekend in the Country").
Act Two
Madam Armfeldt's country estate is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual summer sunset at this high latitude ("Night Waltz One and Two"). Everyone arrives, each with their own amorous purposes and desires—even Petra, who catches the eye of Armfeldt's fetching manservant, Frid. The women begin to quarrel with one another. Fredrik is astonished to learn the name of Desiree's daughter. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses to her he deeply loves Anne. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl-Magnus reflect on the difficulty of being annoyed with Desiree, contrasting her immoral actions with her physical beauty ("It Would Have Been Wonderful"). Dinner is served, and the female Quintet singers comment on the characters’ suspense regarding the coming meal ("Perpetual Anticipation").
At dinner, Charlotte attempts to flirt with Fredrik and trades insults with Desiree. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else, except for Henrik, who finally speaks up. He accuses the whole company of being amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik's secret love and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be "rescued" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly that he loves Desiree but cannot bring himself to hurt Anne. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reflect on the nature of her life and relationship with Fredrik ("Send In the Clowns"). Anne finds Henrik, who is attempting to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him she loves him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne's first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away, Frid sleeps in Petra's lap. The maid imagines advantageous marriages but concludes that in the meantime, "a girl ought to celebrate what passes by" ("The Miller's Son"). Charlotte confesses her plan to Fredrik, and both watch Henrik and Anne, happy together, run away to start their new life. The two commiserate on a bench. Carl-Magnus, preparing to sleep with Desiree, sees this and challenges Fredrik to Russian Roulette; Fredrik nervously misfires and simply grazes his own ear. Feeling victorious, Carl-Magnus reaffirms his love for Charlotte, finally granting her wish.
After the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madam Armfeldt discuss the recent chaotic turns of events. The elderly woman asks Fredrika a surprising question: "What is it all for?" Fredrika thinks about this and decides that love, for all of its frustrations, "must be worth it." Madam Armfeldt is surprised, ruefully noting that she rejected love for material wealth at Fredrika's age. She praises her granddaughter and remembers true love's fleeting nature.
Fredrik finally confesses his love for Desiree, acknowledging that Fredrika is his daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together ("Send in the Clowns" (Reprise)). Madam Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika, who tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully but still has not seen the night smile. Madam Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: first on Henrik and Anne, the young, and second on Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the "third smile... on the old", it occurs: Madam Armfeldt closes her eyes and dies peacefully with Fredrika beside her ("Last Waltz").
Musical numbers
; Act I
* Overture – Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom (the "Quintet")
* "Night Waltz" – Company
* "Now" – Fredrik Egerman
* "Later" – Henrik Egerman
* "Soon" – Anne Egerman
* "Soon/Later/Now" – Anne, Henrik and Fredrik
* "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika Armfeldt, Desiree Armfeldt, Madam Armfeldt and Quintet
* "Remember?" – Quintet
* "You Must Meet My Wife" – Desiree and Fredrik
* "Liaisons" – Madam Armfeldt
* "In Praise of Women" – Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm
* "Every Day a Little Death" – Countess Charlotte Malcolm and Anne
* "A Weekend in the Country" – Company
; Act II
* Entr'acte – Orchestra
* "Night Waltz I (The Sun Won't Set)" – Quintet
* "Night Waltz II (The Sun Sits Low)" – Quintet
* "It Would Have Been Wonderful" – Fredrik and Carl-Magnus
* "Perpetual Anticipation" – Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Segstrom and Mrs. Anderssen
* "Dinner Table Scene" – Orchestra
* "Send In the Clowns" – Desiree
* "The Miller's Son" – Petra
* "The World Won't End/Every Day a Little Death (reprise)" – Desiree and Charlotte
* Reprises <small>("Soon", "You Must Meet My Wife", "A Weekend in the Country" and "Every Day a Little Death")</small> – Quintet
* "Send in the Clowns" (Reprise) – Desiree and Fredrik
* "Last Waltz" – Orchestra
; Additional musical numbers
Stage:
* "Two Fairy Tales" – Henrik and Anne <small>(cut in rehearsals when the tone of the musical changed)</small>
* "Silly People" – Frid <small>(cut for time when "The Miller's Son" was added in Boston)</small>
* "Bang!" – Carl-Magnus <small>(replaced by "In Praise of Women")</small>
* "My Husband the Pig" – Charlotte <small>(replaced by the second half of "In Praise of Women")</small>
Screen:
* "Love Takes Time" – Company <small>(lyrics added to Night Waltz)</small>
* "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika <small>(solo version; later used combined with the original in the RNT revival)</small>
* A new introductory verse to "Every Day a Little Death"
* Additional lyrics for "A Weekend in the Country", including a short section for Mme. Armfeldt
Characters
* Fredrik Egerman: A successful widowed middle-aged lawyer. He is married to the 18-year-old Anne and has one son, Henrik, from his previous marriage. In the past, he and Desiree were lovers. Bass-Baritone A<sub>2</sub>–E<sub>4</sub>
*Anne Egerman: Fredrik's new, naive wife, who is still a virgin after 11 months of marriage. Soprano G<sub>3</sub>–A<sub>5</sub>
*Henrik Egerman: Fredrik's son, 20 years old and Anne's stepson. He is serious but confused; he reads the works of philosophers and theologians whilst studying for the Lutheran priesthood. His sexual repression is a great cause of his turmoil, as he lusts after Anne and attempts to have a sexual encounter with Petra. Tenor G<sub>2</sub>–B<sub>4</sub>
*Petra: Anne's maid and closest confidante, brash, bold and flirtatious. She has relations with Henrik. Mezzo-soprano F<sub>3</sub>–F<sub>5</sub>
*Desiree Armfeldt: Self-absorbed, once-successful actress, now touring the countryside in what is clearly not the "glamorous life". Harboured love for Fredrik for years since their affair. Mezzo-soprano F<sub>3</sub>–E<sub>5</sub>
*Fredrika Armfeldt: Desiree's thirteen-year-old daughter, who may or may not be the product (unbeknownst to Fredrik) of the actress's and Fredrik's affair. Soprano C<sub>4</sub>–E<sub>5</sub>
*Madame Armfeldt: Desiree's mother, a former courtesan who has had "liaisons" with royalty. Contralto C<sub>3</sub>–F<sub>4</sub>
*Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm: A military dragoon who is Desiree's latest lover. Hypocritically places value on fidelity, being hugely possessive when it comes to both his wife and mistress. Comedic role. Operatic Baritone G<sub>2</sub>–F<sub>4</sub>
*Countess Charlotte Malcolm: Carl-Magnus' wife, to whom he flaunts his infidelities. She despises her husband for his behaviour, but obeys his orders due to her hopeless love for him. Self-loathing and borderline alcoholic, yet the more intelligent half of the Malcolm couple. Mezzo-soprano G<sub>3</sub>–F<sub>5</sub>
*Frid: Madame Armfeldt's manservant. Has a tryst with Petra.
*The Quintet: Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom. A group of five singers that act as a Greek chorus. Sometimes referred to as the Liebeslieder Singers (love song singers) although Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler did not script them to have that title, using Quintet instead. The first usage of Liebeslieder for the Quintet came during the 1990 New York City Opera production. Prince said that these characters represent "people in the show who aren't wasting time ... the play is about wasting time."
*Malla: Desiree's maid, who is with her constantly. Silent part
*Osa: Maid at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part
*Bertrand: Page at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part
Casts and characters
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan"2" style"width:10%;" | Character
! style="width:10%;" | Broadway
! style="width:10%;" | US National Tour
! style="width:10%;" | West End
!First West End Revival
!Off-West End Revival
!Second West End Revival
! style="width:10%;" | First Broadway Revival
! Lincoln Center Concert
|-
!<small>1973</small>
!<small>1974</small>
!<small>1975</small>
!<small>1989</small>
!<small>2008</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>2009</small>
!<small>2024</small>
|-
! Desiree Armfeldt
| style="text-align:center;" | Glynis Johns
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Jean Simmons
| style="text-align:center;" | Dorothy Tutin
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Hannah Waddingham
| style="text-align:center;" | Catherine Zeta-Jones
| style="text-align:center;" | Susan Graham
|-
! Fredrik Egerman
| style="text-align:center;" | Len Cariou
| style="text-align:center;" | George Lee Andrews
| style="text-align:center;" | Joss Ackland
| style="text-align:center;" | Peter McEnery
| colspan"3" style"text-align:center;" | Alexander Hanson
| style="text-align:center;" | Ron Raines
|-
! Madame Armfeldt
| style="text-align:center;" | Hermione Gingold
| style="text-align:center;" | Margaret Hamilton
| style="text-align:center;" | Hermione Gingold
| style="text-align:center;" | Lila Kedrova
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Maureen Lipman
| style="text-align:center;" | Angela Lansbury
| style="text-align:center;" | Marsha Mason
|-
! Fredrika Armfeldt
| style="text-align:center;" | Judy Kahan
| style="text-align:center;" | Marti Morris
| style="text-align:center;" | Christine McKenna-Tirella
| style="text-align:center;" | Debra Beaumont
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Holly Hallam<hr />Grace Link
| style="text-align:center;" | Katherine Leigh Doherty<hr />Keaton Whittaker
| style="text-align:center;" | Addie Harrington
|-
! Petra
| style="text-align:center;" | D'Jamin Bartlett
| style="text-align:center;" | Mary Ann Chinn
| style="text-align:center;" | Diane Langton
| style="text-align:center;" | Sara Weymouth
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Kaisa Hammarlund
| style="text-align:center;" | Leigh Ann Larkin
| style="text-align:center;" | Cynthia Erivo
|-
! Henrik Egerman
| style="text-align:center;" | Mark Lambert
| style="text-align:center;" | Stephen Lehew
| style="text-align:center;" | Terry Mitchell
| style="text-align:center;" | Alexander Hanson
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Gabriel Vick
| style="text-align:center;" | Hunter Ryan Herdlicka
| style="text-align:center;" | Jason Gotay
|-
! Anne Egerman
| style="text-align:center;" | Victoria Mallory
| style="text-align:center;" | Virgina Pulos
| style="text-align:center;" | Veronica Page
| style="text-align:center;" | Deborah Poplett
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Jessie Buckley
| style="text-align:center;" | Ramona Mallory
| style="text-align:center;" | Kerstin Anderson
|-
! Countess Charlotte Malcolm
| style="text-align:center;" | Patricia Elliott
| style="text-align:center;" | Andra Akers
| style="text-align:center;" | Maria Aitken
| style="text-align:center;" | Susan Hampshire
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Kelly Price
| style="text-align:center;" | Erin Davie
| style="text-align:center;" | Ruthie Ann Miles
|-
! Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm
| style="text-align:center;" | Laurence Guittard
| style="text-align:center;" | Ed Evanko
| style="text-align:center;" | David Kernan
| style="text-align:center;" | Eric Flynn
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" | Alistair Robins
| style="text-align:center;" | Aaron Lazar
| style="text-align:center;" | Shuler Hensley
|}
Notable replacements
;Broadway (1973–74)
*Fredrik Egerman: William Daniels
;West End (1975)
*Desiree Armfeldt: Virginia McKenna
*Madame Armfeldt: Angela Baddeley
;Broadway Revival (2009–11)
*Desiree Armfeldt: Bernadette Peters
*Madame Armfeldt: Elaine Stritch
*Fredrika Armfeldt: Katherine McNamara
*Count Carl-Magnus: Bradley Dean
Productions
Original Broadway production
Subsequent to its January 23-February 10 tryout engagement at the Colonial Theatre (Boston),A Little Night Music opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973. It played there until September 15, 1973, then moved to the Majestic Theatre, on September 17, and closed there on August 3, 1974, after 601 performances and 12 previews. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns (Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou (Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold (Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory (Anne Egerman), Judith Kahan (Fredrika Armfeldt), Mark Lambert (Henrik Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Carl-Magnus Malcolm), Patricia Elliott (Charlotte Malcolm), George Lee Andrews (Frid), and D'Jamin Bartlett (Petra). It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical.
Australian premiere
The first international production opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney, Australia in November 1973, with a cast including Taina Elg, Bruce Barry, Jill Perryman, Doris Fitton, Anna Russell and Geraldine Turner. Australian revivals have been presented by the Sydney Theatre Company (featuring Geraldine Turner and a young Toni Collette) in 1990, Melbourne Theatre Company (featuring Helen Morse and John O'May) in 1997, Opera Australia (featuring Sigrid Thornton and Anthony Warlow as Fredrik Egerman) in 2009, and Victorian Opera (featuring Ali McGregor, Simon Gleeson and Verity Hunt-Ballard) in 2019.
United States tour
A US national tour began on February 26, 1974, at the Forrest Theatre, Philadelphia, and ended on February 13, 1975, at the Shubert Theatre, Boston. Jean Simmons as Desiree Armfeldt, George Lee Andrews as Fredrik Egerman and Margaret Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt headed the cast.
West End premiere
The musical premiered in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975, and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons.
1989 West End revival
A revival opened in the West End on October 6, 1989, at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery as Fredrik, and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990.
1995 London revival
A revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995. It was directed by Sean Mathias, with set design by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench (Desiree), Siân Phillips (Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding (Anne Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Fredrik Egerman), Patricia Hodge (Countess Charlotte) and Issy van Randwyck (Petra). The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical.
2008 London revival
The third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008, until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with musical supervision by Caroline Humphris, choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley (Anne), Maureen Lipman (Madame Armfeldt), Alistair Robins (the Count), Gabriel Vick (Henrik), Grace Link (Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund (Petra). This critically acclaimed production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a limited season, opening on March 28, 2009, and running until July 25, 2009. The production then transferred to Broadway with a new cast.
2009 Broadway revival
The 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production opened on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in previews on November 24, 2009, and officially on December 13, 2009, with the same creative team. The cast was led by Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt and, in her Broadway debut, Catherine Zeta-Jones as Desiree. Also featured were Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Ramona Mallory (the daughter of original Broadway cast members Victoria Mallory and Mark Lambert) as Anne, Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as Henrik, Leigh Ann Larkin as Petra, Erin Davie as the Countess, Aaron Lazar as the Count, and Bradley Dean as Frid. Zeta-Jones received the award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical at the 64th Tony Awards.
Originally, Katherine Doherty and Keaton Whittaker played Fredrika in alternating performances, beginning with the November 2009 previews. The official show album, which was recorded in January 2010, features both Doherty and Whittaker as Fredrika (on different songs). However, Katherine McNamara replaced Doherty in February 2010. McNamara and Whittaker stayed with the production until it ended in January 2011.
When the contracts of Zeta-Jones and Lansbury ended, the production closed temporarily on June 20, 2010, and resumed on July 13, with new stars Bernadette Peters as Desiree Armfeldt and Elaine Stritch as Madame Armfeldt. In an interview, Peters said that Sondheim had "proposed the idea to her this spring and urged the producers of the revival to cast her." Trevor Nunn directed rehearsals with the two new stars, and the rest of the original cast remained. Peters and Stritch extended their contracts until January 9, 2011, when the production closed with 20 previews and 425 regular performances. Before the production closed, it recouped its initial investment.
Europe
Zarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging (in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978 (here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman). The successful Stockholm staging was directed by Stig Olin. In 2010 the musical was scheduled to return to Stockholm and the Stockholm Stadsteater. The cast included Pia Johansson, Dan Ekborg, Yvonne Lombard and Thérese Andersson.
The Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris production ran from February 15, 2010, through February 20, 2010. Lee Blakeley directed and Andrew George was the choreographer. Italian-born actress Greta Scacchi played Désirée, and Leslie Caron played Madame Armfeldt.
The Turku City Theatre staged the musical in 2011 with in the role as Désirée. directed and Jussi Vahvaselkä was musical director.
In 2019, the Nederlands Reisopera staged a version directed by Zack Winokur, with Susan Rigvava-Dumas playing Désirée.
Opera companies and concerts
The musical has also become part of the repertoire of a few opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. Light Opera Works (Evanston, Illinois) produced the work in August 1983. New York City Opera staged it in 1990, 1991 and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, the Los Angeles Opera in 2004, and Hartford Opera Theater in 2014. New York City Opera's production in August 1990 and July 1991 (a total of 18 performances) won the 1990 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and was telecast on the PBS show Live at Lincoln Center on November 7, 1990. The cast included both stage performers: Sally Ann Howes and George Lee Andrews as Desiree and Frederik and opera regular Regina Resnik as Madame Armfeldt (in 1991). The 2003 production featured a young Anna Kendrick as Fredrika Armfeldt, alongside Jeremy Irons as Frederik, Juliet Stevenson as Desiree, Claire Bloom as Madame Armfeldt, Danny Gurwin as Henrik, Michele Pawk as Charlotte, Jessiva Boevers as Petra, Kristin Huxhold as Anne and Marc Kudisch as Carl-Magnus. The 2003 production was revived at Los Angeles Opera in July 2004. Kudish, Pawk, Gurwin and Boevers returned alongside Judith Ivey as Desiree, Zoe Caldwell as Madame Armfeldt, Victor Garber as Frederik, Laura Benanti as Anne and Kristen Bell as Fredrika.
Opera Australia presented the piece in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt and Nancye Hayes as Madame Armfeldt. The production returned in 2010 at the Sydney Opera House with Anthony Warlow taking on the role of Fredrik Egerman. The production was directed by Stuart Maunder, designed by Roger Kirk, and conducted by Andrew Greene. Opera Theatre of Saint Louis performed the musical in June 2010. Designer Isaac Mizrahi directed and designed the production, with a cast that included Amy Irving, Siân Phillips, and Ron Raines as Fredrik Egerman.
The piece has also become a popular choice for amateur musical theatre and light opera companies. In 2017, the musical was performed by students at The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
In June 2024, there was a concert presentation at David Geffen Hall in Lincoln Center. The production starred star Susan Graham (Desiree Armfeldt), Cynthia Erivo (Petra), Ron Raines (Fredrik Egerman), Kerstin Anderson (Anne Egerman), Jonathan Christopher (Mr. Erlanson), Jason Gotay (Henrik Egerman), Ellie Fishman (Mrs. Nordstrom), Jin Ha (Frid), Addie Harrington (Fredrika Armfeldt), Shuler Hensley (Count Carl Magnus), Samantha Hill (Mrs. Segstrom), Andrea Jones-Sojola (Mrs. Anderson), Ross Lekites (Mr. Lindquist), Marsha Mason (Madam Armfeldt), and Ruthie Ann Miles (Countess Charlotte). The concert was produced by Jeff Berger, in association with
Doug and Stacey Meyer, David and Ryan Belenzon, and Michael Lamon.Film adaptation
A film version of A Little Night Music was released in 1977. Cariou, Gingold, and Guittard reprise their broadway roles alongside Elizabeth Taylor as Desiree, Lesley-Anne Down as Anne and Diana Rigg as Charlotte. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria. Sondheim wrote lyrics for the "Night Waltz" theme ("Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of "The Glamorous Life", which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. However, other songs, including "In Praise of Women", "The Miller's Son" and "Liaisons", were cut and remain heard only as background orchestrations. The film marked Prince's second (and final) time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, with much being made of Taylor's wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene. Some critics talked more positively of the film, with Variety calling it "an elegant looking, period romantic charade". There was praise for Diana Rigg's performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for his work on the score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and a DVD release was issued in June 2007.
Music analysis
The score for A Little Night Music presents performance challenges more often seen in operetta or light opera pieces than in standard musical comedy. The demands made on the singing cast are considerable; although the vocal demands of the role of Desiree are rather small, most of the other singing roles require strong, legitimately-trained voices with fairly wide ranges. Sondheim's liberal use of counterpoint extends to the vocal parts, including a free-structured round (the trio "Perpetual Anticipation") as well as songs in which characters engage in interior monologues or even overt dialogue simultaneously ("Now/Later/Soon", "A Weekend in the Country"). Critic Rex Reed noted that "The score of 'Night Music' ...contains patter songs, contrapuntal duets and trios, a quartet, and even a dramatic double quintet to puzzle through. All this has been gorgeously orchestrated by Jonathan Tunick; there is no rhythm section, only strings and woodwinds to carry the melodies and harmonies aloft."
Sondheim's engagement with threes extends to his lyrics. He organizes trios with the singers separated, while his duets are sung together, about a third person.
time
Most of the music in the show is written in waltz meter ( time). Some parts adopt compound meter, with a time signature such as . Passages in "Overture", "Glamorous Life", "Liaisons", "Every Day A Little Death", and "The Miller's Son" are in duple meter.Counterpoint and polyphonyAt several points, Sondheim has multiple performers each sing a different song simultaneously. This use of counterpoint maintains coherence even as it extends the notion of a round, familiar in songs such as the traditional "Frère Jacques", into something more complex. Sondheim said: "As for the three songs ... going together well, I might as well confess. In those days I was just getting into contrapuntal and choral writing...and I wanted to develop my technique by writing a trio. What I didn't want to do is the quodlibet method...wouldn't it be nice to have three songs you don't think are going to go together, and they do go together ... The trick was the little vamp on "Soon" which has five-and six-note chords." Steve Swayne comments that the "contrapuntal episodes in the extended ensembles ... stand as testament to his interest in Counterpoint." but could not "sustain a phrase", he devised the song "Send in the Clowns" for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e.g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut-off.
In analyzing the text of the song, Max Cryer wrote that it "is not intended to be sung by the young in love, but by a mature performer who has seen it all before. The song remains an anthem to regret for unwise decisions in the past and recognition that there's no need to send in the clowns – they're already here."
Graham Wolfe has argued, "What Desirée is referring to in the famous song is a conventional device to cover over a moment when something has gone wrong on stage. Midway through the second Act she has deviated from her usual script by suggesting to Fredrik the possibility of being together seriously and permanently, and, having been rejected, she falters as a show-person, finds herself bereft of the capacity to improvise and wittily cover. If Desirée could perform at this moment – revert to the innuendos, one-liners and blithe self-referential humour that constitutes her normal character – all would be well. She cannot, and what follows is an exemplary manifestation of Sondheim’s musico-dramatic complexity, his inclination to write music that performs drama. That is, what needs to be covered over (by the clowns sung about in the song) is the very intensity, ragged emotion and utter vulnerability that comes forward through the music and singing itself, a display protracted to six minutes, wrought with exposed silences, a shocked Fredrik sitting so uncomfortably before Desirée while something much too real emerges in a realm where he – and his audience – felt assured of performance."
Influences
There is a Mozart reference in the title—A Little Night Music is an occasionally-used translation of Eine kleine Nachtmusik'', the nickname of Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically-advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his Valses nobles et sentimentales (whose opening chord is borrowed for the opening chord of the song "Liaisons"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used. There is also a direct quotation in 'A Weekend in the Country' (just as it moves to A major for the last time in the final section of the number) of Octavian's theme from Strauss' 'Der Rosenkavalier', another comedy of manners with partner-swapping at its heart. Orchestration
The original Broadway pit consisted of a 17 piece orchestra.
* Strings: 2 violins 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp
* Brass: 2 trumpets (1 player), 3 horns, 1 trombone
* Keyboards: 1 piano/celesta
* Woodwinds:
** Reed 1: alto flute, flute, piccolo
** Reed 2: clarinet, flute
** Reed 3: bass clarinet, clarinet
** Reed 4: English horn, oboe
** Reed 5: bassoon, clarinet
* Percussion: (1 player) bells, crotales, snare drum, triangle, tympani, xylophone
The 2008 revival of the show modified the orchestrations to an 8 piece pit, re-orchestrated by Jason Carr.
* Strings: 1 violin 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp
* Keyboards: 1 piano/synthesizer
* Woodwinds: 1 player
** Bassoon: 1 player
Cast recordings
In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival (starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter.
The 2009 Broadway revival with Catherine Zeta-Jones and Angela Lansbury recorded a cast album on January 4, 2010, which was released on April 6.
Critical response
In his review of the original 1973 Broadway production, Clive Barnes in The New York Times called the musical "heady, civilized, sophisticated and enchanting." He noted that "the real triumph belongs to Stephen Sondheim...the music is a celebration of 3/4 time, an orgy of plaintively memorable waltzes, all talking of past loves and lost worlds...There is a peasant touch here." He commented that the lyrics are "breathtaking".
In its review of the 1989 London revival, the reviewer for The Guardian wrote that the "production also strikes me as infinitely superior to Harold Prince's 1975 version at the Adelphi. Mr Judge's great innovation is to transform the Liebeslieder Singers from the evening-dressed, after-dinner line-up into 18th century ghosts weaving in and out of the action...But Mr Judge's other great realisation is that, in Sondheim, the lyrics are not an adornment to a song but their very essence: understand them and the show will flow. Thus Dorothy Tutin as Desiree, the touring thesp eventually reunited with her quondam lover, is not the melting romantic of previous productions but a working mother with the sharpness of a hat-pin."
The Independent review of the 1995 National Theatre revival praised the production, writing "For three hours of gloriously barbed bliss and bewitchment, Sean Mathias's production establishes the show as a minor miracle of astringent worldly wisdom and one that is haunted by less earthy intimations." The review went on to state that "The heart of the production, in both senses, is Judi Dench's superb Desiree Armfeldt...Her husky-voiced rendering of "Send in the Clowns" is the most moving I've ever heard."
In reviewing the 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production, the Telegraph reviewer wrote that "Sondheim's lyrics are often superbly witty, his music here, mostly in haunting waltz-time, far more accessible than is sometimes the case. The score positively throbs with love, regret and desire." But of the specific production, the reviewer went on to note: "But Nunn's production, on one of those hermetic sets largely consisting of doors and tarnished mirrors that have become such a cliché in recent years, never penetrates the work's subtly erotic heart. And as is often the case with this director's work, the pace is so slow and the mood so reverent, that initial enchantment gives way to bored fidgeting."
Steven Suskin, reviewing the new Broadway cast for Variety, wrote "What a difference a diva makes. Bernadette Peters steps into the six-month-old revival of A Little Night Music with a transfixing performance, playing it as if she realizes her character's onstage billing -- "the one and only Desiree Armfeldt"—is clichéd hyperbole. By figuratively rolling her eyes at the hype, Peters gives us a rich, warm and comedically human Desiree, which reaches full impact when she pierces the façade with a nakedly honest, tears-on-cheek 'Send in the Clowns.'" Awards and nominations Original Broadway production{| class"wikitable" style="width:95%;"
|-
! style="width:5%;"| Year
! style="width:20%;"| Award Ceremony
! style="width:45%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Nominee
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|-
| rowspan"24" style"text-align:center;"| 1973
| rowspan="12"| Tony Award
| colspan="2"| Best Musical
|
|-
| Best Book of a Musical
| Hugh Wheeler
|
|-
| Best Original Score
| Stephen Sondheim
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical
| Len Cariou
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical
| Glynis Johns
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical
| Laurence Guittard
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical
| Patricia Elliott
|
|-
| Hermione Gingold
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Florence Klotz
|
|-
| Best Scenic Design
| Boris Aronson
|
|-
| Best Lighting Design
| Tharon Musser
|
|-
| Best Direction of a Musical
| Harold Prince
|
|-
| rowspan="7"| Drama Desk Award
| Outstanding Book of a Musical
| Hugh Wheeler
|
|-
| Outstanding Music
| rowspan="2"| Stephen Sondheim
|
|-
| Outstanding Lyrics
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| Outstanding Actress in a Musical
| Glynis Johns
|
|-
| Patricia Elliott
|
|-
| Outstanding Director
| Harold Prince
|
|-
| Most Promising Performer
| D'Jamin Bartlett
|
|-
| Grammy Award
| colspan="2"| Best Musical Show Album
|
|-
| rowspan"3" colspan"2"| Theatre World Award
| Laurence Guittard
|
|-
| Patricia Elliott
|
|-
| D'Jamin Bartlett
|
|-
| New York Drama Critics' Circle Award
| Best Musical
| Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler
|
|}
1995 London revival
{| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;"
|-
! style="width:5%;"| Year
! style="width:20%;"| Award Ceremony
! style="width:45%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Nominee
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|-
| rowspan"4" style"text-align:center;"| 1995
| rowspan="4"| Laurence Olivier Award
| Best Actress in a Musical
| Judi Dench
|
|-
| Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical
| Siân Phillips
|
|-
| Best Theatre Choreographer
| Wayne McGregor
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Nicky Gillibrand
|
|}
2009 London Revival
{| class"wikitable" width"95%"
! width="5%"| Year
! width="20%"| Award Ceremony
! width="45%"| Category
! width="20%"| Nominee
! width="10%"| Result
|-
| rowspan="5" |2010
| rowspan="5" |Laurence Olivier Award
| colspan="2" |Best Revival of a Musical
|
|-
|Best Actress in a Musical
|Hannah Waddingham
|
|-
|Best Actor in a Musical
|Alexander Hanson
|
|-
|Best Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical
|Maureen Lipman
|
|-
|Best Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical
|Kelly Price
|
|}
2009 Broadway revival
{| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;"
|-
! style="width:5%;"| Year
! style="width:20%;"| Award Ceremony
! style="width:45%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Nominee
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|-
| rowspan"10" style"text-align:center;"| 2010
| rowspan="4"| Tony Award
| colspan="2"| Best Revival of a Musical
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical
| Catherine Zeta-Jones
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical
| Angela Lansbury
|
|-
| Best Sound Design
| Dan Moses Schreier and Gareth Owen
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| Drama Desk Award
| colspan="2"| Outstanding Revival of a Musical
|
|-
| Outstanding Actress in a Musical
| Catherine Zeta-Jones
|
|-
| Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
| Angela Lansbury
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| Outer Critics Circle Award
| colspan="2"| Outstanding Revival of a Musical
|
|-
| Outstanding Actress in a Musical
| Catherine Zeta-Jones
|
|-
| Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
| Angela Lansbury
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 2011
| Grammy Award
| colspan="2"| Best Musical Show Album
|
|}
References
Sources
*
* External links
*
*[https://www.sondheimdatabase.com/shows/a-little-night-music A Little Night Music] at the Sondheim Database
* [http://www.sondheimguide.com/night.html A Little Night Music on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide]
* [http://www.mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000048 A Little Night Music] at the Music Theatre International website
* [https://stageagent.com/shows/musical/203/a-little-night-music "Show Information], plot summary and character descriptions, stageagent.com ([https://web.archive.org/web/20080122081621/http://stageagent.com/Shows/View/735 January 2008 archive])
* [http://www.nightmusiconbroadway.com/ A Little Night Music], Broadway revival
}}
Category:1973 musicals
Category:Broadway musicals
Category:West End musicals
Category:Musicals based on films
Category:Musicals by Hugh Wheeler
Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim
Category:Adaptations of works by Ingmar Bergman
Category:American plays adapted into films
Category:Tony Award for Best Musical
Category:Tony Award–winning musicals
Category:Musicals set in Sweden
Category:Musicals set in the 1900s | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Little_Night_Music | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.826469 |
2943 | Dual wield | thumb|250px|Mongolian soldiers dual wielding knives during skills display
Dual wielding or Macedonian shooting is the technique of using two weapons, one in each hand, for training or combat. It is not a common combat practice. Although historical records of dual wielding in war are limited, there are numerous weapon-based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. The use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in European martial arts and fencing, such as a parrying dagger. Miyamoto Musashi, a Japanese swordsman and ronin, was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords.
In terms of firearms, especially handguns, dual wielding is generally denounced by firearm enthusiasts due to its impracticality. Though using two handguns at the same time confers an advantage by allowing more ready ammunition, it is rarely done due to other aspects of weapons handling.
Dual wielding, both with melee and ranged weapons, has been popularized by fictional works (film, television, and video games).
History
alt=A young boy in a black vest over a white shirt and a black hat raises a pistol high in his right hand and lets another hang from his left hand.|thumb|An urban proletariat boy dual wields pistols in Eugène Delacroix's painting La Liberté guidant le peuple.
Dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon-based martial arts and fencing practices.
The dimachaerus was a type of Roman gladiator that fought with two swords. Thus, an inscription from Lyon, France, mentions such a type of gladiator, here spelled dymacherus. The dimachaeri were equipped for close-combat fighting. A dimachaerus used a pair of siccae (curved scimitar) or gladius and used a fighting style adapted to both attack and defend with his weapons rather than a shield, as he was not equipped with one.
The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts.
North American Indian tribes of the Atlantic northeast used a form involving a tomahawk in the primary hand and a knife in the secondary. It is practiced today as part of the modern Cree martial art Okichitaw.
All the above-mentioned examples, involve either one long and one short weapon, or two short weapons. An example of a dual wield of two sabres is the Ukrainian cossack dance hopak.
Asia
During the campaign Muslim conquest in 6th to 7th century AD, a Rashidun caliphate general named Khalid ibn Walid was reported to favor wielding two broad swords, with one in each hand, during combat.
Traditional schools of Japanese martial arts include dual wield techniques, particularly a style conceived by Miyamoto Musashi involving the katana and wakizashi, two-sword kenjutsu techniques he called Niten Ichi-ryū.
Eskrima, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines teaches Doble Baston techniques involving the basic use of a pair of rattan sticks and also Espada y daga or Sword/Stick and Dagger. Okinawan martial arts have a method that uses a pair of sai.
Chinese martial arts involve the use of a pair of butterfly swords and hook swords.
Famed for his enormous strength, Dian Wei, a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China, excelled at wielding a pair of ji (a halberd-like weapon), each of which was said to weigh 40 jin.
Chen An, a warlord who lived during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period, wielded a sword and a serpent spear in each hand, supposedly measuring at 7 chi and 1 zhang 8 chi respectively.
During Ran Wei–Later Zhao war, Ran Min, emperor of the short-lived Ran Wei empire of China, wielded two weapons, one in each hand, and fought fiercely, inflicting many casualties on the Xianbei soldiers while mounted on the famous horse Zhu Long ("Red Dragon").
Gatka, a weapon-based martial art from the Punjab region, is known to use two sticks at a time.
The Thailand weapon-based martial art Krabi Krabong involves the use of a separate Krabi in each hand.
Kalaripayattu teaches advanced students to use either two sticks (of various sizes) or two daggers or two swords, simultaneously.
Modern
The use of a gun in each hand is often associated with the American Old West, mainly due to media portrayals. It was common for people in the era to carry two guns, but not to use them at the same time, as shown in movies. The second gun served as a backup weapon, to be used only if the main one suffered a malfunction or was lost or emptied.
However, there were several examples of gunmen in the West who actually used two pistols at the same time in their gunfights:
John Wesley Hardin killed a gunman named Benjamin Bradley who shot at him, by drawing both of his pistols and firing back.
The Mexican vaquero Augustine Chacon had several gunfights in which he was outnumbered by more than one gunman and prevailed by equipping himself with a revolver in each hand.
King Fisher once managed to kill three bandits in a shootout by pulling both of his pistols.
During the infamous Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight, lawman Dallas Stoudenmire pulled both of his pistols as he ran out onto the street and killed one bystander and two other gunmen.
Jonathan R. Davis, a prospector during the California Gold Rush, was ambushed by thirteen outlaws while together with two of his comrades. One of his friends was killed and the other was mortally wounded during the ambush. Davis drew both of his revolvers and fired, killing seven of the bandits, and killing four more with his bowie knife, causing the final two to flee.
thumb|Model dressed as Lara Croft dual wielding pistols
Dual wielding two handguns has been popularized by film and television.
Effectiveness
MythBusters compared many firing stances, including having a gun in each hand, and found that, compared to the two-handed single-gun stance as a benchmark, only the one-handed shoulder-level stance with a single gun was comparable in terms of accuracy and speed. The ability to look down the sights of the gun was given as the main reason for this. In an episode the following year, they compared holding two guns and firing simultaneously—rather than alternating left and right shots—with holding one gun in the two-handed stance, and found that the results were in favor of using two guns and firing simultaneously.
In media
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles features dual wielding being done by Leonardo with two katana swords, Raphael with two sais, and Michelangelo with two nunchucks. Sometimes, their arch enemy known as the Shredder dual wields with many weapons.
Princess Mononoke features Lady Eboshi dual wielding with a katana sword and a hairpin.
The Marvel Comics features dual wielding being done by Deadpool with two katana swords, Nightcrawler with two sabres, Elektra with two sais, and Black Widow with two pistols and two batons.
The DC Comics features Dick Grayson and Barbara Gordon dual wielding two bastons.
The Star Wars franchise features many characters dual wielding two lightsabers or more including Anakin Skywalker, Ahsoka Tano, and General Grievous. Star Wars: The Clone Wars features Palpatine and his former apprentice, Darth Maul, dual wielding two lightsabers each. Also, characters dual wielding two blaster pistols include Jango Fett and Bo-Katan Kryze.
The Halo franchise allows dual-wielding weapons from Halo 2 and Halo 3 onwards.
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe features the noble centaur general Oreius dual wielding two longswords, and also the oppressive White Witch doing the same. It also features the Minotaur general Otmin dual wielding a falchion sword and a battle axe.
Ip Man 3 features butterfly swords being dual wielded by Ip Man and Cheung Tin-chi.
The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings features the virtuous wizard Gandalf dual wielding a magic staff and a mystic longsword.
The Mummy Returns features the adventurous Egyptologist Evelyn O'Connell and the treacherous Anck-su-namun dual wielding two sais.
The Pirates of the Caribbean features characters dual wielding two swords including Jack Sparrow, Will Turner, and Elizabeth Swann.
The martial arts movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon features Michelle Yeoh as Yu Shu Lien dual wielding with a dao sword which split to two, and then with two hook swords.
The Three Musketeers features many characters dual fighting with rapiers and daggers.
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers features Tommy Oliver dual wielding a sword and a dagger.
Robin of Sherwood features Nasir, a Saracen assassin who dual wields two scimitars.
Avatar: The Legend of Aang features dual wielding done by Zuko with two dao swords, Jet with two hook swords, Suki with two war fans, and Sokka with a machete along a club or a boomerang.
The Transformers features dual wielding being done by many characters including Optimus Prime and Optimus Primal with two swords.
Kung Fu Hustle features iron rings being dual wielded by the humble tailor of Pigsty Alley.
Power Rangers: Jungle Fury features dual wielding being done by Casey Rhodes with two nunchakus and also two dao-themed Shark Sabres, Theo Martin with two tonfas and then two tessan-themed Jungle Fans, and Camille with two sais.
In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) martial arts film Shang Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings features the Ten Rings be dual wielded by Wenwu, the MCU version of the Mandarin, and then by Shang Chi, his son.
The musical version of The Lion King features Mufasa and his son Simba dual wielding two akrafena swords to fight.
Lara Croft, the heroine of the Tomb Raider franchise, dual wields two pistols.
Dante, the protagonist of the Devil May Cry series, dual wields two pistols, named Ebony and Ivory.
Kirito, the protagonist of Sword Art Online, is famous for being able to wield two swords of a similar length at the same time.
See also
Ambidexterity
Cross-dominance
Dimachaerus
Gun fu
Swordsmanship
References
Category:Combat
Category:Video game terminology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_wield | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.840446 |
2944 | Ariel Sharon | | image = Ariel Sharon official portrait (D644-090) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 2001
| order = 11th
| office = Prime Minister of Israel
| term_start = 7 March 2001
| term_end = 14 April 2006
| president = Moshe Katsav
| predecessor = Ehud Barak
| successor = Ehud Olmert
| deputy = Ehud Olmert
| office2 = Ministerial portfolios
| subterm2 = 1977–1981
| suboffice2 = Agriculture
| subterm3 = 1981–1983
| suboffice3 = Defense
| subterm4 = 1984–1990
| suboffice4 = Industry and Trade
| subterm5 = 1990–1992
| suboffice5 = Housing and Construction
| subterm6 = 1996–1999
| suboffice6 = National Infrastructure
| subterm7 = 1998–1999
| suboffice7 = Minister of Foreign Affairs
| subterm8 = 2001–2003
| suboffice8 = Immigrant Absorption
| subterm9 = 2002–2003
| suboffice9 = Industry and Trade
| subterm10 = 2002
| suboffice10 = Foreign Affairs
| subterm11 = 2003
| suboffice11
| birth_name = Ariel Scheinerman(n)
| birth_date
| birth_place = Kfar Malal, Mandatory Palestine
| death_date
| death_place = Ramat Gan, Israel
| party =
| spouse =
*
}}
| children = 3
| alma_mater =
| profession = Military officer
| signature = Ariel Sharon signature.svg
| footnotes = n.b.
<!--Military service-->| allegiance = <!-- Israel -->
| branch =
| serviceyears = 1948–1974
| rank = (major general)
| unit =
| commands =
| battles =
| native_name_lang = he
}}
Ariel Sharon ( ; also known by his diminutive Arik, ; 26 February 192811 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th prime minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006.
Born in Kfar Malal in Mandatory Palestine to Russian Jewish immigrants, he rose in the ranks of the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948, participating in the 1948 Palestine war as platoon commander of the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in several battles. Sharon became an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations, including the 1953 Qibya massacre, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon "the greatest field commander in our history". Upon leaving the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War. An official enquiry found that he bore "personal responsibility" for the Sabra and Shatila massacre of Palestinian refugees, for which he became known as the "Butcher of Beirut" among Arabs. He was subsequently removed as defense minister.
From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip. He became the leader of the Likud in 1999, and in 2000, amid campaigning for the 2001 prime ministerial election, made a controversial visit to the Al-Aqsa complex on the Temple Mount, triggering the Second Intifada. He subsequently defeated Ehud Barak in the election and served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier in 2002–2003 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Facing stiff opposition to the latter policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. Following a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in 2014.
Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle Eastern history. Israelis almost universally revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, whereas Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal, with the latter lamenting that he was never held accountable.Early life and educationAriel (Arik) Scheinerman (later Sharon) was born in Kfar Malal, an agricultural moshav, then in Mandatory Palestine, to Shmuel Scheinerman (1896–1956) of Brest-Litovsk and Vera (née Schneirov) Scheinerman (1900–1988) of Mogilev. His parents met while at university in Tiflis (now Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia), where Sharon's father was studying agronomy and his mother was studying medicine. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist government's growing persecution of Jews in the region. In Palestine, Vera Scheinerman went by the name Dvora.
The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, a socialist, secular community. (Ariel Sharon himself would remain proudly secular throughout his life.) Although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus: "The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism ... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevik-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce."
Sharon spoke both Hebrew and Russian.
Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit (Dita). Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed. As a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
For his role in a night-raid on Iraqi forces at Bir Adas, Sharon was made a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade. Sharon denied the claims, but Majali was adamant. "Sharon is like a grizzly bear," he assured. "I captured him for 9 days, I healed his wounds and released him due to his insignificance." A few fellow high-ranking Jordanian officers testified in favour of his account." In 1994 and during the peace treaty signing ceremony with Jordan, Sharon wanted to get in touch with his former captor, but the latter determinedly refused to discuss the incident publicly.
After recovering from the wounds received at Latrun, he resumed command of his patrol unit. On 28 December 1948, his platoon attempted to break through an Egyptian stronghold in Iraq-El-Manshia. At about this time, Israeli founding father David Ben-Gurion gave him the Hebraized name "Sharon". In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sharon's subsequent military career would be characterized by insubordination, aggression and disobedience, but also brilliance as a commander.Unit 101A year and a half later, on the direct orders of the Prime Minister, Sharon returned to active service in the rank of major, as the founder and commander of the new Unit 101, a special forces unit tasked with reprisal operations in response to Palestinian fedayeen attacks. The first Israeli commando unit, Unit 101 specialized in offensive guerrilla warfare in enemy countries. Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Unit 101:
Unit 101 undertook a series of raids against Jordan, which then held the West Bank. The raids also helped bolster Israeli morale and convince Arab states that the fledgling nation was capable of long-range military action. Known for raids against Arab civilians and military targets, the unit is held responsible for the widely condemned Qibya massacre in October 1953. After a group of Palestinians used Qibya as a staging point for a fedayeen attack in Yehud that killed a Jewish woman and her two children in Israel, Unit 101 retaliated on the village.
Facing international condemnation for the attack, Ben-Gurion denied that the Israeli military was involved.
Leading up to the Suez War, the missions Sharon took part in included:
*Operation Shoshana (now known as the Qibya massacre)
*Operation Black Arrow
*Operation Elkayam
*Operation Egged
*Operation Olive Leaves
*Operation Volcano
*Operation Gulliver (מבצע גוליבר)
*Operation Lulav (מבצע לולב)
During a payback operation in the Deir al-Balah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, Sharon was again wounded by gunfire, this time in the leg. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear.
Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack to aid their comrades. Sharon was criticized by his superiors and was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue.
Sharon had assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and had stormed the town with his armor through the Themed Gap. Sharon routed the Sudanese police company, and captured the settlement. On his way to the Nakla, Sharon's men came under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s. On the 30th, Sharon linked up with Eytan near Nakla. Dayan had no more plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon nonetheless decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. Gur's men were forced to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing of this, Sharon sent in another task force while Gur's men used the cover of night to scale the walls of the Heitan Defile. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptian and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed during the battle at Mitla. Due to these deaths, Sharon's actions at Mitla were surrounded in controversy, with many within the IDF viewing the deaths as the result of unnecessary and unauthorized aggression.
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The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. However, when Yitzhak Rabin became Chief of Staff in 1964, Sharon again began to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf (Major General).
In the Six-Day War, Sharon, in command of an armored division on the Sinai front, drew up his own complex offensive strategy that combined infantry troops, tanks and paratroopers from planes and helicopters to destroy the Egyptian forces Sharon's 38th Division faced when it broke through to the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area.
According to Sapir Handelman, after Sharon's assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him "The King of Israel".
Sharon played a key role in the War of Attrition. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. As leader of the southern command, on 29 July Israeli frogmen stormed and destroyed Green Island, a fortress at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez whose radar and antiaircraft installations controlled that sector's airspace. On 9 September Sharon's forces carried out Operation Raviv, a large-scale raid along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Landing craft ferried across Russian-made tanks and armored personnel carriers that Israel had captured in 1967, and the small column harried the Egyptians for ten hours.
Following his appointment to the southern command, Sharon had no further promotions, and considered retiring. Sharon discussed the issue with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who strongly advised him to remain at his post. Sharon remained in the military for another three years, before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he helped found the Likud ("Unity") political party.
'', Israel's ground maneuver, encircles the Egyptian Third Army, October 1973]]
At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, Sharon was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. On his farm, before he left for the front line, the Reserve Commander, Zeev Amit, said to him, "How are we going to get out of this?" Sharon replied, "You don't know? We will cross the Suez Canal and the war will end over there." Sharon arrived at the front, to participate in his fourth war, in a civilian car. His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness, Sharon's forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. In a move that again thwarted the commands of his superiors, Sharon's division crossed the Suez, effectively winning the war for Israel.
Abraham Adan's division passed over the bridgehead into Africa, advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army. Tensions between the two generals followed Sharon's decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective.
Sharon's complex ground maneuver is regarded as a decisive move in the Yom Kippur War, undermining the Egyptian Second Army and encircling the Egyptian Third Army. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is widely viewed as the hero of the Yom Kippur War, responsible for Israel's ground victory in the Sinai in 1973.
Bar Lev suggested that such a line would defend against any major Egyptian assault across the canal, and was expected to function as a "graveyard for Egyptian troops". Moshe Dayan described it as "one of the best anti-tank ditches in the world." Sharon, and Israel Tal on the other hand, vigorously opposed the line. Sharon said that it would pin down large military formations that would be sitting ducks for deadly artillery attacks, and cited the opinion of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who explained him "the great military disaster such a line could bring." Notwithstanding, it was completed in spring 1970.
During the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian forces successfully breached the Bar Lev Line in less than two hours at a cost of more than a thousand dead and some 5,000 wounded. Sharon would later recall that what Schneerson had told him was a tragedy, "but unfortunately, that happened".
Early political career, 1974–2001
Beginnings of political career
In the 1940s and 1950s, Sharon seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he joined the Liberal Party and was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for that year's elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service. On the heels of being hailed as a war hero for crossing the Suez in the 1973 war, Sharon won a seat to the Knesset in the elections that year, In 1981, after visiting South African forces fighting in Namibia for 10 days, Sharon argued that South Africa needed more weapons to fight Soviet infiltration in the region. Sharon promised that the relationship between Israel and South Africa would continue to deepen as they work to "ensure the National Defense of both our countries". The collaboration in carrying out joint-nuclear tests, in planning counter-insurgency strategies in Namibia and in designing security fences helped to make Israel, South Africa's closest ally in this period.1982 Lebanon War and Sabra and Shatila massacre
Sharon (right) with his US counterpart Caspar Weinberger, 1982]]
As Defense Minister, Sharon launched an invasion of Lebanon called Operation Peace for Galilee, later known as the 1982 Lebanon War, following the shooting of Israel's ambassador in London, Shlomo Argov. Although this attempted assassination was in fact perpetrated by the Abu Nidal Organization, possibly with Syrian or Iraqi involvement, the Israeli government justified the invasion by citing 270 terrorist attacks by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Israel, the occupied territories, and the Jordanian and Lebanese border (in addition to 20 attacks on Israeli interests abroad). Sharon intended the operation to eradicate the PLO from its state within a state inside Lebanon, but the war is primarily remembered for the Sabra and Shatila massacre.
In a three-day massacre between 16 and 18 September, between 460 and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp were killed by the Phalanges— Lebanese Maronite Christian militias. Shatila had previously been one of the PLO's three main training camps for foreign terrorists and the main training camp for European terrorists; the Israelis maintained that 2,000 to 3,000 terrorists remained in the camps, but were unwilling to risk the lives of more of their soldiers after the Lebanese army repeatedly refused to "clear them out." The killings followed years of sectarian civil war in Lebanon that left 95,000 dead. Nearly all of the victims were men. blocking camp exits and providing logistical support. The killings led some to label Sharon "the Butcher of Beirut".
An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated, "Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing of the Phalangist leader Bachir Gemayel to the PLO, saying 'it symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters'." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved.
Robert Maroun Hatem, Hobeika's bodyguard, stated in his book From Israel to Damascus that Phalangist commander Elie Hobeika ordered the massacre of civilians in defiance of Israeli instructions to behave like a "dignified" army. Hatem claimed "Sharon had given strict orders to Hobeika....to guard against any desperate move" and that Hobeika perpetrated the massacre "to tarnish Israel's reputation worldwide" for the benefit of Syria. Hobeika subsequently joined the Syrian occupation government and lived as a prosperous businessman under Syrian protection; further massacres in Sabra and Shatilla occurred with Syrian support in 1985.
The massacre followed intense Israeli bombings of Beirut that had seen heavy civilian casualties, testing Israel's relationship with the United States in the process. In early 1983, the commission recommended the removal of Sharon from his post as defense minister and stated:
<blockquote stylefont-size:100%>We have found ... that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office—and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority ... to ... remove [him] from office.</blockquote>
Sharon initially refused to resign as defense minister, and Begin refused to fire him. After a grenade was thrown into a dispersing crowd at an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: Sharon agreed to forfeit the post of defense minister but stayed in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio.
Sharon's resignation as defense minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset.
In its 21 February 1983 issue, Time published an article implying that Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon sued Time for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time article included false allegations, they found that the magazine had not acted with actual malice and so was not guilty of libel.
On 18 June 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have Sharon indicted on alleged war crimes charges. Elie Hobeika, the leader of the Phalange militia who carried out the massacres, was assassinated in January 2002, several months before he was scheduled to testify trial. Prior to his assassination, he had "specifically stated that he did not plan to identify Sharon as being responsible for Sabra and Shatila."
Political downturn and recovery
greeting United States President Bill Clinton in 1998]]
After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, Sharon remained in successive governments as a minister without portfolio (1983–1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984–1990), and Minister of Housing Construction (1990–1992). In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense committee (1990–1992) and chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head in February 1990, when Sharon grabbed the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?" The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party.
Sharon unsuccessfully challenged Shamir in the 1984 Herut leadership election and the 1992 Likud leadership election.
In Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, Sharon was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996–98), and Foreign Minister (1998–99). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, Sharon became the interim leader of the Likud party and subsequently won the September 1999 Likud leadership election.
Opposition to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
Ariel Sharon criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 as an act of "brutal interventionism". Sharon said both Serbia and Kosovo have been victims of violence. He said prior to the current Yugoslav campaign against Kosovo Albanians, Serbians were the targets of attacks in the Kosovo province. "Israel has a clear policy. We are against aggressive actions. We are against hurting innocent people. I hope that the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible." During the crisis, Elyakim Haetzni said the Serbs should be the first to receive Israeli aid. "There are our traditional friends," he told Israel Radio." It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the holocaust. On Sharon's death, Serbian minister Aleksandar Vulin stated: The Serbian people will remember Sharon for opposing the 1999 NATO bombing campaign against the former Yugoslavia and advocating respect for sovereignty of other nations and a policy of not interfering with their internal affairs.
Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000–2001
On 28 September 2000, Sharon and an escort of over 1,000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and Qibli Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks. On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U.S. State Department, "Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber-coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200." According to the government of Israel, 14 policemen were injured.
Sharon's visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. Sharon's supporters claim that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the Second Intifada months prior to Sharon's visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report,
The Mitchell Report found that
In addition, the report stated,
The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events,
Prime Minister (2001–2006)
meeting in Israel.]]
, center, discusses the Israeli–Palestinian peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority Mahmoud Abbas in Aqaba, Jordan, 4 June 2003.]]
Mahmoud Abbas, United States President George W. Bush, and Ariel Sharon, Red Sea Summit, Aqaba, June 2003]]
, April 2004]]
After the collapse of Barak's government, Sharon was elected Prime Minister on 6 February 2001, defeating Barak 62 percent to 38 percent.
The election of the more pro-Russian Sharon, as well as the more pro-Israel Vladimir Putin, led to an improvement in Israel–Russia relations.
In September 2003, Sharon became the first prime minister of Israel to visit India, saying that Israel regarded India as one of the most important countries in the world. Some analysts speculated on the development of a three-way military axis of New Delhi, Washington, D.C., and Jerusalem.
On 20 July 2004, Sharon called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in antisemitism in France (94 antisemitic assaults were reported in the first six months of 2004, compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third-largest Jewish population in the world (about 600,000 people). Sharon observed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them.Unilateral disengagement
In September 2001, Sharon stated for the first time that Palestinians should have the right to establish their own land west of the Jordan River. On 27 September 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52–48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by Sharon's main rival, Benjamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader.
Founding of Kadima
On 21 November 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima ("Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, Sharon's longtime rival Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following Sharon's incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima's leader, for the nearing general elections. Likud, along with the Labor Party, were Kadimas chief rivals in the March 2006 elections.
Sharon's stroke occurred a few months before he had been expected to win a new election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. (the number usually averages on the high 70%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 included Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor (including Amir Peretz as Defense Minister), the Pensioners' Party (Gil), the Shas religious party, and Israel Beytenu.
Alleged fundraising irregularities and Greek island affair
During the latter part of his career, Sharon was investigated for alleged involvement in a number of financial scandals, in particular, the Greek island affair and irregularities of fundraising during the 1999 election campaign. In the Greek island affair, Sharon was accused of promising (during his term as Foreign Minister) to help Israeli businessman David Appel in his development project on a Greek island in exchange for large consultancy payments to Sharon's son Gilad. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence. In the 1999 election fundraising scandal, Sharon was not charged with any wrongdoing, but his son Omri, a Knesset member at the time, was charged and sentenced in 2006 to nine months in prison.
To avoid a potential conflict of interest in relation to these investigations, Sharon was not involved in the confirmation of the appointment of a new attorney general, Menahem Mazuz, in 2005.
On 10 December 2005, Israeli police raided Martin Schlaff's apartment in Jerusalem. Another suspect in the case was Robert Nowikovsky, an Austrian involved in Russian state-owned company Gazprom's business activities in Europe.
According to Haaretz, "The $3 million that parachuted into Gilad and Omri Sharon's bank account toward the end of 2002 was transferred there in the context of a consultancy contract for development of kolkhozes (collective farms) in Russia. Gilad Sharon was brought into the campaign to make the wilderness bloom in Russia by Getex, a large Russian-based exporter of seeds (peas, millet, wheat) from Eastern Europe. Getex also has ties with Israeli firms involved in exporting wheat from Ukraine, for example. The company owns farms in Eastern Europe and is considered large and prominent in its field. It has its Vienna offices in the same building as Jurimex, which was behind the $1-million guarantee to the Yisrael Beiteinu party."
On 17 December, police found evidence of a $3 million bribe paid to Sharon's sons. Shortly afterwards, Sharon had a stroke. Stories of Sharon's appetite and obesity were legendary in Israel. He would often joke about his love of food and expansive girth. His staff car would reportedly be stocked with snacks, vodka, and caviar. He was a daily consumer of cigars and luxury foods. Numerous attempts by doctors, friends, and staff to impose a balanced diet on Sharon were unsuccessful.
Sharon was hospitalized on 18 December 2005, following a minor ischemic stroke. During his hospital stay, doctors discovered a heart defect requiring surgery and ordered bed rest pending a cardiac catheterization scheduled for 5 January 2006. Instead, Sharon immediately returned to work and had a hemorrhagic stroke on 4 January. He was rushed to Hadassah Medical Center in Jerusalem. After two surgeries lasting 7 and 14 hours, doctors stopped the bleeding in Sharon's brain, but were unable to prevent him from entering into a coma. Subsequent media reports indicated that Sharon had been diagnosed with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) during his December hospitalisation. Hadassah Hospital Director Shlomo Mor-Yosef declined to respond to comments that the combination of CAA and blood thinners after Sharon's December stroke might have caused his more serious subsequent stroke.
Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister the night of Sharon's second stroke, while Sharon officially remained in office. Knesset elections followed in March, with Olmert and Sharon's Kadima party winning a plurality. The next month, the Israeli Cabinet declared Sharon permanently incapacitated and Olmert became Interim Prime Minister on 14 April 2006 and Prime Minister in his own right on 4 May.
Sharon underwent a series of subsequent surgeries related to his state. In May 2006, he was transferred to a long-term care facility in Sheba Medical Center. In July of that year, he was briefly taken to the hospital's intensive care unit to be treated for bacteria in his blood, before returning to the long-term care facility on 6 November 2006. Sharon would remain at Sheba Medical Center until his death. Medical experts indicated that his cognitive abilities had likely been destroyed by the stroke. His condition worsened from late 2013, and Sharon suffered from renal failure on 1 January 2014.
After spending eight years in a coma, Sharon died at 14:00 local time (12:00 UTC) on 11 January 2014. Sharon's state funeral was held on 13 January in accordance with Jewish burial customs, which require that interment take place as soon after death as possible. His body lay in state in the Knesset Plaza from 12 January until the official ceremony, followed by a funeral held at the family's ranch in the Negev Desert. Sharon was buried beside his wife, Lily.
Personal life
Sharon was married twice, to two sisters, Margalit and Lily Zimmerman, who were from Romania. Sharon met Margalit in 1947 when she was 16, while she was tending a vegetable field, and married her in 1953, shortly after becoming a military instructor. Margalit was a supervisory psychiatric nurse. They had one son, Gur. Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962 and Gur died in October 1967, aged 11, after a friend accidentally shot him while the two children were playing with a rifle at the Sharon family home. After Margalit's death, Sharon married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gilad, and six grandchildren. Lily Sharon died of lung cancer in 2000.
Sharon's sister, Yehudit, known as "Dita", married Shmuel Mandel. In the 1950s, the couple permanently left Israel and emigrated to the United States. This caused a permanent rift in the family. Shmuel and Vera Scheinerman were greatly hurt by their daughter's choice to leave Israel. As a result, Vera Scheinerman willed only a small part of her estate to Dita, an act which enraged her. At one point, Dita decided to return to Israel, but after Vera was informed by the Israel Lands Administration that it would not be legally possible to split the family property between Ariel and Dita, and informed her that she would not be able to build a home there, Dita, believing she was being lied to, cut her family in Israel off and refused to attend the funerals of her mother and sister-in-law. She reestablished contact with the family after Sharon's stroke. Sharon's sister has rarely been mentioned in biographies of him: he himself rarely acknowledged her and only mentioned her twice in his autobiography.LegacyA hugely consequential figure, Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure as well. While generally considered a great general and statesman among Israelis, Palestinians and numerous media and political sources revile Sharon as a war criminal. Human Rights Watch has contended that Sharon should have been held criminally accountable for his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacre, and other abuses.
The Ariel Sharon Park, an environmental park near Tel Aviv, is named for him.
In the Negev desert, the IDF is currently building its city of training bases, Camp Ariel Sharon. In total, a NIS 50 billion project, the city of bases is named after Ariel Sharon, the largest active construction project in Israel, it is to become the largest IDF base in Israel.Overview of offices heldSharon served as prime minister (Israel's head of government) from 7 March 2001 through 14 April 2006 (with Ehud Olmert serving as acting prime minister beginning 4 January 2006, after Sharon slipped into a coma). As prime minister he led the 12th government during the 15th Knesset and the 13th government during the 16th Knesset.
Sharon served in the Knesset, first for several months in 1973, and later from 1977 through 2006. Sharon. From July 1999 through July 2000, Sharon served as the unofficial/honorary Knesset's opposition leader. Thereafter, from July 2000 through March 2001, he served as the first official designated Knesset opposition leader.
Sharon was the leader of the Shlomtzion party from its 1976 founding until its 1977 merger into Likud. Sharon served as leader of the Likud party from 1999 through 2005, leaving to create Kadima which he led from 2005 through early 2006 (when he fell into a coma).
In addition to these positions and his ministerial roles, Sharon also served as a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin from June 1975 through March 1976.
Ministerial posts
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ministerial posts
|-
! Ministerial post !! Tenure !! Prime Minister(s) !! Government(s) !! Predecessor !! Successor
|-
| Minister of Agriculture || 20 June 1977 – 5 August 1981 || Menachem Begin || 18 || Aharon Uzan || Simha Erlich
|-
| Minister of Defense || 5 August 1981 – 14 February 1983 || Menachem Begin || 19 || Menachem Begin || Menachem Begin
|-
| Minister without portfolio || 14 February 1983 – 13 September 1984 || Menachem Begin <br>Yitzhak Shamir || 19, 20 || ||
|-
| Minister of Industry and Trade || 13 September 1984 – 20 February 1990 || Yitzhak Rabin <br>Yitzhak Shamir || 21, 22, 23 || Gideon Patt || Moshe Nissim
|-
| Minister of Housing and Construction || 11 June 1990 – 13 July 1992 || Yitzhak Shamir || 24 || David Levy || Binyamin Ben-Eliezer
|-
| Minister of National Infrastructure || 8 July 1996 – 6 July 1999 || Benjamin Netanyahu || 27 || Yitzhak Levy || Eli Suissa
|-
| Minister of Foreign Affairs (first tenure) || 13 October 1998 – 6 June 1999 || Benjamin Netanyahu || 27 || Benjamin Netanyahu || David Levy
|-
| Minister of Immigrant Absorption || 7 March 2001 – 28 February 2003 || Ariel Sharon || 29 || Yuli Tamir || Tzipi Livni
|-
| Minister of Industry and Trade (second tenure) || 2 November 2002 – 28 February 2003 || Ariel Sharon || 29 || Dalia Itzik || Ehud Olmert
|-
| Minister of Foreign Affairs (second tenure) || 2 October 2002 – 6 November 2002 || Ariel Sharon || 29 || Shimon Peres || Benjamin Netanyahu
|-
| Minister of Communications || 28 February 2003 – 17 August 2003 || Ariel Sharon || 30 || Reuven Rivlin || Ehud Olmert
|-
| Minister of Religious Affairs || 28 February 2003 – 31 December 2003 || Ariel Sharon || 30 || Asher Ohana || Yitzhak Cohen
|}
Electoral history
2001 direct election for Prime Minister
Party leadership elections
References
Further reading
*Ben Shaul, Moshe (editor); Generals of Israel, Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968.
*Uri Dan; Ariel Sharon: An Intimate Portrait, Palgrave Macmillan, October 2006, 320 pages. .
*Ariel Sharon, with David Chanoff; Warrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon, Simon & Schuster, 2001, .
*Gilad Sharon, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); Sharon: The Life of a Leader, HarperCollins Publishers, 2011, .
*Nir Hefez, Gadi Bloom, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); Ariel Sharon: A Life, Random House, October 2006, 512 pages, .
*Freddy Eytan, (translated by Robert Davies); Ariel Sharon: A Life in Times of Turmoil, translation of Sharon: le bras de fer, Studio 8 Books and Music, 2006, .
*Abraham Rabinovich; The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East, 2005, .
*Ariel Sharon, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703022204/http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2003/2/Ariel%20Sharon official biography], Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
*
*Tzvi T. Avisar; Sharon: Five years forward, Publisher House, March 2011, 259 pages, [http://www.sharon.org.il/ Official website], .
External links
*
*
*Three recordings from Sharon's Military Career, published by Israel State Archives:
*
*
}}
Category:1928 births
Category:2014 deaths
Category:21st-century prime ministers of Israel
Category:Deaths from kidney failure
Category:Haganah members
Category:Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
Category:Israeli generals
Category:Israeli Ashkenazi Jews
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Category:Israeli people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
Category:Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent
Category:Israeli people of the Yom Kippur War
Category:Jewish agnostics
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Category:Members of the 8th Knesset (1974–1977)
Category:Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981)
Category:Members of the 10th Knesset (1981–1984)
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Category:Members of the 14th Knesset (1996–1999)
Category:Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Category:Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
Category:Ministers of agriculture of Israel
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Category:Ministers of foreign affairs of Israel
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Category:Prime ministers of Israel
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Category:Tel Aviv University alumni
Category:People with disorders of consciousness
Category:People with severe brain damage
Category:Israeli autobiographers
Category:Israeli military personnel of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Category:Likud leaders
Category:Ministers without Portfolio of Israel
Category:People of the Second Intifada
Category:Sabra and Shatila massacre | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.890617 |
2945 | Romantic orientation | Romantic orientation, also called affectional orientation, is the classification of the sex or gender which a person experiences romantic attraction towards or is likely to have a romantic relationship with. The term is used alongside the term "sexual orientation", as well as being used alternatively to it, based upon the perspective that sexual attraction is only a single component of a larger concept.
For example, although a pansexual person may feel sexually attracted to people regardless of gender, the person may experience romantic attraction and intimacy, for example, with women only.
For asexual people, romantic orientation is often considered a more useful measure of attraction than sexual orientation.
The relationship between sexual attraction and romantic attraction is still under debate. Sexual and romantic attractions are often studied in conjunction. Even though studies of sexual and romantic spectrums are shedding light onto this under-researched subject, much is still not fully understood.Romantic identities
People may or may not engage in purely emotional romantic relationships. The main identities relating to this are:
* Aromantic, meaning someone who experiences little to no romantic attraction (aromanticism).
** For identities within the aromantic spectrum, see Aromantic spectrum.
* Alloromantic or zedromantic:
** Monoromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of only one gender (monoromanticism).
*** Androromantic: Romantic attraction towards men or masculinity (androromanticism).
*** Gyneromantic or gynoromantic: Romantic attraction towards women or femininity (gyneromanticism or gynoromanticism).
*** : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the opposite gender (heteroromanticism).
*** : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the same gender (homoromanticism).
** Multiromantic or pluriromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of multiple genders (multiromanticism or pluriromanticism).
*** or ambiromantic: Romantic attraction towards two genders, or person(s) of the same and other genders (biromanticism or ambiromanticism). Sometimes used the same way as panromantic or multiromantic.
*** : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of various, but not all, genders (polyromanticism).
** Skolioromantic or ceteroromantic: Romantic attraction towards genderqueer or non-binary person(s) (skolioromanticism or ceteroromanticism). Not to be confused with aroflux.
* Pomoromantic: Rejecting preexisting romantic labels (pomoromanticism). It is common for sources to describe sexual orientation as including components of both sexual and romantic (or romantic equivalent) attractions. Asexual individuals experience little to no sexual attraction (see gray asexuality); however, they may still experience romantic attraction. Lisa M. Diamond states that a person's romantic orientation can differ from whom the person is sexually attracted to. While there is limited research on the discordance between sexual attraction and romantic attraction in individuals, the possibility of fluidity and diversity in attractions have been progressively recognized. Researchers Bulmer and Izuma found that people who identify as aromantic often have more negative attitudes in relation to romance. While roughly 1% of the population identifies as asexual, 74% of those people reported having some form of romantic attraction.
A concept commonly used by people that experience discordant romantic and sexual attraction is the split attraction model, which tries to explain that romantic and sexual attractions are not exclusively tied together and is often used by people of the asexual and aromantic community to explain their differing romantic versus sexual orientations. The abbreviation aroace (or aro-ace) can be used for someone who is both aromantic ('aro') and asexual ('ace').
See also
* Bromance
* Cross-sex friendship
* Emotional affair
* Heterosociality
* Homosociality
* Queerplatonic relationship
* Romantic friendship
* Womance
References
Further reading
*
*
*
Category:Sexual orientation
Category:Aromanticism
Category:Asexuality
Category:LGBTQ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_orientation | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.909011 |
2947 | Anoa | }}
Anoa, also known as dwarf buffalo and sapiutan, are two species of the genus Bubalus, placed within the subgenus Anoa and endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) and the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis). Both live in undisturbed rainforests and are similar in appearance to miniature water buffaloes, weighing . 'Anoa' itself is Celebic in origin cognate to words in other related Philippine languages in the same Austronesian family that name the common water buffalo (anwáng in Tagalog, nuáng in Ilocano, nuwang in Ifugaw etc).
Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s and the populations continue to decrease. Fewer than 5,000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include poaching for hides, horns, and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, poaching is the most serious factor in most areas.
Anoa are most closely allied to the larger Asian buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct Asian buffaloes, the remains of which have been found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. Imagery of anoas may be present in the oldest rock art known as of 2024.
Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia. They live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. Little is known about their life history as well. However, in captive individuals, they have a life expectancy of 20–30 years. The anoa take two to three years before they reach sexual maturity have one calf a year and have very rarely been seen to have more.
Skulls of anoa cannot be accurately identified as to species, and there is likely hybridizing and interbreeding between the two in the zoo population. It is questioned as to whether the two species were different due to them occurring together in many different areas, as well as some interbreeding. A study of the mtDNA of ten specimens from different localities found a high mitochondrial genetic diversity between individuals identified as one or the other species, indicating support for recognition as two species.Species* The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) is a small bovid, standing barely over at the shoulder. It is usually solitary, living in lowland forests, browsing on plants and understory. According to Groves (1969) the lowland anoa can be told apart from the other species by being larger, having a triangular horn cross-section, sparse as opposed to thick and woolly hair, and always having white markings on the face and legs. Standing at at the shoulder, it is even smaller than the lowland anoa and the smallest of all living wild cattle. They also have longer, woolier hair that moults every year, showing faint spots on the head, neck, and limbs. According to Groves (1969), the mountain anoa can be told apart from the other species by being smaller, having a round horn cross-section, thick and woolly hair, and sometimes having white markings on the face and legs.<ref nameBurton2005/>
Distribution
Both the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) are endemic to the islands of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Both species appear to occur in the same areas.<ref nameBurton2005/> Sulawesi is a unique area because roughly 61% of the species found there are endemic species, including both anoa species.HabitatTraditionally, a key difference between the two species is the altitude at which they occur. The mountain anoa can be found at higher elevations than its lowland counterpart and is found in the forests. The lowland anoa was said to spend its time in the lower elevation areas and is also found in forests. Since 2005, however, these differences do not seem to be accurate, both species occur in the same areas in the same habitats.<ref nameBurton2005/>
Morphology
The anoa have many physical characteristics of bovine relatives and are considered to be most closely related to the water buffalo, which was confirmed through DNA analysis.<ref name=Burton2005/>
The physical characteristics of the two species are similar. The anoa is the smallest of the wild cattle species. When anoa are born, they have a set of thick, woolly fur that comes in many color variations ranging from yellow to brown. In adults, the fur is typically brown or black, and males tend to have darker variations. Hair thickness varies slightly between the two species based on elevation and distribution. In both species of anoa, horns are present in both males and females and are typically straight protuberances. Another defining characteristic of the anoa is an extremely thick hide underneath the thick fur.
Conservation
Both anoa species are endemic to the island of Sulawesi and are currently experiencing large declines in their populations. Knowledge of their decline has only recently been documented, however, and the villages and villagers lack the knowledge of how to help maintain or increase populations.
The leading cause of their population decline is hunting by local villagers for meat, with habitat loss also being significant. One benefit of the lack of knowledge about the legal status of what they are doing is that villagers are open to communication with researchers on their harvests and hunting practices; where awareness of conservation issues has penetrated, villagers will lie about their activities.<ref name=Burton2005/>
Logging is a large issue because both species prefer core forested habitats that are far away from humans and the influences that come with them. By logging, humans create much more fragmented habitats and, therefore, a decrease in the area where the anoa can breed and live. This habitat fragmentation also alters the natural mixing of populations of the anoa. This may lead to a loss in genetic diversity between the two species and, over time, could also lead to their decline.
References
External links
DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA (Bubalus sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT from https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/jitaa/article/view/7608/6259
Pujaningsih, R.i., et al. “DIET COMPOSITION OF ANOA (Bubalus sp.) STUDIED USING DIRECT OBSERVATION AND DUNG ANALYSIS METHOD IN THEIR HABITAT.” Journal of the Indonesian Tropical Animal Agriculture, vol. 34, no. 3, 2009, doi:10.14710/jitaa.34.3.223-228.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160124223039/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/SpeciesFactSheets/bubalus-depressicornis.html Lowland Anoa Bubalus depressicornis Smith] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20190206225339/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/ wildcattleconservation.org]
Category:Bubalus
Category:Mammals of Sulawesi
Category:Endemic fauna of Indonesia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoa | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.923241 |
2948 | Agner Krarup Erlang | Erlang}}
| birth_place = Lønborg, Denmark
| death_date =
| death_place = Copenhagen, Denmark
| resting place = Sundby Kirkegård, København, Denmark
| occupation = Mathematician, statistician, and engineer
| alma_mater = University of Copenhagen
| spouse | parents
| children =
}}
Agner Krarup Erlang (1 January 1878 – 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering and queueing theory.
By the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunications network studies.
Life
Erlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother's side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father.
A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the university and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools. He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen.
He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association (DMF) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company (KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company. Erlang worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation.
He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. Contributions
While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs.
Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. <!-- He famously said that this was a "no brainer." The actual quote in Danish w/translation would be desired. --> He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables.
He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include:
* 1909 – "The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations", which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic.
* 1917 – "Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges", which contains his classic formulae for call loss and waiting time.
* 1920 – "Telephone waiting times", which is Erlang's principal work on waiting times, assuming constant holding times.
These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One Bell Telephone Laboratories researcher is said to have learned Danish to study them.
The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities.
In 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the "erlang". A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour.
Erlang also made an important contribution to physiologic modeling with the
Krogh-Erlang capillary cylinder model describing oxygen supply to living tissue.
See also
* Erlang – a unit of communication activity
* Erlang distribution – a statistical probability distribution
* Erlang programming language – developed by Ericsson for large industrial real-time systems
* Queueing theory
* Teletraffic engineering
References
Category:20th-century Danish mathematicians
Category:20th-century Danish engineers
Category:Electrical engineers
Category:Queueing theorists
Category:Danish statisticians
Category:Danish business theorists
Category:1878 births
Category:1929 deaths
Category:People from Ringkøbing-Skjern Municipality
Category:Danish civil engineers
Category:University of Copenhagen alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agner_Krarup_Erlang | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.932812 |
2950 | Anyone Can Whistle | Anyone Can Whistle is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Described as "a satire on conformity and the insanity of the so-called sane," the show tells a story of an economically depressed town whose corrupt mayor decides to create a fake miracle in order to attract tourists. The phony miracle draws the attention of an emotionally inhibited nurse, a crowd of inmates from a local asylum, and a doctor with secrets of his own.
Following a tryout period in Philadelphia, Anyone Can Whistle opened at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway on April 4, 1964. The show received widely varied reviews (including negative notices from the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune), and closed after a run of twelve previews and nine performances. The show's original run marked the stage musical debut of Angela Lansbury.
In the decades since its closing, Anyone Can Whistle has seen relatively few productions compared to other Sondheim musicals; notable productions include a 1995 concert version at Carnegie Hall, a pair of stagings in London and Los Angeles in 2003 that incorporated revisions, and a 2010 concert staging for the Encores! program at New York City Center. However, its score has become acclaimed as a part of Sondheim's canon, and songs such as the title tune ("Anyone Can Whistle"), "Everybody Says Don't", and "There Won't Be Trumpets" have been performed widely.
Background
thumb|250px|Lee Remick, Angela Lansbury, Harry Guardino, and Herbert Greene
The show was first announced in The New York Times on October 5, 1961: "For the winter of 1962, [Arthur Laurents] is nurturing another musical project, The Natives Are Restless. The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent's handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet." No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in The New York Times about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim-Laurents musical (now named Side Show). Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre-Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show's message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem.
The show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schub, suffered a heart attack during the show's out-of-town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim, "Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro...who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which she spectacularly did." Sondheim called the reviews "humiliating" and the audiences "hostile."
Productions
After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome negative notices from major papers such as the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune. Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show's sole Tony Award nomination.
The show became a cult favorite, and a truncated recording by the original cast released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theater buffs. "There Won't Be Trumpets," a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers.
On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the recording by the original Broadway cast. For example, the cut song "There's Always a Woman" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only cast member from the original show to reprise his role.
In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year: one in London at the Bridewell Theatre and one in Los Angeles at the Matrix Theatre.
The Ravinia Festival presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald (Fay), Michael Cerveris (Hapgood) and Patti LuPone (Cora).
On January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Schub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim.
Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in Encores! history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post-matinee talkback on April 10.
A London production of Anyone can Whistle opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck (Mayoress), Rosalie Craig (Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo-Pearce (Hapgood).
Porchlight Music Theatre presented Anyone Can Whistle in 2013 as a part of "Porchlight Revisits" series, in which it staged three forgotten musicals per year. It was directed by Christopher Pazdernik and music directed by Aaron Benham.
A new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017.
A concert presentation of the show was presented by MasterVoices, under the direction and baton of Ted Sperling, on March 10, 2022, at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This production featured Vanessa Williams (Cora Hoover Hooper), Santino Fontana (J. Bowden Hapgood), Elizabeth Stanley (Fay Apple), Douglas Sills (Comptroller Schub), Eddie Cooper (Treasurer Cooley), and Michael Mulheren (Police Chief Magruder). Joanna Gleason served as the narrator for the event
IN 2022, a new production of the show ran at the Southwark Playhouse in London under the direction of Georgie Rankcom, with musical direction by Natalie Pound and choreography by Lisa Stevens. The show's cast featured Alex Young as Cora Hoover Hooper, Chrystine Symone as Nurse Fay Apple, and Jordan Broatch as J. Bowden Hapgood. This production was the largest staged version of the show since its debut on Broadway in 1964.
Plot
Act One
The story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt. (Its former major industry was an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local mental asylum, known as "The Cookie Jar", whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople ("I'm Like the Bluebird"). All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her croniesComptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity ("Me and My Town"). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration and the town, promising, "It's unethical." He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks itand a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water's curative powers ("Miracle Song"). It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, a skeptical but idealistic young nurse from the Cookie Jar. She appears at the rock with all forty-nine of the inmates, or "Cookies" in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and remain insane, people will discover the fraud. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears, and hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for a hero to deliver the town Cora and her lackeys ("There Won't Be Trumpets"). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar's manager, Dr. Detmold, who says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, without divulging which group is the sane one. The town council becomes suspicious, but Hapgood simply questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care ("Simple"). As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience, "You are all mad!" Seconds later, the stage lights are restored, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends.
Act Two
The two groups are now in a bitter rivalry over which is the sane group ("A-1 March"). Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, who has come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film ("Come Play Wiz Me"). Fay tries to get Hapgood's help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off and confesses to him that this disguise, leftover from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her shell. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free ("Anyone Can Whistle"). Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight ("A Parade in Town"). She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the Cookies' records, so both they and Fay can be free. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his ownhe is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance ("Everybody Says Don't").
Act Three
Cora is at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus but announces that they can easily pin the blame on Hapgood. The group celebrates their alliance ("I've Got You to Lean On"). A mob forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of 49 cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is sane or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Hapgood refuses to help Fay stop the Mayoress since he has given up crusading. Although she knows she still isn't out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone ("See What it Gets You"). As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key to the wagon from the guards in an extended ballet sequence ("The Cookie Chase"). As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty-nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can't turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can't bring herself to break free. They regretfully part ways ("With So Little to Be Sure Of"). Word comes of a new miracle from the town beyond the valley, of a statue with a warm heart, and the townspeople, including Magruder and Cooley, rush off to see if it is real. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is alone again. Again, Schub has the answerthey can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar. Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold's real new assistant Jane Borden Osgood arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn't answer, she tries to whistleand succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying, "That's good enough for me." As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rocka true miracle this time ("Finale").
Notable casts
CharacterBroadwayOff-Off-BroadwayBritish PremiereCarnegie Hall ConcertEncores!Carnegie Hall RevivalOff-West End196419801986199520102022Cora Hoover HooperAngela LansburyGaylea ByrnePip HintonMadeline KahnDonna MurphyVanessa WilliamsAlex YoungFay AppleLee RemickRosemary McNamaraMarilyn CurtisBernadette PetersSutton FosterElizabeth StanleyChrystine SymoneJ. Bowden HapgoodHarry GuardinoGary KrawfordMichael JayesScott BakulaRaúl EsparzaSantino FontanaJordan BroatchComptroller SchubGabriel DellSam StoneburnerBill BradleyWalter BobbieEdward HibbertDouglas SillsDanny LaneTreasurer CooleyArnold SoboloffRalph David WestfallJohn GriffithsChip ZienJeff BlumenkrantzEddie CooperSamuel CliffordPolice Chief MagruderJames FrawleyDavid BerkJonathan StephensKen PageJohn Ellison ConleeMichael MulherenRenan TeodoroMrs. SchroederPeg MurrayIleane GudellHilary CromieMaureen MooreLinda GriffinColleen BrownKathryn AkinDr. DetmoldDon DohertyKermit BrownThom BookerNick WymanPatrick Wetzel???Nathan TaylorCora's BoysSterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Larry Roquemore and Tucker SmithStephan DeGhelder, Bill Hastings, Stephen Hope and David E. MallardMichael Gyngell, Dermot McLaughlin, Alan Mosley, Neil PattersonSterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Evan Pappas, Eric Riley and Tony StevensClyde Alves, Grasan Kingsbury, Eric Sciotto and Anthony Wayne???
Musical numbers
(from the Broadway production)
Act I
Prelude Act I (instrumental) — Orchestra
I'm Like the Bluebird — Company
Me and My Town — Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys
Miracle Song — Cora, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists, and Pilgrims
There Won't Be Trumpets — Fay Apple*
Simple — J. Bowden Hapgood and Company
Act II
Prelude Act II (instrumental) — Orchestra
A-1 March — Company
Come Play Wiz Me — Fay, Hapgood, and Boys
Anyone Can Whistle — Fay
A Parade In Town — Cora
Everybody Says Don't — Hapgood
Don't Ballet (instrumental) — Orchestra
Act III
Prelude Act III (instrumental) — Orchestra
I've Got You to Lean On — Cora, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder, and Boys
See What It Gets You — Fay
Anyone Can Whistle (Reprise) — Fay
Cora's Chase (The Cookie Chase) — Company
I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 1) — Cookies
With So Little to Be Sure Of — Fay and Hapgood
I've Got You to Lean On (Reprise) — Cora and Schub*
I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 2) — Cookies
Finale Ultimo (instrumental) — Orchestra
Notes
Asterisk (*) denotes song cut during Previews.
Despite being cut from the original production, "There Won't Be Trumpets" was nonetheless recorded for the original Broadway cast recording, though it remained unreleased until a 1989 remastered CD. Officially licensed scripts and scores now reinstate the song.
The 1995 concert production restored the songs "There Won't Be Trumpets" (Fay Apple) and "There's Always a Woman" (Fay and Cora), both previously cut.
"Finale Ultimo" is attached to the end of "With So Little to Be Sure Of" on the Original Cast Recording.
Critical response
Howard Taubman in his The New York Times review wrote that Laurents's "book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream."
Steven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The "fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence... and the third act chase... are unlike anything that came before."
Stuart King writing for London Box Office (April 2022) noted: "Southwark Playhouse (with Guildford graduate Georgie Rankcom at the directorial helm for this gender-fluid production) has resurrected the piece for a short run — just in time for Easter! But the burning question on Press Night was whether or not the cult 60s show would need a miracle to find a new, modern fan base, OR, have the subjects of political corruption, sexual identity and mental wellbeing potentially given the fundamentally flawed piece new meaning for a young and previously unfamiliar audience? This reviewer’s answer would be that it will almost certainly depend entirely on who you are, how you identify (if indeed you bother with such matters), whether corruption in public office bothers you (why wouldn’t it?) and probably most significantly of all, whether you consider yourself a Sondheim purist/aficionado/devotee."
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
Year Award ceremony Category Nominee Result 1964 Tony Award Best Choreography Herbert Ross
References
Balancing Act, The Authorized Biography of Angela Lansbury by Martin Gottfried, published byLittle, Brown and Company, 1999
Notes
External links
Anyone Can Whistle at the Sondheim Database
sondheim.com
MTI shows listing
Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle
Anyone Can Whistle on the Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide
The story of Anyone Can Whistle by Mark Eden Horowitz in The Sondheim Review
Category:1964 musicals
Category:Broadway musicals
Category:Original musicals
Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim
Category:Musicals by Arthur Laurents
Category:Musicals set in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyone_Can_Whistle | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.956222 |
2952 | Alcopop | thumb|Lime and Grapefruit Bacardi Breezer are made with Bacardi rum.
An alcopop (or cooler) is a category of mixed alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3–7% alcohol by volume), including:
Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added
Wine coolers: beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added
Mixed drinks containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings
The term alcopop (a portmanteau of the words alcohol and pop) is used commonly in the United Kingdom and Ireland to describe these drinks. In English-speaking Canada, "cooler" is more common but "alcopop" may also be used. Other terms include flavored alcoholic beverage (FAB), flavored malt beverage (FMB), "pre-packaged" or "premium packaged" spirit (PPS). In Australia and New Zealand "premix" and ready to drink (RTD) are both commonly used terms. "Spirit cooler" is used in South Africa for distilled alcohol versions.
Hard seltzer is a related category of alcoholic drinks based on flavored seltzer water. Hard soda, meanwhile, is specifically related to soft drinks. Hard lemonade, which could be considered an alcopop, has been around for some time. Hard cider, on the other hand, is a fermented beverage similar to wine or beer.
Description
thumb|Bottles of blue Rev, a vodka cooler from Canada
There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that are simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available.
History
Wine coolers gained popularity in the US market in the 1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper's Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of "malternative beverage." Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike's Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called "violence against lemons". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.)
Through its Alcopop-Free Zone® campaign, " Alcohol Justice has sought to ban alcopop sales entirely since the sweet and brightly colored alcoholic drinks may appeal to children. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, a media outcry during the mid-1990s arose as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and led to British liquor stores withdrawing them from their shelves.
In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency "found no evidence of intent to target minors with FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey's methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data."
The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. "The Commission's investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing" and found that "the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27."
In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second-highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it in line with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax.
The Federal Trade Commission report states, "Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, ... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products'
sweetness.
Brands
thumb|right|Garage Hard Lemonade from Finland is a lemon-flavoured alcopop whose 4.6% ABV matches that of many commercial beers.
Brands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK, Smirnoff Ice, Mike's Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Palm Bay, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel's Hard Cola and, in the UK, WKD Original Vodka. Garage is an alcopop produced by the Finnish brewery Sinebrychoff.
Health concerns
Alcohol-based sugar-sweetened beverages like alcopop, are closely linked to episodic drinking in adolescents.
Attempts to discourage
Australia
The Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A$290 million after April 2008. and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the tax on the drinks from $39.36 to $66.67 per litre of alcohol. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers.
Germany
On 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits (e.g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275-ml-bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols with wine or beer, but with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks (which are not "alcopops" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age.
Philippines
In 2019, some senators including Pia Cayetano and former Special Assistant to the President Bong Go called for pullout of alcopops from the market due to "deceptive packaging that resembles fruit juices usually bought by young consumers". Alcopops also have seven percent alcohol content, which is slightly lower than that of local beer brand Red Horse Beer.
Sweden
Systembolaget blocked the sale of alcoholic soft drinks in Sweden until mid-1996, when Alkoholsortimentsnämnden decided, with reference to Treaty of Rome Article 30, that Systembolaget could not refuse to sell certain products. This led to great debate, where the marketing of the alcoholic soft drink was considered to be aimed above all at young people. After initially great sales successes, the popularity has now declined, and many of the alcoholic drinks' market shares have been taken over by sweeter varieties of cider that share many characteristics with the soft drink but have been fermented to their alcoholic strength.
United Kingdom
In June 1997, Co-op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been revoked.
See also
Borg (drink)
Chuhai
Hard seltzer
Hard soda
Jello shot
Jungle juice
Liqueur
Nutcracker (drink)
Purple drank
Queen Mary (beer cocktail)
References
Sources
Bloomberg News, FTC Says Alcohol Type Not Aimed at Minors, Los Angeles Times, June 5, 2002.
Melillo, W. FTC: Ads for 'Alcopops' Not Aimed at Teens, Adweek, June 6, 2002.
American Medical Association, AMA Says Alcohol Industry Targets Teen Girls , December 16, 2004.
California boosts tax on 'alcopops', Associated Press, August 15, 2007.
External links
Portman Group (a UK alcoholic beverage industry trade advocacy group with a code of marketing practices)
New wave of 'sophisticated' alcopops fuels teenage binge drinking The Guardian, 14 December 2002
The demonised drink: How has youth drinking evolved 20 years since the launch of alcopops? The Independent, 29 June 2013
The quiet death of the alcopop BBC News Magazine, 31 July 2013
Category:Premixed alcoholic drinks | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcopop | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.991983 |
2955 | Alkali | In chemistry, an alkali (; from the Arabic word , ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective alkaline, and less often, alkalescent, is commonly used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases.
Etymology
The word alkali is derived from Arabic al qalīy (or alkali), meaning (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol K (from the German name ), which ultimately derived from alkali.
Common properties of alkalis and bases
Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include:
Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink.
Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns).
Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin.
Alkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution.
Difference between alkali and base
The terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering.
There are various, more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen.
A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (this includes Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) but excludes NH3 (ammonia)).
Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes both Mg(OH)2 and NH3, which forms NH4OH.)
The second subset of bases is also called an "Arrhenius base".
Alkali salts
Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are:
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – often called "caustic soda"
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – commonly called "caustic potash"
Lye – generic term for either of two previous salts or their mixture
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) – saturated solution known as "limewater"
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) – an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions)
Alkaline soil
Soils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems. on the Utah–Idaho border
Lake Magadi in Kenya
Lake Turkana in Kenya
Mono Lake, near Owens Valley in California
Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan
Summer Lake, Lake County, Oregon
Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan
See also
Alkali manufacture
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Alkaline magma series
Base (chemistry)
References
Category:Inorganic chemistry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali | 2025-04-05T18:26:12.999314 |
2956 | Ain't I a Woman? (book) | }}
'''''Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism''''' is a 1981 book by bell hooks titled after Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech. hooks examines the effect of racism and sexism on Black women, the civil rights movement, and feminist movements from suffrage to the 1970s. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to Black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female abolitionists and suffragists were often more comfortable with Black male abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, while southern segregationalists and stereotypes of Black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever Black women spoke. Hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused Black Americans.
Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect Black women today. She argued that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move Black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women, thus justifying the devaluation of Black femininity and rape of Black women. The work which Black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory workplace, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against Black women as a proof of their emasculating behavior. hooks argues that Black nationalism was largely a patriarchal and misogynist movement, seeking to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, and that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating Black matriarch proposed by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose theories bell hooks often criticizes.
Meanwhile, she says, the "feminist movement", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and classism. She suggests this explains the low numbers of Black women who participated in the feminist movement in the 1970s, pointing to Louis Harris' Virginia Slims poll done in 1972 for Philip Morris that she says showed 62 percent of Black women supported "efforts to change women's status" and 67 percent "sympathized with the women's rights movement", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). <!-- Please verify the quoted sections are the exact phrasing of the survey. -->
Reception
Since its publication, ''Ain't I a Woman has been critically acclaimed as groundbreaking in the study of feminist theory for discussing the correlation between the history of oppression Black women have faced in the United States and its lingering effects in modern American society. Ain't I a Woman'' is praised for tackling the intersection of race and gender that marginalizes Black women. hooks' writing has also opened the door for other Black women to write and theorize about similar topics. The book is commonly used in gender studies, Black studies, and philosophy courses.
The work has led to some criticism of her being "ahistorical, unscholarly (there were many complaints about the absence of footnotes), and homophobic". She does not provide a bibliography for any of her work, making it difficult to find the editors and publication information for the pieces listed under the "notes" section of her work. In "Theory as Liberatory Practice," hooks explains that her lack of conventional academic format was "motivated by the desire to be inclusive, to reach as many readers as possible in as many different locations as possible".
In a book review of hooks' Remembered Rapture: The Writer at Work, Nicole Abraham criticizes hooks' unconventional format rationalization. Abraham suggests that, if her rationalization for not providing footnotes and bibliographic information in her writing is that it will help her reach a broader, presumably less academic audience, hooks either assumes that the average person is uninterested in pursuing her sources and ideas or implies that her readers are too lazy or unsophisticated for proper endnotes.
See also
* Black feminism
References
Category:1981 non-fiction books
Category:Black feminist books
Category:Books by bell hooks
Category:English-language non-fiction books
Category:Non-fiction books about racism
Category:Sojourner Truth | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain't_I_a_Woman?_(book) | 2025-04-05T18:26:13.004386 |
2957 | AMOS (programming language) | | designer | developer François Lionet and Constantin Sotiropoulos
| latest_release_version | latest_release_date
| latest_test_version | latest_test_date
| typing = Static
| implementations | dialects AMOS, Easy AMOS, AMOS Professional
| influenced_by = STOS BASIC
| influenced | operating_system AmigaOS
| license = BSD style license
| website [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204085705/http://www.clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i58 AMOS and STOS]
}}
AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language for the Amiga computer. Following on from the successful STOS BASIC for the Atari ST, AMOS BASIC was written for the Amiga by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos and published by Europress Software in 1990.
The language was notable for its focus on media and game development capabilities, allowing users to easily create demanding multimedia software and games. It featured full structured code and numerous high-level functions for loading and manipulating images, animations, and sounds. These capabilities made it a popular choice among Amiga enthusiasts, particularly beginners, for creating video games (especially platformers and graphical adventures), multimedia applications, and educational software.
History
AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.
The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages, being speedy enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7 MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed. AMOS could also run MC68000 machine code, loaded into a program's memory banks.
To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and "rainbow" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga's Agnus chip.
After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler (AMOS Compiler), and two other versions of the language: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better integrated development environment, ARexx support, a new user interface API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.
AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.
The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.
One of AMOS BASIC's disadvantages, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware.
Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer.
Software
Software written using AMOS BASIC includes:
* AQUABYSS by Aged Code, is a 2022 strategy trading game for the Amiga
* Miggybyte
* Scorched Tanks
* Games by Vulcan Software, amongst which was the Valhalla trilogy
* Amiga version of Ultimate Domain (called Genesia) by Microïds
* Flight of the Amazon Queen, by Interactive Binary Illusions
* Extreme Violence, included on an Amiga Power cover disk
* Jetstrike, a commercial game by Rasputin Software
* Black Dawn, a 1993 game for the Amiga personal computer
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071130053321/http://clickteam.com/eng/downloadcenter.php?i=58 Source code for AMOS and STOS]
* [http://www.ultimateamiga.co.uk/index.php/page,16/ The AMOS Factory] (an AMOS support/community site)
* [http://www.triumphoverchallenges.com/stos-and-amos-game-creators/ History of STOS and AMOS]: how they came to be published in the UK
Category:BASIC programming language family
Category:Video game development software
Category:Amiga development software
Category:Software using the BSD license
Category:Programming languages created in 1990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMOS_(programming_language) | 2025-04-05T18:26:13.009382 |
2959 | Arcadia 2001 | | lifespan = 18 months
| price = US$99
| discontinued = 1984
| unitssold | unitsshipped
| media = ROM cartridge
| os | power 12 volt
| soc | cpu Signetics 2650
| memory = 1 KB RAM
| storage | memory card
| display = TV; 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours
| graphics = Signetics 2637 UVI
| sound = 2 channels (Beeper and Noise)
| input | controllers 2 x Intellivision-style controller (12 button keypad and 'fire' buttons on the sides)
| camera | touchpad
| connectivity | platform
| service | dimensions
| weight | topgame
| compatibility | predecessor
| successor | related
| website = <!---->
}}
The Arcadia 2001 is a second-generation 8-bit home video game console released by Emerson Radio in May 1982 for a price of US$99, Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 to Bandai, which released it in Japan.
Description
The Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12 volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. It has two headphone jacks on the far left and right sides of the back.
The system came with two Intellivision-style controllers with a 12-button keypad and "fire" buttons on the sides. The direction pads have a removable joystick attachment. Most games came with BoPET overlays that can be applied to the controller's keypads. The console itself has five buttons: Power, Start, Reset, Option, and Select.
There are at least three different cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family cartridges come in two different lengths (short and long) of black plastic cases.
Technical specifications
*Main Processor: Signetics 2650 CPU (some variants run a Signetics 2650A)
*RAM: 1 KB
*ROM: None
*Video display: 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours
*Video display controller: Signetics 2637 UVI @ 3.58 MHz (NTSC), 3.55 MHz (PAL)
*Sound: Single Channel "Beeper" + Single Channel "Noise"
*Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color
*Controllers: 2 × 2 way
*Keypads: 2 × 12 button (more buttons on some variants)
Console variants and clones
Many variants and clones of the Arcadia 2001 have been released by various companies in different countries. These systems are mostly compatible with each other. In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia was released only in Japan. Four exclusive games were released for the system.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Manufacturer
! Country
! Compatibility family
! Image
|-
|Advision Home Arcade||Advision||||Emerson console||
|-
|2001 ALTOS Home Video Centre||Altos India Limited||||Emerson console||
|-
|Arcadia||Bandai||||Emerson console||
|-
|Arcadia 2001||Emerson||||Emerson console||
|-
|Cosmos||Tele-Computer||||Emerson console||
|-
|Dynavision||Morning-Sun Commerce||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Educat||unknown||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Ekusera||P.I.C.||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Hanimex MPT-03||Hanimex||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|HMG-2650||Hanimex||<br/><br/>||Emerson console||
|-
|Home Arcade Centre||Hanimex||||Emerson console||
|-
|Intelligent Game MPT-03||Intelligent Game||<br/>||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Intercord XL 2000 System||Intercord||||Emerson console||
|-
|Intervision 2001||Intervision|| ||Ormatu console||
|-
|ITMC MPT-03||ITMC||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Leisure Vision||Leisure-Dynamics||||Emerson console||
|-
|Leonardo||GiG Electronics||||Emerson console||
|-
|Home Entertainment Centre Ch-50||Inno-Hit||||Ormatu console||
|-
|Ormatu 2001||Ormatu Electronics BV||||Ormatu console||
|-
|Palladium Video-Computer-Game || Neckermann || || Palladium console||
|-
|Polybrain Video Computer Game||Polybrain||||Palladium console||
|-
|Poppy MPT-03 Tele Computer Spiel||Poppy||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Prestige Video Computer Game MPT-03||Prestige||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Robdajet MPT-03||Robdajet||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Rowtron 2000||Rowtron||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Schmid TVG-2000||Schmid||||Emerson console||
|-
|Sheen Home Video Centre 2001||Sheen||||Ormatu console||
|-
|Soundic MPT-03||Soundic||<br/>[https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19820716-1.2.144.1?ST1&ATsearch&kMPT-03&QTmpt-03&oref=article]||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Tedelex Home Arcade||Tedelex||||Emerson console||
|-
|Mr. Altus Das Tele-Gehirn Color (German for tele brain)||HGS Electronic||||Palladium console||
|-
|Tele-Fever||Tchibo||||Emerson console||
|-
|Tempest MPT-03||Tempest||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Tobby MPT-03||Tobby||?||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Trakton Computer Video Game||Trakton||||Palladium console||
|-
|Tryom Video Game Center||Tryom||||MPT-03 console||
|-
|Tunix Home Arcade||Monaco Leisure||||Emerson console||
|-
|UVI Compu-Game||Orbit Electronics||||Orbit console||
|-
|Video Master||Grandstand||||Orbit console||
|}
Bandai Arcadia
In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia, a variant of the Emerson Arcadia 2001, was licensed and distributed to Japan by Bandai for a price of 19,800 yen.Games
Emerson planned to launch the console with 19 games. Some Arcadia 2001 games are ports of lesser-known arcade games such as Route 16, Jungler, and Jump Bug, which were not available on other home systems.
Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including Pac-Man, Galaxian and Defender for the Arcadia, but never had them manufactured as Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive-rights agreements. Early marketing showed popular arcade games, but they were later released as clones. For instance, the Arcadia 2001 game Space Raiders is a clone of Defender, and Breakaway is a clone of Breakout. Released games
There are 47 games known to have been released for the Arcadia 2001 and its clones.
Bandai Arcadia Only
See here
References
External links
* [http://www.videogameconsolelibrary.com/pg80-arcadia.htm#page=reviews Video Game Console Library] entry on the Arcadia 2001
* [http://www.thegameconsole.com/emerson-arcadia-2001/ TheGameConsole.com] entry on the Arcadia 2001
* [http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstory=arcadia-2001 The Dot Eaters entry] on the Arcadia 2001
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071209081611/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st2&c835 www.old-computers.com] Emerson Arcadia 2001 museum entry
* [http://www.old-computers.com/magazine/view.asp?r2&a8 www.old-computers.com] Article about Arcadia 2001 and clones
* [https://au.ign.com/wikis/history-of-video-game-consoles/Arcadia_2001 Arcadia 2001 retrospective] at IGN
Category:Home video game consoles
Category:Second-generation video game consoles
Category:Bandai consoles
Category:Products introduced in 1982
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1984
Category:1980s toys
Category:Discontinued video game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_2001 | 2025-04-05T18:26:13.026928 |
2961 | Convex uniform honeycomb | 320px|thumb|The alternated cubic honeycomb is one of 28 space-filling uniform tessellations in Euclidean 3-space, composed of alternating yellow tetrahedra and red octahedra.
In geometry, a convex uniform honeycomb is a uniform tessellation which fills three-dimensional Euclidean space with non-overlapping convex uniform polyhedral cells.
Twenty-eight such honeycombs are known:
the familiar cubic honeycomb and 7 truncations thereof;
the alternated cubic honeycomb and 4 truncations thereof;
10 prismatic forms based on the uniform plane tilings (11 if including the cubic honeycomb);
5 modifications of some of the above by elongation and/or gyration.
They can be considered the three-dimensional analogue to the uniform tilings of the plane.
The Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a convex uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra.
History
1900: Thorold Gosset enumerated the list of semiregular convex polytopes with regular cells (Platonic solids) in his publication On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, including one regular cubic honeycomb, and two semiregular forms with tetrahedra and octahedra.
1905: Alfredo Andreini enumerated 25 of these tessellations.
1991: Norman Johnson's manuscript Uniform Polytopes identified the list of 28.
Only 14 of the convex uniform polyhedra appear in these patterns:
three of the five Platonic solids (the tetrahedron, cube, and octahedron),
six of the thirteen Archimedean solids (the ones with reflective tetrahedral or octahedral symmetry), and
five of the infinite family of prisms (the 3-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-gonal ones; the 4-gonal prism duplicates the cube).
The icosahedron, snub cube, and square antiprism appear in some alternations, but those honeycombs cannot be realised with all edges unit length.
Names
This set can be called the regular and semiregular honeycombs. It has been called the Archimedean honeycombs by analogy with the convex uniform (non-regular) polyhedra, commonly called Archimedean solids. Recently Conway has suggested naming the set as the Architectonic tessellations and the dual honeycombs as the Catoptric tessellations.
The individual honeycombs are listed with names given to them by Norman Johnson. (Some of the terms used below are defined in Uniform 4-polytope#Geometric derivations for 46 nonprismatic Wythoffian uniform 4-polytopes)
For cross-referencing, they are given with list indices from Andreini (1-22), Williams(1–2,9-19), Johnson (11–19, 21–25, 31–34, 41–49, 51–52, 61–65), and Grünbaum(1-28). Coxeter uses δ4 for a cubic honeycomb, hδ4 for an alternated cubic honeycomb, qδ4 for a quarter cubic honeycomb, with subscripts for other forms based on the ring patterns of the Coxeter diagram.
Compact Euclidean uniform tessellations (by their infinite Coxeter group families)
380px|thumb|Fundamental domains in a cubic element of three groups.
380px|thumb|Family correspondences
The fundamental infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are:
The {\tilde{C}}_3, [4,3,4], cubic, (8 unique forms plus one alternation)
The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,31,1], alternated cubic, (11 forms, 3 new)
The {\tilde{A}}_3 cyclic group, [(3,3,3,3)] or [3[4]], (5 forms, one new)
There is a correspondence between all three families. Removing one mirror from {\tilde{C}}_3 produces {\tilde{B}}_3, and removing one mirror from {\tilde{B}}_3 produces {\tilde{A}}_3. This allows multiple constructions of the same honeycombs. If cells are colored based on unique positions within each Wythoff construction, these different symmetries can be shown.
In addition there are 5 special honeycombs which don't have pure reflectional symmetry and are constructed from reflectional forms with elongation and gyration operations.
The total unique honeycombs above are 18.
The prismatic stacks from infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are:
The {\tilde{C}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [4,4,2,∞] prismatic group, (2 new forms)
The {\tilde{G}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group, (7 unique forms)
The {\tilde{A}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [(3,3,3),2,∞] prismatic group, (No new forms)
The {\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1, [∞,2,∞,2,∞] prismatic group, (These all become a cubic honeycomb)
In addition there is one special elongated form of the triangular prismatic honeycomb.
The total unique prismatic honeycombs above (excluding the cubic counted previously) are 10.
Combining these counts, 18 and 10 gives us the total 28 uniform honeycombs.
The C̃3, [4,3,4] group (cubic)
The regular cubic honeycomb, represented by Schläfli symbol {4,3,4}, offers seven unique derived uniform honeycombs via truncation operations. (One redundant form, the runcinated cubic honeycomb, is included for completeness though identical to the cubic honeycomb.) The reflectional symmetry is the affine Coxeter group [4,3,4]. There are four index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,3,4], [(4,3,4,2+)], [4,3+,4], and [4,3,4]+, with the first two generated repeated forms, and the last two are nonuniform.
+ [4,3,4], space group Pmm (221)ReferenceIndicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbolCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycombFrames(Perspective)Vertex figureDual cell(0) (1) (2) (3)AltSolids(Partial)J11,15A1W1G22δ4cubic (chon) t0{4,3,4}{4,3,4} (8)30px(4.4.4) 75px75px75pxoctahedron 80pxCube, J12,32A15W14G7O1rectified cubic (rich) t1{4,3,4}r{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3.3) (4)30px(3.4.3.4) 75px75px75pxcuboid80pxSquare bipyramidJ13A14W15G8t1δ4O15truncated cubic (tich) t0,1{4,3,4}t{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3) (4)30px(3.8.8) 75px75px75pxsquare pyramid80pxIsosceles square pyramidJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O14cantellated cubic (srich) t0,2{4,3,4}rr{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.4.3.4)(2)30px(4.4.4) (2)30px(3.4.4.4) 75px75px75pxoblique triangular prism80pxTriangular bipyramidJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O17cantitruncated cubic (grich) t0,1,2{4,3,4}tr{4,3,4}(1)30px(4.6.6)(1)30px(4.4.4) (2)30px(4.6.8) 75px75px75pxirregular tetrahedron80pxTriangular pyramidilleJ18A19W19G20t0,1,3δ4O19runcitruncated cubic (prich)t0,1,3{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.4.4.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.8)(1)30px(3.8.8) 75px75px75pxoblique trapezoidal pyramid80px Square quarter pyramidille J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21alternated cubic (octet)h{4,3,4} (8)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3.3)76px75px75pxcuboctahedron80pxDodecahedrilleJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ (1)30px(3.4.3.4) (2)30px(3.6.6)(2)30px(4.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramid80pxHalf oblate octahedrilleJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26Runcic cubic (sratoh) ↔ (1)30px(4.4.4) (1)30px(3.3.3)(3)30px(3.4.4.4)75px75px60pxtapered triangular prism80pxQuarter cubilleJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28Runcicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ (1)30px(3.8.8) (1)30px(3.6.6)(2)30px(4.6.8)75px75px60pxIrregular tetrahedron80pxHalf pyramidilleNonuniformbsnub rectified cubic (serch)sr{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.3)(1)30px(3.3.3) (2)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(4)30px(3.3.3)75px75pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedronNonuniformCantic snub cubic (casch)2s0{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.3)(2)30px(3.4.4.4)(3)30px(3.4.4)NonuniformRuncicantic snub cubic (rusch)(1)30px(3.4.3.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(3.3.3)(1)30px(3.6.6)(3)30pxTricupNonuniformRuncic cantitruncated cubic (esch) sr3{4,3,4}(1)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(4.4.4)(1)30px(3.4.4.4)(3)30px(3.4.4)
+ honeycombs, space group Imm (229)ReferenceIndicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbolCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycombSolids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)Vertex figureDual cell(0,3)(1,2)AltJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1runcinated cubic(same as regular cubic) (chon)t0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(4.4.4)(6)30px(4.4.4) 75px75px75pxoctahedron 80pxCubeJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16bitruncated cubic (batch) t1,2{4,3,4}2t{4,3,4}(4)30px(4.6.6) 75px75px75px(disphenoid)80pxOblate tetrahedrilleJ19A22W18G27t0,1,2,3δ4O20omnitruncated cubic (gippich)t0,1,2,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(4.6.8)(2)30px(4.4.8) 75px75px75pxirregular tetrahedron80pxEighth pyramidilleJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O27Quarter cubic honeycomb (cytatoh)ht0ht3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.6.6)76px75px75pxelongated triangular antiprism80pxOblate cubilleJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated runcinated cubic (octet)(same as alternated cubic)ht0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3)(6)30px(3.3.3.3)76px75px75pxcuboctahedronNonuniformBiorthosnub cubic honeycomb (gabreth)2s0,3{(4,2,4,3)}(2)30px(4.6.6)(2)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.6)NonuniformaAlternated bitruncated cubic (bisch)h2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3) 30px (4)(3.3.3)75px75px80pxNonuniformCantic bisnub cubic (cabisch)2s0,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)(2)30px(4.4.4)NonuniformcAlternated omnitruncated cubic (snich)ht0,1,2,3{4,3,4}(2)30px(3.3.3.3.4)(2)30px(3.3.3.4)(4)30px(3.3.3) 75px
B̃3, [4,31,1] group
The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,3] group offers 11 derived forms via truncation operations, four being unique uniform honeycombs. There are 3 index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,31,1], [4,(31,1)+], and [4,31,1]+. The first generates repeated honeycomb, and the last two are nonuniform but included for completeness.
The honeycombs from this group are called alternated cubic because the first form can be seen as a cubic honeycomb with alternate vertices removed, reducing cubic cells to tetrahedra and creating octahedron cells in the gaps.
Nodes are indexed left to right as 0,1,0',3 with 0' being below and interchangeable with 0. The alternate cubic names given are based on this ordering.
+ [4,31,1] uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramsCells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0) (1) (0') (3)J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated cubic (octet) ↔ 30px (6)(3.3.3.3)30px(8)(3.3.3)76px75px60pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ 30px (1)(3.4.3.4) 30px (2)(4.6.6)30px (2)(3.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramidJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26Runcic cubic (sratoh) ↔ 30px (1)cube 30px (3)(3.4.4.4)30px (1)(3.3.3)75px75px60pxtapered triangular prismJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28Runcicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ 30px (1)(3.8.8) 30px(2)(4.6.8)30px (1)(3.6.6)75px75px60pxIrregular tetrahedron
+ 1,1]> uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,0') (1) (3)AltJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1Cubic (chon) ↔ 30px (8)(4.4.4) 75px75px60pxoctahedronJ12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O15Rectified cubic (rich) ↔ 30px (4)(3.4.3.4) 30px (2)(3.3.3.3) 75px75px60pxcuboidRectified cubic (rich) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3) 30px (4)(3.4.3.4) 75px60pxcuboidJ13A14W15G8t0,1δ4O14Truncated cubic (tich) ↔ 30px (4)(3.8.8) 30px (1)(3.3.3.3) 75px75px60pxsquare pyramidJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O17Cantellated cubic (srich) ↔ 30px (2)(3.4.4.4)30px (2)(4.4.4)30px (1)(3.4.3.4) 75px75px60pxobilique triangular prismJ16A3W2G28t0,2δ4O16Bitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ 30px (2)(4.6.6) 30px (2)(4.6.6) 75px75px60pxisosceles tetrahedronJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O18Cantitruncated cubic (grich) ↔ 30px (2)(4.6.8)30px (1)(4.4.4)30px(1)(4.6.6) 75px75px60pxirregular tetrahedronJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21Alternated cubic (octet) ↔ 30px (8)(3.3.3) 30px (6)(3.3.3.3)75px75px60pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25Cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ 30px (2)(3.6.6) 30px (1)(3.4.3.4)30px (2)(4.6.6)75px75px60pxrectangular pyramidNonuniformaAlternated bitruncated cubic (bisch) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3) 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3)60pxNonuniformbAlternated cantitruncated cubic (serch) ↔ 30px (2)(3.3.3.3.4)30px (1)(3.3.3)30px (1)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3)75px60pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedron
Ã3, [3[4]] group
There are 5 forms constructed from the {\tilde{A}}_3, [3[4]] Coxeter group, of which only the quarter cubic honeycomb is unique. There is one index 2 subgroup [3[4]]+ which generates the snub form, which is not uniform, but included for completeness.
+ 3[4] uniform honeycombs, space group Fdm (227)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramsCells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,1)(2,3)J25,33A13W10G6qδ4O27quarter cubic (cytatoh) ↔ q{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.3.3)30px (6)(3.6.6) 75px75px75pxtriangular antiprism
+ [4]]> ↔ [4,31,1] uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure0(1,3)2J21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21alternated cubic (octet) ↔ ↔ h{4,3,4}30px (8)(3.3.3)30px (6)(3.3.3.3)75px75px75pxcuboctahedronJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25cantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ ↔ h2{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.6.6)30px (1)(3.4.3.4)30px (2)(4.6.6)75px75px75pxRectangular pyramid
+ [2[3[4]]] ↔ [4,3,4] uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,2)(1,3)J12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O1rectified cubic (rich) ↔ ↔ ↔ r{4,3,4}30px (2)(3.4.3.4)30px (1)(3.3.3.3)75px75px75pxcuboid
+ [4[3[4]]] ↔ uniform honeycombs, space group Imm (229)ReferencedindicesHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ ↔ Cells by location(and count around each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figure(0,1,2,3)AltJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16bitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ ↔ 2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(4.6.6)75px75px75pxisosceles tetrahedronNonuniformaAlternated cantitruncated cubic (bisch) ↔ ↔ h2t{4,3,4}30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3)30px (4)(3.3.3) 75px
Nonwythoffian forms (gyrated and elongated)
Three more uniform honeycombs are generated by breaking one or another of the above honeycombs where its faces form a continuous plane, then rotating alternate layers by 60 or 90 degrees (gyration) and/or inserting a layer of prisms (elongation).
The elongated and gyroelongated alternated cubic tilings have the same vertex figure, but are not alike. In the elongated form, each prism meets a tetrahedron at one triangular end and an octahedron at the other. In the gyroelongated form, prisms that meet tetrahedra at both ends alternate with prisms that meet octahedra at both ends.
The gyroelongated triangular prismatic tiling has the same vertex figure as one of the plain prismatic tilings; the two may be derived from the gyrated and plain triangular prismatic tilings, respectively, by inserting layers of cubes.
ReferencedindicessymbolHoneycomb namecell types (# at each vertex)Solids(Partial)Frames(Perspective)vertex figureJ52A2'G2O22h{4,3,4}:ggyrated alternated cubic (gytoh)tetrahedron (8)octahedron (6)70px100px80px triangular orthobicupolaJ61A?G3O24h{4,3,4}:gegyroelongated alternated cubic (gyetoh)triangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)70px100px80pxJ62A?G4O23h{4,3,4}:eelongated alternated cubic (etoh)triangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)70px80pxJ63A?G12O12{3,6}:g × {∞}gyrated triangular prismatic (gytoph)triangular prism (12)70px100px80pxJ64A?G15O13{3,6}:ge × {∞}gyroelongated triangular prismatic (gyetaph)triangular prism (6)cube (4)70px100px80px
Prismatic stacks
Eleven prismatic tilings are obtained by stacking the eleven uniform plane tilings, shown below, in parallel layers. (One of these honeycombs is the cubic, shown above.) The vertex figure of each is an irregular bipyramid whose faces are isosceles triangles.
The C̃2×Ĩ1(∞), [4,4,2,∞], prismatic group
There are only 3 unique honeycombs from the square tiling, but all 6 tiling truncations are listed below for completeness, and tiling images are shown by colors corresponding to each form.
IndicesCoxeter-Dynkinand SchläflisymbolsHoneycomb namePlanetilingSolids(Partial)TilingJ11,15A1G22 {4,4}×{∞}Cubic(Square prismatic) (chon)(4.4.4.4)80px50px r{4,4}×{∞}50px rr{4,4}×{∞}50pxJ45A6G24 t{4,4}×{∞} Truncated/Bitruncated square prismatic (tassiph)(4.8.8)80px50px tr{4,4}×{∞} 50pxJ44A11G14 sr{4,4}×{∞}Snub square prismatic (sassiph)(3.3.4.3.4)80px50pxNonuniformht0,1,2,3{4,4,2,∞}
The G̃2xĨ1(∞), [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group
IndicesCoxeter-Dynkinand SchläflisymbolsHoneycomb namePlanetilingSolids(Partial)TilingJ41A4G11 {3,6} × {∞}Triangular prismatic (tiph)(36)60px60pxJ42A5G26 {6,3} × {∞}Hexagonal prismatic (hiph)(63)60px60px t{3,6} × {∞}60px60pxJ43A8G18 r{6,3} × {∞}Trihexagonal prismatic (thiph)(3.6.3.6)60px60pxJ46A7G19 t{6,3} × {∞}Truncated hexagonal prismatic (thaph)(3.12.12)60px60pxJ47A9G16 rr{6,3} × {∞}Rhombi-trihexagonal prismatic (srothaph)(3.4.6.4)60px60pxJ48A12G17 sr{6,3} × {∞}Snub hexagonal prismatic (snathaph)(3.3.3.3.6)60px60pxJ49A10G23 tr{6,3} × {∞}truncated trihexagonal prismatic (grothaph)(4.6.12)60px60pxJ65A11'G13 {3,6}:e × {∞}elongated triangular prismatic (etoph)(3.3.3.4.4)60px60pxJ52A2'G2h3t{3,6,2,∞}gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral (gytoh)(36)60px60pxs2r{3,6,2,∞}Nonuniformht0,1,2,3{3,6,2,∞}
Enumeration of Wythoff forms
All nonprismatic Wythoff constructions by Coxeter groups are given below, along with their alternations. Uniform solutions are indexed with Branko Grünbaum's listing. Green backgrounds are shown on repeated honeycombs, with the relations are expressed in the extended symmetry diagrams.
Coxeter groupExtendedsymmetryHoneycombsChiralextendedsymmetryAlternation honeycombs[4,3,4][4,3,4]6 7 | 89 | 25 | 20[1+,4,3+,4,1+](2) b[2+[4,3,4]] (1) 22[2+[(4,3+,4,2+)]](1) 6[2+[4,3,4]]128[2+[(4,3+,4,2+)]](1)a[2+[4,3,4]]227[2+[4,3,4]]+(1)c[4,31,1] [4,31,1]4 7 | 10 | 28[1[4,31,1]][4,3,4] (7)22 | 7 | 22 | 7 | 9 | 28 | 25 [1[1+,4,31,1]]+(2) 6 | a[1[4,31,1]]+[4,3,4]+(1)b[3[4]][3[4]](none)[2+[3[4]]] 1 6[1[3[4]]][4,31,1] (2) 10[2[3[4]]][4,3,4] (1) 7[(2+,4)[3[4]]][2+[4,3,4]] (1) 28[(2+,4)[3[4]]]+= [2+[4,3,4]]+(1) a
Examples
The alternated cubic honeycomb is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic close-packing of spheres. The space-filling truss of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell and independently re-discovered by Buckminster Fuller (who called it the octet truss and patented it in the 1940s).
. Octet trusses are now among the most common types of truss used in construction.
Frieze forms
If cells are allowed to be uniform tilings, more uniform honeycombs can be defined:
Families:
{\tilde{C}}_2×A_1: [4,4,2] Cubic slab honeycombs (3 forms)
{\tilde{G}}_2×A_1: [6,3,2] Tri-hexagonal slab honeycombs (8 forms)
{\tilde{A}}_2×A_1: [(3,3,3),2] Triangular slab honeycombs (No new forms)
{\tilde{I}}_1×A_1×A_1: [∞,2,2] = Cubic column honeycombs (1 form)
I_2(p)×{\tilde{I}}_1: [p,2,∞] Polygonal column honeycombs (analogous to duoprisms: these look like a single infinite tower of p-gonal prisms, with the remaining space filled with apeirogonal prisms)
{\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×A_1: [∞,2,∞,2] [4,4,2] - (Same as cubic slab honeycomb family)
+ Examples (partially drawn)Cubic slab honeycombAlternated hexagonal slab honeycombTrihexagonal slab honeycomb180px180px180px180px(4) 43: cube(1) 44: square tiling180px(4) 33: tetrahedron(3) 34: octahedron(1) 36: triangular tiling180px(2) 3.4.4: triangular prism(2) 4.4.6: hexagonal prism(1) (3.6)2: trihexagonal tiling
The first two forms shown above are semiregular (uniform with only regular facets), and were listed by Thorold Gosset in 1900 respectively as the 3-ic semi-check and tetroctahedric semi-check.
Scaliform honeycomb
A scaliform honeycomb is vertex-transitive, like a uniform honeycomb, with regular polygon faces while cells and higher elements are only required to be orbiforms, equilateral, with their vertices lying on hyperspheres. For 3D honeycombs, this allows a subset of Johnson solids along with the uniform polyhedra. Some scaliforms can be generated by an alternation process, leaving, for example, pyramid and cupola gaps.
+ Euclidean honeycomb scaliformsFrieze slabsPrismatic stackss3{2,6,3}, s3{2,4,4}, s{2,4,4}, 3s4{4,4,2,∞}, 200px200px200px200px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px200px(1) 3.4.3.4: triangular cupola(2) 3.4.6: triangular cupola(1) 3.3.3.3: octahedron(1) 3.6.3.6: trihexagonal tiling200px(1) 3.4.4.4: square cupola(2) 3.4.8: square cupola(1) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.8.8: truncated square tiling200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.4.4.4: square tiling200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(4) 4.4.4: cube
Hyperbolic forms
thumb|The order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb, {5,3,4} in perspective
thumb|The paracompact hexagonal tiling honeycomb, {6,3,3}, in perspective
There are 9 Coxeter group families of compact uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic 3-space, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by ring permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams for each family.
From these 9 families, there are a total of 76 unique honeycombs generated:
[3,5,3] : - 9 forms
[5,3,4] : - 15 forms
[5,3,5] : - 9 forms
[5,31,1] : - 11 forms (7 overlap with [5,3,4] family, 4 are unique)
[(4,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms
[(4,3,4,3)] : - 6 forms
[(5,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms
[(5,3,4,3)] : - 9 forms
[(5,3,5,3)] : - 6 forms
Several non-Wythoffian forms outside the list of 76 are known; it is not known how many there are.
Paracompact hyperbolic forms
There are also 23 paracompact Coxeter groups of rank 4. These families can produce uniform honeycombs with unbounded facets or vertex figure, including ideal vertices at infinity:
+ Simplectic hyperbolic paracompact group summaryTypeCoxeter groupsUnique honeycomb countLinear graphs | | | | | 4×15+6+8+8 82Tridental graphs | 4+4+0 8Cyclic graphs | | | | | | | 4×9+5+1+4+1+0 47Loop-n-tail graphs | | 4+4+4+2 14
References
John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, (2008) The Symmetries of Things, (Chapter 21, Naming the Archimedean and Catalan polyhedra and tilings, Architectonic and Catoptric tessellations, p 292–298, includes all the nonprismatic forms)
Branko Grünbaum, (1994) Uniform tilings of 3-space. Geombinatorics 4, 49 - 56.
Norman Johnson (1991) Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript
(Chapter 5: Polyhedra packing and space filling)
Kaleidoscopes: Selected Writings of H.S.M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1995,
(Paper 22) H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, [Math. Zeit. 46 (1940) 380–407, MR 2,10] (1.9 Uniform space-fillings)
A. Andreini, (1905) Sulle reti di poliedri regolari e semiregolari e sulle corrispondenti reti correlative (On the regular and semiregular nets of polyhedra and on the corresponding correlative nets), Mem. Società Italiana della Scienze, Ser.3, 14 75–129. PDF
D. M. Y. Sommerville, (1930) An Introduction to the Geometry of n Dimensions. New York, E. P. Dutton, . 196 pp. (Dover Publications edition, 1958) Chapter X: The Regular Polytopes
Chapter 5. Joining polyhedra
Crystallography of Quasicrystals: Concepts, Methods and Structures by Walter Steurer, Sofia Deloudi (2009), p. 54-55. 12 packings of 2 or more uniform polyhedra with cubic symmetry
External links
Uniform Honeycombs in 3-Space VRML models
Elementary Honeycombs Vertex transitive space filling honeycombs with non-uniform cells.
Uniform partitions of 3-space, their relatives and embedding, 1999
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
octet truss animation
Review: A. F. Wells, Three-dimensional nets and polyhedra, H. S. M. Coxeter (Source: Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. Volume 84, Number 3 (1978), 466-470.)
Category:Honeycombs (geometry) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_uniform_honeycomb | 2025-04-05T18:26:13.954041 |
2963 | Assassination | shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd Lincoln, Clara Harris and Henry Rathbone.]]
Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a personespecially if prominent or important. It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, personal, financial, or military motives. Assassinations are ordered by both individuals and organizations, and are carried out by their accomplices. Acts of assassination have been performed since ancient times. A person who carries out an assassination is called an assassin.Etymology
, the Russian Governor-General of Finland, assassinated by Eugen Schauman on June 16, 1904, in Helsinki. The author of the drawing is unknown.]]
, who was deemed responsible for the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. Oswald was assassinated two days later by Jack Ruby, the first such event to occur during live television coverage.|left]]
Assassin comes from the Italian and French Assissini, believed to derive from the word hashshashin (), and shares its etymological roots with hashish ( or ; from ). It referred to a group of Nizari Ismailis known as the Order of Assassins who worked against various political targets.
Although it is commonly believed that members of the Order of Assassins were under the influence of hashish during their killings or during their indoctrination, there is debate as to whether these claims have merit, with many Eastern writers and an increasing number of Western academics coming to believe that drug-taking was not the key feature behind the name.
The term "assassinare" (assassin) was used in Medieval Latin from the mid 13th century.
Use in history
Ancient to medieval times
Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics. It dates back at least as far as recorded history.
The Egyptian pharaoh Teti, of the Old Kingdom Sixth Dynasty (23rd century BCE), is thought to be the earliest known victim of assassination, though written records are scant and thus evidence is circumstantial. Two further ancient Egyptian monarchs are more explicitly recorded to have been assassinated; Amenemhat I of the Middle Kingdom Twelfth Dynasty (20th century BCE) is recorded to have been assassinated in his bed by his palace guards for reasons unknown (as related in the Instructions of Amenemhat); meanwhile contemporary judicial records relate the assassination of New Kingdom Twentieth Dynasty monarch Ramesses III in 1155 BCE as part of a failed coup attempt. Between 550 BC and 330 BC, seven Persian kings of Achaemenid Dynasty were murdered. The Art of War, a 5th-century BC Chinese military treatise mentions tactics of Assassination and its merits.
In the Old Testament, King Joash of Judah was assassinated by his own servants; Joab assassinated Absalom, King David's son; King Sennacherib of Assyria was assassinated by his own sons; and Jael assassinated Sisera.
Chanakya (–283 BC) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies.
Some famous assassination victims are Philip II of Macedon (336 BC), the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman dictator Julius Caesar (44 BC). Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later. Three successive Rashidun caliphs (Umar, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) were assassinated in early civil conflicts between Muslims. The practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Ke's failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassinations were performed by individuals or small groups, there were also specialized units who used a collective group of people to perform more than one assassination. The earliest were the sicarii in 6 AD, who predated the Middle Eastern Assassins and Japanese shinobis by centuries.
In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Strangling in the bathtub was the most commonly used method. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe.Modern history
of William the Silent by Balthasar Gérard on 10 July 1584]]
During the 16th and 17th centuries, international lawyers began to voice condemnation of assassinations of leaders. Balthazar Ayala has been described as "the first prominent jurist to condemn the use of assassination in foreign policy". Alberico Gentili condemned assassinations in a 1598 publication where he appealed to the self-interest of leaders: (i) assassinations had adverse short-term consequences by arousing the ire of the assassinated leader's successor, and (ii) assassinations had the adverse long-term consequences of causing disorder and chaos.
In Japan, a group of assassins called the Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu killed a number of people, including Ii Naosuke who was the head of administration for the Tokugawa shogunate, during the Boshin War. Most of the assassinations in Japan were committed with bladed weaponry, a trait that was carried on into modern history. A video-record exists of the assassination of Inejiro Asanuma, using a sword.
In 1895, a group of Japanese assassins killed the Korean queen (and posthumously empress) Myeongseong.
In the United States, from 1865 to 1963, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents' lives.
In Austria, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg was carried out in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. He is blamed for igniting World War I. Reinhard Heydrich died after an attack by British-trained Czechoslovak soldiers on behalf of the Czechoslovak government in exile in Operation Anthropoid, and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the United States to carry out a targeted attack, killing Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto while he was travelling by plane.
During the 1930s and 1940s, Joseph Stalin's NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union, such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia. India's "Father of the Nation", Mahatma Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse.
The African-American civil rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr., was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the Lorraine Motel (now the National Civil Rights Museum) in Memphis, Tennessee. Three years prior, another African-American civil rights activist, Malcolm X, was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965.Cold War and beyond
's blood-stained sari and belongings at the time of her assassination. She was the Prime Minister of India.]]
Most major powers repudiated Cold War assassination tactics, but many allege that was merely a smokescreen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today, with Russia, Israel, the U.S., Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and other nations accused of engaging in such operations. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the new Islamic government of Iran began an international campaign of assassination that lasted into the 1990s. At least 162 killings in 19 countries have been linked to the senior leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The campaign came to an end after the Mykonos restaurant assassinations because a German court publicly implicated senior members of the government and issued arrest warrants for Ali Fallahian, the head of Iranian intelligence. Evidence indicates that Fallahian's personal involvement and individual responsibility for the murders were far more pervasive than his current indictment record represents.
In India, Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi (neither of whom was related to Mahatma Gandhi, who had himself been assassinated in 1948), were assassinated in 1984 and 1991 in what were linked to separatist movements in Punjab and northern Sri Lanka, respectively.
In 1994, the assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira during the Rwandan Civil War sparked the Rwandan genocide.
In Israel, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by Yigal Amir, who opposed the Oslo Accords. In Lebanon, the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005, prompted an investigation by the United Nations. The suggestion in the resulting Mehlis report that there was involvement by Syria prompted the Cedar Revolution, which drove Syrian troops out of Lebanon.
On 2 September 2022, a 35 year old Brazilian national attempted to assassinate the then vice-president of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. However, the attempt was unsuccessful because the assassin's gun jammed. United States government killing of citizens In 2012, The New York Times revealed that the Obama administration maintained a "kill list" containing terrorism suspects. The list is sometimes referred to as a "disposition matrix," and President Obama made a final decision on whether anyone listed would be killed, without court oversight and without trial. In September 2011, American citizens Anwar Al-Awlaki and Samir Khan were assassinated in Yemen by the United States government via drone strikes. Two weeks later, Awlaki's 16-year-old son, also an American citizen, was killed in a strike targeting Ibrahim al-Banna, a senior operative in Al-Qaeda. Al-Banna was not killed in the strike. An army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny, or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war.
For similar and additional reasons, assassination has also sometimes been used in the conduct of foreign policy. The costs and benefits of such actions are difficult to compute. It may not be clear whether the assassinated leader gets replaced with a more or less competent successor, whether the assassination provokes ire in the state in question, whether the assassination leads to souring domestic public opinion, and whether the assassination provokes condemnation from third-parties.
In both military and foreign policy assassinations, there is the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader, or that such a killing (or a failed attempt) will prompt the masses to contemn<!-- not a typo for "condemn" --> the killers and support the leader's cause more strongly. Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, that possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War. A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool:
* The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague on May 27, 1942, by the British and Czechoslovak government-in-exile. That case illustrates the difficulty of comparing the benefits of a foreign policy goal (strengthening the legitimacy and influence of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London) against the possible costs resulting from an assassination (the Lidice massacre).
Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts:
* During the Vietnam War, the US engaged in the Phoenix Program to assassinate Viet Cong leaders and sympathizers. It killed between 6,000 and 41,000 people, with official "targets" of 1,800 per month.
* With the January 3, 2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike, the US assassinated the commander of Iran's Quds Force General Qasem Soleimani and the commander of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, along with eight other high-ranking military personnel. The assassination of the military leaders was part of escalating tensions between the US and Iran and the American-led intervention in Iraq.
As a tool of insurgents
Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes. Assassinations provide several functions for such groups: the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause.
The Irish Republican Army guerrillas in 1919 to 1921 killed many Royal Irish Constabulary Police intelligence officers during the Irish War of Independence. Michael Collins set up a special unit, the Squad, for that purpose, which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force. The Squad's activities peaked with the killing of 14 British agents in Dublin on Bloody Sunday in 1920.
The tactic was used again by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles in Northern Ireland (1969–1998). Assassination of unionist politicians and activists was one of a number of methods used in the Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997. The IRA also attempted to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a Brighton hotel. Loyalist paramilitaries retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating Irish nationalist politicians.
Basque separatists ETA in Spain assassinated many security and political figures since the late 1960s, notably the president of the Francoist government of Spain, Luis Carrero Blanco, 1st Duke of Carrero-Blanco Grandee of Spain, in 1973. In the early 1990s, it also began to target academics, journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with it.
The Red Brigades in Italy carried out assassinations of political figures and, to a lesser extent, so did the Red Army Faction in Germany in the 1970s and the 1980s.
In the Vietnam War, communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials and individual civilians deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement. Such attacks, along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands, almost brought the Ngo Dinh Diem regime to collapse before the US intervened.
Psychology
A major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts. Assassinations are thus rarely "impulsive" actions. as well as the innovative use of explosive devices.
of Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of President John F. Kennedy]]
of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln]]
A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations; however, certain pragmatic difficulties attend long-range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line of sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim's travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range, which is usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and handfinishing required to achieve extreme accuracy.
Despite their comparative disadvantages, handguns are more easily concealable and so are much more commonly used than rifles. Of the 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century, 51% were undertaken by a handgun, 30% with a rifle or shotgun, 15% used knives, and 8% explosives (the use of multiple weapons/methods was reported in 16% of all cases). The CIA made several attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro; many of the schemes involving poisoning his cigars. In the late 1950s, the KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky killed Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera with a spray gun that fired a jet of poison gas from a crushed cyanide ampule, making their deaths look like heart attacks. A 2006 case in the UK concerned the assassination of Alexander Litvinenko who was given a lethal dose of radioactive polonium-210, possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food.Targeted killing
combat drone; sometimes used in targeted killings]]
Targeted killing is the intentional killing by a government or its agents of a civilian or "unlawful combatant" who is not in the government's custody. The target is a person asserted to be taking part in an armed conflict or terrorism, by bearing arms or otherwise, who has thereby lost the immunity from being targeted that he would otherwise have under the Third Geneva Convention. wrote, "Assassinations and targeted killings are very different acts." Abraham D. Sofaer, former federal judge for the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, wrote on the subject:
<blockquote>When people call a targeted killing an "assassination", they are attempting to preclude debate on the merits of the action. Assassination is widely defined as murder, and is for that reason prohibited in the United States ... U.S. officials may not kill people merely because their policies are seen as detrimental to our interests... But killings in self-defense are no more "assassinations" in international affairs than they are murders when undertaken by our police forces against domestic killers. Targeted killings in self-defense have been authoritatively determined by the federal government to fall outside the assassination prohibition. Similarly, Amos Guiora, a professor of law at the University of Utah, wrote, "Targeted killing is... not an assassination." Steve David, professor of international relations at Johns Hopkins University, wrote, "There are strong reasons to believe that the Israeli policy of targeted killing is not the same as assassination." Syracuse Law William Banks and GW Law Peter Raven-Hansen wrote, "Targeted killing of terrorists is... not unlawful and would not constitute assassination." Rory Miller writes: "Targeted killing... is not 'assassination. Eric Patterson and Teresa Casale wrote, "Perhaps most important is the legal distinction between targeted killing and assassination."
On the other hand, the American Civil Liberties Union also states on its website, "A program of targeted killing far from any battlefield, without charge or trial, violates the constitutional guarantee of due process. It also violates international law, under which lethal force may be used outside armed conflict zones only as a last resort to prevent imminent threats, when non-lethal means are not available. Targeting people who are suspected of terrorism for execution, far from any war zone, turns the whole world into a battlefield."
Yael Stein, the research director of B'Tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, also stated in her article "By Any Name Illegal and Immoral: Response to 'Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing:
<blockquote>The argument that this policy affords the public a sense of revenge and retribution could serve to justify acts both illegal and immoral. Clearly, lawbreakers ought to be punished. Yet, no matter how horrific their deeds, as the targeting of Israeli civilians indeed is, they should be punished according to the law. David's arguments could, in principle, justify the abolition of formal legal systems altogether.</blockquote>
Targeted killing has become a frequent tactic of the United States and Israel in their fights against terrorism. The tactic can raise complex questions and lead to contentious disputes as to the legal basis for its application, who qualifies as an appropriate "hit list" target, and what circumstances must exist before the tactic may be used. Methods used have included firing Hellfire missiles from Predator or Reaper drones (unmanned, remote-controlled planes), detonating a cell phone bomb, and long-range sniper shooting. Countries such as the US (in Pakistan and Yemen) and Israel (in the West Bank and Gaza) have used targeted killing to eliminate members of groups such as Al-Qaeda and Hamas.
United Nations investigator Ben Emmerson said that US drone strikes may have violated international humanitarian law. The Intercept reported, "Between January 2012 and February 2013, U.S. special operations airstrikes [in northeastern Afghanistan] killed more than 200 people. Of those, only 35 were the intended targets."
Countermeasures
Early forms
during Sheik Abdul Sattar Abu Risha's assassination in 2007.]]
One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins was employing bodyguards, who act as a shield for the potential target; keep a lookout for potential attackers, sometimes in advance, such as on a parade route; and putting themselves in harm's way, both by simple presence, showing that physical force is available to protect the target, and by shielding the target if any attack occurs. To neutralize an attacker, bodyguards are typically armed as much as legal and practical concerns permit.
Notable examples of bodyguards include the Roman Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman Janissaries, but in both cases, the protectors sometimes became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the head of state a virtual hostage or killing the very leaders whom they were supposed to protect. The loyalty of individual bodyguards is an important question as well, especially for leaders who oversee states with strong ethnic or religious divisions. Failure to realize such divided loyalties allowed the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was assassinated by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984.
The bodyguard function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and it was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, which led assassins to attempt stealthy means, such as poison, whose risk was reduced by having another person taste the leader's food first.Modern strategies
on President Ronald Reagan]]
With the advent of gunpowder, ranged assassination via bombs or firearms became possible. One of the first reactions was simply to increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a small army trailing every leader. Another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present to the point that entire sections of a city might be shut down.
As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence and capability of assassins grew quickly, as did measures to protect against them. For the first time, armored cars or limousines were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions virtually invulnerable to small arms fire, smaller bombs and mines. Bulletproof vests also began to be used, but since they were of limited utility, restricting movement and leaving the head unprotected, they tended to be worn only during high-profile public events, if at all.
Access to famous people also became more and more restricted; potential visitors would be forced through numerous different checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as communication became better and information technology more prevalent, it has become all but impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work or in private life to effect an attempt on their life, especially with the common use of metal and bomb detectors.
Most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during transport, both because of weaker security and security lapses, such as with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, or as part of a coup d'état in which security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba.
in a modified Mercedes-Benz M-Class Popemobile in São Paulo, Brazil]]
The methods used for protection by famous people have sometimes evoked negative reactions by the public, with some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear bulletproof glass, such as the MRAP-like Popemobile of Pope John Paul II, built following an attempt at his life. Politicians often resent the need for separation and sometimes send their bodyguards away from them for personal or publicity reasons. US President William McKinley did so at the public reception in which he was assassinated.
US Secret Service protective agents receive training in the psychology of assassins.See also
* Assassinations in fiction
* Contract killing
* History of assassination
* List of contract killers and hitmen
* List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government
* List of assassinations
* List of assassinations by firearm
* List of people who survived assassination attempts
* List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
* Special Activities Center of the Central Intelligence Agency
Notes and references
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
** External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091125153936/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/22792/notorious-assassinations Notorious Assassinations] – slideshow by Life magazine
* CNN. [http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy "U.S. policy on assassinations"] from CNN.com/Law Center, November 4, 2002. See also Ford's 1976 [https://web.archive.org/web/20040409090921/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/760110e.htm executive order]. However, Executive Order 12333, which prohibited the CIA from assassinations, was relaxed by the George W. Bush administration.
*
* [http://www.democracynow.org/2010/4/8/is_the_cia_assassination_order_of Is the CIA Assassination Order of a US Citizen Legal?] – video by Democracy Now!
Category:Attacks by method
Category:Killings by type | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.004556 |
2964 | Optical audio disc | An audio optical disc is an optical disc that stores sound information such as music or speech. It may specifically refer to:
Audio CDs
Compact disc (CD), an optical disc used to store digital data (700 MB storage)
Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA), a CD that contains PCM encoded digital audio in the original "Red Book" CD-DA format
5.1 Music Disc, an extension to the Red Book standard that uses DTS Coherent Acoustics 5.1 surround sound
Compressed audio optical disc, an optical disc storing MP3s and other compressed audio files as data, rather than in the Red Book format
Audio DVDs
DVD, 4 GB single layer, 8 GB double layer storage
DVD-Audio, a DVD that plays audio
Super Audio CD (SACD), a format which competes with DVD-Audio
Audio Blu-rays
Blu-ray, 25 GB single layer, 50 GB double layer
BD-Audio, a Blu-ray disc that is capable of audio-only playback
See also
Compatible Discrete 4 (CD-4), a variety of quadrophonic audio for vinyl records | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_audio_disc | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.007719 |
2965 | Alcoholism | : "Ah! When will we be rid of alcohol?"
| field = Psychiatry, clinical psychology, toxicology, addiction medicine
| symptoms Drinking large amounts of alcohol over a long period, difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol taking up a lot of time, usage resulting in problems, withdrawal occurring when stopping
| complications Mental illness, delirium, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis of the liver, cancer, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, suicide
| onset | duration Long term
| medication | prognosis
| frequency 380 million / 5.1% adults (2016) Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide . The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are considered stigmatizing and likely to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as "alcohol use disorder" and "alcohol dependence" are often used instead in a clinical context.
<!-- Summary of negative impacts-->
Alcohol is addictive, and heavy long-term alcohol use results in many negative health and social consequences. It can damage all the organ systems, but especially affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system. These health effects can reduce life expectancy by 10 years. Drinking during pregnancy may harm the child's health, and drunk driving increases the risk of traffic accidents. Alcoholism is also associated with increases in violent and non-violent crime. While alcoholism directly resulted in 139,000 deaths worldwide in 2013, in 2012 3.3 million deaths may be attributable globally to alcohol. Someone with a parent or sibling with an alcohol use disorder is three to four times more likely to develop an alcohol use disorder themselves, but only a minority of them do. High stress levels and anxiety, as well as alcohol's inexpensive cost and easy accessibility, increase the risk. People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal. Questionnaires are usually used to detect possible alcoholism. Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis.
<!-- Prevention and treatment -->
Treatment of alcoholism may take several forms. The medications acamprosate or disulfiram may also be used to help prevent further drinking. Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment. Various individual or group therapy or support groups are used to attempt to keep a person from returning to alcoholism. Among them is the abstinence based mutual aid fellowship Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). A 2020 scientific review found that clinical interventions encouraging increased participation in AA (AA/twelve step facilitation (AA/TSF))—resulted in higher abstinence rates over other clinical interventions, and most studies in the review found that AA/TSF led to lower health costs.
Many terms, some slurs and some informal, have been used to refer to people affected by alcoholism such as tippler, drunkard, dipsomaniac and souse.
Signs and symptoms
The risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called binge drinking. Binge drinking is the most common pattern of alcoholism. It has different definitions and one of this defines it as a pattern of drinking when a male has five or more drinks on an occasion or a female has at least four drinks on an occasion.
Long-term misuse
an individual may develop. Additionally, in pregnant women, alcohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome.]]
Alcoholism is characterized by an increased tolerance to alcohol – which means that an individual can consume more alcohol – and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to control their consumption. The physical dependency caused by alcohol can lead to an affected individual having a very strong urge to drink alcohol. These characteristics play a role in decreasing the ability to stop drinking of an individual with an alcohol use disorder. Alcoholism can have adverse effects on mental health, contributing to psychiatric disorders and increasing the risk of suicide. A depressed mood is a common symptom of heavy alcohol drinkers. Warning signs Warning signs of alcoholism include the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol and frequent intoxication, preoccupation with drinking to the exclusion of other activities, promises to quit drinking and failure to keep those promises, the inability to remember what was said or done while drinking (colloquially known as "blackouts"), personality changes associated with drinking, denial or the making of excuses for drinking, the refusal to admit excessive drinking, dysfunction or other problems at work or school, the loss of interest in personal appearance or hygiene, marital and economic problems, and the complaint of poor health, with loss of appetite, respiratory infections, or increased anxiety.PhysicalShort-term effects
Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria (intense feelings of well-being and happiness), increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC of 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit while unconscious) and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. With all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties for drunk driving.
Long-term effects
Having more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater with binge drinking, which may also result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and several cancers such as breast cancer and head and neck cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting in a propensity for bone fractures.
Women develop long-term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do men; women also have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men. The amount of alcohol that can be biologically processed and its effects differ between sexes. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations (BACs), since women generally have a lower weight and higher percentage of body fat and therefore a lower volume of distribution for alcohol than men.PsychiatricLong-term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems. Severe cognitive problems are common; approximately 10% of all dementia cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia. Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time. Social skills are significantly impaired in people with alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol use disorder include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody, perception problems, and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humor is also impaired in people who misuse alcohol. Psychiatric disorders are common in people with alcohol use disorders, with as many as 25% also having severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are anxiety and depression disorders. Psychiatric symptoms usually initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal, but typically improve or disappear with continued abstinence. Psychosis, confusion, and organic brain syndrome may be caused by alcohol misuse, which can lead to a misdiagnosis such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop or worsen as a direct result of long-term alcohol misuse.
The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that remit with alcohol abstinence ("substance-induced"), and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence ("independent" episodes). Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression. Psychiatric disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol-use disorders often have a co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol-use disorders more often have a co-occurring diagnosis of narcissistic or antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Women with alcohol use disorder are more likely to experience physical or sexual assault, abuse, and domestic violence than women in the general population, Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of children of people with alcohol use disorders. For this reason, children of people with alcohol use disorders can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. They may develop shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism and, as a result of this, may develop self-image problems, which can lead to depression.
Alcohol withdrawal
. Reproduction of an etching by G. Cruikshank, 1847.]]
As with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system experiences uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life-threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate.
Severe acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1-week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3–6 weeks following cessation, anxiety, depression, fatigue, and sleep disturbance are common. Similar post-acute withdrawal symptoms have also been observed in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal.
A kindling effect also occurs in people with alcohol use disorders whereby each subsequent withdrawal syndrome is more severe than the previous withdrawal episode; this is due to neuroadaptations which occur as a result of periods of abstinence followed by re-exposure to alcohol. Individuals who have had multiple withdrawal episodes are more likely to develop seizures and experience more severe anxiety during withdrawal from alcohol than alcohol-dependent individuals without a history of past alcohol withdrawal episodes. The kindling effect leads to persistent functional changes in brain neural circuits as well as to gene expression. Kindling also results in the intensification of psychological symptoms of alcohol withdrawal.
Causes
Gin Lane, 1751]]
A complex combination of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, as can a family history of alcoholism. There is compelling evidence that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. These genetic and epigenetic results are regarded as consistent with large longitudinal population studies finding that the younger the age of drinking onset, the greater the prevalence of lifetime alcohol dependence.
Severe childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. The use of cannabis was associated with later problems with alcohol use. Alcohol use was associated with an increased probability of later use of tobacco and illegal drugs such as cannabis.AvailabilityAlcohol is the most available, widely consumed, and widely misused recreational drug. Beer alone is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic beverage; it is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage.
Gender difference
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Based on combined data in the US from SAMHSA's 2004–2005 National Surveys on Drug Use & Health, the rate of past-year alcohol dependence or misuse among persons aged 12 or older varied by level of alcohol use: 44.7% of past month heavy drinkers, 18.5% binge drinkers, 3.8% past month non-binge drinkers, and 1.3% of those who did not drink alcohol in the past month met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year. Males had higher rates than females for all measures of drinking in the past month: any alcohol use (57.5% vs. 45%), binge drinking (30.8% vs. 15.1%), and heavy alcohol use (10.5% vs. 3.3%), and males were twice as likely as females to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year (10.5% vs. 5.1%). However, because females generally weigh less than males, have more fat and less water in their bodies, and metabolize less alcohol in their esophagus and stomach, they are likely to develop higher blood alcohol levels per drink. Women may also be more vulnerable to liver disease.
Genetic variation
There are genetic variations that affect the risk for alcoholism. Some of these variations are more common in individuals with ancestry from certain areas; for example, Africa, East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The variants with strongest effect are in genes that encode the main enzymes of alcohol metabolism, ADH1B and ALDH2. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele ADH1B*2 causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, and reduces risk for alcoholism; Native Americans, however, have a significantly higher rate of alcoholism than average; risk factors such as cultural environmental effects (e.g. trauma) have been proposed to explain the higher rates. The aldehyde dehydrogenase allele ALDH2*2 greatly reduces the rate at which acetaldehyde, the initial product of alcohol metabolism, is removed by conversion to acetate; it greatly reduces the risk for alcoholism. Several large GWAS have found differences in the genetics of alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence, although the two are to some degree related.DNA damageAlcohol-induced DNA damage, when not properly repaired, may have a key role in the neurotoxicity induced by alcohol. Metabolic conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde can occur in the brain and the neurotoxic effects of ethanol appear to be associated with acetaldehyde induced DNA damages including DNA adducts and crosslinks. In 1979, the World Health Organization discouraged the use of alcoholism due to its inexact meaning, preferring alcohol dependence syndrome.
Misuse, problem use, abuse, and heavy use of alcohol refer to improper use of alcohol, which may cause physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2005, defines "moderate use" as no more than two alcoholic beverages a day for men and no more than one alcoholic beverage a day for women. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as the amount of alcohol leading to a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.08, which, for most adults, would be reached by consuming five drinks for men or four for women over a two-hour period. According to the NIAAA, men may be at risk for alcohol-related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or 4 drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than 7 standard drinks per week or 3 drinks per day. It defines a standard drink as one 12-ounce bottle of beer, one 5-ounce glass of wine, or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either "heavy drinkers" or "binge drinkers" defined according to the above criteria also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1.3% of non-binge drinkers met the criteria. An inference drawn from this study is that evidence-based policy strategies and clinical preventive services may effectively reduce binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases.AlcoholismThe term alcoholism is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. Despite the imprecision inherent in the term, there have been attempts to define how the word alcoholism should be interpreted when encountered. In 1992, it was defined by the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD) and ASAM as "a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking." MeSH has had an entry for alcoholism since 1999, and references the 1992 definition.
The WHO calls alcoholism "a term of long-standing use and variable meaning", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee.
In professional and research contexts, the term alcoholism is not currently favored, but rather alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol use disorder are used. Johnson (1980) proposed that the emotional progression of the addicted people's response to alcohol has four phases. The first two are considered "normal" drinking and the last two are viewed as "typical" alcoholic drinking.
* Alcohol dependence – alcohol abuse combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable drive to drink. Some scholars suggested that DSM-5 merges alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single new entry, named "alcohol-use disorder".
|-
| DSM-5
| Alcohol use disorder
| "A problematic pattern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by [two or more symptoms out of a total of 12], occurring within a 12-month period ...."
|-
| ICD-10
| Alcohol harmful use, or Alcohol dependence syndrome
| Definitions are similar to that of the DSM-IV. The World Health Organization uses the term "alcohol dependence syndrome" rather than alcoholism.
|-
| ICD-11
| Episode of harmful use of alcohol, Harmful pattern of use of alcohol, or Alcohol dependence
|
* Episode of harmful use of alcohol – "A single episode of use of alcohol that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..."
* Harmful pattern of use of alcohol – "A pattern of alcohol use that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..."
* Alcohol dependence – "Alcohol dependence is a disorder of regulation of alcohol use arising from repeated or continuous use of alcohol. The characteristic feature is a strong internal drive to use alcohol. ... The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if alcohol use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 1 month."
|-
|}
Social barriers
Attitudes and social stereotypes can create barriers to the detection and treatment of alcohol use disorder. This is more of a barrier for women than men. Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they have a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know has alcohol use disorder. In contrast, reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are having a medical condition, to display their drinking publicly, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is someone with an alcohol use disorder. Several tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self-reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use.
The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office.
:The CAGE questionnaire has demonstrated a high effectiveness in detecting alcohol-related problems; however, it has limitations in people with less severe alcohol-related problems, white women and college students.
Other tests are sometimes used for the detection of alcohol dependence, such as the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, which is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE questionnaire. It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use. The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses, driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization, is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions – a high score earning a deeper investigation. The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol-related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time.Urine and blood testsThere are biological markers for the use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). Monitoring levels of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) is sometimes used to assess continued alcohol intake. But levels of GGT are elevated in only half of men with alcohol use disorder, and it is less commonly elevated in women and younger people.
* Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV)
* Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1
* High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT)
With regard to alcoholism, BAC is useful to judge alcohol tolerance, which in turn is a sign of alcoholism.
Increasing the age at which alcohol can be purchased, and banning or restricting alcohol beverage advertising are common methods to reduce alcohol use among adolescents and young adults in particular, see Alcoholism in adolescence. Another common method of alcoholism prevention is taxation of alcohol products – increasing price of alcohol by 10% is linked with reduction of consumption of up to 10%.
Credible, evidence-based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol misuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol misuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested.
Because alcohol is often used for self-medication of conditions like anxiety temporarily, prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by reducing the severity or prevalence of stress and anxiety in individuals.
Cessation of alcohol intake
Medical treatment for alcohol detoxification usually involves administration of a benzodiazepine, in order to ameliorate alcohol withdrawal syndrome's adverse impact. The addition of phenobarbital improves outcomes if benzodiazepine administration lacks the usual efficacy, and phenobarbital alone might be an effective treatment. Propofol also might enhance treatment for individuals showing limited therapeutic response to a benzodiazepine. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be treated as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions can be treated as inpatients. Direct treatment can be followed by a treatment program for alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorder to attempt to reduce the risk of relapse. A 2020 Cochrane review concluded that Twelve-Step Facilitation (TSF) probably achieves outcomes such as fewer drinks per drinking day, however evidence for such a conclusion comes from low to moderate certainty evidence "so should be regarded with caution". Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women for Sobriety, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety.
Manualized Twelve Step Facilitation (TSF) interventions (i.e. therapy which encourages active, long-term Alcoholics Anonymous participation) for Alcohol Use Disorder lead to higher abstinence rates, compared to other clinical interventions and to wait-list control groups.
Moderate drinking
Moderate drinking amongst people with alcohol dependence—often termed 'controlled drinking'—has been subject to significant controversy. Indeed, much of the skepticism toward the viability of moderate drinking goals stems from historical ideas about 'alcoholism', now replaced with 'alcohol use disorder' or alcohol dependence in most scientific contexts. A 2021 meta-analysis and systematic review of controlled drinking covering 22 studies concluded controlled drinking was a 'non-inferior' outcome to abstinence for many drinkers.
Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most people with alcohol use disorders are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 US study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency.
A follow-up study, using the same subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001–2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004–2005. The study found abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission for recovering alcoholics. There was also a 1973 study showing chronic alcoholics drinking moderately again, but a 1982 follow-up showed that 95% of subjects were not able to maintain drinking in moderation over the long term. Another study was a long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men which concluded that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Internet based measures appear to be useful at least in the short term.MedicationsIn the United States there are four approved medications for alcoholism: acamprosate, two methods of using naltrexone and disulfiram.
* Acamprosate may stabilise the brain chemistry that is altered due to alcohol dependence via antagonising the actions of glutamate, a neurotransmitter which is hyperactive in the post-withdrawal phase. By reducing excessive NMDA activity which occurs at the onset of alcohol withdrawal, acamprosate can reduce or prevent alcohol withdrawal related neurotoxicity. Acamprosate reduces the risk of relapse amongst alcohol-dependent persons. Acamprosate is not recommended in those with advanced, decompensated liver cirrhosis due to the risk of liver toxicity.
* Naltrexone is a competitive antagonist for opioid receptors, effectively blocking the effects of endorphins and opioids. Naltrexone may be given as a daily oral tablet or as a monthly intramuscular injection. Evidence supports a reduced risk of relapse among alcohol-dependent persons and a decrease in excessive drinking.
* Calcium carbimide works in the same way as disulfiram; it has an advantage in that the occasional adverse effects of disulfiram, hepatotoxicity and drowsiness, do not occur with calcium carbimide.
* Ondansetron and topiramate are supported by tentative evidence in people with certain genetic patterns. Evidence for ondansetron is stronger in people who have recently started to abuse alcohol. Topiramate is a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose. Review articles characterize topiramate as showing "encouraging", and "insufficient" results in the treatment of alcohol use disorders.
Evidence does not support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), antipsychotics, or gabapentin. A 2010 review found that topiramate may be superior to existing alcohol pharmacotherapeutic options. Topiramate effectively reduces craving and alcohol withdrawal severity as well as improving quality-of-life-ratings.
Baclofen, a GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor agonist, is under study for the treatment of alcoholism. According to a 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review, there is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness or safety for the use of baclofen for withdrawal symptoms in alcoholism. Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is under study for the treatment of patients with alcohol use disorder.
Dual addictions and dependencies
Alcoholics may also require treatment for other psychotropic drug addictions and drug dependencies. The most common dual dependence syndrome with alcohol dependence is benzodiazepine dependence, with studies showing 10–20% of alcohol-dependent individuals had problems of dependence and/or misuse problems of benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam or clonazepam. These drugs are, like alcohol, depressants. Benzodiazepines may be used legally, if they are prescribed by doctors for anxiety problems or other mood disorders, or they may be purchased as illegal drugs. Benzodiazepine use increases cravings for alcohol and the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative-hypnotic and is cross-tolerant with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not properly managed.Epidemiology
for alcohol use disorders per million inhabitants in 2012
]]
The World Health Organization estimates that there are about 380 million people with alcoholism worldwide (5.1% of the population over 15 years of age), About 12% of American adults have had an alcohol dependence problem at some time in their life.
In the United States and Western Europe, 10–20% of men and 5–10% of women at some point in their lives will meet criteria for alcoholism. In England, the number of "dependent drinkers" was calculated as over 600,000 in 2019. Estonia had the highest death rate from alcohol in Europe in 2015 at 8.8 per 100,000 population. In the United States, 30% of people admitted to hospital have a problem related to alcohol.
Within the medical and scientific communities, there is a broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that "drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors (e.g., stage of brain maturity)." Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though, in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased. Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50–60% genetically determined, leaving 40–50% for environmental influences. Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or young adulthood. There is a high rate of suicide in chronic alcoholics, which increases the longer a person drinks. Approximately 3–15% of alcoholics die by suicide, and research has found that over 50% of all suicides are associated with alcohol or drug dependence. This is believed to be due to alcohol causing physiological distortion of brain chemistry, as well as social isolation. Suicide is also common in adolescent alcohol abusers. Research in 2000 found that 25% of suicides in adolescents were related to alcohol abuse.
Among those with alcohol dependence after one year, some met the criteria for low-risk drinking, even though only 26% of the group received any treatment, with the breakdown as follows: 25% were found to be still dependent, 27% were in partial remission (some symptoms persist), 12% asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse) and 36% were fully recovered – made up of 18% low-risk drinkers plus 18% abstainers. In contrast, however, the results of a long-term (60-year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men indicated that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence....return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage." That term now has a more specific meaning. The term alcoholism was first used by Swedish physician Magnus Huss in an 1852 publication to describe the systemic adverse effects of alcohol. In 2005, alcohol dependence and misuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220 billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity.Society and culture
The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society; for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle injuries (27%), interpersonal violence (18%), suicides (18%), and epilepsy (13%). Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to an incurable and damaging condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which often results in cognitive deficits, mental health problems, an inability to live independently and an increased risk of criminal behaviour, all of which can cause emotional stress for parents and caregivers. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol misuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from 1–6% of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug misuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of all forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5 billion.
The idea of hitting rock bottom refers to an experience of stress that can be attributed to alcohol misuse. There is no single definition for this idea, and people may identify their own lowest points in terms of lost jobs, lost relationships, health problems, legal problems, or other consequences of alcohol misuse. The concept is promoted by 12-step recovery groups and researchers using the transtheoretical model of motivation for behavior change.
Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The "town drunk" is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the fictional depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers. Studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America. Alcohol consumption is relatively similar between many European cultures, the United States, and Australia. In Asian countries that have a high gross domestic product, there is heightened drinking compared to other Asian countries, but it is nowhere near as high as it is in other countries like the United States. It is also inversely seen, with countries that have very low gross domestic product showing high alcohol consumption. In a study done on Korean immigrants in Canada, they reported alcohol was typically an integral part of their meal but is the only time solo drinking should occur. They also generally believe alcohol is necessary at any social event, as it helps conversations start.
Peyote, a psychoactive agent, has even shown promise in treating alcoholism. Alcohol had actually replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed. See also
* Addictive personality
* Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States
* Alcoholism in family systems
* Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism
* CRAFFT Screening Test
* Disulfiram-like drug
* High-functioning alcoholic
* Holiday heart syndrome
* List of countries by alcohol consumption
Notes
References
External links
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| ICDO | OMIM 103780
| MedlinePlus = 000944
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Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Drinking culture
Category:Substance dependence
Category:Substance-related disorders
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.078096 |
2972 | Abstraction | Abstraction is a process where general rules and concepts are derived from the use and classifying of specific examples, literal (real or concrete) signifiers, first principles, or other methods.
"An abstraction" is the outcome of this process — a concept that acts as a common noun for all subordinate concepts and connects any related concepts as a group, field, or category.
Conceptual abstractions may be made by filtering the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, selecting only those aspects which are relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball selects only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, excluding but not eliminating the other phenomenal and cognitive characteristics of that particular ball. discussed in the themes below.
Origins
Thinking in abstractions is considered by anthropologists, archaeologists, and sociologists to be one of the key traits in modern human behaviour, believed to have developed between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. Its development is likely to have been closely connected with the development of human language, which (whether spoken or written) appears to both involve and facilitate abstract thinking. Max Müller suggests interrelationship between metaphor and abstraction in the development of thought and language.
History
Abstraction involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into one general theory about something. Its opposite, specification, is the analysis or breaking-down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts. Abstraction can be illustrated by Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (1620), a book of modern scientific philosophy written in the late Jacobean era of England to encourage modern thinkers to collect specific facts before making any generalizations.
Bacon used and promoted induction as an abstraction tool; his induction complemented but was distinct from the ancient deductive-thinking approach that had dominated the Western intellectual world since the times of Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Aristotle. Thales (–546 BCE) believed that everything in the universe comes from one main substance, water. He deduced or specified from a general idea, "everything is water," to the specific forms of water such as ice, snow, fog, and rivers.
Early-modern scientists used the approach of abstraction (going from particular facts collected into one general idea). Newton (1642–1727) derived the motion of the planets from Copernicus' (1473–1543) simplification, that the Sun is the center of the Solar System; Kepler (1571–1630) compressed thousands of measurements into one expression to finally conclude that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit about the Sun; Galileo (1564–1642) compressed the results of one hundred specific experiments into the law of falling bodies.
Themes
Compression
An abstraction can be seen as a compression process, mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data; based on similarities in the constituent data, for example, many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects, and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).
For example, picture 1 below illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can be construed, moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape, to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat, to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT, to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".
For example, graph 1 below expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location". This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.
Instantiation
Non-existent things in any particular place and time are often seen as abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times.
Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown below. It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 below. We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme.
Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars—e.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. This is similar to qualia and sumbebekos.
Material process
Still retaining the primary meaning of '' or 'to draw away from', the abstraction of money, for example, works by drawing away from the particular value of things allowing completely incommensurate objects to be compared (see the section on 'Physicality' below).
The state (polity) as both concept and material practice exemplifies the two sides of this process of abstraction. Conceptually, 'the current concept of the state is an abstraction from the much more concrete early-modern use as the standing or status of the prince, his visible estates'. At the same time, materially, the 'practice of statehood is now constitutively and materially more abstract than at the time when princes ruled as the embodiment of extended power'.
Ontological status
The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.
Physicality
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time. However, in the secondary sense of the term 'abstraction', this physical object can carry materially abstracting processes. For example, record-keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to , these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers for the count, marks were placed on the outside of the containers. These physical marks, in other words, acted as material abstractions of a materially abstract process of accounting, using conceptual abstractions (numbers) to communicate its meaning.
Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g., good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates.
Referencing and referring
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents. For example, "happiness" can mean experiencing various positive emotions, but can also refer to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.
Simplification and ordering
Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication.
alt=|thumb|Conceptual graph for A Cat sitting on the Mat (graph 1)
thumb|Cat on Mat (picture 1)
For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their five labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.
Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund/present participle SITTING and the nouns agent and location express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT.
Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about something, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.
Thought processes
In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects. But an idea can be symbolized.
As used in different disciplines
In art
Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freedom from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.
In computer science
Computer scientists use abstraction to make models that can be used and re-used without having to re-write all the program code for each new application on every different type of computer. They communicate their solutions with the computer by writing source code in some particular computer language which can be translated into machine code for different types of computers to execute. Abstraction allows program designers to separate a framework (categorical concepts related to computing problems) from specific instances which implement details. This means that the program code can be written so that code does not have to depend on the specific details of supporting applications, operating system software, or hardware, but on a categorical concept of the solution. A solution to the problem can then be integrated into the system framework with minimal additional work. This allows programmers to take advantage of another programmer's work, while requiring only an abstract understanding of the implementation of another's work, apart from the problem that it solves.
In general semantics
Abstractions and levels of abstraction play an important role in the theory of general semantics originated by Alfred Korzybski. Anatol Rapoport wrote "Abstracting is a mechanism by which an infinite variety of experiences can be mapped on short noises (words)."
In history
Francis Fukuyama defines history as "a deliberate attempt of abstraction in which we separate out important from unimportant events".
In linguistics
Researchers in linguistics frequently apply abstraction so as to allow an analysis of the phenomena of language at the desired level of detail. A commonly used abstraction, the phoneme, abstracts speech sounds in such a way as to neglect details that cannot serve to differentiate meaning. Other analogous kinds of abstractions (sometimes called "emic units") considered by linguists include morphemes, graphemes, and lexemes.
Abstraction also arises in the relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics involves considerations that make reference to the user of the language; semantics considers expressions and what they denote (the designata) abstracted from the language user; and syntax considers only the expressions themselves, abstracted from the designata.
In mathematics
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept or object, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.
The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
It reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics.
Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in another related area.
Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in other related area.
Patterns from one mathematical object can be generalized to other similar objects in the same class.
The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and might require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.
In music
In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized by the exploration of internal numeric relationships.
In neurology
A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has a greater engagement with abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged in processing concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.
In philosophy
Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for the discussion of abstraction is thought space.
John Locke defined abstraction in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding:
'So words are used to stand as outward marks of our internal ideas, which are taken from particular things; but if every particular idea that we take in had its own special name, there would be no end to names. To prevent this, the mind makes particular ideas received from particular things become general; which it does by considering them as they are in the mind—mental appearances—separate from all other existences, and from the circumstances of real existence, such as time, place, and so on. This procedure is called abstraction. In it, an idea taken from a particular thing becomes a general representative of all of the same kind, and its name becomes a general name that is applicable to any existing thing that fits that abstract idea.' (2.11.9)
In psychology
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, different complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types.
In social theory
Social theorists deal with abstraction both as an ideational and as a material process. Alfred Sohn-Rethel (1899–1990) asked: "Can there be abstraction other than by thought?"
and an associated volume published in 2006, Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In.
These books argue that a nation is an abstract community bringing together strangers who will never meet as such; thus constituting materially real and substantial, but abstracted and mediated relations. The books suggest that contemporary processes of globalization and mediatization have contributed to materially abstracting relations between people, with major consequences for how humans live their lives.
One can readily argue that abstraction is an elementary methodological tool in several disciplines of social science. These disciplines have definite and different concepts of "man" that highlight those aspects of man and his behaviour by idealization that are relevant for the given human science. For example, is the man as sociology abstracts and idealizes it, depicting man as a social being. Moreover, we could talk about (the man who can extend his biologically determined intelligence thanks to new technologies), or (who is simply creative).
Abstraction (combined with Weberian idealization) plays a crucial role in economics - hence abstractions such as "the market"
and the generalized concept of "business".
Breaking away from directly experienced reality was a common trend in 19th-century sciences (especially physics), and this was the effort which fundamentally determined the way economics tried (and still tries) to approach the economic aspects of social life. It is abstraction we meet in the case of both Newton's physics and the neoclassical theory, since the goal was to grasp the unchangeable and timeless essence of phenomena. For example, Newton created the concept of the material point by following the abstraction method so that he abstracted from the dimension and shape of any perceptible object, preserving only inertial and translational motion. Material point is the ultimate and common feature of all bodies. Neoclassical economists created the indefinitely abstract notion of homo economicus by following the same procedure. Economists abstract from all individual and personal qualities in order to get to those characteristics that embody the essence of economic activity. Eventually, it is the substance of the economic man that they try to grasp. Any characteristic beyond it only disturbs the functioning of this essential core.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Sohn-Rethel, Alfred (1977) Intellectual and manual labour: A critique of epistemology, Humanities Press.
.
Further reading
Laurence, Stephen & Margolis, Eric (2012). "Abstraction and the Origin of General Ideas". Philosophers' Imprint (12) 19: 1-22.
External links
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege
Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy
Category:Concepts in epistemology
Category:Concepts in metaphilosophy
Category:Concepts in metaphysics
Category:Thought | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.126447 |
2974 | Abelian group | In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is commutative. With addition as an operation, the integers and the real numbers form abelian groups, and the concept of an abelian group may be viewed as a generalization of these examples. Abelian groups are named after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.
The concept of an abelian group underlies many fundamental algebraic structures, such as fields, rings, vector spaces, and algebras. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood and fully classified.
Definition
An abelian group is a set A, together with an operation ･ , that combines any two elements a and b of A to form another element of A, denoted a \cdot b. The symbol ･ is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, (A, \cdot), must satisfy four requirements known as the abelian group axioms (some authors include in the axioms some properties that belong to the definition of an operation: namely that the operation is defined for any ordered pair of elements of , that the result is well-defined, and that the result belongs to ):
Associativity For all a, b, and c in A, the equation (a \cdot b)\cdot c = a \cdot (b \cdot c) holds.
Identity element There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation e \cdot a a \cdot e a holds.
Inverse element For each a in A there exists an element b in A such that a \cdot b b \cdot a e, where e is the identity element.
Commutativity For all a, b in A, a \cdot b = b \cdot a.
A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group".
Facts
Notation
There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups – additive and multiplicative.
Convention Operation Identity Powers Inverse Addition x + y 0 nx -x Multiplication x \cdot y or xy 1 x^n x^{-1}
Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near-rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non-abelian.
Multiplication table
To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) – known as a Cayley table – can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is G \{g_1 e, g_2, \dots, g_n \} under the the entry of this table contains the product g_i \cdot g_j.
The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal. This is true since the group is abelian iff g_i \cdot g_j g_j \cdot g_i for all i, j 1, ..., n, which is iff the (i, j) entry of the table equals the (j, i) entry for all i, j = 1, ..., n, i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.
Examples
For the integers and the operation addition +, denoted (\mathbb{Z}, +), the operation + combines any two integers to form a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer n has an additive inverse, -n, and the addition operation is commutative since n + m = m + n for any two integers m and n.
Every cyclic group G is abelian, because if x, y are in G, then xy a^ma^n a^{m+n} a^na^m yx. Thus the integers, \mathbb{Z}, form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n \mathbb{Z}.
Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication.
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups, quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian. The finite simple abelian groups are exactly the cyclic groups of prime order.
The concepts of abelian group and \mathbb{Z}-module agree. More specifically, every \mathbb{Z}-module is an abelian group with its operation of addition, and every abelian group is a module over the ring of integers \mathbb{Z} in a unique way.
In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication – one example is the group of 2 \times 2 rotation matrices.
Historical remarks
Camille Jordan named abelian groups after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, who had found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals.
Properties
If n is a natural number and x is an element of an abelian group G written additively, then nx can be defined as x + x + \cdots + x (n summands) and (-n)x = -(nx). In this way, G becomes a module over the ring \mathbb{Z} of integers. In fact, the modules over \mathbb{Z} can be identified with the abelian groups.
Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain \mathbb{Z}) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form \mathbb{Z}/p^k\mathbb{Z} for p prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of \mathbb{Z}.
If f, g: G \to H are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum f + g, defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if H is a non-abelian group.) The set \text{Hom}(G,H) of all group homomorphisms from G to H is therefore an abelian group in its own right.
Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a rank. It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent (over the integers) elements of the group. Finite abelian groups and torsion groups have rank zero, and every abelian group of rank zero is a torsion group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every nonzero additive subgroup of the rationals. On the other hand, the multiplicative group of the nonzero rationals has an infinite rank, as it is a free abelian group with the set of the prime numbers as a basis (this results from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic).
The center Z(G) of a group G is the set of elements that commute with every element of G. A group G is abelian if and only if it is equal to its center Z(G). The center of a group G is always a characteristic abelian subgroup of G. If the quotient group G/Z(G) of a group by its center is cyclic then G is abelian.
Finite abelian groups
Cyclic groups of integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n\mathbb{Z}, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra.
Any group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is also abelian. In fact, for every prime number p there are (up to isomorphism) exactly two groups of order p^2, namely \mathbb{Z}_{p^2} and \mathbb{Z}_p\times\mathbb{Z}_p.
Classification
The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when G has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations.
The classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it was not stated in modern group-theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801; see history for details.
The cyclic group \mathbb{Z}_{mn} of order mn is isomorphic to the direct sum of \mathbb{Z}_m and \mathbb{Z}_n if and only if m and n are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form
\bigoplus_{i=1}^{u}\ \mathbb{Z}_{k_i}
in either of the following canonical ways:
the numbers k_1, k_2, \dots, k_u are powers of (not necessarily distinct) primes,
or k_1 divides k_2, which divides k_3, and so on up to k_u.
For example, \mathbb{Z}_{15} can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: \mathbb{Z}_{15} \cong \{0,5,10\} \oplus \{0,3,6,9,12\}. The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic.
For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either \mathbb{Z}_8 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), \mathbb{Z}_4\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or \mathbb{Z}_2\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 \oplus \mathbb{Z}_2.
See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 30 or less.
Automorphisms
One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group G. To do this, one uses the fact that if G splits as a direct sum H\oplus K of subgroups of coprime order, then
\operatorname{Aut}(H\oplus K) \cong \operatorname{Aut}(H)\oplus \operatorname{Aut}(K).
Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of G it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow p-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of p). Fix a prime p and suppose the exponents e_i of the cyclic factors of the Sylow p-subgroup are arranged in increasing order:
e_1\leq e_2 \leq\cdots\leq e_n
for some n > 0. One needs to find the automorphisms of
\mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_1}} \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_n}}.
One special case is when n 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow p-subgroup P. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when n is arbitrary but e_i 1 for 1 \le i \le n. Here, one is considering P to be of the form
\mathbf{Z}_p \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_p,
so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension n over the finite field of p elements \mathbb{F}_p. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so
\operatorname{Aut}(P)\cong\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbf{F}_p),
where \mathrm{GL} is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order
\left|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right|=(p^n-1)\cdots(p^n-p^{n-1}).
In the most general case, where the e_i and n are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines
d_k\max\{r\mid e_r e_k\}
and
c_k\min\{r\mid e_re_k\}
then one has in particular k \le d_k, c_k \le k, and
\left|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right| \prod_{k1}^n (p^{d_k}-p^{k-1}) \prod_{j1}^n (p^{e_j})^{n-d_j} \prod_{i1}^n (p^{e_i-1})^{n-c_i+1}.
One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see Hillar & Rhea).
Finitely generated abelian groups
An abelian group is finitely generated if it contains a finite set of elements (called generators) G=\{x_1, \ldots, x_n\} such that every element of the group is a linear combination with integer coefficients of elements of .
Let be a free abelian group with basis B=\{b_1, \ldots, b_n\}.
There is a unique group homomorphism
p\colon L \to A, such that
p(b_i) x_i\quad \text{for } i1,\ldots, n.
This homomorphism is surjective, and its kernel is finitely generated (since integers form a Noetherian ring). Consider the matrix with integer entries, such that the entries of its th column are the coefficients of the th generator of the kernel. Then, the abelian group is isomorphic to the cokernel of linear map defined by . Conversely every integer matrix defines a finitely generated abelian group.
It follows that the study of finitely generated abelian groups is totally equivalent with the study of integer matrices. In particular, changing the generating set of is equivalent with multiplying on the left by a unimodular matrix (that is, an invertible integer matrix whose inverse is also an integer matrix). Changing the generating set of the kernel of is equivalent with multiplying on the right by a unimodular matrix.
The Smith normal form of is a matrix
S=UMV,
where and are unimodular, and is a matrix such that all non-diagonal entries are zero, the non-zero diagonal entries are the first ones, and is a divisor of for . The existence and the shape of the Smith normal form proves that the finitely generated abelian group is the direct sum
\Z^r \oplus \Z/d_{1,1}\Z \oplus \cdots \oplus \Z/d_{k,k}\Z,
where is the number of zero rows at the bottom of (and also the rank of the group). This is the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups.
The existence of algorithms for Smith normal form shows that the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups is not only a theorem of abstract existence, but provides a way for computing expression of finitely generated abelian groups as direct sums.
Infinite abelian groups
The simplest infinite abelian group is the infinite cyclic group \mathbb{Z}. Any finitely generated abelian group A is isomorphic to the direct sum of r copies of \mathbb{Z} and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of prime power orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique, the number r, called the rank of A, and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined.
By contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i.e. abelian groups A in which the equation nx a admits a solution x \in A for any natural number n and element a of A, constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum, with summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Q} and Prüfer groups \mathbb{Q}_p/Z_p for various prime numbers p, and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover, if a divisible group A is a subgroup of an abelian group G then A admits a direct complement: a subgroup C of G such that G A \oplus C. Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible (Baer's criterion). An abelian group without non-zero divisible subgroups is called reduced.
Two important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are torsion groups and torsion-free groups, exemplified by the groups \mathbb{Q}/\mathbb{Z} (periodic) and \mathbb{Q} (torsion-free).
Torsion groups
An abelian group is called periodic or torsion, if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and second Prüfer theorems state that if A is a periodic group, and it either has a bounded exponent, i.e., nA = 0 for some natural number n, or is countable and the p-heights of the elements of A are finite for each p, then A is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups.
The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Z}/p^m\mathbb{Z} in such a decomposition is an invariant of A. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion. In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian p-groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants.
Torsion-free and mixed groups
An abelian group is called torsion-free if every non-zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion-free abelian groups have been studied extensively:
Free abelian groups, i.e. arbitrary direct sums of \mathbb{Z}
Cotorsion and algebraically compact torsion-free groups such as the p-adic integers
Slender groups
An abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion-free is called mixed. If A is an abelian group and T(A) is its torsion subgroup, then the factor group A/T(A) is torsion-free. However, in general the torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of A, so A is not isomorphic to T(A) \oplus A/T(A). Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion-free groups. The additive group \mathbb{Z} of integers is torsion-free \mathbb{Z}-module.
Invariants and classification
One of the most basic invariants of an infinite abelian group A is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearly independent subset of A. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarily subgroups of \mathbb{Q} and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank r is a subgroup of \mathbb{Q}_r. On the other hand, the group of p-adic integers \mathbb{Z}_p is a torsion-free abelian group of infinite \mathbb{Z}-rank and the groups \mathbb{Z}_p^n with different n are non-isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups.
The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in Lecture Notes in Mathematics for more recent findings.
Additive groups of rings
The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings (with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are:
Tensor product
A.L.S. Corner's results on countable torsion-free groups
Shelah's work to remove cardinality restrictions
Burnside ring
Relation to other mathematical topics
Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups.
The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category \textbf{Ab}, the prototype of an abelian category.
proved that the first-order theory of abelian groups, unlike its non-abelian counterpart, is decidable. Most algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable.
There are still many areas of current research:
Amongst torsion-free abelian groups of finite rank, only the finitely generated case and the rank 1 case are well understood;
There are many unsolved problems in the theory of infinite-rank torsion-free abelian groups;
While countable torsion abelian groups are well understood through simple presentations and Ulm invariants, the case of countable mixed groups is much less mature.
Many mild extensions of the first-order theory of abelian groups are known to be undecidable.
Finite abelian groups remain a topic of research in computational group theory.
Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is:
Undecidable in ZFC (Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms), the conventional axiomatic set theory from which nearly all of present-day mathematics can be derived. The Whitehead problem is also the first question in ordinary mathematics proved undecidable in ZFC;
Undecidable even if ZFC is augmented by taking the generalized continuum hypothesis as an axiom;
Positively answered if ZFC is augmented with the axiom of constructibility (see statements true in L).
A note on typography
Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word "abelian" is rare in that it is usually spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, the lack of capitalization being a tacit acknowledgment not only of the degree to which Abel's name has been institutionalized but also of how ubiquitous in modern mathematics are the concepts introduced by him.
See also
, the smallest non-abelian group
Notes
References
Unabridged and unaltered republication of a work first published by the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, in 1978.
External links
Category:Abelian group theory
Category:Properties of groups
Category:Niels Henrik Abel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.225494 |
2975 | Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty | | location_signed = Moscow, Russian SFSR, USSR
| date_sealed | date_effective
| condition_effective | date_expiration
| date_expiry = 2002 (U.S. withdrawal)
| mediators | negotiators
| original_signatories | signatories Richard Nixon | Leonid Brezhnev}}
| parties = | }}
| ratifiers =
| depositor | depositories
| citations | language
| languages | wikisource Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
| wikisource1 | footnotes
}}
The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, also known as the ABM Treaty or ABMT, was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. It was intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence. Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles.
Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years. In 1997, five years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR's role in the treaty, with Russia assuming all rights and obligations as the successor state of the Soviet Union. Citing purported risks of nuclear blackmail, the United States unilaterally withdrew from the treaty in June 2002, leading to its termination.
Background
Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union had been developing missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) warheads. During this period, the US considered the defense of the US as part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defense, Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called North American Aerospace Defense Command).
By the early 1950s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of an operational ABM system. Work started on a short-range, high-speed counterpart known as Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. In 1967, the US announced that Sentinel itself would be scaled down to the smaller and less expensive Safeguard. Soviet doctrine called for development of its own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A-35 ABM system and its successors, which remain operational to this day.
The development of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) systems allowed a single ICBM to deliver as many as ten separate warheads at a time. An ABM defense system could be overwhelmed with the sheer number of warheads. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would be economically unfeasible: The defenders required one rocket per incoming warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a single missile at a reasonable cost. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with decoys; R-36M heavy missiles carried as many as 40. These decoys would appear as warheads to an ABM, effectively requiring engagement of five times as many targets and rendering defense even less effective.ABM Treaty
and Leonid Brezhnev signing SALT II treaty, 18 June 1979, in Vienna]]
The United States first proposed an anti-ballistic missile treaty at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference during discussions between U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Alexei Kosygin. McNamara argued both that ballistic missile defense could provoke an arms race, and that it might provoke a first-strike against the nation fielding the defense. Kosygin rejected this reasoning. They were trying to minimize the number of nuclear missiles in the world. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969 (SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos.
The treaty was signed during the 1972 Moscow Summit on 26 May by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the U.S. Senate on 3 August 1972.
The 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site. The sites were Moscow for the USSR and the North Dakota Safeguard Complex for the US, which was already under construction.Missiles limited by the treatyThe Treaty limited only ABMs capable of defending against "strategic ballistic missiles", without attempting to define "strategic". It was understood that both ICBMs and SLBMs are obviously "strategic". Neither country intended to stop the development of counter-tactical ABMs. The topic became disputable as soon as most potent counter-tactical ABMs started to be capable of shooting down SLBMs (SLBMs naturally tend to be much slower than ICBMs), nevertheless both sides continued counter-tactical ABM development.After the SDI announcementOn 23 March 1983, Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program into ballistic missile defense which he claimed would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". Reagan was wary of mutual deterrence with what he referred to as the "Evil Empire", and wanted to escape the traditional confines of mutual assured destruction. The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov's overtures for peace. Andropov said, "It is time Washington stopped thinking up one option after another in search of the best way of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. To do this is not just irresponsible. It is madness".
Regardless of the opposition, Reagan gave every indication that SDI would not be used as a bargaining chip and that the United States would do all in its power to build the system. The Soviets were alarmed because the Americans might have been able to make a nuclear first strike possible. In The Nuclear Predicament, Beckman claims that one of the central goals of Soviet diplomacy was to terminate SDI. He went on to state that a surprise attack from the Americans would destroy much of the Soviet ICBM fleet, allowing SDI to defeat a "ragged" Soviet retaliatory response. The Soviets could not afford to ignore Reagan's new endeavour; therefore, their policy at the time was to enter negotiations with the Americans. By 1987, however, the USSR withdrew its opposition, concluding the SDI posed no threat and scientifically "would never work".
SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped-for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that "missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in 1997.
Theater Missile Defense negotiations
The ABM Treaty prohibited "National Missile Defense" (NMD), but some interpreted it to allow more limited systems called "Theater Missile Defense" (TMD).
The problem arose as TMD systems could also potentially be capable of countering strategic ballistic missiles, not just theatre ballistic missiles.
The 1997 agreement were eventually ratified by the Russian parliament on May 4, 2000 (along with START II treaty). Russia was confirmed as the USSR's successor state in January 1992. An additional memorandum of understanding was prepared in 1997, establishing Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as successor states to the Soviet Union, for the purposes of the treaty. The US considered only extending the obligations to these countries, and not all, as only these ones had significant ABM assets.
In the United States, there was a debate on whether after the dissolution of the USSR, the ABM Treaty was still in effect. A month after the USSR's dissolution, President George H. W. Bush affirmed the ABM Treaty and regarded Russia as USSR's successor. Russia also accepted the ABM Treaty. (before he terminated it). However, some Americans (mostly conservative Republicans This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency.
Supporters of the withdrawal claimed that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. However, the withdrawal had many foreign and domestic critics, who said the construction of a missile defense system would lead to fears of a U.S. nuclear first strike, as the missile defense could blunt the retaliatory strike that would otherwise deter such a preemptive attack. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation". Former U.S. Secretary of Defense William Perry also criticized the U.S. withdrawal as a very bad decision.
Russian response
The then-newly elected Russian president, Vladimir Putin, responded to the withdrawal by ordering a build-up of Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. capabilities, although he noted there was no immediate danger stemming from the US withdrawal.
Russia and the United States signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on 24 May 2002. This treaty mandates cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, but without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads, and without any mechanism for enforcement.
On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from ABM (having given notice 6 months earlier). The next day, Russia responded by declaring it would no longer abide by the START II treaty, which had not entered into force.
In interviews with Oliver Stone in 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that in trying to persuade Russia to accept US withdrawal from the treaty, both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush had tried, without evidence, to convince him of an emerging nuclear threat from Iran.
On 1 March 2018, Russian president Vladimir Putin, in an address to the Federal Assembly, announced the development of a series of technologically new "super weapons" in response to U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty. His statements were referred to by an anonymous US official under the Trump administration as largely "boastful untruths". He said that the U.S. decision triggered the Russian Government to order an increase in Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. ones.
In 2021, Putin cited U.S. withdrawal among his grievances against the West: "We tried to partner with the West for many years, but the partnership was not accepted, it didn't work," often citing it as one of America's great post-Cold War sins.ReferencesExternal links
*[https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty], official State Department site, includes the [https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm#text text] of the treaty and the [https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/trty/101888.htm#protocolabm 1974 Protocol].
*[https://2001-2009.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm US Announcement of withdrawal (2001)]
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Category:Arms control treaties
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Category:Treaties of Ukraine
Category:Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.243675 |
2983 | Austria-Hungary | }}<br/>}}}}<!-- for the dash in Hungarian, see https://helyesiras.mta.hu/helyesiras/default/akh12#264a and https://helyesiras.mta.hu/helyesiras/default/akh12#240l -->
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| event8 =
| date_event8 =
| event9 = Treaty of Trianon
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| symbol_type (1915–1918)<div style"margin-top:0.4em;">(see also: Flags of Austria-Hungary)</div>
| image_map |Austria, Hungary, and the Condominium (1908) |default1}}
| national_motto
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| common_languages German, Hungarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Ruthenian, Romanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Italian, Romani (Carpathian), Yiddish,s "Rumäni or Wallachian" refers to what is today known as Romanian; Rusyn and Ukrainian correspond to dialects of what the EB refers to as "Ruthenian"; and Yiddish was the common language of the Austrian Jews, although Hebrew was also known by many.}} and others (Friulian, Istro-Romanian, Istriot, Ladin)
| religion = | 8.9% Protestant| 8.7% Eastern Orthodox|4.4% Jewish | 1.3% Muslim}}
| religion_year 1910
| capital =
(Austria)|Budapest (Hungary)}}
| largest_city = Vienna
| demonym = Austro-Hungarian
| government_type = Constitutional monarchy
| title_leader = Emperor-King (Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary)
| leader1 = Franz Joseph I
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| representative1 = F. F. von Beust
| year_representative1 = 1867 (first)
| representative2 = Heinrich Lammasch
| year_representative2 = 1918 (last)
| title_deputy = Prime Minister of Hungary
| deputy1 = Gyula Andrássy
| year_deputy1 = 1867–1871 (first)
| deputy2 = Mihály Károlyi
| year_deputy2 = 1918 (last)
| legislature = Two national legislatures
| type_house1 = Imperial Council
| house1
| type_house2 = Diet of Hungary
| house2 =
| stat_year1 = 1905
| stat_area1
| ref_area1
| population_estimate 51,390,223
| population_estimate_year = 1910
| currency = florin
* Krone }}
| iso3166code = omit
<!--Do not put a flag, due to lack of consensus on which one to use. Please see Talk:Austria-Hungary#RfC:_National_Flags_vs_Civil_Ensign-->}}
Austria-Hungary, , }} also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military and diplomatic alliance, it consisted of two sovereign states with a single monarch who was titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Austria-Hungary constituted the last phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg monarchy: it was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, following wars of independence by Hungary in opposition to Habsburg rule. It was dissolved shortly after Hungary terminated the union with Austria in 1918.
One of Europe's major powers, Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous (after Russia and the German Empire), while being among the ten most populous countries worldwide. The Empire built up the fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world. With the exception of the territory of the Bosnian Condominium, the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary were separate sovereign countries in international law.
At its core was the dual monarchy, which was a real union between Cisleithania, the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire, and Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary). Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and Hungarian states were co-equal in power. The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies. For these purposes, "common" ministries of foreign affairs and defence were maintained under the monarch's direct authority, as was a third finance ministry responsible only for financing the two "common" portfolios. A third component of the union was the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, which negotiated the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement in 1868. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian joint military and civilian rule until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis.
Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I, which began with an Austro-Hungarian war declaration on the Kingdom of Serbia on 28 July 1914. It was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary and the First Austrian Republic were treated as its successors de jure, whereas the independence of the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Second Polish Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, respectively, and most of the territorial demands of the Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Italy were also recognized by the victorious powers in 1920.
Name and terminology
: 5 corona, 1908 – the bust of Franz Joseph I facing right surrounded by the legend "Franciscus Iosephus I, Dei gratia, imperator Austriae, rex Bohemiae, Galiciae, Illyriae et cetera et apostolicus rex Hungariae"]]
The realm's official name was the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (, ; , ), though in international relations Austria–Hungary was used (; ). The Austrians also used the names () (in detail ; ) and Danubian Monarchy (; ) or Dual Monarchy (; ) and The Double Eagle (; ), but none of these became widespread either in Hungary or elsewhere.
The realm's full name used in internal administration was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.
* German:
* Hungarian:
From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria–Hungary reflected their responsibility:
* ( or Imperial and Royal) was the label for institutions common to both parts of the monarchy, e.g., the (Navy) and, during the war, the (Army). The common army changed its label from to only in 1889 at the request of the Hungarian government.
* () or Imperial-Royal was the term for institutions of Cisleithania (Austria); "royal" in this label referred to the Crown of Bohemia.
* () or () ("Royal Hungarian") referred to Transleithania, the lands of the Hungarian crown. In the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, the autonomous institutions used k. () ("Royal"), since according to the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, the only official language in Croatia and Slavonia was Croatian, and the institutions were "only" Croatian.
Following a decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868, the realm bore the official name Austro-Hungarian Monarchy/Realm (; ) in its international relations. It was often contracted to the "Dual Monarchy" in English or simply referred to as Austria.
Background and establishment
Following Hungary's defeat against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, the Habsburg Empire became more involved in the Kingdom of Hungary, and subsequently assumed the Hungarian throne. However, as the Ottomans expanded further into Hungary, the Habsburgs came to control only a small north-western portion of the former kingdom's territory. Eventually, following the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, all former territories of the Hungarian kingdom were ceded from the Ottomans to the Habsburgs. In the revolutions of 1848, the Kingdom of Hungary called for greater self-government and later even independence from the Austrian Empire. The ensuing Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was crushed by the Austrian military with Russian military assistance, and the level of autonomy that the Hungarian state had enjoyed was replaced with absolutist rule from Vienna. These twin defeats gave the Hungarians the opportunity to remove the shackles of absolutist rule.
Realizing the need to compromise with Hungary in order to retain its great power status, the central government in Vienna began negotiations with the Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák. The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws were still valid, but conceded that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defence were "common" to Austria and Hungary. On 20 March 1867, the newly re-established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws to be accepted on 30 March. However, Hungarian leaders received word that the Emperor's formal coronation as King of Hungary on 8 June had to have taken place in order for the laws to be enacted within the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary. On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy.
1866–1878: beyond Lesser Germany
of Francis Joseph I and Elisabeth Amalie at Matthias Church, Buda, 8 June 1867]]
The Austro-Prussian War was ended by the Peace of Prague (1866) which settled the "German question" in favor of a Lesser German Solution. Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, who was the foreign minister from 1866 to 1871, hated the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, who had repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to France for avenging Austria's defeat and attempted to negotiate with Emperor Napoleon III of France and Italy for an anti-Prussian alliance, but no terms could be reached. The decisive victory of the Prusso-German armies in the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent founding of the German Empire ended all hope of re-establishing Austrian influence in Germany, and Beust retired.
After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the Dual Monarchy turned to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic movements were gaining strength and demanding independence. Both Russia and Austria–Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia took on the role of protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians. Austria envisioned a multi-ethnic, religiously diverse empire under Vienna's control. Count Gyula Andrássy, a Hungarian who was Foreign Minister (1871–1879), made the centerpiece of his policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia.
Government
The Compromise of 1867 turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania)}}
Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments, each with its own prime minister: the Diet of Hungary (commonly known as the National Assembly) and the Imperial Council () in Cisleithania. Each parliament had its own executive government, appointed by the monarch.
After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis with the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia and Montenegro. The disputes culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo. The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy.
Demographics
}} ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary, 1885]]
In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights (the next such laws were in Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the first acts of its restored Parliament was to pass a Law on Nationalities (Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of legislation and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It did not recognize non-Hungarians to have rights to form states with any territorial autonomy.
Article 19 of the 1867 "Basic State Act" (Staatsgrundgesetz), valid only for the Cisleithanian (Austrian) part of Austria–Hungary, said:
") in school, office and public life, is recognized by the state. In those territories in which several races dwell, the public and educational institutions are to be so arranged that, without applying compulsion to learn a second country language (""), each of the races receives the necessary means of education in its own language.}} The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it was not clear which languages could be regarded as "customary". The Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite, demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in every part of the empire. German nationalists, especially in the Sudetenland (part of Bohemia), looked to Berlin in the new German Empire.
The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities (Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual (but not also communal) rights to use their language in offices, schools (although in practice often only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and municipalities (if 20% of the deputies demanded it). Beginning with the 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non-Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law. After 1875, all Slovak language schools higher than elementary were closed, including the only three high schools (gymnasiums) in Revúca (Nagyrőce), Turčiansky Svätý Martin (Turócszentmárton) and Kláštor pod Znievom (Znióváralja).
Language was, as a proxy for ethnicity, one of the most contentious issues in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own languages, as well as in the "dominant" languages—Hungarian and German. By the "Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister Count Kasimir Felix Badeni gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The Crown dismissed Badeni.
Italian was regarded as an old "culture language" () by German intellectuals and had always been granted equal rights as an official language of the Empire, but the Germans had difficulty in accepting the Slavic languages as equal to their own. On one occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Grün) entered the Diet of Carniola carrying what he claimed to be the whole corpus of Slovene literature under his arm; this was to demonstrate that the Slovene language could not be substituted for German as the language of higher education.
The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at least in Austria. Since 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with Italian in Dalmatia. Beginning in 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the Diet of Carniola and in the capital Laibach (Ljubljana); they replaced German with Slovene as their primary official language. Galicia designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary language of government.
As of June 1907, all public and private schools in Hungary were obliged to ensure that after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently in Hungarian. This led to the further closing of minority schools, devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages. The two kingdoms sometimes divided their spheres of influence. According to Misha Glenny in his book, The Balkans, 1804–1999, the Austrians responded to Hungarian support of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. In recognition that he reigned in a multi-ethnic country, Emperor Franz Joseph spoke (and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently, and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree.
, late 19th century]]
The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their language to German. The Czechs had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century and German immigrants had begun settling the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a minority to Czech speakers in the cities of Prague and Pilsen (while retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of Brno (Brünn)). The old Charles University in Prague, hitherto dominated by German speakers, was divided into German and Czech-speaking faculties in 1882.
At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of Romanians in Transylvania and in the eastern Banat, Slovaks in today's Slovakia, and Croats and Serbs in the crown lands of Croatia and of Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the provinces known as the Vojvodina (today's northern Serbia). The Romanians and the Serbs began to agitate for union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the newly founded states of Romania (1859–1878) and Serbia.
]]
Hungary's leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they granted a large measure of autonomy to Croatia in 1868. To some extent, they modeled their relationship to that kingdom on their own compromise with Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a trialist Austro-Hungaro-Croatian monarchy; among the supporters of the idea were Archduke Leopold Salvator, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and emperor and king Charles I who during his short reign supported the trialist idea only to be vetoed by the Hungarian government and Count István Tisza. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918.Ethnic relationsIn Istria, the Istro-Romanians, a small ethnic group composed by around 2,600 people in the 1880s, suffered severe discrimination. The Croats of the region, who formed the majority, tried to assimilate them, while the Italian minority supported them in their requests for self-determination. In 1888, the possibility of opening the first school for the Istro-Romanians teaching in the Romanian language was discussed in the Diet of Istria. The proposal was very popular among them. The Italian deputies showed their support, but the Croat ones opposed it and tried to show that the Istro-Romanians were in fact Slavs. During Austro-Hungarian rule, the Istro-Romanians lived under poverty conditions, and those living in the island of Krk were fully assimilated by 1875.
Great Synagogue in Pécs, built by the Neolog Jewish community in 1869]]
in Leopoldstadt, Vienna, 1915]]
Around 1900, Jews numbered about two million in the whole territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; their position was ambiguous. The populist and antisemitic politics of the Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazism. Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but the governments of Vienna and Budapest did not initiate pogroms or implement official antisemitic policies. They feared that such ethnic violence could ignite other ethnic minorities and escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among voters in the parliamentary elections.
In that period, the majority of Jews in Austria–Hungary lived in small towns (shtetls) in Galicia and rural areas in Hungary and Bohemia; however, they had large communities and even local majorities in the downtown districts of Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Kraków and Lwów. Of the pre-World War I military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria–Hungary as a golden era of their history. By 1910 about 900,000 religious Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire the generally fiercely patriotic Hungarian Jews were securing the tenuous Hungarian majority in the Kingdom of Hungary. Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce, 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Jews accounted for 48.5% of all physicians, and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary. Note: The numbers of Jews were reconstructed from religious censuses. They did not include the people of Jewish origin who had converted to Christianity, or the number of atheists. Among many Hungarian parliament members of Jewish origin, the most famous Jewish members in Hungarian political life were Minister of Justice Vilmos Vázsonyi, Minister of War Samu Hazai, Minister of Finance János Teleszky, and ministers of trade and .
Education
Universities in CisleithaniaThe first university in the Austrian half of the Empire (Charles University) was founded by Emperor Charles IV in Prague in 1347, the second oldest university was the Jagiellonian University established in Kraków by the King of Poland Casimir III the Great in 1364, while the third oldest (University of Vienna) was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365.
The higher educational institutions were predominantly German, but beginning in the 1870s, language shifts began to occur. These establishments, which in the middle of the 19th century had had a predominantly German character, underwent in Galicia a conversion into Polish national institutions, in Bohemia and Moravia a separation into German and Czech ones. Thus Germans, Czechs and Poles were provided for. But now the smaller nations also made their voices heard: the Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians demanded at first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of rural East Galicia, a national partition of the Polish University of Lwów. Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian demonstrations and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were no longer content with the reversion of a few separate professorial chairs, and with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on 28 January 1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing to the war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a university of their own on grounds of population (in 1910 they numbered 783,000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of their ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty of laws should be created; the difficulty lay in the choice of the place. The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover the Southern Slavs of the city wished it kept free from an Italian educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a compromise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation to be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years to Italian national territory. The German National Union (Nationalverband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the Italian university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous foundation of Slovene professorial chairs in Prague and Cracow, and preliminary steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav university in Laibach. But in spite of the constant renewal of negotiations for a compromise it was impossible to arrive at any agreement, until the outbreak of war left all the projects for a Ruthenian university at Lemberg, a Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech one in Moravia, unrealized.Universities in TransleithaniaIn the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the troops of Péter Csák and it was never rebuilt. A university was established by Louis I of Hungary in Pécs in 1367. Sigismund established a university at Óbuda in 1395. Another, Universitas Istropolitana, was established 1465 in Pozsony (now Bratislava in Slovakia) by Mattias Corvinus. None of these medieval universities survived the Ottoman wars. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635 and moved to Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University today. The world's first institute of technology was founded in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (since 1920 Banská Štiavnica, now Slovakia) in 1735. Its legal successor is the University of Miskolc in Hungary. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with university rank and structure. Its legal predecessor the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II.
The high schools included the universities, of which Hungary possessed five, all maintained by the state: at Budapest (founded in 1635), at Kolozsvár (founded in 1872), and at Zagreb (founded in 1874). Newer universities were established in Debrecen in 1912, and Pozsony university was reestablished after a half millennium in 1912. They had four faculties: theology, law, philosophy and medicine (the university at Zagreb was without a faculty of medicine). There were in addition ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were attended by 1,569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in 1844, which contained four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1,772 pupils, was also considered a high school. There were in Hungary in 1900 forty-nine theological colleges, twenty-nine Catholic, five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish. Among special schools the principal mining schools were at Selmeczbánya, Nagyág and Felsőbánya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvár; and there was a school of forestry at Selmeczbánya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Déva and Zagreb, and a naval school at Fiume. There were in addition a number of training institutes for teachers and a large number of schools of commerce, several art schools – for design, painting, sculpture, and music.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Literacy in Kingdom of Hungary,
incl. male and female
|-
! Major nationalities in Hungary
! Rate of literacy in 1910
|-
|German
| 70.7%
|-
|Hungarian
| 67.1%
|-
|Croatian
| 62.5%
|-
|Slovak
| 58.1%
|-
|Serbian
| 51.3%
|-
|Romanian
| 28.2%
|-
|Ruthenian
| 22.2%
|}
Economy
banknote of the Dual Monarchy, using all official and recognized languages (the reverse side was Hungarian)]]
and Long Depression followed.]]
The heavily rural Austro-Hungarian economy slowly modernised after 1867. Railroads opened up once-remote areas, and cities grew. Many small firms promoted capitalist way of production. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The first Austrian stock exchange (the Wiener Börse) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock exchange of the Kingdom of Hungary (the Budapest Stock Exchange) was opened in Budapest in 1864. The central bank (Bank of issue) was founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed into Austro-Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both Vienna and Budapest. The central bank was governed by alternating Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice-governors. Austria-Hungary also became the world's third-largest manufacturer and exporter of electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances, and power generation apparatus for power plants, after the United States and the German Empire, and it constructed Europe's second-largest railway network, after the German Empire. In 2000, a study estimated that GDP in constant national prices in 1913 was 19,140.8 million for Cisleithania and 10,971.6 million for Transleithania, a combined 30,112.4 million krone. According to a 2005 study, GDP (PPP) in 1913 was 105,515 million 1990 Int$, the fifth-largest in Europe.
The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). Galicia, which has been described as the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, experienced near-constant famines, resulting in 50,000 deaths a year. The Istro-Romanians of Istria were also poor, as pastoralism lost strength and agriculture was not productive.
Infrastructure
Telecommunications
Telegraph
The first telegraph connection (Vienna—Brno—Prague) had started operation in 1847. In Hungarian territory the first telegraph stations were opened in Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava) in December 1847 and in Buda in 1848. The first telegraph connection between Vienna and Pest–Buda (later Budapest) was constructed in 1850, and Vienna–Zagreb in 1850.
Austria subsequently joined a telegraph union with German states. In the Kingdom of Hungary, 2,406 telegraph post offices operated in 1884. By 1914 the number of telegraph offices reached 3,000 in post offices and further 2,400 were installed in the railway stations of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Telephone
The first telephone exchange was opened in Zagreb (8 January 1881), the second was in Budapest (1 May 1881), and the third was opened in Vienna (3 June 1881). Initially telephony was available in the homes of individual subscribers, companies and offices. Public telephone stations appeared in the 1890s, and they quickly became widespread in post offices and railway stations. Austria–Hungary had 568 million telephone calls in 1913; only two Western European countries had more phone calls: the German Empire and the United Kingdom. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was followed by France with 396 million telephone calls and Italy with 230 million phone calls. In 1916, there were 366 million telephone calls in Cisleithania, among them 8.4 million long distant calls. All telephone exchanges of the cities, towns and larger villages in Transleithania were linked until 1893. By 1914, more than 2000 settlements had telephone exchange in Kingdom of Hungary. In 1890 most large Hungarian private railway companies were nationalized as a consequence of the poor management of private companies, except the strong Austrian-owned Kaschau-Oderberg Railway (KsOd) and the Austrian-Hungarian Southern Railway (SB/DV). They also joined the zone tariff system of the MÁV (Hungarian State Railways). By 1910, the total length of the rail networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached , the Hungarian network linked more than 1,490 settlements. Nearly half (52%) of the empire's railways were built in Hungary, thus the railroad density there became higher than that of Cisleithania. This has ranked Hungarian railways the 6th most dense in the world (ahead of Germany and France).
Electrified commuter railways: A set of four electric commuter rai lines were built in Budapest, the BHÉV: Ráckeve line (1887), Szentendre line (1888), Gödöllő line (1888), Csepel line (1912)
Tramway lines in the cities
Horse-drawn tramways appeared in the first half of the 19th century. Between the 1850s and 1880s many were built : Vienna (1865), Budapest (1866), Brno (1869), Trieste (1876). Steam trams appeared in the late 1860s. The electrification of tramways started in the late 1880s. The first electrified tramway in Austria–Hungary was built in Budapest in 1887.
Electric tramway lines in the Austrian Empire:
* Austria: Gmunden (1894); Linz, Vienna (1897); Graz (1898); Trieste (1900); Ljubljana (1901); Innsbruck (1905); Unterlach, Ybbs an der Donau (1907); Salzburg (1909); Klagenfurt, Sankt Pölten (1911); Piran (1912)
* Austrian Littoral: Pula (1904).
* Bohemia: Prague (1891); Teplice (1895); Liberec (1897); Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, Olomouc (1899); Moravia, Brno, Jablonec nad Nisou (1900); Ostrava (1901); Mariánské Lázně (1902); Budějovice, České Budějovice, Jihlava (1909)
* Austrian Silesia: Opava (Troppau) (1905), Cieszyn (Cieszyn) (1911)
* Dalmatia: Dubrovnik (1910)
* Galicia: Lviv (1894), Bielsko-Biała (1895); Kraków (1901); Tarnów, Cieszyn (1911)
Electric tramway lines in the Kingdom of Hungary:
* Hungary: Budapest (1887); Pressburg/Pozsony/Bratislava (1895); Szabadka/Subotica (1897), Szombathely (1897), Miskolc (1897); Temesvár/Timișoara (1899); Sopron (1900); Szatmárnémeti/Satu Mare (1900); Nyíregyháza (1905); Nagyszeben/Sibiu (1905); Nagyvárad/Oradea (1906); Szeged (1908); Debrecen (1911); Újvidék/Novi Sad (1911); Kassa/Košice (1913); Pécs (1913)
* Croatia: Fiume (1899); Pula (1904); Opatija – Lovran (1908); Zagreb (1910); Dubrovnik (1910).UndergroundThe Budapest Metro Line 1 (originally the "Franz Joseph Underground Electric Railway Company") is the second oldest underground railway in the world (the first being the London Underground's Metropolitan Line and the third being Glasgow), and the first on the European mainland. It was built from 1894 to 1896 and opened on 2 May 1896. In 2002, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The M1 line became an IEEE Milestone due to the radically new innovations in its era: "Among the railway's innovative elements were bidirectional tram cars; electric lighting in the subway stations and tram cars; and an overhead wire structure instead of a third-rail system for power".Inland waterways and river regulation
The first Danubian steamer company, Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft (DDSG), was the world's largest inland shipping company until the collapse of Austria-Hungary.
In 1900 the engineer C. Wagenführer drew up plans to link the Danube and the Adriatic Sea by a canal from Vienna to Trieste. It was born from the desire of Austria–Hungary to have a direct link to the Adriatic Sea but was never constructed.Lower Danube and the Iron GatesIn 1831 a plan had already been drafted to make the passage navigable, at the initiative of the Hungarian politician István Széchenyi. Finally Gábor Baross, Hungary's "Iron Minister", succeeded in financing this project. The riverbed rocks and the associated rapids made the gorge valley an infamous passage for shipping. In German, the passage is still known as the Kataraktenstrecke, even though the cataracts are gone. Near the actual "Iron Gates" strait the Prigrada rock was the most important obstacle until 1896: the river widened considerably here and the water level was consequently low. Upstream, the Greben rock near the "Kazan" gorge was notorious.Tisza RiverThe length of the Tisza river in Hungary used to be . It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area.
After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the "regulation of the Tisza" (Hungarian: a Tisza szabályozása) which started on 27 August 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was ( total), with of "dead channels" and of new riverbed. The resultant length of the flood-protected river comprises (out of of all Hungarian protected rivers).
Shipping and ports
, Kingdom of Dalmatia]]
The most important seaport was Trieste (today part of Italy), where the Austrian merchant marine was based. Two major shipping companies (Austrian Lloyd and Austro-Americana) and several shipyards were located there. From 1815 to 1866, Venice had been part of the Habsburg empire. The loss of Venice prompted the development of the Austrian merchant marine. By 1913, the commercial marine of Austria, comprised 16,764 vessels with a tonnage of 471,252, and crews number-ing 45,567. Of the total (1913) 394 of 422,368 tons were steamers, and 16,370 of 48,884 tons were sailing vessels The Austrian Lloyd was one of the biggest ocean shipping companies of the time. Prior to the beginning of World War I, the company owned 65 middle-sized and large steamers. The Austro-Americana owned one third of this number, including the biggest Austrian passenger ship, the SS Kaiser Franz Joseph I. In comparison to the Austrian Lloyd, the Austro-American concentrated on destinations in North and South America. The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was similar in both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force was composed of the Common Army; the special armies, namely the Austrian Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honvéd, which were separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-en masse. As stated above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies were under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and was generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years (three years in the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service was spent in various special reserves.
The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army was nominally vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. In practice, the emperor's nephew Archduke Albrecht was his chief military advisor and made the policy decisions.]]
Russian Pan-Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so pressured the tsar's government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians.
]]
On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 and the monarchy eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding of Cisleithania and Transleithania under the control of the Imperial & Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz Joseph's brother, Maximilian (1867), and his only son, Rudolf, made the Emperor's nephew, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne. The Archduke was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy.
A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg monarchy in October 1908 promised these lands constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated in 1910.
The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–09 were the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky. Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would go to war in July 1914.
in 1898]]
Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League would never cause any damage to Austria. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey, and Romania. However, his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting that it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria's enemies.
In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I.
1914–1918: World War I
Prelude of WW I
is usually associated with the capture of Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander detained by mistake.]]
The 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, excessively intensified the existing traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate." Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. Four hundred sixty Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.
, 29 June 1914]]
armoured train in 1914]]
Some members of the government, such as Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor and Hungarian prime minister István Tisza were opposed. The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian Empire sent ambassador László Szőgyény to Potsdam, where he inquired about the standpoint of the German emperor, Wilhelm II, on 5 July and received a supportive response.
The leaders of Austria–Hungary therefore decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the July Ultimatum,
Wartime foreign policy
and Wilhelm II<br/>with military commanders during World War I]]
The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany. The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more. Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany.Homefront
The heavily rural empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contributions were manpower and food. Nevertheless, Austria–Hungary was more urbanized (25%) than its actual opponents in the war, like the Russian Empire (13.4%), Serbia (13.2%) or Romania (18.8%). Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy and higher GDP per capita than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire.
On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states.
Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war consumed about 20 percent of the gross domestic product. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared to the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rates were toward the high end regarding the present-day territory of Austria.
Theaters of operations
The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during the war. General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von Österreich-Teschen as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the home front deteriorated rapidly. The empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups within the empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic, language-based cultures. The new emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy.
Serbian front 1914–1916
in Serbia, pictured in August 1914, was the first target of the Austro-Hungarian punitive expedition and the site of many atrocities committed against the local population.]]
At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia, while the larger part fought against the formidable Imperial Russian Army. The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb soldiers were transported to Brindisi and Corfu, where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base for the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000 relieved a much smaller army at the Macedonian front and fought alongside British and French troops.
Russian front 1914–1917
in 1915]]
On the Eastern front, the war started out equally poorly. The government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the Supreme National Committee as the Polish central authority within the empire, responsible for the formation of the Polish Legions, an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian Army. The Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915. The Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army disintegrated. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Brusilov Offensive, recognizing the latter's numerical inferiority. By the end of September 1916, Austria–Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses (about 1 million men) and never recovered. Nevertheless, the huge losses in men and materiel inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire.
The Act of 5 November 1916 was then proclaimed to the Poles jointly by the Emperors Wilhelm II of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This act promised the creation of the Kingdom of Poland out of the territory of Congress Poland, envisioned by its authors as a puppet state controlled by the Central Powers, with the nominal authority vested in the Regency Council. The origin of that document was the dire need to draft new recruits from German-occupied Poland for the war with Russia. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ending the World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone proto state of the nascent Second Polish Republic, the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland.
The Battle of Zborov (1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions, which fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian Army.
Italian front 1915–1918
on 3 November 1918, after the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. Italy's victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front and secured the dissolution of Austria–Hungary.]]
In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria–Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria–Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous (≈1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna marched his army towards the Isonzo River, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody and exhausting for both sides.
On 15 May 1916, Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the Strafexpedition ("punitive expedition"): the Austrians broke through the front and occupied the Asiago plateau. The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso, a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive trench warfare ensued (analogous to the Western front). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russians ended their involvement in the war, Germans and Austrians were able to transfer much of their manpower to the Western and Southern fronts from the erstwhile Eastern fighting.
On 24 October 1917, Austrians (now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave River. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy also enjoyed the support of the Entente: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone. Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive Second Battle of the Piave River (15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers were killed. The final battle at Vittorio Veneto was lost by 31 October 1918 and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November.Romanian front 1916–1917
On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria–Hungary. The Romanian Army crossed the borders of eastern Hungary (Transylvania), but despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies, and occupied the southern part of Romania (including Oltenia, Muntenia and Dobruja). Within three months of the war, the Central Powers approached Bucharest, the Romanian capital. On 6 December, Bucharest was captured, and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in Moldavia, together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași. In 1917, after several defensive victories (managing to stop the German-Austro-Hungarian advance), with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war.Role of Hungary
, Romania]]
Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria–Hungary, the thin majority more than 3.8 million soldiersof the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600,000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in the war.
Austria–Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war. The Austrians viewed the German army favorably; on the other hand, by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria–Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs.
1918: Demise, disintegration, dissolution
envisaged the Habsburg Empire as being made up of five Kingdoms, in a last desperate attempt to save the Monarchy.]]
" of the Austrian Empire, published in Kraków in late 1918. Translation:<br/>"Overwhelmed with joy, until recently enslaved and now free Nations announce that their wicked step-mother AUSTRIA the WITCH, operated in William’s Clinic, died from senility after severe spasms, cursed by all those who had the infelicity of having to do with her. Her dreadful funeral took place during these days in the fields of Macedonia, on the Piave River and across the Rhine. Let her rest in eternal peace and may she never raise from the dead.<br/>
POLES, CZECHO-SLOVAKS, YUGOSLAVS<br/>
Funeral home Wilson & Co."]]
By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated and governmental failure on the homefront ended popular support for the war. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. As the war went on, the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration. However, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth of the Fourteen Points – was no longer enough. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state in the 1917 Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav Committee. The Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. Lansing's response was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria–Hungary.
During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October (later declared the birth of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks did the same. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria–Hungary proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in a large South Slav state. On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state.
On 17 October 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. The most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi, seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to formally repudiate the compromise agreement on 31 October, effectively terminating the personal union with Austria and thus officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state.
By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state council. Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, concluded that Karl's position was untenable. Lammasch persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority. On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish(ed) every participation" in Austrian state affairs. On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austrian politics, the German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the Hungarian Democratic Republic.Successor states
: Kingdom of Hungary lost 72% of its land and 3.3 million people of Hungarian ethnicity.]]
There were two legal successor states of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy:
* German Austria (which became the Republic of Austria)
* Hungarian Democratic Republic (which after a few other short-lived intermediaries became the Kingdom of Hungary)
The 1919 Treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (between the victors of World War I and Austria) and Trianon (between the victors and Hungary) regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, reducing them to small-sized and landlocked states. The Entente not only assumed without question that the minority peoples wished to leave Austria and Hungary, but allowed them to claim vast territories containing sizeable German- and Hungarian-speaking populations. With this in mind, in regard to areas without a decisive national majority, the Entente powers ruled in many cases in favour of the newly emancipated independent nation-states. The Republic of Austria lost roughly 60% of the old Austrian Empire's territory. It also had to drop its plans for union with Germany, as it was not allowed to unite with Germany without League approval. Hungary, however, was severely disrupted by the loss of 72% of its territory, 64% of its population and most of its natural resources. The Hungarian Democratic Republic was short-lived and was temporarily replaced by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. Romanian troops ousted Béla Kun and his communist government during the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919.
In the summer of 1919, a Habsburg, Archduke Joseph August, became regent, but was forced to stand down after only two weeks when it became apparent the Allies would not recognise him. Finally, in March 1920, royal powers were entrusted to a regent, Miklós Horthy, who had been the last commanding admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy and had helped organize the counter-revolutionary forces. It was this government that signed the Treaty of Trianon under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. The restored Kingdom of Hungary lost roughly 72% of the pre-war territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Habsburg banishment
Austria had passed the "Habsburg Law", which both dethroned the Habsburgs and banished all Habsburgs from Austrian territory. While Karl was banned from ever returning to Austria again, other Habsburgs could return if they gave up all claims to the defunct throne. In March and again in October 1921, ill-prepared attempts by Karl to regain the throne in Budapest collapsed. The initially wavering Horthy, after receiving threats of intervention from the Allied Powers and the Little Entente, refused his cooperation. Soon afterward, the Hungarian government nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, effectively dethroning the Habsburgs. Subsequently, the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he died the following year.Territorial legacyImmediately after World War I
and Saint Germain (1919–1920)]]
and Saint Germain
]]
The following states were formed, re-established or expanded at the dissolution of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy:
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Further reading
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* [https://archive.org/details/emergenceofindus0000unse online]
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* Good, David. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire (1984)
* Herman, Arthur. ''What Life Was Like: At Empire's End : Austro-Hungarian Empire 1848–1918 (Time Life, 2000)
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* Jelavich, Barbara. Modern Austria: Empire and Republic, 1815–1986 (Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 72–150.
*
* Johnston, William M. The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938 (University of California Press, 1972)
* Macartney, Carlile Aylmer The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918, New York, Macmillan 1969.
* Mason, John W. The Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867–1918 (Routledge, 2014).
* May, Arthur J. The Hapsburg Monarchy 1867–1914 (Harvard University Press, 1951). [https://archive.org/details/hapsburgmonarchy0000maya online]
* Milward, Alan, and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914 (1977) pp. 271–331. [https://archive.org/details/developmentofeco0000milw online]
*
* Palmer, Alan. Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995.
*
* Redlich, Joseph. [https://archive.org/details/emperorfrancisjo002603mbp Emperor Francis Joseph Of Austria.] New York: Macmillan, 1929. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176378 online free]
* Rudolph, Richard L. Banking and industrialization in Austria-Hungary: the role of banks in the industrialization of the Czech crownlands, 1873–1914'' (1976) [https://archive.org/details/bankingindustria0000rudo online]
* Sauer, Walter. "Habsburg Colonial: Austria-Hungary's Role in European Overseas Expansion Reconsidered", Austrian Studies (2012) 20:5–23 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/austrianstudies.20.2012.0005 ONLINE]
*
* Tschuppik, Karl. The reign of the Emperor Fransis Joseph (1930) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227241 online]
* Turnock, David. Eastern Europe: An Historical Geography: 1815–1945 (1989)
* Usher, Roland G. "Austro-German Relations Since 1866." American Historical Review 23.3 (1918): 577–595 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1835275.pdf online].
* Várdy, Steven, and Agnes Várdy. The Austro-Hungarian mind: at home and abroad (East European Monographs, 1989)
* Vermes, Gabor. "The Impact of the Dual Alliance on the Magyars of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy" East Central Europe (1980) vol 7 DOI: 10.1163/187633080x00211
*
* World war
* Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2016)
*
*
*
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* Crankshaw, Edward. The Fall of the House of Habsburg (Viking, 1963). pp. 449.
* Deak, John, and Jonathan E. Gumz. "How to Break a State: The Habsburg Monarchy's Internal War, 1914–1918" American Historical Review 122.4 (2017): 1105–1136. [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/267287355.pdf online]
* <!--comprehensive history of the assassination with detailed material on the Empire and Serbia.-->
*
*
*
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151077 online]
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* Kronenbitter, Günther. "Pre-war Military Planning (Austria–Hungary)." [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online-pre-war_military_planning_austria-hungary-2016-06-21.pdf online]
*
* Sked, Alan. "Austria–Hungary and the First World War." Histoire@ Politique 1 (2014): 16–49. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo:NIaCAcV_OMIJ:scholar.google.com/&sciodt1,27&scillfp13511954571189006328&oill Online]
* Tunstall, Graydon A. Austro-Hungarian Army and the First World War (Cambridge University Press 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id57600 online review]
* Vermes, Gabor István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist (Columbia University Press, 1986); [https://www.proquest.com/openview/72fa47c8eff2b658abec0b721f4c8656/1?pq-origsitegscholar&cbl1819308 online review]
*
* Primary sources
* Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Austro-Hungarian red book. (1915) English translations of official documents to justify the war. [https://archive.org/details/austrohungarianr00inaust online]
*
* Gooch, G. P. Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1940), pp. 103–159 summarizes memoirs of major participants
* Steed, Henry Wickham. The Hapsburg monarchy (1919) [https://archive.org/details/hapsburgmonarchy00steeuoft online] detailed contemporary account
Historiography and memory
* Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (Rutledge, 1999) 1:60–63, historiography
*
* Körner, Axel. "Beyond Nation States: New Perspectives on the Habsburg Empire." European History Quarterly 48.3 (2018): 516–533. [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10054341/3/Korner_EHQ%20open%20access.pdf online]
*
*
* Sked, Alan. "Explaining the Habsburg Empire, 1830–90." in Pamela Pilbeam, ed., Themes in Modern European History 1830–1890 (Routledge, 2002) pp. 141–176.
* Sked, Alan. "Austria–Hungary and the First World War." Histoire Politique 1 (2014): 16–49. [https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-politique-2014-1-page-16.htm online free] historiography
In German
* . (ed.: Rudolf Rothaug), K. u. k. Hof-Kartographische Anstalt G. Freytag & Berndt, Vienna, 1911.
External links
* Articles relating to [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/regions/Austria-Hungary Austria–Hungary] at the International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/germany/haxhabsbdaust.html Habsburg Empire Austrian line]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579967_1____7/austria-hungary.html Microsoft Encarta: The height of the dual monarchy] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090828223628/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579967_1____7/austria-hungary.html Archived] 31 October 2009)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190103094710/http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/ The Austro-Hungarian Military]
* [http://www.ngw.nl/int/oos/ooshong/ooshong.htm Heraldry of the Austro-Hungarian Empire]
* – extensive list of heads of state, ministers, and ambassadors
* [http://www.geldschein.at/ History of Austro-Hungarian currency]
* [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.o/o818181.htm;internal&action_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGEen Austria–Hungary, Dual Monarchy]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120414175743/http://maps.omniatlas.com/europe/19181025/ Map of Europe] and the collapse of Austria–Hungary at omniatlas.com
* [http://hdl.handle.net/1911/15059 Mangham, Arthur Neal. The Social Bases of Austrian Politics: The German Electoral Districts of Cisleithania, 1900–1914. Ph.D. thesis 1974]
* [http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/index.htm Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848–1918]
* [http://www.oldphoto.info Oldphoto.info – Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Army]
* [http://www.h-net.org/~habsweb/ HABSBURG is an email discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500], with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994
Austria-Hungary
Category:Former countries in the Balkans
Category:Former empires
Category:Former monarchies of Europe
Category:Habsburg monarchy
Category:House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Category:Modern history of Austria
Category:Modern history of Hungary
Hungary under Habsburg rule<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
Category:States and territories established in 1867
Category:1867 establishments in Europe
Category:States and territories disestablished in 1918
*
Category:1918 disestablishments in Europe
Category:Christian states | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.319920 |
2986 | Abracadabra | from the 6th or 7th century, inscribed with words similar to abracadabra]]
Abracadabra is a magic word, historically used as an apotropaic incantation on amulets and common today in stage magic. It is of unknown origin.<!-- - citation provided below --> Etymology
Abracadabra is of unknown origin, and is first attested in a second-century work of Serenus Sammonicus.
Some conjectural etymologies are: from phrases in Hebrew that mean "I will create as I speak", or Aramaic "I create like the word" (), to etymologies that point to similar words in Latin and Greek such as abraxas or to its similarity to the first four letters of the Greek alphabet (alpha-beta-gamma-delta or ΑΒΓΔ). However, "no documentation has been found to support any of the various conjectures".
The Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso argues that Abracadabra can neither be Aramaic nor Hebrew, and suggests that the popularisation of the mistaken etymology is a result of an extended discussion on an early internet message board, which credits rabbi Lawrence Kushner with publishing a modern etymology.History
]]
The first known mention of the word was in the second century AD in a book called (sometimes known as ) by Serenus Sammonicus, physician to the Roman emperor Caracalla, who in chapter 52 prescribed that malaria sufferers wear an amulet containing Abracadabra written in the form of a triangle.
The power of the amulet, he claimed, makes lethal diseases go away. Other Roman emperors, including Geta and Severus Alexander, were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and may have used the incantation as well. It is found on Abraxas stones, which were worn as amulets. Subsequently, its use spread beyond the Gnostics.
A Jewish codex from 16th century Italy titled (The Tree of Knowledge) and described as a collection of magical spells contains the word Abracadabra, referring to an amulet. It was described as a "cure from heavens" for "all sorts of fever[s]", consumption, and fire.
The Puritan minister Increase Mather dismissed the word as bereft of power. Daniel Defoe wrote dismissively about Londoners who posted the word on their doorways to ward off sickness during the Great Plague of London.
In the early 1800s, the word was used as an example of what magicians would say. Abracadabra is now more commonly used in the performance of stage magic as a magic word at the culmination of a trick.
Aleister Crowley adapted the word Abracadabra into the word Abrahadabra in The Book of the Law, the central sacred text of Thelema.See also
* — Spell from the Harry Potter series
*
*
*
*
References
External links
* [http://www.skepdic.com/abracadabra.html Abracadabra ] Robert Todd Carroll, Skeptic's Dictionary''
*
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}}
Category:Amulets
Category:Magic words
Category:Incantation
Category:Superstitions of Europe
Category:Macaronic language
Category:Culture of ancient Rome | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abracadabra | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.332831 |
2987 | Acts of Union 1707 | | type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of England
| long_title = An Act for a Union of the Two Kingdoms of England and Scotland.
| year = 1706
| citation = 6 Ann. c. 11(Ruffhead: 5 Ann. c. 8)
| introduced_commons | introduced_lords
| territorial_extent = Kingdom of England
| royal_assent 6 March 1707
| commencement = 1 May 1707
| expiry_date | repeal_date
| amends | replaces
| amendments =
| repealing_legislation | related_legislation Exchequer Court (Scotland) Act 1707
| status = Current
| legislation_history | theyworkforyou
| millbankhansard | original_text
| revised_text | use_new_UK-LEG
| UK-LEG_title = Union with Scotland Act 1706
| collapsed =
}}
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of Scotland
| long_title = Act Ratifying and Approving the Treaty of Union of the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England.
| year = 1707
| citation = 1707 c. 7
| introduced_commons | introduced_lords
| territorial_extent = Kingdom of Scotland
| royal_assent = 16 January 1707
| commencement = 1 May 1707
| expiry_date | repeal_date
| amends | replaces
| amendments =
| repealing_legislation | related_legislation
| status = Current
| legislation_history | theyworkforyou
| millbankhansard | original_text
| revised_text | use_new_UK-LEG
| UK-LEG_title = Union with England Act 1707
| collapsed =
}}
The Acts of Union}} refer to two acts of Parliament, one by the Parliament of Scotland in March 1707, followed shortly thereafter by an equivalent act of the Parliament of England.<!-- 1706 for England is true but the detail that England used years running from 25 March is needless detail for the lead. --> They put into effect the International Treaty of Union agreed on 22 July 1706, which politically joined the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single "political state", the Kingdom of Great Britain, with Queen Anne as sovereign of both Kingdoms. The English and Scottish acts of ratification took effect on 1 May 1707, creating the new kingdom, <!-- not "United", that took another 93 years to arrive --> with its parliament based in the Palace of Westminster.
The two countries had shared a monarch since the "personal" Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his cousin Elizabeth I to become (in addition) 'James I of England', styled James VI and I. Attempts had been made to try to unite the two separate countries, in 1606, 1667, and in 1689 (following the 1688 Dutch invasion of England, and subsequent deposition of James II of England by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange), but it was not until the early 18th century that both nations via separate groups of English and Scots Royal Commissioners and their respective political establishments, "though not the Scots people", came to support the idea of an international "Treaty of political, monetary and trade Union", albeit for different reasons.Political backgroundPrior to 1603, England and Scotland had different monarchs, but when Elizabeth I died without children, she was succeeded as King of England by her distant relative, James VI of Scotland. After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James (reigning as James VI and I), who announced his intention to unite the two realms.
The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but Parliament of England was concerned this would lead to an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, but used the royal prerogative to take the title "King of Great Britain".
Attempts to revive the project of union in 1610 were met with hostility. English opponents such as Sir Edwin Sandys argued that changing the name of England "were as to make a conquest of our name, which was more than ever the Dane or Norman could do". Instead, James set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state.
However, despite both being nominally Episcopal in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland, or kirk, was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism. As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639–1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed the primacy of the Scots kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when the First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of an English Royalist victory. Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Scots Presbyterian kirk.
Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Scots Parliament agreed to provide military support to its English counterpart in return for a united Presbyterian church, but did not explicitly commit to political union. As the war progressed, Scots and English Presbyterians increasingly viewed the English Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers, as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, an English pro-Royalist faction known as the Engagers allied with their former enemies to restore him to the English throne.
by Andrew Carrick Gow''. Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth after defeat in the 1650–1652 Anglo-Scots War.]]
After defeat in the 1647–1648 Second English Civil War, Scotland was occupied by English troops, which were withdrawn once those whom Cromwell held responsible had been replaced by the Kirk Party. In December 1648, Pride's Purge paved the way for the Trial of Charles I in England by excluding MPs who opposed it. Following the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the Scots Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scots and England and, in the 1650 Treaty of Breda, resolved to restore him to the English throne. Instead, defeat in the Anglo-Scottish War resulted in Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth in 1653, largely driven by Cromwell's determination to break the power of the Scots kirk. The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland, creating the Commonwealth of England and Scotland. It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members.
1660–1707
While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England, the economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation. Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either Country, and the union was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.
The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the (protectionist) English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and England's wars with the Dutch Republic, Scotland's major export market. An Anglo-Scots Trade Commission was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks on "political union"; his motives may have been to weaken Scotland's commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I and VI. On the Scottish side, the proposed union received parliamentary support, boosted by the desire to ensure free trade. Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669.
Following the 1688 invasion of England by a Dutch fleet and army led by Prince William of Orange and his wife Mary (daughter of James II), and their deposition of James II as King of England, a Scottish Convention of the Estates (a sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new Constitutional settlement for Scotland. The Convention of the Estates issued an address to William and Mary "as both kingdomes are united in one head and soveraigne so they may become one body pollitick, one nation to be represented in one parliament", reserving "our church government, as it shall be established at the tyme of the union". William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and the English Parliament. Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union.
The 1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England. In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. The Company invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia. The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over £150,000 million in .}} severely impacted the Scottish commercial system.Political motivationsThe International Treaty, and English and Scots acts of ratification of Union may be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of France, Sweden, Denmark-Norway and Spain. While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice, the trend was clear.
The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II (of England, VII of Scots) succeeding his brother Charles II. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner; in August, the Parliament of Scotland passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir "regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the Independence of the Scots Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scots throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without "the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war".
The issue reappeared during the 1688 Dutch invasion and (subsequently entitled as "the Glorious Revolution"). The English Convention Parliament generally supported replacing King James II with his Protestant daughter Mary, holding to their "legal fiction" that James, by fleeing to France, had abandoned his English subjects and "abdicated". They resisted, however, making her Dutch husband William of Orange joint ruler. They gave way "fearing the return of James" only when William threatened to take his troops and fleet and return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him.
In Scotland, it became a Constitutional issue. The fact that James VII of Scots had not been present in the Scotland meant that the question of abdication need not arise. On 4 April 1689 a Convention of the Three Estates of Scotland (sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) declared that James VII "had acted irregularly" by assuming regal power (government) "without ever taking the Coronation Oath required by Scots Law". Thus, he had "FOREFALTED [forfeited] the Right to the Scots Crown, and the Scots Throne is become vacant". This was a fundamental difference; if the Parliament of Scotland could decide James VII had "Forfaulted" his Scots throne by actions having, in the words of the "Claim of Right" act 1689 "Invaded the fundamentall Constitution of the Kingdome and altered it from a legall limited monarchy To ane arbitrary despotick power". "Scots monarchs derived legitimacy from the Convention of the Estates", later declared a Parliament of Scotland, not God, thus ending the principle of divine right of kings.
Enshrined in the Union with England Act 1707:
Conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles, an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 Jacobite Rising.
William's attempts to have the Claim of Right amended were directed through the "Court faction" which began arguing from 1699 onwards that:
# The Convention of the Estates was not a parliament so the act did not really count as binding and
# the Convention of the Estates was a parliament and so parliament could just rewrite it.
A year and a half after William's death, the Parliament of Scotland "put a period on the end of that sentence" by passing an act which recognised the standing of the Convention of the Estates as a parliament in its own right and made it "high treason" to impugn its authority or to so much as suggest attempting to alter the Claim of Right.
Here is the Claim of Right understood and upheld for its secular constitutional provisions quite as much as for its religious provisions.
English perspective
in 1702]]
The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the union of parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne, who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a union was "very necessary".
Scottish perspective
The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688–1697 Nine Years' War and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession, with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the Darien scheme, and the seven ill years of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation. The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England.
The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, combined with the majority of the Squadrone Volante, were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty.
As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords. As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises.
As the treaty passed through the Parliament of Scotland, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimed:
Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carillonneur in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells to the tune of "Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?" Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law.
Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707. Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of the Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the Worcester seizure all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland. The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801.
Treaty and passage of the 1707 acts
Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland (the ) agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705.
Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was the Duke of Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield. The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, William Cowper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners. England had gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade.
After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the James Graham, 4th Marquess of Montrose and John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton, John Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done.
The act ratifying the Treaty of Union was finally carried in the Parliament of Scotland by 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707, with a number of key amendments. News of the ratification and of the amendments was received in Westminster, where the Act was passed quickly through both Houses and received the royal assent on 6 March. Though the English Act was later in date, it bore the year '1706' while Scotland's was '1707', as the legal year in England began only on 25 March.
In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he was greeted by stones and eggs but in England he was cheered for his action. A day of thanksgiving was declared in England and Ireland but not in Scotland, where the bells of St Giles rang out the tune of "why should I be so sad on my wedding day".Provisions
of Queen Anne, depicting the Tudor rose and the Scottish thistle growing from the same stem]]
The Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69.
The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union.
The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void".
Related acts
The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed a similar Act, 6 Ann. c. 8.
Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Ann. c. 40later named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707united the Privy Council of England and Privy Council of Scotland and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice.
On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland.
In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of treason and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain.
Evaluations
Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining "freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was
<blockquote>of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations ... The sweeping successes of the eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations.</blockquote>
By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain. Economic perspective
'' by Godfrey Kneller, 1708. Smith was one of the commissioners who negotiated the union and was Speaker of the House of Commons in the new united parliament. He is shown by Kneller holding a copy of the Act of Union.]]
According to the Scottish historian Christopher Smout, prior to the Union of the Crowns the Scottish economy had been flourishing completely independently of the English one, with little to no interaction between each other. Developing a closer economic partnership with England was unsustainable, and Scotland's main trade partner was continental Europe, especially the Netherlands, where Scotland could trade its wool and fish for luxurious imports such as iron, spices or wine. Scotland and England were generally hostile to each other and were often at war, and the alliance with France gave Scotland privileges that further encouraged developing cultural and economic ties with the continent rather than England. The union of 1603 only served the political and dynastic ambitions of King James and was detrimental to Scotland economically – exports that Scotland offered were largely irrelevant to English economy, and while the Privy Council of Scotland did keep its ability to manage internal economic policy, the foreign policy of Scotland was now in English hands. This limited Scotland's hitherto expansive trade with continental Europe, and forced it into English wars.
While the Scottish economy already suffered because of English wars with France and Spain in the 1620s, the civil wars in England had a particularly disastrous effect on Scotland and left it relatively impoverished as a result. The economy would slowly recover afterwards, but at the cost of being increasingly dependent on trade with England. A power struggle developed between Scotland and England in the 1680s, as Scotland recovered from the political turmoil and set on its own economic ambitions, which London considered a threat to its dominant and well-established position. English wars with continental powers undermined Scottish trade with France and the Netherlands, countries that used to be the Scotland's main trade partners before the union, and the English Navigation Acts severely limited Scottish ability to trade by sea, and made the Scottish ambitions to expand the trade beyond Europe unachievable. Opinion in Scotland at the time was that England was sabotaging Scottish economic expansion.
Scotland grew increasingly dependent on its linen industry, which became the biggest source of employment after agriculture and constituted one-third of Scottish industry. Continental linen industries could outcompete Scotland, and protectionist tariffs implemented by Scotland led to tariff wars as European countries closed their markets to Scotland. In this situation, England became the largest foreign market for Scottish linen; however, while the tariffs in place shielded Scotland from the much larger English industry, England also retaliated against them. This forced Scotland to seek economic alternatives. In what was dubbed the "affair of Hamburgh" in Scotland, William III of England persuaded European powers against buying stocks in the scheme; William commented on Darien:
English actions against the Darien scheme were also motivated by other factors – the decline in the East India Company's stock values, concerns of Darien causing a labour shortage in the Colony of Jamaica, and the scheme being seen as a threat to "the general peace of Christendom", as Catholic Spain laid a territorial claim to the area. In the first few decades after the union, England did not end up becoming the main trading partner of Scotland, as other European powers became the primary source of imported goods for Scotland. For at least the first 40 years after the union, Scotland persisted in its traditional trade patterns, and the economic situation of Scotland was not as dire as that described in the months leading up to the Acts of Union. 300th anniversary A commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary—of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007.
The Scottish Government held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland.
Scottish voting records
thumb|Map of commissioner voting on the ratification of the Treaty of Union:<br />
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"align:left; font-size: 95%;"
|+Voting records for 16 January 1707 ratification of the Treaty of Union
|-
! colspan"2" style"background:#e9e9e9 text-align:left;"|Commissioner
! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"|Constituency/Position
! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"|Party
! style="background:#e9e9e9 text-align:right;"|Vote
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Graham, 1st Duke of Montrose
| style="text-align:left" |Lord President of the Council of Scotland/Stirlingshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Hay, 2nd Marquess of Tweeddale
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Kerr, 2nd Marquess of Lothian
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Erskine, Earl of Mar
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Hamilton-Leslie, 9th Earl of Rothes
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Douglas, 11th Earl of Morton
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Cunningham, 12th Earl of Glencairn
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Maitland, 5th Earl of Lauderdale
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Ramsay, 5th Earl of Dalhousie
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Ogilvy, 4th Earl of Findlater
| style="text-align:left" |Banffshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Leslie, 3rd Earl of Leven
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Carnegie, 4th Earl of Northesk
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Colin Lindsay, 3rd Earl of Balcarres
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Archibald Douglas, 1st Earl of Forfar
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Keith, 1st Earl of Kintore
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Patrick Hume, 1st Earl of Marchmont
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Archibald Primrose, 1st Earl of Rosebery
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Charles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun
| style="text-align:left" |likely Linlithgowshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Archibald Campbell, Earl of Illay
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Hay, Viscount Dupplin
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Forbes, 12th Lord Forbes
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Elphinstone, 8th Lord Elphinstone
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Ross, 12th Lord Ross
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Sandilands, 7th Lord Torphichen
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Lord Fraser
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Ogilvy, 3rd Lord Banff
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Kenneth Sutherland, 3rd Lord Duffus
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Robert Rollo, 4th Lord Rollo
| style="text-align:left" |Stirlingshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Murray, Lord Philiphaugh
| style="text-align:left" |Lord Clerk Register/Selkirkshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Adam Cockburn, Lord Ormiston
| style="text-align:left" |Lord Justice Clerk
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Robert Dickson of Inverask
| style="text-align:left" |Edinburghshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Nisbet of Dirletoun
| style="text-align:left" |Haddingtonshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Cockburn, younger, of Ormestoun
| style="text-align:left" |Haddingtonshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Swintoun of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Berwickshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Alexander Campbell of Cessnock
| style="text-align:left" |Berwickshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir William Kerr of Greenhead
| style="text-align:left" |Roxburghshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Archibald Douglas, 13th of Cavers
| style="text-align:left" |Roxburghshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Bennet of Grubbet
| style="text-align:left" |Roxburghshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Murray of Bowhill
| style="text-align:left" |Selkirkshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Pringle of Haining
| style="text-align:left" |Selkirkshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Morison of Prestongrange
| style="text-align:left" |Peeblesshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Horseburgh of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Peeblesshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Baillie of Jerviswood
| style="text-align:left" |Lanarkshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Johnstoun of Westerhall
| style="text-align:left" |Dumfriesshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Dowglass of Dornock
| style="text-align:left" |Dumfriesshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr William Stewart of Castlestewart
| style="text-align:left" |Wigtownshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Stewart of Sorbie
| style="text-align:left" |Wigtownshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Francis Montgomery of Giffan
| style="text-align:left" |Ayrshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr William Dalrymple of Glenmuir
| style="text-align:left" |Ayrshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Robert Stewart of Tillicultrie
| style="text-align:left" |Buteshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Robert Pollock of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Renfrewshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Montgomery of Wrae
| style="text-align:left" |Linlithgowshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Halden of Glenagies
| style="text-align:left" |Perthshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mongo Graham of Gorthie
| style="text-align:left" |Perthshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Thomas Burnet of Leyes
| style="text-align:left" |Kincardineshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Seton, younger, of Pitmedden
| style="text-align:left" |Aberdeenshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Grant, younger, of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Inverness-shire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir William Mackenzie
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Aeneas McLeod of Cadboll
| style="text-align:left" |Cromartyshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Campbell of Mammore
| style="text-align:left" |Argyllshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir James Campbell of Auchinbreck
| style="text-align:left" |Argyllshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Campbell, younger, of Ardkinglass
| style="text-align:left" |Argyllshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir William Anstruther of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Fife
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Halyburton of Pitcurr
| style="text-align:left" |Forfarshire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Abercrombie of Glassoch
| style="text-align:left" |Banffshire
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr James Dunbarr, younger, of Hemprigs
| style="text-align:left" |Caithness
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Douglas of Eagleshay
| style="text-align:left" |Orkney and Shetland
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Bruce, 2nd Baronet
| style="text-align:left" |Kinross-shire
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Scrimsour
| style="text-align:left" |Dundee
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Lieutenant Colonel John Areskine
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Mure
| style="text-align:left" |Likely Ayr
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Scott
| style="text-align:left" |Montrose
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Anstruther, 1st Baronet, of Anstruther
| style="text-align:left" |Anstruther Easter
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Spittle
| style="text-align:left" |Inverkeithing
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Patrick Moncrieff
| style="text-align:left" |Kinghorn
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Andrew Home
| style="text-align:left" |Kirkcudbright
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#dfd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Peter Halket
| style="text-align:left" |Dunfermline
| style="text-align:left" |Squadrone Volante
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir James Smollet
| style="text-align:left" |Dumbarton
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr William Carmichell
| style="text-align:left" |Lanark
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr William Sutherland
| style="text-align:left" |Elgin
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Captain Daniel McLeod
| style="text-align:left" |Tain
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir David Dalrymple, 1st Baronet
| style="text-align:left" |Culross
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Alexander Ogilvie
| style="text-align:left" |Banff
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Clerk
| style="text-align:left" |Whithorn
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Ross
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick
| style="text-align:left" |North Berwick
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Patrick Ogilvie
| style="text-align:left" |Cullen
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Allardyce
| style="text-align:left" |Kintore
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Avis
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr James Bethun
| style="text-align:left" |Kilrenny
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Roderick McKenzie
| style="text-align:left" |Fortrose
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Urquhart
| style="text-align:left" |Dornoch
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Daniel Campbell
| style="text-align:left" |Inveraray
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Robert Forbes
| style="text-align:left" |Inverurie
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Robert Dowglass
| style="text-align:left" |Kirkwall
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Alexander Maitland
| style="text-align:left" |Inverbervie
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr George Dalrymple
| style="text-align:left" |Stranraer
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Charles Campbell
| style="text-align:left" |Campbeltown
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |Yes
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Johnstone, 1st Marquess of Annandale
| style="text-align:left" |Annan
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Charles Hay, 13th Earl of Erroll
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Keith, 9th Earl Marischal
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Erskine, 9th Earl of Buchan
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Sinclair, 9th Earl of Caithness
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Fleming, 6th Earl of Wigtown
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Stewart, 5th Earl of Galloway
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Livingston, 3rd Viscount of Kilsyth
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Francis Sempill, 10th Lord Sempill
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Charles Oliphant, 7th Lord Oliphant
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Elphinstone, 4th Lord Balmerino
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Walter Stuart, 6th Lord Blantyre
| style="text-align:left" |Linlithgow
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Hamilton, 3rd Lord Bargany
| style="text-align:left" |Queensferry
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Lord Colvill
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Patrick Kinnaird, 3rd Lord Kinnaird
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Lawder of Fountainhall
| style="text-align:left" |Haddingtonshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun
| style="text-align:left" |Haddingtonshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Robert Sinclair, 3rd Baronet
| style="text-align:left" |Berwickshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Patrick Home of Rentoun
| style="text-align:left" |Berwickshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto
| style="text-align:left" |Roxburghshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Bayllie of Lamingtoun
| style="text-align:left" |Lanarkshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Sinclair, younger, of Stevensone
| style="text-align:left" |Lanarkshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Hamilton of Aikenhead
| style="text-align:left" |Lanarkshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Alexander Fergusson of Isle
| style="text-align:left" |Dumfriesshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Hugh Cathcart of Carletoun
| style="text-align:left" |Ayrshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Brisbane, younger, of Bishoptoun
| style="text-align:left" |Ayrshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr William Cochrane of Kilmaronock
| style="text-align:left" |Dumbartonshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Humphray Colquhoun of Luss
| style="text-align:left" |Dumbartonshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir John Houstoun of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Renfrewshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Robert Rollo of Powhouse
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Thomas Sharp of Houstoun
| style="text-align:left" |Linlithgowshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Murray of Strowan
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Gordon of Pitlurg
| style="text-align:left" |Aberdeenshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Forbes of Colloden
| style="text-align:left" |Nairnshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Bethun of Balfour
| style="text-align:left" |Fife
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Major Henry Balfour of Dunboog
| style="text-align:left" |Fife
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Thomas Hope of Rankeillor
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Patrick Lyon of Auchterhouse
| style="text-align:left" |Forfarshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr James Carnagie of Phinhaven
| style="text-align:left" |Forfarshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |David Graham, younger, of Fintrie
| style="text-align:left" |Forfarshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |William Maxwell of Cardines
| style="text-align:left" |Kirkcudbrightshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander McKye of Palgown
| style="text-align:left" |Kirkcudbrightshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |James Sinclair of Stempster
| style="text-align:left" |Caithness
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir Henry Innes, younger, of that ilk
| style="text-align:left" |Elginshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr George McKenzie of Inchcoulter
| style="text-align:left" |Ross-shire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Robert Inglis
| style="text-align:left" |Edinburgh
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Robertson
| style="text-align:left" |Perth
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Walter Stewart
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#def;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Hugh Montgomery
| style="text-align:left" |Glasgow
| style="text-align:left" |Court Party
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Edgar
| style="text-align:left" |Haddington
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Alexander Duff
| style="text-align:left" |Banffshire
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Francis Molison
| style="text-align:left" |Brechin
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Walter Scott
| style="text-align:left" |Jedburgh
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Robert Scott
| style="text-align:left" |Selkirk
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Robert Kellie
| style="text-align:left" |Dunbar
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Hutchesone
| style="text-align:left" |Arbroath
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Archibald Scheills
| style="text-align:left" |Peebles
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Lyon
| style="text-align:left" |Forfar
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Brodie
| style="text-align:left" |Forres
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Spens
| style="text-align:left" |Rutherglen
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Sir David Cuningham
| style="text-align:left" |Lauder
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr John Carruthers
| style="text-align:left" |Lochmaben
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |George Home
| style="text-align:left" |New Galloway
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |John Bayne
| style="text-align:left" |Dingwall
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
| style="background:#ddd;"|
| style="text-align:left" |Mr Robert Fraser
| style="text-align:left" |Wick
| style="text-align:left" |
| style="text-align:right" |No
|-
! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:lightgreen;"|Total Ayes
! style="text-align:right" |106
|-
! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:pink;"|Total Noes
! style="text-align:right" |69
|-
! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; background:lightgrey;"|Total Votes
! style="text-align:right" |175
|-
! style"text-align:left" colspan5|Sources: Records of the Parliament of Scotland, [http://dbooks.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/books/PDFs/555089378.pdf Parliamentary Register, p.598]
|}
See also
* Acts of Union 1800 (Kingdom of Great Britain with Kingdom of Ireland)
**Kingdom of Ireland
* English independence
* List of treaties
* MacCormick v Lord Advocate
* Parliament of the United Kingdom
* Political union
* Real union
* Scottish independence
* Unionism in Scotland
* Welsh independence
Notes
References
Works cited
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Defoe, Daniel. ''A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–1727
* Defoe, Daniel. The Letters of Daniel Defoe, GH Healey editor. Oxford: 1955.
* Fletcher, Andrew (Saltoun). An Account of a Conversation''
* Lockhart, George, "The Lockhart Papers", 1702–1728
External links
*
* [http://rahbarnes.co.uk/union/union-of-1707/ Union with England Act and Union with Scotland Act – Full original text]
* [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/collectionsp-bin/colldisp/l0/c81 Treaty of Union and the Darien Experiment], University of Guelph, McLaughlin Library, Library and Archives Canada
*
*
* [https://rps.ac.uk/search.php?actionfetch_jump&filenameanne_trans&jumpanne_m1706_10_257_d6_ms&typetrans&fragment=t1706_10_257_d6_trans Union with England Act 1707, from Records of the Parliaments of Scotland]
* [https://archives.parliament.uk/collections/getrecord/GB61_HL_PO_PU_1_1706_5and6An14 Image of original act from the Parliamentary Archives website]
}}
Category:1706 in England
Category:1706 in law
Category:1707 in law
Category:1707 in Scotland
Category:Acts of the Parliament of England 1707
Category:Acts of the Parliament of England still in force
Category:Unionism in the United Kingdom
Category:Constitutional laws of the United Kingdom
Category:England–Scotland relations
Category:Politics of the Kingdom of Great Britain
Category:National unifications
Category:Political charters
Category:Unionism in Scotland
Category:Treaties of England
Category:Treaties of Scotland
Category:1707 in British law
Category:1706 in politics
Category:Church of Scotland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707 | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.452617 |
2988 | Admiralty (United Kingdom) | Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office |the succeeding period 1964–1997|Navy Department (Ministry of Defence)}}
The Admiralty was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy until 1964, historically under its titular head, the Lord High Admiral – one of the Great Officers of State. For much of its history, from the early 18th century until its abolition, the role of the Lord High Admiral was almost invariably put "in commission" and exercised by the Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty, who sat on the governing Board of Admiralty, rather than by a single person. The Admiralty was replaced by the Admiralty Board in 1964, as part of the reforms that created the Ministry of Defence and its Navy Department (later Navy Command).
Before the Acts of Union 1707, the Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs administered the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of England, which merged with the Royal Scots Navy and then absorbed the responsibilities of the Lord High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland with the unification of the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Admiralty was among the most important departments of the British Government, because of the Royal Navy's role in the expansion and maintenance of the English overseas possessions in the 17th century, the British Empire in the 18th century, and subsequently.
The modern Admiralty Board, to which the functions of the Admiralty were transferred in 1964, is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. This Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historic Navy Board). It is common for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply 'The Admiralty'.
The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday and since his death in 2021 has reverted to the monarch. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices.HistoryThe office of Admiral of England (later Lord Admiral, and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400; there had previously been Admirals of the northern and western seas. King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine—later to become the Navy Board—in 1546, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. This management approach would continue in force in the Royal Navy until 1832.
King Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission in 1628, and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in the early 19th century).
Following this, a new advisory body called the Admiralty War Staff was then instituted in 1912, headed by the Chief of the War Staff who was responsible for administering three new sub-divisions responsible for operations, intelligence and mobilisation. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it continually struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. There were no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions. A Trade Division was created in 1914. Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty in 1916. He re-organized the war staff as following: Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilisation, Trade.
It was not until 1917 that the admiralty department was again properly reorganized and began to function as a professional military staff. In May 1917, the term "Admiralty War Staff" was renamed and that department and its functional role were superseded by a new "Admiralty Naval Staff"; in addition, the newly created office of Chief of the Naval Staff was merged in the office of the First Sea Lord. Also appointed was a new post, that of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, and an Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff; all were given seats on the Board of Admiralty. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the board; the presence of three senior naval senior members on the board ensured the necessary authority to carry through any operation of war. The Deputy Chief of Naval Staff would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations.
Organizational structure
, Whitehall, London, about 1810]]
In the 20th century the structure of the Admiralty Headquarters was predominantly organized into four parts:
# The Board of Admiralty, which directs and controls the whole machine chaired by a civilian government minister the First Lord of the Admiralty. His chief military adviser was the First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff as the Senior Naval Lord to the board.
Offices of the Naval Staff
# Office of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff.
}}
See also
* Admiralty administration
* Admiralty buildings
* Admiralty chart
* Admiralty Inlet
* Admiralty Peak
* Navy Department (Ministry of Defence)
* Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom
* List of first lords of the Admiralty
* List of lords commissioners of the Admiralty
* Lord High Admiral of Scotland
* St Boniface's Catholic College
References
Further reading
* Daniel A. Baugh, Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole (Princeton, 1965).
* Sir John Barrow, An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart., Late of the Admiralty (London, 1847).
* John Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III: Its State and Direction (Cambridge, 1953).
* C. I. Hamilton, The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making 1805–1927 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
* C. I. Hamilton, "Selections from the Phinn Committee of Inquiry of October–November 1853 into the State of the Office of Secretary to the Admiralty, in The Naval Miscellany, volume V, edited by N. A. M. Rodger, (London: Navy Records Society, London, 1984).
* C. S. Knighton, Pepys and the Navy (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003).
* Christopher Lloyd, Mr Barrow of the Admiralty (London, 1970).
* Malcolm H. Murfett, The First Sea Lords: From Fisher to Mountbatten (Westport: Praeger, 1995).
* Lady Murray, The Making of a Civil Servant: Sir Oswyn Murray, Secretary of the Admiralty 1917–1936 (London, 1940).
* N.A.M. Rodger, The Admiralty (Lavenham, 1979)
* J.C. Sainty, Admiralty Officials, 1660–1870 (London, 1975)
* Sir Charles Walker, Thirty-Six Years at the Admiralty (London, 1933)
External links
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=68108 The Admiralty] at the Survey of London online
Category:Defunct departments of the Government of the United Kingdom
Category:Royal Navy
*
Category:History of the Royal Navy
*
Category:1964 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Category:United Kingdom in World War II
Category:Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
Category:1707 establishments in England | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom) | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.466200 |
2991 | Amphibian (disambiguation) | An amphibian is a member of the class Amphibia of ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates
Amphibian may also refer to:
Amphibian (comics), two superheroes from Marvel Comics
"Amphibian" (song), by Björk
Amphibious vehicle, a vehicle that can operate on water or land
Amphibious aircraft, an aircraft for land, air, and sea
Loening OL or Loening Amphibian, an amphibious biplane built for the US Army Air Corps and Navy
Mark IV Amphibian, a type of World War II period British rebreather
See also
Amphibia (disambiguation)
Amphibious (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.470311 |
2992 | Amputation | Amputation is the removal of a limb or other body part by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, judicial amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator. The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child. A prosthesis or a bioelectric replantation restores sensation of the amputated limb.Types
Leg
Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations.
Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations. A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee.
Types of amputations include:
; partial foot amputation: amputation of the lower limb distal to the ankle joint
; ankle disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the ankle joint
; trans-tibial amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the knee joint and the ankle joint, commonly referred to as a below-knee amputation
; knee disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the knee joint
; trans-femoral amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the hip joint and the knee joint, commonly referred to an above-knee amputation
; hip disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the hip joint
; trans-pelvic disarticulation: amputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation
Arm
Types of upper extremity amputations include:
* partial hand amputation
* wrist disarticulation
* trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation
* elbow disarticulation
* trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation
* shoulder disarticulation
* forequarter amputation
A variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action.
Other
]]
* Facial amputations include but are not limited to:
** amputation of the ears
** amputation of the nose (rhinotomy)
** amputation of the tongue (glossectomy).
** amputation of the eyes (enucleation).
** amputation of the teeth (Dental evulsion). Removal of teeth, mainly incisors, is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa).
* Breasts:
** amputation of the breasts (mastectomy).
* Genitals:
** amputation of the testicles (castration).
** amputation of the penis (penectomy).
** amputation of the foreskin (circumcision).
** amputation of the clitoris (clitoridectomy).
* Radicals:
** Amputation of the waist (Hemicorporectomy)
** Amputation of the head (Decapitation)
Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.
Laryngectomy is the amputation of the larynx.
Self-amputation
In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated their own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days.
Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed.UrgentIn surgery, a guillotine amputation is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting. Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene.
Neoplasm
]]
* Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma), melanomaTrauma
.]]
* Severe limb injuries in which the efforts to save the limb fail or the limb cannot be saved.
* Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example, a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw)
* Amputation in utero (Amniotic band)
Congenital anomalies
* Deformities of digits and/or limbs (e.g., proximal femoral focal deficiency, Fibular hemimelia)
* Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g., polydactyly)
Infection
Frostbite
Frostbite is a cold-related injury occurring when an area (typically a limb or other extremity) is exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues. Its pathophysiology involves the formation of ice crystals upon freezing and blood clots upon thawing, leading to cell damage and cell death. if there is deep injury autoamputation may occur.
Athletic performance
Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance.
* Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance.
* Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed.
* National Football League safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his little finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season.
Criminal penalties
* According to Quran 5:38, the punishment for stealing is the amputation of the hand. Under Sharia law, after repeated offense, the foot may also be cut off. This is still in practice today in countries like Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and 11 of the 36 states within Nigeria.
* Cross-amputation is one of the Hudud punishments prescribed under Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia law) and involves cutting off the right hand and left foot of the alleged transgressor. The scriptural authority for the double amputation procedure is in the Quran (surah 5.33-34) which stipulates: The severe punishment, for "highway robbery (hirabah, ''qat' al-tariq'') and civil disturbance against Islam", is usually carried out in a single session in public, without anaesthetic and using a sword. The ancient punishment is practised in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia; Sudan; Somalia; Mauritania, the Maldives; Iran; Taliban-era Afghanistan and Yemen.
* In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a bill to the Virginia Assembly that ostensibly would have replaced capital punishment with other penalties, including amputation, for certain crimes, For the crimes of rape, sodomy, and polygamy (the latter removed from a later version), the punishment was to be castration for men or rhinotomy for women. For intentional maiming, the bill specified literal eye for an eye retribution. The bill never passed, due to the combination of its perceived barbarity in some parts and perceived leniency in others.
* From the 16th century, English law provided for cutting off a hand as punishment for striking someone inside a courtroom. Thomas Jefferson's punishments revision bill also intended to repeal this.
* As of 2021, this form of punishment is controversial, as most modern cultures consider it to be morally abhorrent, as it has the effect of permanently disabling a person and constitutes torture. It is thus seen as grossly disproportionate for crimes less than those such as murder.
Surgery
Method
Surgeons performing an amputation have to first ligate the supplying artery and vein, so as to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis.
, commander of the Brazilian Battleship Tamandaré (Henrique Fleiuss, Semana Illustrada, 1866)]]
Distal stabilisation of muscles is often performed. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles are attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions.
An experimental technique known as the "Ewing amputation" aims to improve post-amputation proprioception. Another technique with similar goals, which has been tested in a clinical trial, is Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI).
In 1920, Dr. Janos Ertl Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force. The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques.
Post-operative management
A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial (below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case-by-case basis: rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls; soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity.
A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings (RRD's) in trans-tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump.
Post-operative management, in addition to wound healing, considers maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb (if applicable) and stump desensitization.
Trauma
Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat.
Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss.
Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations.
Causes
by a bayonet to the knee.]]
Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:
* Vehicle accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.)
* Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.)
* Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment
* Electric shock hazards
* Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives
* Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope
* Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries)
* Building doors and car doors
* Animal attacks
* Gas cylinder explosions
* Other rare accidents
Treatment
The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:
* 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis
* 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction.
* 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969)
* 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000)]]
* In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents.
* The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers.
* In 2017, an estimated 57.7 million people globally were living with existing traumatic limb injuries. Of these 57.7 million, the leading causes of amputation "were falls (36.2%), road injuries (15.7%), other transportation injuries (11.2%), and mechanical forces (10.4%)."
* On 2 August 2023, an investigation by The Wall Street Journal found that Ukrainian medical amputations in the war came to between 20,000 and 50,000 including both military and civilians. In comparison, during World War One 41,000 British and 67,000 Germans needed amputations.
* In 2024 Gaza was the site of the most child amputees in the history.
Prevention
Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which, when widespread, necessitates amputation.
There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation.
Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections.
A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.
For victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible.
The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations.PrognosisThe individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations.
A large proportion of amputees (from 50-80% to 80-100%, according to different studies) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).
A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (Phantoms in the Brain: V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.
In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis.
Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer.
Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer. Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years.
Etymology
The word amputation is borrowed from Latin amputātus, past participle of amputāre "to prune back (a plant), prune away, remove by cutting (unwanted parts or features), cut off (a branch, limb, body part)," from am-, assimilated variant of amb- "about, around" + putāre "to prune, make clean or tidy, scour (wool)". The English word "Poes" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th-century French texts tended to use extirper), "disarticulation", and "dismemberment" (from the Old French desmembrer and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term.Notable cases
See also
References
Further reading
* Bilguer, Johann Ulrich, (1764), [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44089 A dissertation on the inutility of the amputation of limbs].
* Miller, Brian Craig. Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp.
; Traumatic: , , , , , , , , , <br />
| ICD10 = Medical: ; Traumatic: S*8 (e.g. ), , , , , <br />
| ICD9 | ICDO
| OMIM | MedlinePlus
| eMedicineSubj | eMedicineTopic
| MeshID = D000673
}}
Category:Surgical removal procedures
Category:Acute pain
Category:Punishments
Category:Surgery | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amputation | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.504971 |
2994 | Anemometer | ]]
In meteorology, an anemometer ( ()|wind|| ()|measure}}) is a device that measures wind speed and direction. It is a common instrument used in weather stations. The earliest known description of an anemometer was by Italian architect and author Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) in 1450.
History
]]
The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Alberti is said to have invented it around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including Robert Hooke
(1635–1703), developed their own versions, with some mistakenly credited as its inventor. In 1846, Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882) improved the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (1872–1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer.
Velocity anemometers
Cup anemometers
A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev. Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups on horizontal arms mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate roughly proportional to the wind's speed. Therefore, counting the shaft's revolutions over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. This type of instrument is also called a rotational anemometer.
Four cup
With a four-cup anemometer, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it, and is blowing on the back of the opposing cup. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, more force is generated on the cup that presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the anemometer's axis, causing it to spin.
Theoretically, the anemometer's speed of rotation should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the gas or fluid flowing past it. However, in practice, other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque produced by the cups and support arms, and friction on the mount point. When Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the anemometer factor, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and can have a value between two and a little over three. Once the error was discovered, all previous experiments involving anemometers had to be repeated.
Three cup
The three-cup anemometer developed by Canadian John Patterson in 1926, and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935, led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and an error of less than 3% up to . Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.Three cup wind direction
The three-cup anemometer was further modified by Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to also measure wind direction. He added a tag to one cup, causing the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moved alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed.
Three-cup anemometers are currently the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies and practice.
Vane anemometers
One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the vane anemometer. It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed.
A vane anemometer thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a revolution counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.
In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.
<gallery caption"Vane anemometers" class"center">
File:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg|Vane style of anemometer
File:Prop vane anemometer.jpg|Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation
File:Anemometer-IMG 4734-white.jpg|Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer
File:Digital_Handheld_Anemometer.jpg|Hand-held digital anemometer or Byram anenometer.
</gallery>
Hot-wire anemometers
Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air. In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane.
Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (constant current anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm's law.
Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.
An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer.
Laser Doppler anemometers
In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.
Ultrasonic anemometers
Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers.
The time that a sonic pulse takes to travel from one transducer to its pair is inversely proportionate to the speed of sound in air plus the wind velocity in the same direction: <math>t\frac{L}{(c+v)}</math> where <math>t</math> is the time of flight, <math>L</math> is the distance between transducers, <math>c</math> is the speed of sound in air and <math>v</math> is the wind velocity. In other words, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the sound pulse travels. To correct for the speed of sound in air (which varies according to temperature, pressure and humidity) sound pulses are sent in both directions and the wind velocity is calculated using the forward and reverse times of flight: <math>v\frac{1}{2} L(\frac{1}{t_1}-\frac{1}{t_2})</math> where <math>t_1</math> is the forward time of flight and <math>t_2</math> the reverse.
Because ultrasonic anenometers have no moving parts, they need little maintenance and can be used in harsh environments. They operate over a wide range of wind speeds. They can measure rapid changes in wind speed and direction, taking many measurements each second, and so are useful in measuring turbulent air flow patterns.
Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Rain drops or ice on the transducers can also cause inaccuracies.
Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers.
Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers.
Acoustic resonance anemometers
Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas Kapartis and patented in 1999. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement.
Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.
Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed.
Pressure anemometers
clubhouse tour, burgee, and wind gauge on roof]]
The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes.
Plate anemometers
These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first such mechanical anemometer; in 1663 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke. Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.Tube anemometers
. The pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.]]
James Lind's anemometer of 1775 consisted of a vertically mounted glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with one end bent out in a horizontal direction to face the wind flow and the other vertical end capped. Though the Lind was not the first, it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube, it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading.
The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus, if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.
While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at , it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem.Pitot tube static anemometersModern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer, but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot-static tube, which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing the wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube. There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders.Ping-pong ball anemometers
A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed.
This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the Phoenix Mars Lander.
Effect of density on measurements
In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level.
Effect of icing
At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions.Instrument locationIn order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters.See also
* Air flow meter
* Anemoi, for the ancient origin of the name of this technology
* Anemoscope, ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather
* Automated airport weather station
* Night of the Big Wind
* Particle image velocimetry
* Savonius wind turbine
* Wind power forecasting
* Wind run
* Windsock, a simple high-visibility indicator of approximate wind speed and direction
Notes
References
*Meteorological Instruments, W.E. Knowles Middleton and Athelstan F. Spilhaus, Third Edition revised, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1953
*Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, W. E. Knowles Middleton, The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1969
External links
*
*
*[http://www.dl1glh.de/ultrasonic-anemometer.html Description of the development and the construction of an ultrasonic anemometer]
*[http://www.gill.co.uk/products/anemometer/principleofoperation.htm Animation Showing Sonic Principle of Operation (Time of Flight Theory)] – Gill Instruments
*[http://www.geag.de/txt_sammlung.htm Collection of historical anemometer]
*[http://www.fttechnologies.com/About-FT/FT-Technologies/Acu-Res-Technology Principle of Operation: Acoustic Resonance measurement] – FT Technologies
* [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/558 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (laser doppler)"]
* [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/559 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (pulsed thermal)"]
* [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/560 Thermopedia, "Anemometers (vane)"]
* [http://users.tpg.com.au/derekwtpg/diy_anemometer/anemain.htm The Rotorvane Anemometer. Measuring both wind speed and direction using a tagged three-cup sensor]
Category:Italian inventions
Category:Measuring instruments
Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
Category:Navigational equipment
Category:Wind power
Category:15th-century inventions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.516020 |
2995 | Archaeopteryx | | image = Archaeopteryx lithographica (Berlin specimen).jpg
| image_caption = The Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii)
| image_alt = Fossil of complete Archaeopteryx, including indentations of feathers on wings and tail
| taxon = Archaeopteryx
| authority = Meyer, 1861<br/>(conserved name)
| type_species = Archaeopteryx lithographica
| type_species_authority = Meyer, 1861 (conserved name)
| subdivision_ranks = Referred species
| subdivision = *A. siemensii<br/><small>Dames, 1897</small>
*A. albersdoerferi<br/><small>Kundrat et al., 2018</small>
| display_parents = 2
| synonyms
| synonyms_ref
}}
Archaeopteryx (; ), sometimes referred to by its German name, "" ( Primeval Bird) is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek }} (archaîos), meaning "ancient", and }} (ptéryx), meaning "feather" or "wing". Between the late 19th century and the early 21st century, Archaeopteryx was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, Aurornis, and Baminornis zhenghensis.
Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven,
History of discovery
Over the years, fourteen body fossil specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near , Germany. These quarries excavate sediments from the Solnhofen Limestone formation and related units. It is now in the Natural History Museum of Berlin. Though it was the initial holotype, there were indications that it might not have been from the same animal as the body fossils. This conclusion was challenged in 2020 as being unlikely; the feather was identified on the basis of morphology as most likely having been an upper major primary covert feather.) to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains.
The Haarlem Specimen (TM 6428/29, also known as the Teylers Specimen) was discovered in 1855 near , Germany, and described as a Pterodactylus crassipes in 1857 by Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen found, but was incorrectly classified at the time. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones, isolated cervical vertebrae, and ribs. In 2017 it was named as a separate genus Ostromia, considered more closely related to Anchiornis from China.
The Eichstätt Specimen (JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell, Germany, and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest known specimen and has the second-best head. It is possibly a separate genus (Jurapteryx recurva) or species (A. recurva).
The Solnhofen Specimen (unnumbered specimen) was discovered in the 1970s near Eichstätt, Germany, and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen, it originally was classified as Compsognathus by an amateur collector, the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, Wellnhoferia grandis. It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head.
The Munich Specimen (BSP 1999 I 50, formerly known as the Solenhofer-Aktien-Verein Specimen) was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich, to which it was sold in 1999 for 1.9 million Deutschmark. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid, but more recent studies suggest it belongs to A. siemensii. After a lengthy period in a closed private collection, it was moved to the Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark (Denmark) in 2022, where it has since been on display and also been made available for researchers.
Another fragmentary fossil was found in 2000. It is in private possession and, since 2004, on loan to the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum in Solnhofen, so it is called the Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen; the institute itself officially refers to it as the "Exemplar of the families Ottman & Steil, Solnhofen". As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of Archaeopteryx, it is colloquially known as "chicken wing".
Long in a private collection in Switzerland, the Thermopolis Specimen (WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The "Thermopolis" specimen was described on 2 December 2005 Science journal article as "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features"; it shows that Archaeopteryx lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. Palaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen, which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage, such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus, and the only preserved tail tip.
A twelfth specimen had been discovered by an amateur collector in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry, but the finding was only announced in February 2014. It was scientifically described in 2018. It represents a complete and mostly articulated skeleton with skull. It is the only specimen lacking preserved feathers. It is from the Painten Formation and somewhat older than the other specimens.
The existence of a thirteenth specimen (the Chicago specimen) was announced in 2024 by the Field Museum in Chicago, US. One of two specimens in an institution outside Europe, the specimen was originally identified in a private collection in Switzerland, and had been acquired by these collectors in 1990, prior to Germany's 2015 ban on exporting Archaeopteryx specimens. The specimen was acquired by the Field Museum in 2022, and went on public display in 2024 following two years of preparation. The specimen is to be studied by famed paleornithologist Jingmai O'Connor.
A fourteenth specimen, SMNK-PAL 10,000, was published in January 2025, this one from the Mörnsheim Formation. It preserves the right forelimb, shoulder, and fragments of the other limbs, with various features of the shoulder and forelimb resembling Archaeopteryx more than any other avialan within the Mörnsheim Formation. However, due to the fragmentary nature of this specimen, it cannot be assigned to a specific species within Archaeopteryx. Authenticity Beginning in 1985, an amateur group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner, published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of Archaeopteryx were forged.
Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a raven, Archaeopteryx feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure to modern-day bird feathers. Plumage Specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb-barbule-barbicel arrangement. This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained. In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, new analyses of Archaeopteryxs feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark-coloured plumage, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tips and outer vanes. This analysis of colour distribution was based primarily on the distribution of sulphate within the fossil. An author on the previous Archaeopteryx colour study argued against the interpretation of such biomarkers as an indicator of eumelanin in the full Archaeopteryx specimen. Carney and other colleagues also argued against the 2013 study's interpretation of the sulphate and trace metals, and in a 2020 study published in Scientific Reports demonstrated that the isolated covert feather was entirely matte black (as opposed to black and white, or iridescent) and that the remaining "plumage patterns of Archaeopteryx remain unknown". This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate, and the London specimen was designated the neotype on 3 October 2011.
Below is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit et al.
Phylogenetic studies conducted by Senter, et al. (2012) and Turner, Makovicky, and Norell (2012) also found Archaeopteryx to be more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids. On the other hand, Godefroit et al. (2013) recovered Archaeopteryx as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna. The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing Xiaotingia, adding Jinfengopteryx elegans and Eosinopteryx brevipenna to it, as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage. Unlike the analysis from the description of Xiaotingia, the analysis conducted by Godefroit, et al. did not find Archaeopteryx to be related particularly closely to Anchiornis and Xiaotingia, which were recovered as basal troodontids instead.
Agnolín and Novas (2013) found Archaeopteryx and (possibly synonymous) Wellnhoferia to form a clade sister to the lineage including Jeholornis and Pygostylia, with Microraptoria, Unenlagiinae, and the clade containing Anchiornis and Xiaotingia being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae (defined by the authors as the clade stemming from the last common ancestor of Archaeopteryx and Aves). Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit, et al., using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna, also found Archaeopteryx to be a member of Avialae (defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing Passer domesticus, but not Dromaeosaurus albertensis or Troodon formosus). Archaeopteryx was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with Xiaotingia, Anchiornis, and Aurornis. Compared to Archaeopteryx, Xiaotingia was found to be more closely related to extant birds, while both Anchiornis and Aurornis were found to be more distantly so. Wang et al. (2018) and Hartman et al. (2019) found Archaeopteryx to have been a deinonychosaur instead of an avialan. More specifically, it and closely related taxa were considered basal deinonychosaurs, with dromaeosaurids and troodontids forming together a parallel lineage within the group. Because Hartman et al. found Archaeopteryx isolated in a group of flightless deinonychosaurs (otherwise considered "anchiornithids"), they considered it highly probable that this animal evolved flight independently from bird ancestors (and from Microraptor and Yi). The following cladogram illustrates their hypothesis regarding the position of Archaeopteryx:
}}
|label2Archaeopterygidae (Anchiornithidae)
|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }}
The authors, however, found that the Archaeopteryx being an avialan was only slightly less likely than this hypothesis, and as likely as Archaeopterygidae and Troodontidae being sister clades.
Archaeopteryx wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor, also would have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%. The degree of asymmetry seen in Archaeopteryx is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds.
In 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal Science published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx. The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis, were unable to use flapping flight. This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water. Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of for the Munich specimen Archaeopteryx'', a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about . Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises across. Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul's statement, that an adult Archaeopteryx would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented. Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits (see Origin of avian flight).
In 2004, scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London Archaeopteryx concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. Newer research shows that while the Archaeopteryx brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods, it had a more generalized brain volume among Maniraptora dinosaurs, even smaller than that of other non-avian dinosaurs in several instances, which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade.
Recent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of the feather, whereas Archaeopteryx lacks this large barb angle, indicating potentially weak flight abilities.
]]
Archaeopteryx continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh). Other scientists see Archaeopteryx as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that Archaeopteryx might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what currently is considered best supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that Archaeopteryx used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively, to cover longer distances (mainly) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops. This study on Archaeopteryxs bone histology identified biomechanical and physiological adaptations exhibited by modern volant birds that perform intermittent flapping, such as pheasants and other burst flyers.
Some researchers suggested that the feather sheaths of Archaeopteryx shows a center-out, flight related moulting strategy like modern birds. As it was a weak flier, this would have been extremely advantageous in preserving its maximum flight performance. Kiat and colleagues reinterpreted this purported moulting evidence to be problematic and equivocal at best, and considered that these structures more likely represents the calami traces of the fully grown feathers, though the original authors still remained by their conclusion.
Growth
An histological study by Erickson, Norell, Zhongue, and others in 2009 estimated that Archaeopteryx grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds, presumably because the outermost portions of Archaeopteryx bones appear poorly vascularized; One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi, and the authors speculated that Archaeopteryx and the kiwi had similar basal metabolic rate.
Palaeoecology
]]
The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, although scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs, and Compsognathus. The absence of trees does not preclude Archaeopteryx from an arboreal lifestyle, as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of Archaeopteryx point to either an arboreal or ground existence, including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground, as well as along the shores of the lagoon.
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Further reading
* G. R. de Beer (1954). Archaeopteryx lithographica: a study based upon the British Museum specimen. Trustees of the British Museum, London.
* P. Chambers (2002). Bones of Contention: The Fossil that Shook Science. John Murray, London. .
* A. Feduccia (1996). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press, New Haven. .
* Heilmann, G. (1926). The Origin of Birds. Witherby, London.
* T. H. Huxley. (1871). Manual of the anatomy of vertebrate animals. London.
* H. von Meyer (1861). Archaeopterix<!-- sic --> lithographica (Vogel-Feder) und Pterodactylus von Solenhofen. . 1861: 678–679, plate V. [Article in German]. [https://books.google.com/books?id6RAFAAAAQAAJ&pgPA678 Full text, Google Books].
* P. Shipman (1998). Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. .
* P. Wellnhofer (2008). Archaeopteryx – Der Urvogel von Solnhofen (in German). Verlag Friedrich Pfeil, Munich. .
External links
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/archaeopteryx/info.html All About Archaeopteryx], from Talk.Origins.
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100510151348.htm Use of SSRL X-ray takes 'transformative glimpse'] – A look at chemicals linking birds and dinosaurs
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/archaeopteryx.html Archaeopteryx: An Early Bird] – University of California Museum of Paleontology
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html Are Birds Really Dinosaurs?] – University of California Museum of Paleontology
Category:Archaeopterygidae
Category:Feathered dinosaurs
Category:Late Jurassic dinosaurs of Europe
Category:Jurassic Germany
Category:Solnhofen fauna
Category:Fossils of Germany
Category:Transitional fossils
Category:Fossil taxa described in 1861
Category:Taxa named by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
Category:Multispecific non-avian dinosaur genera | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopteryx | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.602314 |
2999 | Arthur Laurents | | birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| resting_place Quogue, New York
| occupation =
| alma_mater = Cornell University
| period = 1945–2011
| language = English
| partner = Tom Hatcher ( 1954; 2006)
| relatives | awards 1968 Tony Award for Best Musical – Hallelujah, Baby!<br />1975 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical – Gypsy<br />1977 Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay – The Turning Point<br />1984 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – La Cage aux Folles
| signature | website
| portaldisp =
}}
Arthur Laurents (July 14, 1917 – May 5, 2011) was an American playwright, theatre director, film producer and screenwriter. With a career spanning seven decades he received numerous accolades including two Tony Awards, a Drama Desk Award, and nominations for two Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, and a Golden Globe Award.
After writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U.S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes West Side Story (1957), Gypsy (1959), and Hallelujah, Baby! (1967), winning the Tony Award for Best Musical for the latter. He directed the musical La Cage aux Folles in 1983 and received the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical.
Laurents also worked as a screenwriter on Hollywood films such as Alfred Hitchcock's thriller Rope (1948), Anastasia (1956), Bonjour Tristesse (1958) and Sydney Pollack's romance The Way We Were (1973). He received two Academy Award nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay for the Herbert Ross drama film The Turning Point (1977).
Early life
Born Arthur Levine, Laurents was the son of middle-class Jewish parents, his father a lawyer and his mother a schoolteacher, who gave up her career when she married. He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child.
His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother's parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents's religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish-sounding Laurents, "to get a job." Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U.S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for Armed Service Force Presents, a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces.
Career
Theatre
, Jerry Herman, Arthur Laurents, creators of the musical La Cage Aux Folles, in front of the Palace theater where it is playing, 1983]]
According to John Clum, "Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II." After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents, who was gay, went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for Armed Service Force Presents, brought him into contact with some of the best film directors—distinguished director George Cukor directed his first script. Laurents's work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play, Home of the Brave, was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of Rope for Alfred Hitchcock.
Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with Fancy Free, Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. In 1962, Laurents directed I Can Get It for You Wholesale, which helped to turn then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical Anyone Can Whistle, which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals Hallelujah, Baby! (written for Lena Horne but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and La Cage Aux Folles (1983), which he directed, however Nick & Nora was not successful.
In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of Gypsy starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of West Side Story, with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing West Side Story, he noted, "The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity." Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of The New York Times called the translations "an only partly successful experiment" and added, "Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses." The national tour (2011–2012) was directed by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog were reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%.
Hollywood
Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Director Anatole Litvak, unhappy with the script submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand for The Snake Pit (1948), hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for The Snake Pit.
Upon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on The Snake Pit, Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film Rope starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play Rope (1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co-star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay. In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers.
Laurents also scripted Anastasia (1956) and Bonjour Tristesse (1958). The Way We Were (1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and The Turning Point (1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film Anastasia (1997) was based in part on his screenplay of the live-action 1956 film of the same title.
Blacklist
Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D.C., to account for his political views. He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months.
Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed ''Look Ma, I'm Dancin'! (1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang. Laurents left the project, however, and the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee. When Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package.
It was only then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of Home of the Brave had been published in the Daily Worker. He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he could not have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the Ile de France. While on board, he received a cable from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklisting had ended.
Memoirs
Laurents wrote Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood, published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher (August 24, 1929 - October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men's clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006.
Laurents wrote Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals, published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired.
His last memoir titled The Rest of the Story was published posthumously in September 2012.
Death
Laurents died from complications of pneumonia at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011, aged 93. Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p.m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory. His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York.WorkWriting
;Musicals
*West Side Story – 1957 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical
*Gypsy – 1959 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical
*Anyone Can Whistle – 1964
*Do I Hear a Waltz? – 1965
*Hallelujah, Baby! – 1967 – Tony Award for Best Musical
*The Madwoman of Central Park West – 1979
*Nick & Nora – 1991
;Novels
*The Way We Were – 1972; Harper & Row (New York City)
*The Turning Point – 1977; New American Library (New York City);
;Plays
*Home of the Brave – 1945
*The Bird Cage – 1950
*The Time of the Cuckoo – 1952
*A Clearing in the Woods – 1957
*Invitation to a March – 1960
*The Enclave – 1973
Directing
Additional credits
Accolades
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Year
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Award
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Category
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Work
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Result
! style="background:#bcbcbc;"|Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1977
| rowspan="2"| Academy Awards
| Best Picture
| rowspan="2"| The Turning Point
|
| align"center" rowspan"2"|
|-
| Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen
|
|-
| 1957
| rowspan="2"| British Academy Film Awards
| rowspan="2"| Best British Screenplay
| Anastasia
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1958
| Bonjour Tristesse
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1975
| Drama Desk Awards
| Outstanding Director of a Musical
| Gypsy
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1948
| Edgar Allan Poe Awards
| Best Motion Picture
| Rope
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1977
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Screenplay – Motion Picture
| The Turning Point
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1999
| National Board of Review Awards
| Best Screenplay (for career achievement)
|
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1975
| rowspan="3" |Tony Awards
| rowspan="3" | Best Direction of a Musical
| Gypsy
|
| align"center" |
|-
| 1984
| La Cage aux Folles
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 2008
| Gypsy
|
| align"center"|
|-
| 1973
| rowspan="2"| Writers Guild of America Awards
| rowspan="2"| Best Drama – Written Directly for the Screen
| The Way We Were
|
| align"center" rowspan"2"|
|-
| 1977
| The Turning Point
|
|}
Legacy
A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually "for an un-produced, full-length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright." The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation will give $50,000 to the writer with a grant of $100,000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011.
See also
*List of Jewish American playwrights
*List of novelists from the United States
*List of people from Brooklyn, New York
*List of playwrights from the United States
*List of theatre directors
References
Further reading
*Laurents, Arthur (2000). Original Story by Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood. New York: Knopf. .
*Laurents, Arthur (2009). Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story, and Other Musicals. New York: Knopf. .
*Clum, John (2014). The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal''. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. .
External links
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051105163005/http://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_bypeople&firstArthur&middle&lastLaurents Arthur Laurents at the Internet Off-Broadway Database]
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081203171127/http://www.americantheatrewing.org/biography/detail/arthur_laurents American Theatre Wing biography]
*
}}
Category:1917 births
Category:2011 deaths
Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:20th-century American male writers
Category:20th-century American memoirists
Category:20th-century American novelists
Category:21st-century American Jews
Category:21st-century American LGBTQ people
Category:American LGBTQ novelists
Category:American gay writers
Category:American male dramatists and playwrights
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American male novelists
Category:American male screenwriters
Category:American musical theatre librettists
Category:Analysands of Theodor Reik
Category:Cornell University alumni
Category:Deaths from pneumonia in New York City
Category:Drama Desk Award winners
Category:Erasmus Hall High School alumni
Category:Golden Globe Award–winning producers
Category:Hollywood blacklist
Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Category:Jewish American novelists
Category:Gay Jews
Category:American LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights
Category:Gay memoirists
Category:LGBTQ people from New York (state)
Category:American LGBTQ screenwriters
Category:Novelists from New York (state)
Category:People from Flatbush, Brooklyn
Category:Screenwriters from New York (state)
Category:Tony Award winners
Category:United States Army personnel of World War II
Category:Writers from Brooklyn
Category:Writers Guild of America Award winners | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Laurents | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.633040 |
3003 | Adrian Lamo | | native_name_lang = es
| birth_name = Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood
| birth_date =
| death_date =
| birth_place = Malden, Massachusetts, U.S.
| death_place = Wichita, Kansas, U.S.
| other_names = Adrián Lamo, R. Adrián Lamo
| occupation = Threat analyst, journalist
| years_active = 1999–2018
| employer = ProjectVIGILANT
| known_for = Computer hacking, reporting Chelsea Manning to the Army's Criminal Investigation Command
| notable_works = Appeared on Hackers Wanted, We Steal Secrets, Good Morning America, Democracy Now!, Aqui y Ahora, and other media outlets, including cover stories in Information Week and SF Weekly
| television = TechTV, KCRA Channel 3 News
| title = Assistant Director for Threat Intelligence
| criminal_penalty two years' probation, with six months to be served in home detention, and ordered to pay $65,000 in restitution
| criminal_status = In 2004, pleaded guilty to one felony count in SDNY to hacking The New York Times and Microsoft, Oracle and Johnson and Johnson, subsequently informed them, and helped fix their security holes
| spouse
| website =
}}
Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood and hacker. Lamo first gained media attention for breaking into several high-profile computer networks, including those of The New York Times, Yahoo!, and Microsoft, culminating in his 2003 arrest.
Lamo was best known for reporting U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning to Army criminal investigators in 2010 for leaking hundreds of thousands of sensitive U.S. government documents to WikiLeaks. Lamo died on March 14, 2018, at the age of 37. His father, Mario Ricardo Lamo, was Colombian. Adrian Lamo attended high schools in Bogotá and San Francisco, from which he did not graduate, but received a GED and was court-ordered to take courses at American River College, a community college in Sacramento County, California. Lamo began his hacking efforts by hacking games on the Commodore 64 and through phone phreaking.
Security compromise
Lamo was a grey hat hacker who viewed the rise of the World Wide Web with a mixture of excitement and alarm. He felt that others failed to see the importance of internet security in the Web's early days. Lamo broke into corporate computer systems but never damaged them. Instead, he would offer to fix the security flaws free of charge, and if the flaw was not fixed, he would alert the media. In February 2002, he broke into the internal computer network of The New York Times, added his name to the internal database of expert sources, and used the paper's LexisNexis account to research high-profile subjects. The New York Times filed a complaint, and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15-month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 a.m. on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and pleaded guilty to one felony count of computer crimes against Microsoft, LexisNexis, and The New York Times on January 8, 2004.
In July 2004, Lamo was sentenced to two years' probation with six months to be served in home detention and ordered to pay $65,000 in restitution. Yahoo!, and WorldCom.
When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, he responded: "Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves". When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo frustrated reporters with non-sequiturs, such as "Faith manages" and "It's a beautiful day."
At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for the harm his intrusions had caused. The court record quotes him as adding: "I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life."
He subsequently declared on the question-and-answer site Quora: "We all own our actions in fullness, not just the pleasant aspects of them." Lamo accepted that he had made mistakes.
DNA controversy
On May 9, 2006, 18 months into a two-year probation sentence, Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample it had demanded to record his DNA in its CODIS system. According to his attorney at the time, Lamo had a religious objection to giving blood but was willing to give his DNA in another form. On June 15, 2006, Lamo's lawyers filed a motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo's religious opposition to giving blood.
On June 20, 2007, Lamo's legal counsel reached a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice whereby Lamo would submit a cheek swab instead of a blood sample.
WikiLeaks and Chelsea Manning
In February 2009, a partial list of the anonymous donors to the WikiLeaks website was leaked and published on the site. Some media sources indicated at the time that Lamo was among the donors on the list. Lamo commented on his Twitter page, "Thanks WikiLeaks, for leaking your donor list... That's dedication." Lamo informed U.S. Army authorities that Chelsea Manning had claimed to have leaked a large body of classified documents, including 260,000 classified United States diplomatic cables. He said that Manning also "took credit for leaking" the video footage of the July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike, which has since come to be known as the "Collateral Murder" video.
Lamo said he would not have turned Manning in "if lives weren't in danger". He characterized her as "in a war zone and basically trying to vacuum up as much classified information as [she] could and just throwing it up into the air."
The Taliban insurgency later announced its intention to execute Afghan nationals named in the leaks as having cooperated with the U.S.-led coalition in Afghanistan. By that time, the U.S. had received months of advance warning that their names were among the leaks. Manning was arrested and incarcerated in the U.S. military justice system and later sentenced to 35 years in confinement. President Barack Obama commuted the sentence to seven years, including time served. Lamo responded to the commutation with a post on Medium and an interview with U.S. News & World Report. }}
Lamo characterized his decision to work with the government as morally ambiguous but objectively necessary, writing that "there were no right choices that day, only less wrong ones. It was cold, it was needful, and it was no one's to make except mine." Lamo was criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who labeled him a "snitch." Another told Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion: "from my perspective, I see what you have done as treason."Greenwald, Lamo, and Wired magazineLamo's role in Manning's case drew criticism from Glenn Greenwald, who suggested that Lamo lied to Manning by turning her in and then lied after the fact to cover up the circumstances of her confessions. In an article about the case, Greenwald mentioned Wired reporter Kevin Poulsen's 1994 felony conviction for computer hacking and wrote that "over the years, Poulsen has served more or less as Lamo's personal media voice."
This drew a response from Wired: "At his most reasonable, Greenwald impugns our motives, attacks the character of our staff and carefully selects his facts and sources to misrepresent the truth and generate outrage in his readership."
On July 13, 2011, Wired published the Lamo–Manning chat logs in full, stating: "The most significant of the unpublished details have now been publicly established with sufficient authority that we no longer believe any purpose is served by withholding the logs." Greenwald wrote that the logs validated his claim that Wired had concealed important evidence.
Film and television
On August 22, 2002, Lamo was removed from a segment of NBC Nightly News when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC's internal network. NBC was concerned that it broke the law by taping Lamo while he possibly broke the law. Lamo was a guest on The Screen Savers five times beginning in 2002.
Hackers Wanted, a documentary film focusing on Lamo's life as a hacker, was produced by Trigger Street Productions and narrated by Kevin Spacey. Focusing on the 2003 hacking scene, the film features interviews with Kevin Rose and Steve Wozniak. In May 2010, an early cut of the film was leaked via BitTorrent. According to an insider, what was leaked on the Internet was very different from the newer version, which includes additional footage. On June 12, 2010, a director's cut version of the film was leaked onto torrent sites.
Lamo also appeared on Good Morning America, Fox News, Democracy Now!, Frontline, and repeatedly on KCRA-TV News as an expert on netcentric crime and incidents. He was interviewed for the documentaries We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks and True Stories: WikiLeaks – Secrets and Lies. Lamo reconnected with Leo Laporte in 2015 as a result of a Quora article on the "dark web" for an episode of The New Screen Savers.
Lamo wrote the book Ask Adrian, a collection of his best Q&A drawn from over 500 pages of Quora answers.
Personal life and death
Lamo was known as the "Homeless Hacker" for his reportedly transient lifestyle, claiming that he spent much of his travels couch-surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings, and traveling to Internet cafés, libraries, and universities to investigate networks, sometimes exploiting security holes.
Lamo was bisexual and volunteered for the gay and lesbian media firm PlanetOut Inc. in the mid-1990s. In 1998, he was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors.
Lamo used a wide variety of supplements and drugs. His wife, Lauren Fisher, called his drug use "body hacking". One of Lamo's preferred supplements was 'kratom' (Mitragyna speciosa), which he used as a less-dangerous alternative to opioids.
In a 2004 interview with Wired, an ex-girlfriend of Lamo's called him "very controlling", alleging "he carried a stun gun, which he used on me". The same article claimed a court had issued a restraining order against Lamo; he disputed the claim, writing: "I have never been subject to a restraining order in my life".
Lamo said in a Wired article that, in May 2010, after he reported the theft of his backpack, an investigating officer noted unusual behavior and placed him under a 72-hour involuntary psychiatric hold, which was extended to a nine-day hold. Lamo said he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome at the psychiatric ward.
For a period of time in March 2011, Lamo was allegedly "in hiding", claiming that his "life was under threat" after turning in Manning.
Lamo died on March 14, 2018, in Wichita, Kansas, at age 37. Nearly three months later, the Sedgwick County Regional Forensic Science Center reported that "Despite a complete autopsy and supplemental testing, no definitive cause of death was identified." Many bottles of pills were found in his home, some of which were known to cause severe health problems when combined with kratom. As a result, evidence points to an accidental death due to drug abuse.<ref name":1" />
See also
*List of unsolved deaths
References
External links
*
*
Category:1981 births
Category:2018 deaths
Category:American cybercriminals
Category:American people of Colombian descent
Category:American River College alumni
Category:American bisexual men
Category:LGBTQ Hispanic and Latino American people
Category:LGBTQ people from Massachusetts
Category:Microsoft people
Category:The New York Times people
Category:People from Boston
Category:American people with disabilities
Category:People with Asperger syndrome
Category:20th-century squatters
Category:Unsolved deaths in Kansas
Category:WikiLeaks
Category:Yahoo! people
Category:21st-century American LGBTQ people
Category:Autistic LGBTQ people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Lamo | 2025-04-05T18:26:14.656592 |
3004 | Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States | An associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, other than the chief justice of the United States. The number of associate justices is eight, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869.
Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution of the United States grants plenary power to the president to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution effectively grants life tenure to associate justices, and all other federal judges, which ends only when a justice dies, retires, resigns, or is impeached and convicted.
Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it, and the chief justice's vote counts no more than that of any other justice; however, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. Furthermore, the chief justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion; otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. The chief justice also has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more ($298,500 per year as of 2023, compared to $285,400 per year for an associate justice).
Associate justices have seniority in order of the date their respective commissions bear, although the chief justice is always considered to be the most senior justice. If two justices are commissioned on the same day, the elder is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Clarence Thomas. By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Supreme Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice is also tasked with carrying out the chief justice's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant.
Current associate justices
There are currently eight associate justices on the Supreme Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are:
<gallery widths"130" heights"150">
File:Clarence Thomas official SCOTUS portrait.jpg|Clarence Thomas,<br/>since October 23, 1991
File:010 alito.jpg|Samuel Alito,<br />since January 31, 2006
File:Sonia Sotomayor in SCOTUS robe.jpg|Sonia Sotomayor,<br />since August 8, 2009
File:Elena Kagan Official SCOTUS Portrait (2013).jpg|Elena Kagan,<br />since August 7, 2010
File:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg|Neil Gorsuch,<br />since April 10, 2017
File:Associate Justice Brett Kavanaugh Official Portrait (full length).jpg|Brett Kavanaugh,<br />since October 6, 2018
File:Justice Amy Coney Barrett (cropped).jpg|Amy Coney Barrett,<br />since October 27, 2020
File:KBJackson.jpg|alt|Ketanji Brown Jackson,<br />since June 30, 2022
</gallery>
Retired associate justices
An associate justice who leaves the Supreme Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute () may retire rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute () provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve—if designated and assigned by the chief justice—on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on the U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted to do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a "senior judge". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court.
There are currently three living retired associate justices: David Souter, retired June 29, 2009; Anthony Kennedy, retired July 31, 2018; and Stephen Breyer, retired June 30, 2022. Souter has served on panels of the First Circuit Courts of Appeals following his retirement; Kennedy and Breyer have not performed any judicial duties since retiring.
List of associate justices
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 104 persons have served as an associate justice:
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;"
! colspan=3 | Associate justice
! Seat
! class = "unsortable"| Replacing
! Date confirmed<br />(Vote)
! Tenure
! Appointed by
! class "unsortable"| Prior position
|-
| data-sort-value="Rutledge, John"| 1
|
| John Rutledge
| 1st
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 4, 1791</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Resigned)</span></small>
| rowspan=8 |George Washington
| 31st<br />governor of South Carolina<br />(1779–1782)<!-- DO NOT CHANGE TO 1st GOVERNOR. Legally, South Carolina's incumbent governor (as of January 24, 2017), Henry McMaster, is the 117th Governor of South Carolina, which makes John Rutledge the 31st governor not the 1st. -->
|-
| data-sort-value="Cushing, William"| 2
|
| William Cushing
| 2nd
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 13, 1810</span><br />
| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Superior Court<br />(1777–1789)
|-
| data-sort-value="Wilson, James"| 3
|
| James Wilson
| 3rd
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 21, 1798</span><br />
| Delegate to the<br />Constitutional Convention<br />(1787)
|-
| data-sort-value="Blair, John Jr."| 4
|
| John Blair
| 4th
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 25, 1795</span><br />
| Member of the<br />Virginia House of Burgesses<br />(1766–1770)
|-
| data-sort-value="Iredell, James"| 5
|
| James Iredell
| 5th
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 20, 1799</span><br />
| 2nd<br />attorney general of North Carolina<br />(1779–1782)
|-
| data-sort-value="Johnson, Thomas"| 6
|
| Thomas Johnson
| rowspan=2 | 1st
| J. Rutledge
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">January 16, 1793</span><br />
| 1st<br />governor of Maryland<br />(1777–1779)
|-
| data-sort-value="Paterson, William"| 7
|
| William Paterson
| T. Johnson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 8, 1806</span><br />
| 2nd<br />governor of New Jersey<br />(1790–1793)
|-
| data-sort-value="Chase, Samuel"| 8
|
| Samuel Chase
| 4th
| Blair
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 19, 1811</span><br />
| Chief Justice of the<br />Maryland General Court<br />(1791–1796)
|-
| data-sort-value="Washington, Bushrod"| 9
|
| Bushrod Washington
| 3rd
| Wilson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">November 26, 1829</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | John Adams
| Delegate to the<br />Virginia Ratifying Convention<br />(1788)
|-
| data-sort-value="Moore, Alfred"| 10
|
| Alfred Moore
| 5th
| Iredell
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 26, 1804</span><br />
| 3rd<br />attorney general of North Carolina<br />(1782–1791)
|-
| data-sort-value="Johnson, William"| 11
|
| William Johnson
| 5th
| Moore
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 4, 1834</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Thomas Jefferson
| Speaker of the<br /> South Carolina House of Representatives<br />(1798–1800)
|-
| data-sort-value="Livingston, Henry B."| 12
|
| Henry Brockholst Livingston
| 1st
| Paterson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 18, 1823</span><br />
| Justice of the<br />New York Supreme Court<br />(1802–1807)
|-
| data-sort-value="Todd, Thomas"| 13
|
| Thomas Todd
| 6th
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 7, 1826</span><br />
| Chief Justice of the<br />Kentucky Court of Appeals<br />(1806–1807)
|-
| data-sort-value="Duvall, Gabriel"| 14
|
| Gabriel Duvall
| 4th
| Chase
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 12, 1835</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | James Madison
| U.S. representative for<br />Maryland's 2nd district<br />(1794–1796)
|-
| data-sort-value="Story, Joseph"| 15
|
| Joseph Story
| 2nd
| Cushing
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 10, 1845</span><br />
| U.S. representative for<br />Massachusetts's 2nd district<br />(1808–1809)
|-
| data-sort-value="Thompson, Smith"| 16
|
| Smith Thompson
| 1st
| Livingston
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">December 18, 1843</span><br />
| James Monroe
| 6th<br />United States secretary of the Navy<br />(1819–1823)
|-
| data-sort-value="Trimble, Robert"| 17
|
| Robert Trimble
| rowspan=2 | 6th
| Todd
| <br />(25–5)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 25, 1828</span><br />
| John Quincy Adams
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the District of Kentucky<br />(1817–1826)
|-
| data-sort-value="McLean, John"| 18
|
| John McLean
| Trimble
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 4, 1861</span><br />
| rowspan=5 | Andrew Jackson
| 6th<br />United States postmaster general<br />(1823–1829)
|-
| data-sort-value="Baldwin, Henry"| 19
|
| Henry Baldwin
| 3rd
| Washington
| <br />(41–2)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 21, 1844</span><br />
| U.S. representative for<br />Pennsylvania's 14th district<br />(1817–1822)
|-
| data-sort-value="Wayne, James M."| 20
|
| James Moore Wayne
| 5th
| W. Johnson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 5, 1867</span><br />
| U.S. representative for<br />Georgia's at-large district<br />(1829–1835)
|-
| data-sort-value="Barbour, Philip P."| 21
|
| Philip P. Barbour
| 4th
| Duvall
| <br />(30–11)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 25, 1841</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Virginia<br />(1830–1836)
|-
| data-sort-value="Catron, John"| 22
|
| John Catron
| 7th
| (new seat)
| <br />(28–15)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 30, 1865</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />Tennessee Supreme Court<br>of Errors and Appeals<br />(1824–1834)
|-
| data-sort-value="McKinley, John"| 23
|
| John McKinley
| 8th
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 19, 1852</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | Martin Van Buren
| United States senator<br />from Alabama<br />(1826–1831, 1837)
|-
| data-sort-value="Daniel, Peter V."| 24
|
| Peter Vivian Daniel
| 4th
| Barbour
| <br />(25–5)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 31, 1860</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Virginia<br />(1836–1841)
|-
| data-sort-value="Nelson, Samuel"| 25
|
| Samuel Nelson
| 1st
| Thompson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 28, 1872</span><br />
| John Tyler
| Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court<br />(1831–1845)
|-
| data-sort-value="Woodbury, Levi"| 26
|
| Levi Woodbury
| 2nd
| Story
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">September 4, 1851</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | James K. Polk
| 13th<br />United States secretary of the treasury<br />(1834–1841)
|-
| data-sort-value="Grier, Robert C."| 27
|
| Robert Cooper Grier
| 3rd
| Baldwin
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 1870</span><br />
| Judge for the<br />Pennsylvania state District Court<br />for Allegheny County<br />(1833–1846)
|-
| data-sort-value="Curtis, Benjamin R."| 28
|
| Benjamin Robbins Curtis
| 2nd
| Woodbury
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">September 30, 1857</span><br />
| Millard Fillmore
| Massachusetts state representative
|-
| data-sort-value="Campbell, John A."| 29
|
| John Archibald Campbell
| 8th
| McKinley
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">April 30, 1861</span><br />
| Franklin Pierce
| Alabama state representative
|-
| data-sort-value="Clifford, Nathan"| 30
|
| Nathan Clifford
| 2nd
| Curtis
| <br />(26–23)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 25, 1881</span><br />
| James Buchanan
| 19th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1846–1848)
|-
| data-sort-value="Swayne, Noah H."| 31
|
| Noah Haynes Swayne
| 6th
| McLean
| <br />(38–1)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 24, 1881</span><br />
| rowspan=4 | Abraham Lincoln
| U.S. attorney for the<br />District of Ohio<br />(1830–1834)
|-
| data-sort-value="Miller, Samuel F."| 32
|
| Samuel Freeman Miller
| 4th
| Daniel
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 13, 1890</span><br />
| Lawyer,<br />Private practice
|-
| data-sort-value="Davis, David"| 33
|
| David Davis
| 8th
| Campbell
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">March 3, 1877</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />Illinois 3rd Circuit Court<br />(1848–1862)
|-
| data-sort-value="Field, Stephen J."| 34
|
| Stephen Johnson Field
| 9th
| (new seat)
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 1, 1897</span><br />
| 5th<br />chief justice of California<br />(1859–1863)
|-
| data-sort-value="Strong, William"| 35
|
| William Strong
| 3rd
| Grier
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 14, 1880</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Ulysses S. Grant
| U.S. representative for<br />Pennsylvania's 9th district<br />(1847–1851)
|-
| data-sort-value="Bradley, Joseph P."| 36
|
| Joseph P. Bradley
| 10th
| (new seat)
| <br />(46–9)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 22, 1892</span><br />
| Lawyer,<br />Private practice
|-
| data-sort-value="Hunt, Ward"| 37
|
| Ward Hunt
| 1st
| Nelson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 27, 1882</span><br />
| Chief Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals<br />(1868–1872)
|-
| data-sort-value="Harlan, John M."| 38
|
| John Marshall Harlan
| 8th
| Davis
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 14, 1911</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | Rutherford B. Hayes
| 14th<br />attorney general of Kentucky<br />(1863–1867)
|-
| data-sort-value="Woods, William B."| 39
|
| William Burnham Woods
| 3rd
| Strong
| <br />(39–8)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 14, 1887</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Fifth Circuit<br />(1869–1880)
|-
| data-sort-value="Matthews, Stanley"| 40
|
| Stanley Matthews
| 6th
| Swayne
| <br />(24–23)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 22, 1889</span><br />
| James A. Garfield
| United States senator<br />from Ohio<br />(1877–1879)
|-
| data-sort-value="Gray, Horace"| 41
|
| Horace Gray
| 2nd
| Clifford
| <br />(51–5)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 15, 1902</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | Chester A. Arthur
| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court<br />(1873–1881)
|-
| data-sort-value="Blatchford, Samuel"| 42
|
| Samuel Blatchford
| 1st
| Hunt
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 7, 1893</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1878–1882)
|-
| data-sort-value="Lamar, Lucius Q. C. II"| 43
|
| Lucius Quintus<br>Cincinnatus Lamar II
| 3rd
| Woods
| <br />(32–28)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 23, 1893</span><br />
| Grover Cleveland
| 16th<br />United States secretary of the interior<br />(1885–1888)
|-
| data-sort-value="Brewer, David J."| 44
|
| David Josiah Brewer
| 6th
| Matthews
| <br />(53–11)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 28, 1910</span><br />
| rowspan=4 | Benjamin Harrison
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1884–1889)
|-
| data-sort-value="Brown, Henry B."| 45
|
| Henry Billings Brown
| 4th
| Miller
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 28, 1906</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Eastern District of Michigan<br />(1875–1890)
|-
| data-sort-value="Shiras, George Jr."| 46
|
| George Shiras Jr.
| 10th
| Bradley
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 23, 1903</span><br />
| Lawyer,<br />Private practice
|-
| data-sort-value="Jackson, Howell E."| 47
|
| Howell Edmunds Jackson
| 3rd
| L. Lamar
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 8, 1895</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1891–1893)
|-
| data-sort-value="White, Edward D."| 48
|
| Edward Douglass White
| 1st
| Blatchford
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 18, 1910</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>
| rowspan=2 | Grover Cleveland
| United States senator<br />from Louisiana<br />(1891–1894)
|-
| data-sort-value="Peckham, Rufus W."| 49
|
| Rufus W. Peckham
| 3rd
| H. Jackson
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 24, 1909</span><br />
| Associate Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals
|-
| data-sort-value="McKenna, Joseph"| 50
|
| Joseph McKenna
| 9th
| Field
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 5, 1925</span><br />
| William McKinley
| 42nd<br />United States attorney general<br />(1897–1898)
|-
| data-sort-value="Holmes, Oliver W."| 51
|
| Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
| 2nd
| Gray
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 12, 1932</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Theodore Roosevelt
| Chief Justice of the<br />Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court<br />(1899–1902)
|-
| data-sort-value="Day, William R."| 52
|
| William R. Day
| 10th
| Shiras
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 13, 1922</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1899–1903)
|-
| data-sort-value="Moody, William H."| 53
|
| William Henry Moody
| 4th
| Brown
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 20, 1910</span><br />
| 45th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1904–1906)
|-
| data-sort-value="Lurton, Horace H."| 54
|
| Horace Harmon Lurton
| 3rd
| Peckham
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 12, 1914</span><br />
| rowspan=5 | William Howard Taft
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1893–1909)
|-
| data-sort-value="Hughes, Charles E."| 55
|
| Charles Evans Hughes
| 6th
| Brewer
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 10, 1916</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Resigned)</span></small>
| 36th<br />governor of New York<br />(1907–1910)
|-
| data-sort-value="Van Deventer, Willis"| 56
|
| Willis Van Devanter
| 1st
| E. White
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 2, 1937</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1903–1910)
|-
| data-sort-value="lamar, Joseph R."| 57
|
| Joseph Rucker Lamar
| 4th
| Moody
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 2, 1916</span><br />
| Associate Justice of the<br />Supreme Court of Georgia<br />(1901–1905)
|-
| data-sort-value="Pitney, Mahlon"| 58
|
| Mahlon Pitney
| 8th
| J. Harlan I
| <br />(50–26)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">December 31, 1922</span><br />
| U.S. representative for<br />New Jersey's 4th district<br />(1895–1899)
|-
| data-sort-value="McReynolds, James C."| 59
|
| James Clark McReynolds
| 3rd
| Lurton
| <br />(44–6)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 1941</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Woodrow Wilson
| 48th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1913–1914)
|-
| data-sort-value="Brandeis Lewis"| 60
|
| Louis Brandeis
| 4th
| J. Lamar
| <br />(47–22)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 13, 1939</span><br />
| Lawyer,<br />Private practice:<br />Brandeis Dunbar & Nutter
|-
| data-sort-value="Clarke, John H."| 61
|
| John Hessin Clarke
| rowspan=2 | 6th
| Hughes
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 5, 1922</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Northern District of Ohio<br />(1914–1916)
|-
| data-sort-value="Sutherland, George"| 62
|
| George Sutherland
| Clarke
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 17, 1938</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Warren G. Harding
| United States senator<br />from Utah<br />(1905–1917)
|-
| data-sort-value="Butler, Pierce"| 63
|
| Pierce Butler
| 10th
| Day
| <br />(61–8)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 16, 1939</span><br />
| President of the<br />Minnesota State Bar Association
|-
| data-sort-value="Sanford, Edward T."| 64
|
| Edward Terry Sanford
| 8th
| Pitney
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 8, 1930</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States District Court<br>for the Middle District of Tennessee<br />(1908–1923)
|-
| data-sort-value="Stone, Harlan F."| 65
|
| Harlan F. Stone
| 9th
| McKenna
| <br />(71–6)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 3, 1941</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>
| Calvin Coolidge
| 52nd<br />United States attorney general<br />(1924–1925)
|-
| data-sort-value="Roberts, Owen J."| 66
|
| Owen Roberts
| 8th
| Sanford
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 31, 1945</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | Herbert Hoover
| Assistant District Attorney for Philadelphia
|-
| data-sort-value="Cardozo, Benjamin N."| 67
|
| Benjamin N. Cardozo
| 2nd
| Holmes
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 9, 1938</span><br />
| Chief Judge of the<br />New York Court of Appeals<br />(1927–1932)
|-
| data-sort-value="Black, Hugo"| 68
|
| Hugo Black
| 1st
| Van Devanter
| <br />(63–16)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 17, 1971</span><br />
| rowspan=8 | Franklin D. Roosevelt
| United States senator<br />from Alabama<br />(1927–1937)
|-
| data-sort-value="Reed, Stanley F."| 69
|
| Stanley Forman Reed
| 6th
| Sutherland
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 25, 1957</span><br />
| 22nd<br />United States solicitor general<br />(1935–1938)
|-
| data-sort-value="Frankfurter, Felix"| 70
|
| Felix Frankfurter
| 2nd
| Cardozo
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 28, 1962</span><br />
| Chairman of Harvard Law School
|-
| data-sort-value="Douglass, William O."| 71
|
| William O. Douglas
| 4th
| Brandeis
| <br />(62–4)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">November 12, 1975</span><br />
| 3rd<br />chairman of the<br />Securities and Exchange Commission<br />(1937–1939)
|-
| data-sort-value="Murphy, Frank"| 72
|
| Frank Murphy
| 10th
| Butler
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 19, 1949</span><br />
| 56th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1939–1940)
|-
| data-sort-value="Byrnes, James F."| 73
|
| James F. Byrnes
| 3rd
| McReynolds
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 3, 1942</span><br />
| United States senator<br />from South Carolina<br />(1931–1941)
|-
| data-sort-value="Jackson, Robert H."| 74
|
| Robert H. Jackson
| 9th
| Stone
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 9, 1954</span><br />
| 57th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1940–1941)
|-
| data-sort-value="Rutledge, Wiley B."| 75
|
| Wiley Blount Rutledge
| 3rd
| Byrnes
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 10, 1949</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1939–1943)
|-
| data-sort-value="Burton, Harold H."| 76
|
| Harold Hitz Burton
| 8th
| Roberts
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 13, 1958</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Harry S. Truman
| United States senator<br />from Ohio<br />(1941–1945)
|-
| data-sort-value="Clark, Tom C."| 77
|
| Tom C. Clark
| 10th
| Murphy
| <br />(73–8)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 12, 1967</span><br />
| 59th<br />United States attorney general<br />(1945–1949)
|-
| data-sort-value="Minton, Sherman"| 78
|
| Sherman Minton
| 3rd
| W. Rutledge
| <br />(48–16)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 15, 1956</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(1941–1949)
|-
| data-sort-value="Harlan, John M. II"| 79
|
| John Marshall Harlan
| 9th
| R. Jackson
| <br />(71–11)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 23, 1971</span><br />
| rowspan=4 | Dwight D. Eisenhower
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1954–1955)
|-
| data-sort-value="Brennan, William J."| 80
|
| William J. Brennan Jr.
| 3rd
| Minton
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 20, 1990</span><br />
| Associate Justice of the<br />Supreme Court of New Jersey<br />(1951–1956)
|-
| data-sort-value="Whittaker, Charles E."| 81
|
| Charles Evans Whittaker
| 6th
| Reed
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">March 31, 1962</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1956–1957)
|-
| data-sort-value="Potter, Stewart"| 82
|
| Potter Stewart
| 8th
| Burton
| <br />(70–17)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style="white-space: nowrap;">July 3, 1981</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Sixth Circuit<br />(1954–1958)
|-
| data-sort-value="White, Byron"| 83
|
| Byron White
| 6th
| Whittaker
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 28, 1993</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | John F. Kennedy
| 4th<br />United States deputy attorney general<br />(1961–1962)
|-
| data-sort-value="Goldberg, Arthur"| 84
|
| Arthur Goldberg
| rowspan=2 | 2nd
| Frankfurter
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 26, 1965</span><br />
| 9th<br />United States secretary of labor<br />(1961–1962)
|-
| data-sort-value="Fortas, Abe"| 85
|
| Abe Fortas
| Goldberg
| <br />(Acclamation)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">May 14, 1969</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | Lyndon B. Johnson
| United States under secretary of the interior
|-
| data-sort-value="Marshall, Thurgood"| 86
|
| Thurgood Marshall
| 10th
| Clark
| <br />(69–11)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">October 1, 1991</span><br />
| 32nd<br />solicitor general of the United States<br />(1965–1967)
|-
| data-sort-value="Blackman, Harry"| 87
|
| Harry Blackmun
| 2nd
| Fortas
| <br />(94–0)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">August 3, 1994</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Richard Nixon
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Eighth Circuit<br />(1959–1970)
|-
| data-sort-value="Powell, Lewis F. Jr."| 88
|
| Lewis F. Powell Jr.
| 1st
| Black
| <br />(89–1)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 26, 1987</span><br />
| President of the<br />American Bar Association<br />(1964–1965)
|-
| data-sort-value="Rehnquist, William"| 89
|
| William Rehnquist
| 9th
| J. Harlan II
| <br />(68–26)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">September 26, 1986</span><br /><small><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">(Continued as chief justice)</span></small>
| United States assistant attorney general<br />for the Office of Legal Counsel<br />(1969–1971)
|-
| data-sort-value="Stevens, John P."| 90
|
| John Paul Stevens
| 4th
| Douglas
| <br />(98–0)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 29, 2010</span><br />
| Gerald Ford
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(1970–1975)
|-
| data-sort-value="O'Connor, Sandra D."| 91
|
| Sandra Day O'Connor
| 8th
| Stewart
| <br />(99–0)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">January 31, 2006</span><br />
| rowspan=3 | Ronald Reagan
| Judge of the<br />Arizona Court of Appeals<br />(1979–1981)
|-
| data-sort-value="Scalia, Antonin"| 92
|
| Antonin Scalia
| 9th
| Rehnquist
| <br />(98–0)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">February 13, 2016</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1982–1986)
|-
| data-sort-value="Kennedy, Anthony"| 93
|
| Anthony Kennedy
| 1st
| Powell
| <br />(97–0)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">July 31, 2018</span><br />
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Ninth Circuit<br />(1975–1988)
|-
| data-sort-value="Souter, David"| 94
|
| David Souter
| 3rd
| Brennan
| <br />(90–9)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 29, 2009</span><br />
| rowspan=2 | George H. W. Bush
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the First Circuit<br />(1990)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Thomas, Clarence"| 95
|
| Clarence Thomas
| 10th
| Marshall
| <br />(52–48)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1990–1991)
|-
| data-sort-value="Ginsburg, Ruth B."| 96
|
| Ruth Bader Ginsburg
| 6th
| B. White
| <br />(96–3)
| <br />–<br /><br />
| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan2 | Bill Clinton
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(1980–1993)
|-
| data-sort-value="Breyer, Stephen"| 97
|
| Stephen Breyer
| 2nd
| Blackmun
| <br />(87–9)
| <br />–<br /><span class"date" style"white-space: nowrap;">June 30, 2022</span><br />
| Chief Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the First Circuit<br />(1990–1994)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Alito, Samuel"| 98
|
| Samuel Alito
| 8th
| '''O'Connor
| <br />(58–42)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| style="background:#f9f9f9;" | George W. Bush
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Third Circuit<br />(1990–2006)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Soromayor, Sonia"| 99
|
| Sonia Sotomayor
| 3rd
| Souter
| <br />(68–31)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan2 | Barack Obama
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Second Circuit<br />(1998–2009)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Kagan, Elena"| 100
|
| Elena Kagan
| 4th
| Stevens
| <br />(63–37)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| 45th<br />solicitor general of the United States<br />(2009–2010)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Gorsuch, Neil"| 101
|
| Neil Gorsuch
| 9th
| Scalia
| <br />(54–45)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| style"background:#f9f9f9;" rowspan3 | Donald Trump
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Tenth Circuit<br />(2006–2017)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Kavanaugh, Brett"| 102
|
| Brett Kavanaugh
| 1st
| Kennedy
| <br />(50–48)
| <br />–<br />Incumbent
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(2006–2018)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Barrett, Amy Coney"| 103
|
| Amy Coney Barrett
| 6th
| Ginsburg
| <br />(52–48)
| <br />–<br /> Incumbent
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the Seventh Circuit<br />(2017–2020)
|- style="background:#FFF;"
| data-sort-value="Jackson, Ketanji Brown"| 104
|
| Ketanji Brown Jackson
| 2nd
| Breyer
| <br />(53–47)
| <br />–<br /> Incumbent'
| style="background:#f9f9f9;" | Joe Biden
| Judge of the<br />United States Court of Appeals<br>for the District of Columbia Circuit<br />(2021–2022)
|}
Notes
}}
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* [https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/judges.htm Historic Supreme Court Decisionsby Justice], Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School
* [https://www.supremecourt.gov/ Supreme Court of the United States] (website home page)
Category:Supreme Court of the United States people
Category:United States federal judges
Category:Legal professions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.349473 |
3010 | Alan Jay Lerner | 1962
| image_size | birth_name
| alias | birth_date
| birth_place = New York City, US
| death_date =
| death_place = New York City, US
| origin | instrument
| genre = Musical theatre, popular
| occupations = Lyricist, librettist
| years_active = 1942–1986
}}
Alan Jay Lerner (August 31, 1918 – June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world's most popular and enduring works of musical theatre both for the stage and on film. Lerner won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors.
Early life and education
Lerner was born in New York City to a Jewish family. He was the son of Edith ( Adelson) and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner's cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, (where he wrote "The Choate Marching Song") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock. At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff. Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner's case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals. During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner's college classmates, collaborated on "Lonely Men of Harvard", a tongue-in-cheek salute to their alma mater.
Career
Owing to his eye injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, including Your Hit Parade, until he was introduced to German-Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb's Club. While at the Lamb's, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate.
Lerner and Loewe's first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners's farce The Patsy called Life of the Party for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine-week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for ''What's Up?, which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by The Day Before Spring.
Their first hit was Brigadoon (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story Paint Your Wagon''. While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, such as "They Call the Wind Maria", it was less successful than Lerner's previous work. He later said of Paint Your Wagon, it was "a success but not a hit."
Lerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical Love Life (1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical Royal Wedding (1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar-winning original screenplay for An American in Paris, produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create Gigi.
In 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled My Fair Lady. By this time, too, Lerner and Burton Lane were already working on a musical about Li'l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to Pygmalion, which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner, "Pygmalion had no subplot". Lerner and Loewe's adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box-office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison.
Lerner and Loewe's run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award-winning film musical Gigi, starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co-star Maurice Chevalier.
The Lerner-Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian Camelot in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died about a year after the show's Broadway premiere. Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles. Camelot was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK's administration reminded her of the "one brief shining moment" of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot. As of the early 21st century, Camelot was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years.
Loewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals—some successful, some not—with such composers as André Previn (Coco), John Barry (Lolita, My Love), Leonard Bernstein (1600 Pennsylvania Avenue), Burton Lane (Carmelina) and Charles Strouse (Dance a Little Closer, based on the film, ''Idiot's Delight, nicknamed Close A Little Faster'' by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers blame Lerner's professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince. (Moss Hart, who had directed My Fair Lady, died shortly after Camelot opened.) In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project, Doctor Dolittle, but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non-productive months of non-communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse. Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971.
In 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the Gigi score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of The Little Prince, based on the classic children's tale by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following.
Lerner's autobiography, The Street Where I Live (1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe's successful collaborations, My Fair Lady, Gigi, and Camelot, along with personal information. In the last year of his life, he published The Musical Theatre: A Celebration, a well-reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. The Los Angeles Times reviewer wrote: "There are several reasons why this book makes a fine introduction to musical theater. One is that Lerner knows exactly what was new, and when and why....In "The Musical Theatre," one is privy to the judgment of a man... who expresses his opinions in a forthright, warm and personal manner." A book of Lerner's lyrics entitled A Hymn To Him, edited by a British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987.
At the time of Lerner's death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film My Man Godfrey. He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to The Phantom of the Opera. He wrote "Masquerade", but he then informed Webber that he wanted to leave the project because he was losing his memory (he had developed metastatic lung cancer) and Charles Hart replaced him. He had turned down an invitation to write the English-language lyrics for the musical version of Les Misérables.
After Lerner's death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner's lyrics and life entitled Almost Like Being In Love, which featured music by Loewe, Lane, Previn, Strouse, and Weill. The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco.SongwritingLerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete "I Could Have Danced All Night" from My Fair Lady in one 24-hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind. For instance, he changed the rhymes in some lines of "I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face" to ones that Rex Harrison was more comfortable with.
Lerner said of writing:
In a 1979 interview on NPR's All Things Considered, Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for My Fair Lady. Professor Henry Higgins sings, "Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / By right she should be taken out and hung / For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue." Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist:
Dramatists Guild
Alan Jay Lerner was an advocate for writers' rights in theatre. He was a member of the Dramatists Guild of America. In 1960, he was elected as the twelfth president of the non-profit organization. He continued to serve as the Guild's president until 1964.
Personal life
For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamines; during the 1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as "Dr. Feelgood", who administered injections of "vitamins with enzymes" that were in fact laced with amphetamines. Lerner's addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson's practice.Marriages and childrenLerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd (1940–1947), singer Marion Bell (1947–1949), actress Nancy Olson (1950–1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (1957–1965), editor Karen Gundersen (1966–1974), Sandra Payne (1974–1976), Nina Bushkin (1977–1981) and Liz Robertson (1981–1986 [his death]). Four of his eight wives — Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson — were actresses. After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of $50,000. Lerner wrote in his autobiography (as quoted by The New York Times): "All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood." All of this lent some irony to the lyrics for his song Get Me to the Church on Time.
Lerner had four children — three daughters, Susan (by Boyd), Liza, and Jennifer (by Olson), and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner (by di Borgo).
in London]]
Lerner's multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth. Still, he was primarily responsible for his financial ups and downs and was less than truthful about his financial fecklessness. It was claimed that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (his fourth wife) cost him an estimated $1 million in 1965. This was untrue. Lerner's pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986 when he reportedly owed the U.S. Internal Revenue Service over US$1 million in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses.
Death
On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior. He has a memorial plaque in St Paul's Church, the Actors' Church in Covent Garden in London.Awards and honors*American Theater Hall of Fame 1979
*Kennedy Center Honors 1985
;Academy Award
*Best Original Screenplay, 1951 An American in Paris
*Best Adapted Screenplay, 1958 Gigi
*Best Original Song, 1958 Gigi
;Golden Globes
*Best Original Song, 1968 Camelot
*Best Original Score, 1975 The Little Prince
;Tony Award
*Best Book of a Musical, 1957 My Fair Lady
*Best Original Score, 1957 My Fair Lady and 1974 Gigi
;New York Drama Critics Circle
*Lyric Writing, 1985, Lifetime
Works
Stage
* Life of the Party (1942), with Frederick Loewe
* ''What's Up? (1943), with Frederick Loewe
* The Day Before Spring (1945), with Frederick Loewe
* Brigadoon (1947), with Frederick Loewe
* Love Life (1948), with Kurt Weill
* Paint Your Wagon (1951), Frederick Loewe
* My Fair Lady (1956), with Frederick Loewe
* Camelot (1960), with Frederick Loewe
* On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (1965), with Burton Lane
* Coco (1969), with André Previn
* Lolita, My Love (1971), with John Barry
* Gigi (1973), based on the 1958 film of the same name, with Frederick Loewe
* 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (1976), with Leonard Bernstein
* Carmelina (1979), with Burton Lane and Joseph Stein
* Dance a Little Closer (1983), with Charles Strouse
* My Man Godfrey'' (1984), unfinished, with Gerard KennyFilms
Source: TCM
*Royal Wedding, 1951 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*An American in Paris (1951) (writer)
*Brigadoon, 1954 (film) (screenwriter/lyricist)
*Gigi, 1958 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1960 (lyricist)
*My Fair Lady, 1964 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*Camelot, 1967 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*Paint Your Wagon, 1969 (producer/screenwriter/lyricist)
*On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, 1970 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*The Little Prince, 1974 (screenwriter/lyricist)
*Tribute, 1980 ("It's All for the Best", lyricist)
*Secret Places, 1984 (title song lyricist)
See also
*Lerner and Loewe
Notes
References
*Green, Stanley. The world of musical comedy (Edition 4, 1984), Da Capo Press,
Further reading
* Lerner, Alan Jay (1985). The Street Where I Live. Da Capo Press.
* Shapiro, Doris (1989). We Danced All Night: My Life Behind the Scenes With Alan Jay Lerner. Barricade Books.
* Jablonski, Edward (1996). Alan Jay Lerner: A Biography. Henry Holt & Co.
* Citron, David (1995). The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein 2nd and Alan Jay Lerner. Oxford University Press.
* Green, Benny, Editor (1987). A Hymn to Him : The Lyrics of Alan Jay Lerner. Hal Leonard Corporation.
* Garebian, Keith (1998). The Making of My Fair Lady. Publisher: Mosaic Press.
External links
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Category:1918 births
Category:1986 deaths
Category:American musical theatre librettists
Category:American musical theatre lyricists
Category:Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners
Category:Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners
Category:Best Original Song Academy Award–winning songwriters
Category:Golden Globe Award–winning musicians
Category:Broadway composers and lyricists
Category:Choate Rosemary Hall alumni
Category:Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state)
Category:Grammy Award winners
Category:Harvard University alumni
Category:Jewish American songwriters
Category:Kennedy Center honorees
Category:People educated at Bedales School
Category:People from Wallingford, Connecticut
Category:Songwriters from New York (state)
Category:Writers from New York City
Category:Tony Award winners
Category:People from Centre Island, New York
Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:20th-century American biographers
Category:20th-century American male writers
Category:20th-century American screenwriters
Category:20th-century American Jews
Category:Members of The Lambs Club
Category:20th-century American songwriters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Jay_Lerner | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.372918 |
3012 | Al Capp | | birth_place = New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.
| death_date
| death_place = South Hampton, New Hampshire, U.S.
| occupation = Cartoonist, satirist, radio and television commentator
| spouse = Catherine Wingate (Cameron) Capp (1932–1979; his death)
| children = Julie Ann Cairol, Catherine Jan Peirce, Colin Cameron Capp (adopted)
| awards Inkpot Award (1978)
| known_for = ''L'il Abner
}}
Alfred Gerald Caplin (September 28, 1909 – November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip Li'l Abner, which he created in 1934 and continued writing and (with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips Abbie an' Slats (in the years 1937–45) and Long Sam'' (1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award, posthumously for his "unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning".
Capp's comic strips dealt with urban experiences in the Northern United States until the year he introduced "Li'l Abner". Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years writing about the fictional Southern town of Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in more than 900 American newspapers and 100 more papers in 28 countries internationally. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune through the strip and "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South".
Early life and education
Capp was born in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage. He was the eldest child of Otto Philip Caplin (1885–1964) and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin (1884–1948). Otto Caplion was a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist; Al's brothers Elliot and Jerome were also cartoonists, and his sister Madeline was a publicist. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven in the 1880s. "My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants", wrote Capp in 1978. "Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true — it was no crime to be a Jew." The Caplins were indigent; Capp recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal.
In August 1919, at age nine, Capp was run over by a trolley car and had his left leg amputated above the knee. According to his father Otto's unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg had been removed. He was eventually given a prosthetic leg but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he aged. The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp's cynical worldview, which was darker and more sardonic than that of most newspaper cartoonists. "I was indignant as hell about that leg," he revealed in a November 1950 interview in Time magazine. The prevailing opinion among his friends was that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability.
]]
Capp's father introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, advancing mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were Punch cartoonist–illustrator Phil May and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus, and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw before he was 13 years old. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman.
Capp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut, without receiving a diploma. He liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. His formal training came from a series of art schools in the Northeast. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition—the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston—the last before launching his career. Capp already had decided to become a cartoonist. "I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of Mutt and Jeff) got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses", Capp said. "I decided that was for me."
In early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in "airless rat holes" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at $2 each while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing Colonel Gilfeather, a single-panel, AP-owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to Mister Gilfeather but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff and the two became lifelong friends. Capp moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96.
Leaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression. "I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything." There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on Joe Palooka. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's Joe Palooka story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named "Big Leviticus", a crude prototype. (Leviticus was much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg than to the much more appealing and innocent Li'l Abner.)
Also during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that eventually became ''Li'l Abner. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met (This would have been before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933 began the years-long process of bringing basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving Joe Palooka, Capp sold Li'l Abner to United Feature Syndicate (later known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers—including the New York Mirror—and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became "Al Capp" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had his name changed legally in 1949.
His younger brother, Elliot Caplin, also became a comic strip writer, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip The Heart of Juliet Jones with artist Stan Drake and conceiving the comic strip character Broom-Hilda with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot authored several off-Broadway plays, including A Nickel for Picasso (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother.Li'l Abner
What began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the twentieth century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor, and biting social commentary, Li'l Abner'' is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li'l Abner Yokum—the simple-minded, loutish but good-natured, and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents—scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum.
"Yokum" was a combination of yokel and hokum, although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965–1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price:
The Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as "an average stone-age community", Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, "tarnip" fields, and "hawg" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed, but virtuous girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of Life on March 31, 1952.
Capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the (shudder!) Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Especially notable, certainly from a G.I. point of view, are the beautiful, full-figured women — Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones, and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt) — all of whom found their way onto the nose art of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it.
Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is "the world's worst jinx", bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name is "pronounced" by simply blowing a "raspberry" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head.
Dogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials, and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention, including El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference.
According to cultural historian Anthony Harkins:
The strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers to eventually more than 900. At its peak, ''Li'l Abner'' was estimated to have been read daily in the United States by 60 to 70 million people (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools, and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances patterned after the similar annual event in the strip.
Li'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question "Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer: "Both." Capp said he finally found the right "look" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936).
In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in the 1930s.
Parodies, toppers, and alternate strips
''Li'l Abner also features a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick'' is a parody of Chester Gould's Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and it proved so popular that it ran intermittently during the next 35 years. Gould was parodied personally in the series as cartoonist "Lester Gooch"—the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged "creator" of Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicks Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes.
Besides Dick Tracy, Capp parodied many other comic strips in ''Li'l Abner—including Steve Canyon, Superman (at least twice; first as "Jack Jawbreaker" in 1947, and again in 1966 as "Chickensouperman"), Mary Worth as "Mary Worm", Peanuts (in 1968, with "Peewee", a parody of Charlie Brown, and "Croopy", a parody of Snoopy, drawn by "Bedley Damp", a parody of Charles Schulz), Rex Morgan, M.D., Little Annie Rooney, and Little Orphan Annie (in which Punjab became "Punjbag", an oleaginous slob). Fearless Fosdick''—and Capp's other spoofs such as "Little Fanny Gooney" (1952) and "Jack Jawbreaker"—were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's Mad Magazine, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner.
Capp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, including Elvis Presley ("Hawg McCall", 1957), Liberace ("Loverboynik", 1956), the Beatles ("the Beasties", 1964)—and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. "Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about," Capp once said. "I called him 'Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant..." (from Frank Sinatra, My Father by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was "cut to the quick" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action—as would Joan Baez later, over "Joanie Phoanie" in 1967.
Capp was just as likely to parody himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in ''Li'l Abner. The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with "fans" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, "Hal Yappland". Just about anything could be a target for Capp's satire—in one storyline Li'l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first president of the United States.
In addition to creating ''Li'l Abner, Capp also co-created two other newspaper strips: Abbie an' Slats with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and Long Sam with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday "topper" strips Washable Jones, Small Fry (a.k.a. Small Change), and Advice fo' Chillun.
Critical recognition
According to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception: Li'l Abner. "When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner. The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique—as invigorating as it was unorthodox—was later adopted by cartoonists such as Walt Kelly [Pogo] and Garry Trudeau [Doonesbury]", wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall, Li'l Abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book America's Great Comic Strip Artists'' (1989), Marschall's analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext.
Over the years, ''Li'l Abner has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures, and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais. Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck—who called Capp "possibly the best writer in the world today" in 1953 and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature—to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp "the only robust satirical force in American life". John Updike, comparing Abner to a "hillbilly Candide", added that the strip's "richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean". Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes, and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of ''Li'l Abner.
Li'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire'' by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature, and grotesquerie, the place of ''Li'l Abner in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. "One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture," wrote Professor Berger, "Li'l Abner'' is worth studying ... because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance." It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994.
The 1940s and 1950s
During World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946, Capp created a special full-color comic book, ''Al Capp by Li'l Abner'', to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp also was involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fundraising appeals, and entertained disabled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories, and sketches.
In 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam.
Other highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's "ideel" (hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff, and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of Gone With the Wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, "Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman. It was later reprinted in ''The World of Li'l Abner (1953). (Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a Superman story in Action Comics #55, December 1942, in which a cartoonist named "Al Hatt" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly "Tiny Rufe".)
In 1947, Capp earned a Newsweek cover story. That same year the New Yorker's'' profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War.
Following his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with Steve Canyon), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950—including a Time cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence, The Life and Times of the Shmoo, became a bestseller for Simon & Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other Shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of Shmoo apparel, including "Shmooveralls". The original sequence and its 1959 sequel The Return of the Shmoo have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos later had their own animated television series.
Capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic "Kigmies", who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded "Nogoodniks" (or bad shmoos), and the irresistible "Bald Iggle", a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness—with predictably disastrous results.
''Li'l Abner was censored for the first time, but not the last, in September 1947 and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time'', centered on Capp's portrayal of the United States Senate. Edward Leech of Scripps said, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks ... boobs and undesirables." Capp criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a "poet". "He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants," said Capp. "He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve."
Capp received the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year. (When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female members the following year. In December 1952, Capp published an article in Real magazine entitled "The REAL Powers in America" that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day: "The real powers in America are women—the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies...."
Highlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son "Honest Abe" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954 the introduction of Abner's enormous, long-lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both Life and TV Guide. The year 1956 saw the debut of Bald Iggle, considered by some Abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the "Square Eyes" Family—Capp's thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery! and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp's studio issued Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation.
Often, Capp had parodied corporate greed—pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress "...what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa", he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires—the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying "What's good for General Bullmoose is good for the USA!" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of "haves" versus "have-nots". This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and increased their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s.
Feud with Ham Fisher
After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's Joe Palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had "stolen" his idea. For years, Fisher brought the characters back to his strip, billing them as "The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters" and advising readers not to be "fooled by imitations". (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character—Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence—bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 Time article, "Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror."
"Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family – but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public," (from Don Markstein's Toonopedia).
The Capp-Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed Joe Palooka in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in ''Li'l Abner'' named "Ham's Nose-Bob". In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named "Happy Vermin"—a caricature of Fisher—who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet (after sacking his previous "temporary" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: "I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do – I'll get you a new light bulb!!"
Traveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the New York Daily News in 1998: "They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks." In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for The Atlantic, entitled "I Remember Monster". The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed "benefactor" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly-veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher.
Fisher retaliated, doctoring photostats of ''Li'l Abner and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of Li'l Abner'' to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had been drawn there by Fisher. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork.
In 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic ''Li'l Abner'' drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a storm. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery, Strip for Murder by Max Allan Collins.
Another "feud" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip Mary Worth as "Mary Worm". The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the Mary Worth strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character "Hal Rapp", a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically, as Capp was a teetotaler) inebriated cartoonist. Later, the "feud" was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders "feud" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips—and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed.
Production methods
Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson, and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics, and other specialty work—in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early 1940s to the late 1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the Abner characters, and in the 1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks—including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice—and General Electric and Procter & Gamble products, all requiring special artwork.
No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on his drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands—especially of Abner and Daisy Mae—and his distinctive touch is often discernible. "He had the touch," Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. "He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent."
As is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photographs of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was "ghosted" by other hands. The production of ''Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Frazetta authority David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in Li'l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20 (Kitchen Sink, 1994):
There was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, including Shmoo Comics featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 entitled The Boss Is Crazy, Too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby "the five funniest years of my life". Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the "four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz, and Milton Caniff.
Capp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described "The Mechanics of the Comic Strip".
Frazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named "Frankie", a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of ''Li'l Abner greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. "[Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. I said goodbye," (from Frazetta: Painting with Fire). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space'', distributed by the Job Corps in 1965.
Personality
Although he was often considered a difficult person, some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side. In 1973, upon learning that 12-year-old Ted Kennedy Jr., the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy Sr., had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy an encouraging letter that gave candid advice about dealing with the loss of a limb, which Capp himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp's grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist's cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre. Capp gave money anonymously to charities and "people in need" at various points in his life.
While no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced regarding Kelly,
In 1971, investigative journalist Jack Anderson wrote that Capp had exposed his genitals to four female students at the University of Alabama.
In 1972, after an incident at the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, Capp was arrested. He pleaded guilty to a charge of attempted adultery, while charges of indecent exposure and sodomy were dropped. He was fined US$500 ().
In 2019, Jean Kilbourne was inspired by the MeToo movement to publish in ''Hogan's Alley'' her own experience of being groped and sexually solicited by Al Capp while doing freelance writing and research work for him in contemplation of a permanent job in 1967.
Public service works
Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies, and charitable or nonprofit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services:
*Al Capp by Li'l Abner— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946)
*Yo' Bets Yo' Life!— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army ()
*Li'l Abner Joins the Navy— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950)
*Fearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951)
*The Youth You Supervise— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956)
*Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!''— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956)
*Operation: Survival!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)
*Natural Disasters!— Public service giveaway issued by the Department of Civil Defense (1957)
*Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958) among others.Public figure
In the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As ''Li'l Abner reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. "Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era," writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. "His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program..." He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with The Phantom cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas, and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined. (He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a $100-a-plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.)
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Besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by television; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics (1948–'54) and made regular, weekly appearances on Today in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? (1948–'55), and co-hosted DuMont's ''What's the Story? (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least five television shows–three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (1952 and 1968) and Al Capp'' (1971–'72), ''Al Capp's America (a live "chalk talk", with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called Anyone Can Win'' (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio—and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including NBC Radio's long-running Monitor with its famous Monitor Beacon audio signature, as a commentator dubbed "An expert of nothing with opinions on everything."
His frequent appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar, and Johnny Carson), from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, "Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda," to which Capp replied, "Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called "The Tommy Wholesome Show".)
Capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film That Certain Feeling, for which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on Person to Person on November 27, 1959, by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and guested on Ralph Edwards' This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961, with honoree Peter Palmer (the actor who played Li'l Abner in the Paramount film). Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including Life, Show, Pageant, The Atlantic, Esquire, Coronet, and The Saturday Evening Post. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and—with an irony that became apparent later—a brand of cigarettes (Chesterfield).
Capp resumed visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of "Operation: Little Vittles". Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. "When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted," (reported in Newsweek—October 11, 1948).
In addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for disabled people, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column ("Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street") challenging federally funded public television endowments in favor of educational comics—which, according to Capp, "didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy Sesame Street without learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips unless he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense."
Capp's academic interests included being one of nineteen original "Trustees and Advisors" for "Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman", located in Pride's Crossing (Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from what is now the 4-year school known as Endicott College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a "Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate" and a resident of New York City.
"Comics", wrote Capp in 1970, "can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are." Capp produced many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and nonprofit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as "Senator O. Noble McGesture", resident of "Hyideelsport". The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived.
Capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in ''Li'l Abner as "Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!" (SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to Time'', Capp insisted, "The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do."
Capp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during television appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the Tonight Show. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called Al Capp On Campus. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as "sensitivity training", "humanitarianism", "abstract art" (Capp hated it), and "student protest". The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like "End Capp Brutality", "Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot", "Capp Is Over [30, 40, 50—all crossed out] the Hill!!", and "If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!"
Highlights of the strip's final decades include the stories "Boomchik" (1961), in which America's international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum, "Daisy Mae Steps Out" (1966), a female-empowering tale of Daisy's brazenly audacious "homewrecker gland", "The Lips of Marcia Perkins" (1967), a satirical, thinly-veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings, "Ignoble Savages" (1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and "Corporal Crock" (1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting.
The cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed-In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon (1988). Introducing himself with the words "I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?", Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their Two Virgins nude album cover: "I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it." Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono ("Good God, you've gotta live with that?"), and was asked to "get out" by Lennon publicist Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay, however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his song "The Ballad of John and Yoko" with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: "Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin' / They're gonna crucify Capp! "
Despite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been liberal in some particular causes; he supported gay rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes.
In 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. By 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch "founder" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) had been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and was slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness.
On April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that in February 1968 Capp had made indecent advances to four female students when he was invited to speak at the University of Alabama. Anderson and an associate confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity.
The following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included "sodomy". As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of "attempted adultery" (adultery was a felony in Wisconsin), and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined $500 and court costs. In a December 1992 article for The New Yorker, Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U.S. Senate. "Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp's very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public", Hersh wrote. "The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the president by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the president was told that one of Colson's people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors." Colson's efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge. In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D.A.'s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment.
The resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip, and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced.
"From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in Abner waned, and this showed in the strip itself," according to Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Although Capp had used assistants on the strip practically since the beginning, in the final years his own involvement in the strip decreased. His health issues made it increasingly difficult for Capp to work, recalled his assistants. On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. "If you have any sense of humor about your strip—and I had a sense of humor about mine—you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted, adding that he couldn't breathe anymore. "When he retired ''Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times'' devoted nearly a full page to the event", wrote publisher Denis Kitchen.
Capp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray: The plowman homeward plods his weary way / And leaves the world to darkness and to me (from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 1751).Legacy
"Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service", according to Toonopedia. ''Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004.
Sadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo also has entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than four separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing (a microbiological term for the "budding" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a "shmoo" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to "widgets" which require resources and active production). In the field of particle physics, "shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as used at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of Li'l Abner''.
Al Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating the 100th anniversary of his birth. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010. According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET-TV American Masters documentary, The Life and Times of Al Capp, produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning.
Since his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and ''Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a biographical monograph on Al Capp.
At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays as part of their ongoing The Library of American Comics series. The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the entire 43-year history of Li'l Abner, spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010.
Notes
Further reading
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner in New York (1936) Whitman Publishing
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Among the Millionaires (1939) Whitman Publishing
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and Sadie Hawkins Day (1940) Saalfield Publishing
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and the Ratfields (1940) Saalfield Publishing
*Sheridan, Martin, Comics and Their Creators (1942) R.T. Hale & Co, (1977) Hyperion Press
*Waugh, Coulton, The Comics (1947) Macmillan Publishers
*Capp, Al, Newsweek Magazine'' (November 24, 1947) "Li'l Abner's Mad Capp"
*Capp, Al, Saturday Review of Literature (March 20, 1948) "The Case for the Comics"
*Capp, Al, The Life and Times of the Shmoo (1948) Simon & Schuster
*Capp, Al, The Nation (March 21, 1949) "There Is a Real Shmoo"
*Capp, Al, Cosmopolitan Magazine (June 1949) "I Don't Like Shmoos"
*Capp, Al, Atlantic Monthly (April 1950) "I Remember Monster"
*Capp, Al, Time Magazine (November 6, 1950) "Die Monstersinger"
*Capp, Al, Life Magazine (March 31, 1952) "It's Hideously True!!..."
*Capp, Al, Real Magazine (December 1952) "The REAL Powers in America"
*Capp, Al, ''The World of Li'l Abner (1953) Farrar, Straus & Young
*Leifer, Fred, The Li'l Abner Official Square Dance Handbook (1953) A.S. Barnes
*Mikes, George, Eight Humorists (1954) Allen Wingate, (1977) Arden Library
*Lehrer, Tom, The Tom Lehrer Song Book, introduction by Al Capp (1954) Crown Publishers
*Capp, Al, Al Capp's Fearless Fosdick: His Life and Deaths (1956) Simon & Schuster
*Capp, Al, Al Capp's Bald Iggle: The Life it Ruins May Be Your Own (1956) Simon & Schuster
*Capp, Al, et al. Famous Artists Cartoon Course – 3 volumes (1956) Famous Artists School
*Capp, Al, Life Magazine'' (January 14, 1957) "The Dogpatch Saga: Al Capp's Own Story"
*Brodbeck, Arthur J, et al. "How to Read Li'l Abner Intelligently" from Mass Culture: Popular Arts in America, pp. 218–224 (1957) Free Press
*Capp, Al, The Return of the Shmoo (1959) Simon & Schuster
*Hart, Johnny, Back to B.C., introduction by Al Capp (1961) Fawcett Publications
*Lazarus, Mell, Miss Peach, introduction by Al Capp (1962) Pyramid Books
*Gross, Milt, He Done Her Wrong, introduction by Al Capp (1963 Ed.) Dell Books
*White, David Manning, and Robert H. Abel, eds. The Funnies: An American Idiom (1963) Free Press
*White, David Manning, ed. ''From Dogpatch to Slobbovia: The (Gasp!) World of Li'l Abner (1964) Beacon Press
*Capp, Al, Life International Magazine (June 14, 1965) "My Life as an Immortal Myth"
*Toffler, Alvin, Playboy Magazine (December 1965) interview with Al Capp, pp. 89–100
*Moger, Art, et al. Chutzpah Is, introduction by Al Capp (1966) Colony Publishers
*Berger, Arthur Asa, Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire (1969) Twayne Publishers, (1994) Univ. Press of Mississippi
*Sugar, Andy, Saga Magazine (December 1969) "On the Campus Firing Line with Al Capp"
*Gray, Harold, Arf! The Life and Hard Times of Little Orphan Annie, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Arlington House
*Moger, Art, Some of My Best Friends are People, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Directors Press
*Capp, Al, The Hardhat's Bedtime Story Book (1971) Harper & Row
*Robinson, Jerry, The Comics: An Illustrated History of Comic Strip Art'' (1974) G.P. Putnam's Sons
*Horn, Maurice, The World Encyclopedia of Comics (1976) Chelsea House, (1982) Avon
*Blackbeard, Bill, ed. The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics (1977) Smithsonian Inst. Press/Harry Abrams
*Marschall, Rick, Cartoonist PROfiles No. 37 (March 1978) interview with Al Capp
*Capp, Al, ''The Best of Li'l Abner (1978) Holt, Rinehart & Winston
*Lardner, Ring, You Know Me Al: The Comic Strip Adventures of Jack Keefe, introduction by Al Capp (1979) Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
*Van Buren, Raeburn, Abbie an' Slats – 2 volumes (1983) Ken Pierce Books
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: Reuben Award Winner Series Book 1 (1985) Blackthorne
*Marschall, Rick, Nemo, the Classic Comics Library No. 18, pp. 3–32 (April 1986)
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Dailies – 27 volumes (1988–1999) Kitchen Sink Press
*Marschall, Rick, America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989) Abbeville Press
*Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick (1990) Kitchen Sink
*Capp, Al, My Well-Balanced Life on a Wooden Leg (1991) John Daniel & Co.
*Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick: The Hole Story (1992) Kitchen Sink
*Goldstein, Kalman, "Al Capp and Walt Kelly: Pioneers of Political and Social Satire in the Comics" from Journal of Popular Culture; Vol. 25, Issue 4 (Spring 1992)
*Caplin, Elliot, Al Capp Remembered (1994) Bowling Green State University
*Theroux, Alexander, The Enigma of Al Capp (1999) Fantagraphics Books
*Lubbers, Bob, Glamour International #26: The Good Girl Art of Bob Lubbers (May 2001)
*Capp, Al, The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo (2002) Overlook Press
*Capp, Al, Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years – 4 volumes (2003–2004) Dark Horse Comics
*Al Capp Studios, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo: The Comic Books (2008) Dark Horse
*Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 1 – Vol. x(ongoing) (2010–present) The Library of American Comics
*Capp, Al, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo Vol. 2: The Newspaper Strips'' (2011) Dark Horse
*Inge, M. Thomas, "Li'l Abner, Snuffy and Friends" from Comics and the U.S. South, pp. 3–27 (2012) Univ. Press of Mississippi
*Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing
External links
* [http://www.lil-abner.com/ ''Li'l Abner official site]
*
*
* [http://deniskitchen.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?ScreenCTGY&Category_Codebios.capp Denis Kitchen biography: Al Capp]
* [http://animationresources.org/?p=558 Animation Resources: Al Capp part I]
* [http://animationresources.org/?p=571 Animation Resources: Al Capp part II]
* [http://animationresources.org/?p=592 Animation Resources: Al Capp part III]
* [http://animationresources.org/?p=616 Animation Resources: Al Capp part IV]
* [http://animationresources.org/?p=685 Animation Resources: Al Capp part V]
* [http://www.newburyportnews.com/opinion/x546276244/Al-Capp-deserves-a-tribute?keyword=topstory Al Capp Deserves a Tribute (Newburyport News, 28 Sept. 2009)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050703074739/http://users.aristotle.net/~russjohn/attractions/dogpatch.html Dogpatch USA amusement park.]
* [http://www.jitterbuzz.com/indtoy.html#abner The Dogpatch Family Band Mechanical Toy]
* [https://books.google.com/books?idP1QEAAAAMBAJ&qmagazine_serial:R1cEAAAAMBAJ Dogpatch and Li'l Abner on Broadway in Life'', January 14, 1957, pp. 71–83]
*[https://osucartoons.pastperfectonline.com/vocabulary?keywordCapp%2C+Al%2C+1909-1979&letterC&searchtypecreator&showsearchtrue Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Art Database]
Category:1909 births
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Category:Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capp | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.414025 |
3013 | Ann Druyan | | birth_place = New York City, New York, U.S.
| known_for = Author, activist, producer
| spouse
| children = 2, including Sasha
}}
Ann Druyan ( ;) is an American documentary producer and director specializing in the communication of science. She co-wrote the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan, whom she married in 1981. She is the creator, producer, and writer of the 2014 sequel, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey and its sequel series, Cosmos: Possible Worlds, as well as the book of the same name. She directed episodes of both series.
In the late 1970s, she became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, which produced the golden discs affixed to both the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. She also published a novel, A Famous Broken Heart, in 1977, and later co-wrote several best selling non-fiction books with Sagan.
Early life and education
Ann Druyan was born in Queens, New York, the daughter of Pearl A. () and Harry Druyan, who co-owned a knitwear firm. Her family was Jewish.
Druyan's early interest in math and science was, in her word, "derailed" when a junior high-school teacher ridiculed a question she asked about the universality of . "I raised my hand and said, 'You mean this applies to every circle in the universe?', and the teacher told me not to ask stupid questions. And there I was having this religious experience, and she made me feel like such a fool. I was completely flummoxed from then on until after college." Druyan characterized her three years at New York University as "disastrous", and it was only after she left school without graduating that she discovered the pre-Socratic philosophers and began educating herself, thus leading to a renewed interest in science.CareerIn the late 1970s, Druyan became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project.
Druyan's role on the project was discussed on the July 8, 2018, 60 Minutes segment "The Little Spacecraft That Could". In the segment, Druyan explained her insistence that Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" be included on the Golden Record, saying: "...Johnny B. Goode, rock and roll, was the music of motion, of moving, getting to someplace you've never been before, and the odds are against you, but you want to go. That was Voyager." The segment also discussed Sagan's suggestion, in 1990, that Voyager 1 turn its cameras back towards Earth to take a series of photographs showing the planets of our solar system. The shots, showing Earth from a distance of 3.7 billion miles as a small point of bluish light, became the basis for Sagan's famous "Pale Blue Dot" passage, first published in Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space (1994).
During that time, Druyan also co-wrote (with Carl Sagan and Steven Soter) the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan. The thirteen-part series covered a wide range of scientific subjects, including the origin of life and a perspective of humans place in the universe. It was highly acclaimed, and became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television at that time. The series won two Emmys and a Peabody Award, and has since been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 500 million people.<!-- Retaining two refs here as Wikipedia seems to have incorrectly stated 500 million for years... --> A book was also published to accompany the series. , it is still the most widely watched PBS series in the world. Several revised versions of the series were later broadcast; one version, telecast after Sagan's death, opens with Druyan paying tribute to her late husband and the impact of Cosmos over the years.
and Ann Druyan in Sydney]]
Druyan wrote and produced the 1987 PBS NOVA episode "Confessions of a Weaponeer" on the life of President Eisenhower's Science Advisor George Kistiakowsky.
In 2000, Druyan, together with Steve Soter, co-wrote Passport to the Universe, the inaugural planetarium show for the Rose Center for Earth and Space at the American Natural History Museum's Hayden Planetarium. The attraction is narrated by Tom Hanks. Druyan and Soter also co-wrote The Search for Life: Are We Alone, narrated by Harrison Ford, which also debuted at the Hayden's Rose Center.
In 2000, Druyan co-founded Cosmos Studios, Inc, with Joseph Firmage. As CEO of Cosmos Studios, Druyan produces science-based entertainment for all media. In addition to Cosmos: A SpaceTime Odyssey, Cosmos Studios has produced Cosmic Africa, Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt, and the Emmy-nominated documentary Cosmic Journey: The Voyager Interstellar Mission and Message. In 2009, she distributed a series of podcasts called At Home in the Cosmos with Annie Druyan, in which she described her works, the life of her husband, Carl Sagan, and their marriage.
Druyan is credited, with Carl Sagan, as the co-creator and co-producer of the 1997 feature film Contact.
In 2011, it was announced that Druyan would executive produce, co-write, and be one of the episodic directors for a sequel to Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, to be called Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which began airing in March 2014. Episodes premiered on Fox and also aired on National Geographic Channel on the following night. At the time of its release, Fox gave the series the largest global rollout of a television series ever, debuting it in 180 countries. The premiere episode was shown across nine of Fox's cable properties in addition to the broadcast network in a "roadblock" style premiere. The series went on to become the most-watched series ever for National Geographic Channel International, with at least some part of the 13-episode series watched by 135 million people, including 45 million in the U.S.
In March 2020, a third season of Cosmos, named Cosmos: Possible Worlds, for which Druyan was executive producer, writer, and director, premiered on National Geographic. Druyan also said: "I very much have season four in mind, and I know what it's going to be. And I even know some of the stories that I want to tell in it."
Druyan co-wrote six New York Times bestsellers with Carl Sagan, including: Comet, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, and The Demon-Haunted World. She is co-author, along with Carl Sagan, F. D. Drake, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg and Linda Salzman Sagan, of Murmurs Of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record. She also wrote the updated introduction to Sagan's book The Cosmic Connection and the epilogue of Billions and Billions. She wrote the introduction to, and edited The Varieties of Scientific Experience, published from Sagan's 1985 Gifford lectures.
In February 2020, Druyan published Cosmos: Possible Worlds, a companion volume to the television series of the same name, which premiered in March 2020.
Work in science
Druyan is a fellow of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).
Druyan served as program director of the first solar-sail deep-space mission, Cosmos 1, launched on a Russian ICBM in 2005.
Druyan is involved in multiple Breakthrough Initiatives. With Frank Drake, Druyan is the co-chair of Breakthrough Message and also a member of Breakthrough Starshot.
She is a member of the advisory board of The Carl Sagan Institute.
Activism
Druyan has for many years been a vocal advocate for nuclear disarmament. She was arrested three times at the Mercury, Nevada nuclear test site during Mikhail Gorbachev's unilateral moratorium on underground nuclear testing, with which President Ronald Reagan did not cooperate. This included an arrest in June 1986, when she crossed a white painted line indicating the test site's boundary. Sagan, who attended the same protest with Druyan, was not arrested.
In the early 1990s, Druyan worked with Sagan and then-Senator Al Gore Jr. and a host of religious and scientific leaders to bring the scientific and religious worlds together in a unified effort to preserve the environment, resulting in the ''Declaration of the 'Mission to Washington''.
She was a founding director of the Children's Health Fund until the spring of 2004, a project that provides mobile pediatric care to homeless and disadvantaged children in more than half a dozen cities. She is currently a member of their advisory board.
She has been on the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) for over 10 years and was its president from 2006 to 2010.
Honors
An asteroid discovered in 1988 was named in Druyan's honor by its discoverer Eleanor F. Helin. In a 2020 interview with Skeptical Inquirer, Druyan discussed 4970 Druyan and the asteroid named after her late husband, saying that 4970 Druyan is in a "wedding ring orbit" around the Sun with 2709 Sagan. Druyan was presented with a plaque on Sagan's sixtieth birthday, which is inscribed: "Asteroid 2709 Sagan in eternal companion orbit with asteroid 4970 Druyan, symbolic of their love and admiration for each other."
In November 2007, Druyan was awarded the title of "Humanist Laureate" by the International Academy of Humanism.
In October 2019, the Center for Inquiry West opened the Carl Sagan–Ann Druyan Theater in Los Angeles.Religious and philosophical viewsIn an interview with Joel Achenbach of The Washington Post, Druyan said that her early interest in science stemmed from a fascination with Karl Marx. Achenbach commented that "She had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence", a reference to her belief in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Däniken and the theories of Immanuel Velikovsky pertaining to the solar system.
Concerning the death of her husband she stated:
<blockquote>
When my husband died, because he was so famous and known for not being a believer, many people would come up to me—it still sometimes happens—and ask me if Carl changed at the end and converted to a belief in an afterlife. They also frequently ask me if I think I will see him again. Carl faced his death with unflagging courage and never sought refuge in illusions. The tragedy was that we knew we would never see each other again. I don't ever expect to be reunited with Carl.
</blockquote>
Personal life
Druyan and Sagan's working and resulting romantic relationship has been the subject of numerous treatments in popular culture, including the Radiolab episode "Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape", a segment of the Comedy Central program Drunk Historys episode "Space", and the song "Sounds of Earth" by Jim Moray. The asteroid 4970 Druyan, which is in a companion orbit with asteroid 2709 Sagan named after Druyan's late husband, is named after Druyan.
In 2020, Sagan and Druyan's daughter Sasha Sagan released a book For Small Creatures Such As We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World, which discusses life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen years old.
Druyan also gave Sasha a recurring role in Cosmos: Possible Worlds, where she played her own grandmother, including in the episode Man of a Trillion Worlds, which featured the life of Carl Sagan.
* 2015 Writers Guild Award for "Documentary Script – Other than Current Events"
* 2017 Harvard Humanist of the Year Award
* 2020 National Geographic Further AwardSee also
* Women in science
* List of peace activists
References
External links
* Ann Druyan: [http://anndruyan.typepad.com/ The Observatory]
*
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Category:American science communicators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Druyan | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.430962 |
3014 | Analcime | {{Infobox mineral
|boxbgcolor#ae602d| name Analcime
| boxtextcolor = #fff
| category = Tectosilicate minerals, zeolite group
| image = Analcime - Kahwan Mountain, Semnan, Iran.jpg
| imagesize = 280px
| caption = Reddish crystals of analcime up to 1.8 cm in size on matrix
| formula = NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub> · H<sub>2</sub>O
|IMAsymbol=Anl
| strunz = 9.GB.05
| system = Orthorhombic
| class = Dipyramidal (mmm) <br />H-M symbol: (2/m 2/m 2/m)
| symmetry = Ibca
|molweight220.15| color White, colorless, gray, pink, greenish, yellowish
| habit = Typically in crystals, usually trapezohedrons, also massive to granular.
| twinning = Polysynthetic on [001], [110]
| cleavage = Indistinct on {001}, {010}, {100}
| fracture = Uneven to subconchoidal
| mohs = 5–5.5
| luster = Vitreous
| refractive n 1.479–1.493
| opticalprop = Isotropic; anomalously biaxial (−)
| pleochroism =None
|fluorescenceShort UV Greenish blueish white <br/>Long UV Green, creamy white-yellow| streak White
| gravity = 2.24–2.29
| fusibility = 3.5
|diaphaneityTransparent to subtransparent to translucent| other Weakly piezoelectric and pyroelectric; weakly electrostatic when rubbed or heated
}}
Analcime (; ()|not strong}}) or analcite is a white, gray, or colorless tectosilicate mineral. Analcime consists of hydrated sodium aluminium silicate in cubic crystalline form. Its chemical formula is NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub> · H<sub>2</sub>O. Minor amounts of potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A silver-bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite). Analcime is usually classified as a zeolite mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the feldspathoids. Due to the differences between the samples being too slight, there's no merit from having multiple species names, so as a result analcime is a common example for minerals occurring in multiple crystal systems and space groups. It was first described by French geologist Déodat de Dolomieu, who called it zéolithe dure, meaning hard zeolite. It was found in lava in Cyclops, Italy. The mineral is IMA approved, and had been grandfathered, meaning the name analcime is believed to refer to a valid species til this day. Properties Analcime crystals always look pseudocubic. The color of the mineral varies due to trace impurities. The mineral is weakly piezoelectric and pyroelectric, meaning it produces a weak electric charge when it's rubbed or heated, hence the name analcime. Formation and associated minerals Analcime occurs as a primary mineral in analcime basalt and other alkaline igneous rocks. It also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with prehnite, calcite, and zeolites. Analcime forms in sedimentary rocks at temperatures below about , and so its presence indicates that the rock has experienced shallow diagenesis. in Canada; and in Iceland, and in Namibia. Siberian samples from Nidym and Toura provide us with white crystals of 18 cm. Samples of the Cyclopean Islands are known for their beautiful and clear crystals, just like the crystals of Kings Valley and Springfield in Oregon, which can reach up to 6 cm. Coleman, Alberta in Canada is known for producing beautiful red crystals.See also* References
* Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed.,
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205170949/http://mineral.galleries.com/Minerals/silicate/analcime/analcime.htm Mineral Galleries]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-210.html Mindat.org]
* [http://webmineral.com/data/Analcime.shtml Webmineral.com]
External links
*[http://helios.princeton.edu/zeomics/cgi-bin/view_structure.pl?srciza&idANA structure type ANA]
Category:Zeolites
Category:Sodium minerals
Category:Aluminium minerals
Category:Orthorhombic minerals
Category:Minerals in space group 73 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analcime | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.437009 |
3017 | Alexey Pajitnov | | native_name_lang = ru
| birth_name = Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
| citizenship =
| alma_mater = Moscow Aviation Institute
| employer = Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre<br />The Tetris Company<br />Microsoft
| occupation =
| known for = Creator of Tetris
| awards (2009)}}
}}
Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov}} (born April 16, 1955) is a Russian and American<!-- See MOS:NATIONALITY--> computer engineer and video game designer. After Tetris was released internationally in 1987, he released a sequel in 1989, entitled Welltris.
In 1991, he moved to the United States and later became a U.S. citizen. In 1996, Pajitnov founded The Tetris Company alongside Dutch video game designer Henk Rogers. Despite the game's high popularity, Pajitnov did not receive royalties from Tetris prior to this time; the Soviet Union had disintegrated by 1991.Early lifePajitnov was born to Russian parents, who were both writers, his father was an art critic, his mother was a journalist who wrote for both newspapers and a film magazine. It was through his parents that Pajitnov gained exposure to the arts, eventually developing a passion for cinema. He accompanied his mother to many film screenings, including the Moscow Film Festival. Pajitnov was also mathematically inclined, enjoying puzzles and problem solving.
In 1967, when he was 11 years old, Pajitnov's parents divorced. For several years, he lived with his mother in a one-bedroom apartment owned by the state. The two were eventually able to move into a private apartment at 49 Gertsen Street, when Pajitnov was 17. He later went on to study applied mathematics at the Moscow Aviation Institute. Career In 1977, Pajitnov worked as a summer intern at the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Once he graduated in 1979, he accepted a job there working on speech recognition at the academy's Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre. When the Computing Centre received new equipment, its researchers would write a small program for it in order to test its computing capabilities. According to Pajitnov, this "became [his] excuse for making games". Computer games were fascinating to him because they offered a way to bridge the gap between logic and emotion, and Pajitnov held interests in both mathematics and puzzles, as well as the psychology of computing. Using an Electronika 60 in the Computing Centre, he began working on what would become the first version of Tetris. Building the first prototype in two weeks, This primitive version did not have levels or a scoring system, but Pajitnov knew he had a potentially great game, since he could not stop playing it at work.
The game attracted the interest of coworkers like fellow programmer Dmitri Pevlovsky, who helped Pajitnov connect with Vadim Gerasimov, a 16-year-old intern at the Soviet Academy. Pajitnov wanted to make a color version of Tetris for the IBM Personal Computer, and enlisted the intern to help. Gerasimov created the PC version in less than three weeks, and with contributions from Pevlovsky, spent an additional month adding new features like scorekeeping and sound effects.
Pajitnov created a sequel to Tetris, entitled Welltris, which has the same principle, but in a three-dimensional environment where the player sees the playing area from above.
Tetris was licensed and managed by Soviet company ELORG, which had a monopoly on the import and export of computer hardware and software in the Soviet Union, and advertised with the slogan "From Russia with Love" (on NES: "From Russia with Fun!"). Because he was employed by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, Pajitnov did not receive royalties.
Pajitnov, together with Vladimir Pokhilko, moved to the United States following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and in 1996 founded The Tetris Company with Henk Rogers, which, in combination with the rights reverting to him in 1995 or 1996, finally allowed him to collect royalties from his game. He helped design the puzzles in the Super NES versions of ''Yoshi's Cookie and designed the game Pandora's Box, which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles. Pajitnov and Pokhilko founded the 3D software technology company AnimaTek, which developed the game / screensaver El-Fish.
He was employed by Microsoft from October 1996 until 2005. While there, he worked on the Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection'', MSN Mind Aerobics and MSN Games groups. Pajitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, Hexic HD, was included with every new Xbox 360 Premium package.
In August 2005, WildSnake Software announced that Pajitnov would be collaborating with them to release a new line of puzzle games.
Personal life
Pajitnov moved to the United States in 1991, was naturalized as a U.S. citizen and now lives in Clyde Hill, Washington. He has a wife, Nina, with whom he had two sons named Peter and Dmitri.
Political views
After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Pajitnov issued a statement condemning the war and stating that he was "sure that Putin and his hateful regime will fall down and the normal peaceful way of living will be restored in Ukraine and, hopefully, in Russia".
Games
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Year !! Platform(s) !! Role(s)
|-
|| Tetris || 1985 || Electronika 60, IBM-PC || Original concept <br />(with Vadim Gerasimov & Dmitry Pavlovsky)<br />
|-
|Muddle
|1989
|Electronika 60, IBM-PC
|Designer (Published by JV Dialogue)
|-
|| Welltris || 1989 || Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh & ZX Spectrum || Designer <br />(with Andrei Sgenov)<br/>
|-
|| Faces || 1990 || Amiga, DOS, Macintosh || Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br/>
|-
|| Hatris || 1990 || TurboGrafx-16, Arcade, Game Boy & NES || Original concept
|-
|| Knight Move || 1990 || Famicom Disk System (Japan) || Idealist
|-
|| Wordtris || 1991 || DOS, Game Boy, Classic Mac OS, SNES || Designer
|-
|| ''Yoshi's Cookie || 1992 || NES, Game Boy, SNES || Puzzle Designer
|-
|| El-Fish || 1993 || DOS || Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br />
|-
|| Knight Moves || 1995 || Windows || Idealist
|-
|| Ice & Fire || 1995 || Windows, Macintosh || Original concept <br />(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br />
|-
|| Tetrisphere || 1997 || Nintendo 64 || Contributor
|-
|| Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection || 1997 || Windows & Game Boy Color || Designer
|-
|| Microsoft Pandora's Box || 1999 || Windows|| Designer
|-
|| Microsoft A.I. Puzzler || 2001 || Windows || Designer
|-
|| Hexic || 2003 || Windows || Original concept and design
|-
|| Hexic HD || 2005 || Xbox 360 || Original concept and design
|-
|| Dwice || 2006 || Windows || Designer
|-
|| Hexic 2 || 2007 || Xbox 360 || Designer
|-
|| Marbly || 2013 || iOS || Original concept and design
|}
Awards and recognition
In 1996, GameSpot named him as the fourth most influential computer game developer of all time. In March 2007, he received the Game Developers Choice Awards First Penguin Award. The award was given for pioneering the casual games market.
In June 2009, he received the honorary award at the LARA - Der Deutsche Games Award in Cologne, Germany. In 2012, IGN included Pajitnov on their list of 5 Memorable Video Game Industry One-Hit Wonders, calling him "the ultimate video game one-hit wonder." In 2015, Pajitnov won the Bizkaia Award at the Fun & Serious Game Festival.
Pajitnov was portrayed by Russian actor Nikita Yefremov in the 2023 movie Tetris, a dramatised retelling of the licensing bidding war for Tetris in the late 1980s.See also
*BreakThru!, video game endorsed by Pajitnov
*ClockWerx, video game endorsed by Pajitnov
Notes
References
External links
*[http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,533681/ Alexey L. Pajitnov] profile at MobyGames
*[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=08/02/26/1859249 Tetris Creator Claims Free and Open Source Software Destroys the Market.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040227003319/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/tetris.shtml Tetris — From Russia with Love''], BBC documentary
Category:1955 births
Category:Living people
Category:Game Developers Conference Pioneer Award recipients
Category:Moscow Aviation Institute alumni
Category:Microsoft employees
Category:Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Category:Russian computer programmers
Category:Russian emigrants to the United States
Category:20th-century Russian inventors
Category:21st-century Russian inventors
Category:Russian video game designers
Category:Scientists from Moscow
Category:20th-century Russian scientists
Category:21st-century Russian scientists
Category:Russian computer scientists
Category:Soviet computer scientists
Category:Tetris
Category:Russian scientists
Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States
Category:Microsoft people
Category:American anti-war activists
Category:American computer programmers
Category:American video game programmers
Category:20th-century American inventors
Category:21st-century American inventors
Category:American video game designers
Category:20th-century American scientists
Category:21st-century American scientists
Category:Inventors from Washington (state)
Category:American people of Russian descent
Category:People from Clyde Hill, Washington | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexey_Pajitnov | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.477711 |
3019 | ʻAbdu'l-Bahá | | image = Picture of Abdul-Baha.jpg
| caption = Portrait taken in Paris, 1911
| birth_name = ʻAbbás
| birth_date
| birth_place = Tehran, Sublime State of Persia
| death_date
| death_place = Haifa, Mandatory Palestine
| resting_place = currently the Shrine of the Báb, to be relocated to the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
| resting_place_coordinates
| nationality = Persian
| spouse =
| children =
| father = Baháʼu'lláh
| mother = Ásíyih Khánum
| relatives = Shoghi Effendi (grandson)
| religion = Baháʼí Faith
}}
'''ʻAbdu'l-Bahá''' (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later cited as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.
He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight, his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the Bábí Faith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family established their residence in Baghdad in Iraq, where they stayed for ten years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before entering another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained a prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. Following the war, the openly hostile Ottoman authorities were replaced by the British Mandate over Palestine, during which time he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war.
In 1892, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. His Tablets of the Divine Plan galvanized Baháʼís in North America to spread the Baháʼí teachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháʼí administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Baháʼís emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's given name was ʻAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either Mírzá ʻAbbás (Persian) or ʻAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ʻAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá'í Faith, he used and preferred the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("servant of Bahá", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháʼí texts as "The Master".
Early life
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH), the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the same night on which the Báb declared his mission. Given the name ʻAbbás at birth, he was named after his grandfather Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's early years were shaped by his father's prominent role within the Bábí community. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the Bábí, Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him. His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family's residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned. Alongside his younger siblings – a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí – he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort.
Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received a brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá spent only a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father. In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, saying that "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...could scarcely be found..."
According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child. At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death. Though the illness abated, this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.
One event that affected ʻAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing him to hostility from other children in the streets. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál. of 1853. During the journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties, Baháʼu'lláh absented himself rather than continuing to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854, a month before ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took an active role in his education and upbringing. During the two-year absence of his father ʻAbdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family, before his age of maturity (14 in Middle-Eastern society) and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horseback riding, and as he grew, he became a renowned rider. On seeing his father, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly "Why did you leave us?", and his mother and sister did the same. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for someone of his age. In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháʼu'lláh announced to a few companions that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is reported that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was the first person to whom Baháʼu'lláh revealed his claim. Istanbul/Adrianople
]]
In 1863, Baháʼu'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome voyage, Bahá’u’lláh and his family were soon exiled to Adrianople, and on this journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.
In Adrianople ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother. Baháʼu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"), the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye. Upon learning of yet another exile of Bahá’u’llah, this time to Palestine, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the rest of the family were allowed to be exiled together. Arrival in ʻAkká was distressing for the family and exiles when they were met by a hostile local population. When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obtained chairs to carry the women to land. all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. With the passage of time ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to rent alternative accommodations for the family, and eventually the family moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused its residents to flee.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886, later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University through the agency of Edward Granville Browne.
Marriage and family life
When ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry. Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ʻAbdu'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage. On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father, the twenty-eight-year-old ʻAbdu'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847–1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city. Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad ʻAlí Nahrí of Isfahan, an eminent Baháʼí with prominent connections. Fátimih was brought from Persia to ʻAkká after both Baháʼu'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest that she marries ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872.
The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (who dies very young), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle. The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971). Baháʼu'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy. The marriage of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous,
Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu'l-Bahá of assuming too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháʼu'lláh. It was at this time that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, to counter the accusations leveled against him, stated in tablets to the West that he was to be known as "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that established the framework of the administration of the Baháʼí Faith, the two highest institutions of which were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. With the exception of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ʻAlí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháʼu'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází. However, in general the Bahá’ís experienced very little effect from the propaganda of Muhammad ʻAlí and his allies; in the ʻAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ʻAlí represented six families at most, had no common religious activities, and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.
Religions in the past faced schism and doctrinal drift after the death of their prophet founders. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá however managed to preserve the unity and doctrinal integrity of the Baháʼí Faith, even in the face of serious threats from his half-brother’s opposition. His success is especially notable given that even in the midst of these attacks his leadership brought about considerable expansion of the Baháʼí community beyond its initial cultural and geographic roots. First Western pilgrims
, Sigurd Russell, Edward Getsinger and Laura Clifford Barney; Seated left to right: Ethel Jenner Rosenberg, Madam Jackson, Shoghi Effendi, Helen Ellis Cole, Lua Getsinger, Emogene Hoagg]]
By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started traveling to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s. The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened. During the next decade ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, encouraging them to teach the religion; the group included Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, Laura Clifford Barney, Herbert Hopper and May Ellis Bolles in Paris (all Americans); Englishman Thomas Breakwell; and Frenchman . It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.
Ministry, 1901–1912
During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí conspired with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the support of the Governor of ʻAkka, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was still confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.
From 1902 to 1904, even as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the construction of the Shrine of the Báb, he initiated execution of two additional projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Baháʼí House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the restoration of the house of the Báb to its state at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.
In his role as head of the Bahá’í Faith, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá would occasionally communicate with leaders of thought to offer commentary and guidance based on the Bahá’í teachings, and in defense of the Bahá’í community. During this period, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, who sought to reform to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha. He emphasized Baháʼís "seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Baháʼí Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Baháʼís in a periodical he founded.
‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who in an earlier period was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháʼí sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He probably came to know ‘Abdu’l-Baha around 1898 when he served in the Ottoman administration in Akká. Persian sources cite him was a Baháʼí and he who translated ‛Abdu'l-Baha's works into French. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá continued to communicate with him for several years when he was governor of Albania. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions. Regarding the meetings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad ʻAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member."
Due to Muhammad ʻAli's accusations against him, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, almost resulting in exile to Fezzan. In response, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam. The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.Journeys to the West
The 1908 Young Turks revolution liberated all political and religious prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his liberation was to visit the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh in Bahji. While ʻAbdu'l-Bahá continued to live in ʻAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháʼí message.
From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baháʼí believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying "I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so." During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth." The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha," and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan.
Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine.Final years (1914–1921)
During World War I (1914–1918) ʻAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of fourteen letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet.
Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paşa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháʼí properties in Palestine. The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the Baháʼís, and the war was over less than two months later.Post-war periodThe conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties. It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.
The end of the war brought about several political developments on which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá commented. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states. Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians...If the Zionists will mingle with the other races and live in unity with them, they will succeed. If not, they will meet certain resistance."
, April 1920]]
The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many Baháʼís from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was widely distributed to allay the famine. For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920. He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem).
Death and funeral
, British Mandate-Palestine]]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of Rabi' al-awwal, 1340 AH).
Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.
On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes:
Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes (Governor of the Palestine North District) giving the following tribute:
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He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.Legacy
<!-- Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá redirects to this section. If you change the section's heading, please update the redirect. -->
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4–11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá directed all Baháʼís to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated. Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith.
The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi's leadership.
<!-- Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá redirects to this section. If moving this sentence, please update the redirect. -->In volumes of The Baháʼí World published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen Baháʼís as disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, , John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner. No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi's writings.
During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers erroneously reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the Baháʼí Faith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.
Appearance and personality
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome, and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller. He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose. In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote:
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After the death of Bahá’u’lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face. As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming. Even later in his life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá’ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá’í community today. Bahá’ís regard ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion, philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[‘Abdu’l-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows."
Even ardent enemies of the Bahá’í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu'addibu's-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá’í Faith in their papers. They called on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá’í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá’ís was greater still.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying. His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people’s feelings, and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá’ís saying “I am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.” According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal. He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner, further enhancing his popularity.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá’í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá’í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá’ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred.
Works
The total estimated number of tablets that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes The Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, ''A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously.
The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ʻAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace'' which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.
The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:
*Foundations of World Unity
* [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/light-of-the-world Light of the World: Selected Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá].
*Memorials of the Faithful
*Paris Talks
*Secret of Divine Civilization
*Some Answered Questions
*Tablets of the Divine Plan
*Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel
*Tablet to The Hague
*''Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
*Promulgation of Universal Peace
*Selections from the Writings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
*Divine Philosophy
*Treatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance
See also
*Baháʼu'lláh's family
*Mírzá Mihdí
*Ásíyih Khánum
*Bahíyyih Khánum
*Munirih Khánum
*Shoghi Effendi
*House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
Further reading
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Explanatory notes
Notes
References
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Further reading
* Lincoln, Joshua (2023). ''Abdu'l-Bahā 'Abbās - Head of The Bahā'ī Faith; A Life in Social and Regional Context. Idra Publishing.
*<!-- This citation isn't used; should it be removed? -->
External links
* [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha Writings and Talks of ‘Abdu’l‑Bahá] at Bahai.org
*
* [https://www.bahai.org/exemplar Bahai org: Exemplar], documentary film (2021)
* [https://theutteranceproject.com/the-extraordinary-life-of-abdul-baha The Extraordinary Life of 'Abdu'l-Bahá], by the Utterance Project
Category:1844 births
Category:1921 deaths
Category:Bahá'í central figures
Category:Family of Baháʼu'lláh
Category:Burials at Monument Gardens, Haifa
Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Category:19th-century Iranian people
Category:20th-century Iranian politicians
Category:Iranian religious leaders
Category:People from Nur, Iran
Category:Iranian emigrants to the Ottoman Empire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ʻAbdu'l-Bahá | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.512727 |
3020 | Ambrose of Alexandria | Ambrose of Alexandria (before 212 – c. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen.
Life
Ambrose was attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. At first a gnostic Valentinian and Marcionist, Ambrose, through Origen's teaching, eventually rejected this theology and became Origen's constant companion, and was ordained deacon. He plied Origen with questions, and urged him to write his Commentaries (treating him as "" in Commentary on John V,1) on the books of the Bible, and, as a wealthy nobleman and courtier,
He suffered during the persecution under the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax in 235. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen's Contra Celsum, which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose.
Origen often speaks of Ambrose affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen's works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose, including his On Martyrdom, Contra Celsum, Commentary on St. John's Gospel, and On Prayer. Ambrose's letters to Origen (praised by Jerome) are lost, although part of one exists.
Veneration
Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Catholic Church falls on 17 March.
References
Category:Saints from Roman Egypt
Category:Egyptian theologians
Category:3rd-century Egyptian people
Category:250 deaths
Category:Christian anti-Gnosticism
Category:3rd-century Christian saints
Category:Year of birth uncertain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_of_Alexandria | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.517548 |
3022 | Autonomous building | }}
An autonomous building is a hypothetical building designed to be operated independently from infrastructural support services such as the electric power grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, sewage treatment systems, storm drains, communication services, and in some cases, public roads. The literature mostly refers to housing, or the autonomous house.
Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of green building, not independence per se (see below). Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised.
History
1970s
, featuring a recycled bottle wall ]]
In the 1970s, groups of activists and engineers were inspired by the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. In the United States, a group calling themselves the New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of "bioshelter" projects, the most famous of which was The Ark bioshelter community for Prince Edward Island. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind-based water pumping and electricity and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, fish tanks raising tilapia for protein, a greenhouse watered with fish water, and a closed-loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks.
Around 1975–1977, Australian architect and lecturer at University of Sydney School of Architecture, Col James, in collaboration with urban designer, architect, artist, and university tutor Nick Hollo, designed and built an autonomous house on university grounds, in collaboration with students. This taught self-build sustainability to hundreds of students.1990s
The 1990s saw the development of Earthships, similar in intent to the Ark project, but organised as a for-profit venture, with construction details published in a series of three books by American architect Mike Reynolds. The building material is tires filled with earth. This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see earth sheltering). Berms are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering. The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power.
Some 1990s architects such as William McDonough and Ken Yeang applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building (ING Group's Amsterdam headquarters) in the Netherlands was constructed to be autonomous and artistic as well.
2000s
In 2002, British architects Brenda and Robert Vale wrote:<blockquote>It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste...These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a "house with no bills" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller.</blockquote>
Advantages
As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages.
Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs.
Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation.
An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible green building. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of sustainability through the use of renewable energy and other renewable resources, producing no more greenhouse gases than they consume, and other measures.
Disadvantages
First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is relatively easy. In contrast, running an efficient, reliable food source can be a chore.
Living within an autonomous shelter may also require sacrifices in lifestyle or social opportunities. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous homes could require alterations of residents' behavior. Some may not welcome the extra chores. The Vails described some clients' experiences as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy.
An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient windowing, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space.
Systems
Water
system]]
There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective.
Greywater systems reuse drained wash water to flush toilets or to water lawns and gardens. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump, and secondary plumbing. Some builders are installing waterless urinals and even composting toilets that eliminate water usage in sewage disposal.
The classic solution with minimal life-style changes is using a well. Once drilled, a well-foot requires substantial power. However, advanced well-foots can reduce power usage by twofold or more from older models. Well water can be contaminated in some areas. The Sono arsenic filter eliminates unhealthy arsenic in well water. However drilling a well is an uncertain activity, with aquifers depleted in some areas. It can also be expensive.
In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use rainwater harvesting, with supplementary water deliveries in a drought. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment. If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary.
Most desert and temperate climates get at least of rain per year. This means that a typical one-story house with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the driest areas, it might require a cistern of . Many areas average of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as .
In many areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough for drinking. To reduce dirt and bad tastes, systems use a metal collecting-roof and a "roof cleaner" tank that diverts the first 40 liters. Cistern water is usually chlorinated, though reverse osmosis systems provide even better quality drinking water.
In the classic Roman house ("Domus"), household water was provided from a cistern (the "impluvium"), which was a decorative feature of the atrium, the house's main public space. It was fed by downspout tiles from the inward-facing roof-opening (the "compluvium"). Often water lilies were grown in it to purify the water. Wealthy households often supplemented the rain with a small fountain fed from a city's cistern. The impluvium always had an overflow drain so it could not flood the house.
Modern cisterns are usually large plastic tanks. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level.
Reducing autonomy reduces the size and expense of cisterns. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below per person per day, so that in a drought a month of water can be delivered inexpensively via truck. Self-delivery is often possible by installing fabric water tanks that fit the bed of a pick-up truck.
It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a heat pump or air conditioning system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years may decrease the efficiency of the HVAC system.
Solar stills can efficiently produce drinking water from ditch water or cistern water, especially high-efficiency multiple effect humidification designs, which separate the evaporator(s) and condenser(s).
New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Watermakers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.
Sewage
Resource
Composting toilets use bacteria to decompose human feces into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste. Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "humanure" for growing food. The risk is microbial and viral contamination, as well as heavy metal toxicity. In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months. To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.
Some home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that absorb nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor- and color-free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large aquarium.
Electric incinerating toilets turn excrement into a small amount of ash. They are cool to the touch, have no water and no pipes, and require an air vent in a wall. They are used in remote areas where use of septic tanks is limited, usually to reduce nutrient loads in lakes.
NASA's bioreactor is an extremely advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the crewed Mars mission. Another method is NASA's urine-to-water distillation system. A big disadvantage of complex biological sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system biota may starve to death.
Waste
Sewage handling is essential for public health. Many diseases are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems.
The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a septic tank. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary sewage treatment. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.
Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing non-digestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended. However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices.
Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices.
Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste.
Traditional methods of sewage handling include pit toilets, latrines, and outhouses. These can be safe, inexpensive and practical. They are still used in many regions.
Storm drains
Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point.
Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with stormwater. In some cities, such as the Victorian era London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.
Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways. If a water-absorbing swale for each yard is combined with permeable concrete streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than $800 per house (1970s) by eliminating storm drains. One way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping. Additionally, a green roof captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof.
Electricity
, UK]]
Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards autonomy is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand. LED lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save electricity, although gas-powered refrigerators are not very efficient. There are also superefficient electric refrigerators, such as those produced by the Sun Frost company, some of which use only about half as much electricity as a mass-market energy star-rated refrigerator.
Using a solar roof, solar cells can provide electric power. Solar roofs can be more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas. At a sufficient angle, solar cells are cleaned by run-off rain water and therefore have almost no life-style impact.
Many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself or large battery storage systems are necessary to achieve electric self-sufficiency. In stormy or windy climates, wind turbines can replace or significantly supplement solar power. The average autonomous house needs only one small wind turbine, 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100-foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service.
The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. Turbine location is critical: just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, many areas lack enough wind to make a turbine pay for itself. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33-foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site survey.
Some sites have access to a stream with a change in elevation. These sites can use small hydropower systems to generate electricity. If the difference in elevation is above 30 metres (100 feet), and the stream runs in all seasons, this can provide continuous power with a small, inexpensive installation. Lower changes of elevation require larger installations or dams, and can be less efficient. Clogging at the turbine intake can be a practical problem. The usual solution is a small pool and waterfall (a penstock) to carry away floating debris. Another solution is to utilize a turbine that resists debris, such as a Gorlov helical turbine or Ossberger turbine.
During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expenses can be eliminated by attaching the building to the electric power grid and operating the power system with net metering. Utility permission is required, but such cooperative generation is legally mandated in some areas (for example, California).
Recent advances in passively stable magnetic bearings may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Research groups like Canada's Ballard Power Systems are also working to develop a "regenerative fuel cell", a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed.
Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called telluric current. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical.
Microbial fuel cells and thermoelectric generators allow electricity to be generated from biomass. The plant can be dried, chopped and converted or burned as a whole, or it can be left alive so that waste saps from the plant can be converted by bacteria.
Heating
Most autonomous buildings are designed to use insulation, thermal mass and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples of these are trombe walls and other technologies as skylights.
Passive solar heating can heat most buildings in even the mild and chilly climates. In colder climates, extra construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact. The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the solar collectors must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the Northern Hemisphere, north in the Southern Hemisphere), and the building must incorporate thermal mass to keep it warm in the night.
A recent, somewhat experimental solar heating system "Annualized geo solar heating" is practical even in regions that get little or no sunlight in winter. It uses the ground beneath a building for thermal mass. Precipitation can carry away the heat, so the ground is shielded with skirts of plastic insulation. The thermal mass of this system is sufficiently inexpensive and large that it can store enough summer heat to warm a building for the whole winter, and enough winter cold to cool the building in summer.
In annualized geo solar systems, the solar collector is often separate from (and hotter or colder than) the living space. The building may actually be constructed from insulation, for example, straw-bale construction. Some buildings have been aerodynamically designed so that convection via ducts and interior spaces eliminates any need for electric fans.
A more modest "daily solar" design is practical. For example, for about a 15% premium in building costs, the Passivhaus building codes in Europe use high performance insulating windows, R-30 insulation, HRV ventilation, and a small thermal mass. With modest changes in the building's position, modern krypton- or argon-insulated windows permit normal-looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising insulation or structural strength. If a small heater is available for the coldest nights, a slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required thermal mass. Passivhaus building codes, in particular, bring unusually good interior air quality, because the buildings change the air several times per hour, passing it through a heat exchanger to keep heat inside.
In all systems, a small supplementary heater increases personal security and reduces lifestyle impacts for a small reduction of autonomy. The two most popular heaters for ultra-high-efficiency houses are a small heat pump, which also provides air conditioning, or a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater. Passivhaus designs usually integrate the heater with the ventilation system.
Earth sheltering and windbreaks can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from in North Dakota to ,
Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat and power from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms.
Electric heaters and electric stoves may provide pollution-free heat (depending on the power source), but use large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical autonomous design.
Water heating
Hot water heat recycling units recover heat from water drain lines. They increase a building's autonomy by decreasing the heat or fuel used to heat water. They are attractive because they have no lifestyle changes.
Current practical, comfortable domestic water-heating systems combine a solar preheating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy.
Solar water heaters can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. Pure solar heaters are especially useful for laundries, swimming pools and external baths, because these can be scheduled for use on sunny days.
The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are vacuum- insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight.
Cogeneration systems produce hot water from waste heat. They usually get the heat from the exhaust of a generator or fuel cell.
Heat recycling, cogeneration and solar pre-heating can save 50–75% of the gas otherwise used. Also, some combinations provide redundant reliability by having several sources of heat.
Some authorities advocate replacing bottled gas or natural gas with biogas. However, this is usually impractical unless live-stock are on-site. The wastes of a single family are usually insufficient to produce enough methane for anything more than small amounts of cooking.
Cooling
Annualized geo solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface.
Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs.
Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, perhaps with a whole-house fan and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky-facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky-facing radiators can cool below freezing.
If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the "dome effect." Many installations have reported that a reflective or light-colored dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some people have reported a temperature differential as high as () between the inside of the dome and the outside. Buckminster Fuller discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his Dymaxion house and geodesic domes to use it.
Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an "absorptive chiller". The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space.
Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or stirling engines powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller.
A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator.
A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low-temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50 °F (28 °C), and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, it also partially sterilises to the air.
If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a heat pump.
Food production
Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security.
Skilled, intensive gardening can support an adult from as little as 100 square meters of land per person,
possibly requiring the use of organic farming and aeroponics. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include urban gardening (indoors and outdoors). Indoor cultivation may be set up using hydroponics, while outdoor cultivation may be done using permaculture, forest gardening, no-till farming, and do nothing farming.
Greenhouses are also sometimes included. Sometimes they are also outfitted with irrigation systems or heat sink systems which can respectively irrigate the plants or help to store energy from the sun and redistribute it at night (when the greenhouses starts to cool down).
See also
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Notes
External links
* [https://www.bfi.org/ Buckminster Fuller Institute]
*[https://www.greenspec.co.uk/ GreenSpec], a UK resources site which endorses green building products, systems, and services
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* Brenda and Robert Vale. [https://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1906 Sustainable development begins at home]. March 15, 2002.
*[https://portreepassivhaus.uk/cropthorne/design/ The Cropthorne House] (December 28, 2009)
Category:Building engineering
Category:Human habitats
Category:Low-energy building
Category:Sustainable architecture
Category:Sustainable building
Category:Self-sustainability
Category:Building
Category:Buildings and structures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_building | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.536734 |
3027 | Anubis | , or Ra , or Set
| consort Anput, Nephthys
| offspring = Kebechet
| siblings = Bata
| Greek_equivalent = Hades or Hermes
}}
Anubis (; ), also known as Inpu, Inpw, Jnpw, or Anpu in Ancient Egyptian (), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld, in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine head.
Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the First Dynasty (), Anubis was also an embalmer. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by Osiris in his role as lord of the underworld. One of his prominent roles was as a god who ushered souls into the afterlife. He attended the weighing scale during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the Egyptian pantheon; however, few major myths involved him.
Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the Nile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with Wepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined. Anubis' female counterpart is Anput. His daughter is the serpent goddess Kebechet.Name"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's Egyptian name. The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."
In the Old Kingdom (), the standard way of writing his name in hieroglyphs was composed of the sound signs inpw followed by a jackal over a ḥtp sign: and }} <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter: and }} <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>
Anubis' name jnpw was possibly pronounced , based on Coptic Anoup and the Akkadian transcription }} (}}) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "Reanapa" that appears in Amarna letter EA 315. However, this transcription may also be interpreted as rˁ-nfr, a name similar to that of Prince Ranefer of the Fourth Dynasty.
History
In Egypt's Early Dynastic period (), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "jackal" head and body. A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of Hor-Aha, Djer, and other pharaohs of the First Dynasty. Since Predynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh. In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation."
In the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1700 BC). In the Roman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.
The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra. In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet. Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys. More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population. The Greek Plutarch (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife Isis:
George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon." An Egyptian papyrus from the Roman period (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis." In Nubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys. The two gods were considered similar because they both guided souls to the afterlife. The center of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of The Golden Ass by Apuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in Rome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens and Cerberus and Hades in the underworld. In his dialogues, Plato often has Socrates utter oaths "by the dog" (Greek: kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.RolesEmbalmerof the deceased.|upright1]]
As jmy-wt (Imiut or the Imiut fetish) "He who is in the place of embalming", Anubis was associated with mummification. He was also called ḫnty zḥ-nṯr "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber.
The Jumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a leopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he branded Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then flayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the tombs of the dead. Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.
Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.Guide of souls
. Anubis is portrayed as guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of the ibis-headed Thoth.|left]]
By the late pharaonic era (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the afterlife. Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed Hathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function. Greek writers from the Roman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "psychopomp", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god Hermes, who also played that role in Greek religion. Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.Weigher of heartsOne of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales." The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the Book of the Dead, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the underworld, known as Duat). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against ''ma'at'', who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by Ammit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.Portrayal in artAnubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in ancient Egyptian art. He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the First Dynasty. The African jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis. An extremely rare depiction of him in fully human form was found in a chapel of Ramesses II in Abydos.
Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a nḫ3ḫ3 "flail" in the crook of his arm.
File:Casa degli Amorini Dorati. Fresco. 09.JPG|Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy
File:Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis MET 90.6.128 01.jpg|Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis
File:The King with Anubis, Tomb of Haremhab MET DP234736.jpg|The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Anubis Amulet MET DP109371.jpg|Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Recumbent Anubis MET DP228716.jpg|Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Statuette of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg|Statuette of Anubis; 332–30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
Worship
Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures.<ref name":1" /> The Greeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as Hermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.<ref name":1" />
Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals.<ref name":1" /><ref name":2" /> His cult center was at Cynopolis in Upper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.<ref name":1" /> See also
* Abatur, Mandaean uthra who weighs the souls of the dead to determine their fate
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* Anput
* Anubias
* Bhairava
* Hades
References
was depicted as Anubis]]
Informational notes
Citations
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Category:Canine deities
Category:Animal gods
Category:Egyptian death gods
Category:Egyptian underworld
Category:Mythological human hybrids
Category:Psychopomps
Category:Underworld gods
Category:Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anubis | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.559745 |
3029 | Arthur Jensen | | birth_place = San Diego, California, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Kelseyville, California, U.S.
| resting_place | resting_place_coordinates <!-- -->
| fields = Educational psychology, intelligence, cognition, behavior genetics
| workplaces = University of California, Berkeley, Editorial boards of Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences
| alma_mater = University of California, Berkeley (BA)<br>San Diego State University (MA)<br />Columbia University (PhD)
| thesis_title = Aggression in Fantasy and Overt Behavior
| thesis_url | thesis_year 1956
| doctoral_advisor = Percival Symonds
| academic_advisors | doctoral_students
| notable_students | known_for Heritability of IQ, race and intelligence, g factor
| author_abbrev_bot | author_abbrev_zoo
| awards = Kistler Prize (2003), ISIR Lifetime Achievement Award (2006)
| signature = <!--(filename only)-->
| signature_alt | website <!-- -->
| footnotes | spouse Barbara Jensen
}}
Arthur Robert Jensen (August 24, 1923 – October 22, 2012) was an American psychologist and writer. He was a professor of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Jensen was known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, the study of how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another.
He was a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature and nurture debate, the position that genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality. He was the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals and sat on the editorial boards of the scientific journals Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences.
Jensen was controversial, largely for his conclusions regarding the causes of race-based differences in IQ.
Early life and education
Jensen was born August 24, 1923, in San Diego, California, the son of Linda Mary (née Schachtmayer) and Arthur Alfred Jensen, who operated and owned a lumber and building materials company. His paternal grandparents were Danish immigrants and his mother was of half-Polish Jewish and half-German descent.
As a child, Jensen was interested in herpetology and classical music, playing clarinet in the San Diego Symphony orchestra.
Jensen received a B.A. in psychology from the University of California, Berkeley in 1945 and went on to obtain his M.A. in psychology in 1952 from San Diego State College. He earned his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Columbia University in 1956 under the supervision of Percival Symonds on the thematic apperception test. From 1956 through 1958, he did postdoctoral research at the University of London, Institute of Psychiatry with Hans Eysenck.
Upon returning to the United States, he became a researcher and professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he focused on individual differences in learning, especially the influences of culture, development, and genetics on intelligence and learning. He received tenure at Berkeley in 1962. He concentrated on the learning difficulties of culturally disadvantaged students.
Jensen had a lifelong interest in classical music and was, early in his life, attracted by the idea of becoming a conductor himself. At 14, he conducted a band that won a nationwide contest held in San Francisco. Later, he conducted orchestras and attended a seminar given by Nikolai Sokoloff. Soon after graduating from Berkeley, he moved to New York, mainly to be near the conductor Arturo Toscanini. He was also deeply interested in the life and example of Gandhi, producing an unpublished book-length manuscript on his life. During Jensen's period in San Diego he spent time working as a social worker with the San Diego Department of Public Welfare.
IQ and academic achievement
Jensen's interest in learning differences directed him to the extensive testing of school children. The results led him to distinguish between two separate types of learning ability. Level I, or associative learning, may be defined as retention of input and rote memorization of simple facts and skills. Level II, or conceptual learning, is roughly equivalent to the ability to manipulate and transform inputs, that is, the ability to solve problems.
Later, Jensen was an important advocate in the mainstream acceptance of the general factor of intelligence, a concept which was essentially synonymous with his Level II conceptual learning. The general factor, or g, is an abstraction that stems from the observation that scores on all forms of cognitive tests correlate positively with one another.
Jensen claimed, on the basis of his research, that general cognitive ability is essentially an inherited trait, determined predominantly by genetic factors rather than by environmental conditions. He also contended that while associative learning, or memorizing ability, is equally distributed among the races, conceptual learning, or synthesizing ability, occurs with significantly greater frequency in some races than in others.
Jensen's most controversial work, published in February 1969 in the Harvard Educational Review, was titled "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?" It concluded, among other things, that Head Start programs designed to boost African-American IQ scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, 80% of the variance in IQ in the population studied was the result of genetic factors and the remainder was due to environmental influences.
The paper immediately prompted weeks of violent protest on the Berkley campus, with additional protests occurring throughout the 1970s.
The work became one of the most cited papers in the history of psychological testing and intelligence research, although a large number of citations consisted of rebuttals of Jensen's work, or references to it as an example of a controversial paper.
Jensen was among the most frequent contributors to the German journal Neue Anthropologie, a publication founded by the neo-Nazi Jürgen Rieger, and served alongside Rieger on this journal's editorial board.
In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an essay written by Linda Gottfredson and published in The Wall Street Journal, which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on the meaning and significance of IQ following the publication of the book The Bell Curve. Jensen received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund,
an organization frequently described as racist and white supremacist in nature.
The fund contributed a total of $3.5 million to researchers cited in The Bell Curve's most controversial chapter "that suggests some races are naturally smarter than others" with Jensen's works being cited twenty-three times in the book's bibliography.DeathHe died on October 22, 2012, at his home in Kelseyville, California, at age 89.AssessmentAccording to David Lubinski of Vanderbilt University, the "extent to which [Jensen's] work was either admired or reviled by many distinguished scientists is unparalleled."
After Jensen's death, James Flynn of the University of Otago, a prominent advocate of the environmental position, told The New York Times that Jensen was without racial bias and had not initially foreseen that his research would be used to argue for racial supremacy and that his career was "emblematic of the extent to which American scholarship is inhibited by political orthodoxy", though he noted that Jensen shifted towards genetic explanations later in life.
Psychologist Sandra Scarr wrote in the journal Intelligence in 1998 that Jensen possessed an "uncompromising personal integrity" and set the standard for "honest psychological science". She described his critics as "politically driven liars, who distort scientific facts in a misguided and condescending effort to protect an impossible myth about human equality".
Steven J. Haggbloom, writing for Review of General Psychology in 2002, rated Jensen as one of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, based on six different metrics chosen by Haggbloom.
In 1980 Jensen published a book in defense of the tests used to measure mental abilities, titled Bias in Mental Testing. Reviewing this book, psychologist Kenneth Kaye endorsed Jensen's distinction between bias and discrimination, saying that he found many of Jensen's opponents to be more politically biased than Jensen was.
Criticism
Melvin Konner of Emory University, wrote:
Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote that Jensen had largely ignored evidence which failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent genetic racial differences.
Paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould criticized Jensen's work in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of "heritability", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance within a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156–157). According to Gould, Jensen uses heritability to measure differences between populations. Gould also disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, g, or "the general factor common to a large number of cognitive abilities" which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with Charles Spearman. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of L. L. Thurstone to ultimately support this claim; Gould, however, argues that Thurstone's factor analysis of intelligence revealed g to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Gould criticizes Jensen's sources including his use of Catharine Cox's 1926 Genetic Studies of Genius, which examines historiometrically the IQs of historic intellectuals after their deaths (Gould 1981: 153–154).Books Bias in Mental Testing Bias in Mental Testing (1980) is a book examining the question of test bias in commonly used standardized tests. The book runs almost 800 pages and has been called "exhaustive" by three researchers who reviewed the field 19 years after the book's publication. It reviewed in detail the available evidence about test bias across major US racial/ethnic groups. Jensen concluded that "the currently most widely used standardized tests of mental ability -- IQ, scholastic aptitude, and achievement tests -- are, by and large, not biased against any of the native-born English-speaking minority groups on which the amount of research evidence is sufficient for an objective determination of bias, if the tests were in fact biased. For most nonverbal standardized tests, this generalization is not limited to English-speaking minorities." (p. ix). Jensen also published a summary of the book the same year which was a target article in the journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences to which 27 commentaries were printed along with the author's reply. Straight Talk about Mental Tests Straight Talk about Mental Tests (1981) is a book written about psychometrics for the general public. John B. Carroll reviewed it favorably in 1982, saying it was a useful summary of the issues, as did Paul Cline writing for the British Journal of Psychiatry. In 2016, Richard J. Haier called it "a clear examination of all issues surrounding mental testing".The g FactorThe g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998) is a book on the general intelligence factor (g). The book deals with the intellectual history of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power.Clocking the Mind
Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences (2006) deals with mental chronometry (MC), and covers the speed with which the brain processes information and different ways this is measured. Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability, which is in contrast to IQ, which merely represents an interval (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true ratio scale properties.
Joseph Glicksohn wrote in a 2007 review for Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology that "The book should be perused with care in order to ensure the further profitable use of [reaction time] in both experimental and differential lines of research."
Douglas Detterman reviewed it in 2008 for Intelligence, writing that "the book would make a good introduction to the field of the measurement of individual differences in cognitive tasks for beginning graduate students." Eric-Jan Wagenmakers and Han van der Mass, also writing for Intelligence in 2018, faulted the book for omitting the work by mathematical psychologists, advocating standardization of chronometric methods (which the authors consider problematic because it can hide method variance), and because it does not discuss topics such as the mutualism model of the g-factor and the Flynn effect. They describe the book's breadth as useful, despite its simplistic approach. Jensen was on the editorial board of Intelligence when these reviews were published.AwardsIn 2003, Jensen was awarded the Kistler Prize for original contributions to the understanding of the connection between the human genome and human society. In 2006, the International Society for Intelligence Research awarded Jensen its Lifetime Achievement Award.See also
*Heritability of IQ
*Race and intelligence
*History of the race and intelligence controversy
* Jensen box
References
Further reading
Interviews
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100401053715/http://www.edb.utexas.edu/robinson/danr/JEBS%2031%283%29%20-06_Jensen%20profile.pdf "Profiles in Research. Arthur Jensen. Interview by Daniel H. Robinson and Howard Wainer." Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics Fall 2006, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 327–352]
*[https://books.google.com/books?idISBN081334008X Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen.] (2002) Frank Miele (of Skeptic Magazine). Westview Press. Selected articles, books, and book chapters*Jensen. A. R. (1973). Educational differences. London. Methuen. [https://books.google.com/books?idZE8OAAAAQAAJ google books link]
*
*
*
*
*Jensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, & J. Yu (Eds.), Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson (pp. 103–129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
*
*Jensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, & D. J. Lubinski (Eds), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues (pp. 393–411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.
*Jensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg & W. M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice. (pp. 111–131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
*
*
*Jensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? (pp. 39–53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum.
*
*Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, & the Law, 11, 235–294. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20051022010256/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf pdf])
*Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the g factor. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 177–183. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041220072845/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Rushton-Jensen2003PAID.pdf pdf])
*Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 328–336. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20050429214028/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL2.pdf pdf])
External links
*[http://arthurjensen.net/ Arthur Robert Jensen memorial site]
*[http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen's Response to Gould's Criticisms]
*
*[https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/arthur-jensen Jensen biography at Southern Poverty Law Center]
Category:1923 births
Category:2012 deaths
Category:21st-century American psychologists
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American people of Danish descent
Category:American people of German descent
Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Category:20th-century American psychologists
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Category:American social workers
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Category:University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Education faculty
Category:Writers from San Diego | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Jensen | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.579940 |
3032 | A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum | |productions=
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A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart.
Inspired by the farces of the ancient Roman playwright Plautus (254–184 BC), specifically Curculio, Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus, and Mostellaria, the musical tells the bawdy story of a slave named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by helping his young master woo the girl next door. The plot displays many classic elements of farce, including puns, the slamming of doors, cases of mistaken identity (frequently involving characters disguising themselves as one another), and satirical comments on social class. The title derives from a line often used by vaudeville comedians to begin a story: "A funny thing happened on the way to the theater".
The musical's original 1962 Broadway run won several Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Author (Musical). A Funny Thing has enjoyed several Broadway and West End revivals and was made into a successful film starring the original lead of the stage musical, Zero Mostel.
Productions
Original Broadway
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum opened on Broadway on May 8, 1962, at the Alvin Theatre, and then transferred to the Mark Hellinger Theatre and the Majestic Theatre, where the show closed on August 29, 1964, after 964 performances and 8 previews.
The show's creators sought Phil Silvers for the lead role of Pseudolus, but he turned them down, allegedly because he would have to perform onstage without his glasses, and his vision was so poor that he feared tripping into the orchestra pit. He is also quoted as turning down the role for being "Sgt. Bilko in a toga". (Silvers eventually played the role – wearing his glasses – in a 1972 revival. In the film, he played Marcus Lycus.) Milton Berle also passed on the role. Eventually, Zero Mostel was cast.
During out-of-town tryouts the show attracted little business and did not play well. Jerome Robbins, to whom the show had originally been offered but who turned it down, was called in to give advice and make changes. In the interim, Joshua Logan was invited to direct, but according to Sondheim was rejected "because he wanted too much male nudity." It was then offered to veteran director George Abbott, who found it to be difficult to handle alone. The biggest change Robbins made was adding a new opening number to replace "Love Is in the Air" and introduce the show as a bawdy, wild comedy. Stephen Sondheim wrote the song "Comedy Tonight" for this new opening. and starred Frankie Howerd as Pseudolus and Leon Greene as Miles Gloriosus in both. In the 1963 production, Kenneth Connor appeared as Hysterium, 'Monsewer' Eddie Gray as Senex and Jon Pertwee as Marcus Lycus. In the 1986 revival, Patrick Cargill was Senex with Ronnie Stevens as Hysterium and Derek Royle as Erronius.
In 2004 there was a limited-run revival at the Royal National Theatre, starring Desmond Barrit as Pseudolus, Philip Quast as Miles Gloriosus, Hamish McColl as Hysterium and Isla Blair as Domina (who had previously played Philia in the 1963 production). This production was nominated for the 2005 Olivier Award, Outstanding Musical Production.
Motion picture adaptation
Both Mostel and Gilford re-created their Broadway roles for the 1966 musical film directed by Richard Lester. Leon Greene reprised his West End role (Miles Gloriosus), while Phil Silvers portrayed Lycus, Michael Crawford portrayed Hero, and Michael Hordern played Senex. Buster Keaton made his final film appearance in the role of Erronius.
Broadway revivals
A revival opened on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on April 4, 1972, and closed on August 12, 1972, after 156 performances. Directed by co-author Burt Shevelove the cast starred Phil Silvers as Pseudolus (later replaced by Tom Poston), Lew Parker as Senex, Carl Ballantine as Lycus and Reginald Owen as Erronius. Larry Blyden, who played Hysterium, the role created by Jack Gilford, also co-produced. "Pretty Little Picture" and "That'll Show Him" were dropped from the show, and were replaced with "Echo Song" (sung by Hero and Philia), and "Farewell" (added for Nancy Walker as Domina, as she and Senex depart for the country). "Echo Song" and "Farewell" had been added to a production staged in Los Angeles the previous year and were composed by Sondheim. They had to close soon after Phil Silvers suffered a stroke. The show won two Tony Awards, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for Silvers, and Best Featured Actor in a Musical for Blyden.
Every actor who has opened in the role of Pseudolus on Broadway (Zero Mostel, Phil Silvers, and Nathan Lane) has won a Best Leading Actor Tony Award for his performance. In addition, Jason Alexander, who performed as Pseudolus in one scene in ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'', also won a Tony for Best Actor in a Musical.
Other productions
The original Australian production with American actor Jack Collins as Pseudolus opened at the Theatre Royal in Sydney in July 1964, and toured other Australian cities through 1965.
A production was directed by Stephen R. Buss at Boise State University in 1995, starring James B. Fisk, Randy Davison, Karen Wennstrom and Daniel Taylor.
In 1998, Jon English starred as Pseudolus in Essgee Entertainment's production that opened New Year's Day at the State Theatre, Melbourne and toured Australia and New Zealand, closing September 1999.
The Stephen Sondheim Center for the Performing Arts produced a limited-run revival of the musical from January 11 to 27, 2008. The production was directed by Randal K. West, with Justin Hill as musical director and Adam Cates as choreographer. The cast featured Richard Kind as Pseudolus, Joel Blum as Senex, Stephen DeRosa as Marcus Lycus, Sean McCall as Hysterium, and Steve Wilson as Miles Gloriosus. It also featured Diana Upton-Hill, Ryan Gaffney, Stephen Mark Crisp, Jack Kloppenborg, and Margret Clair.
The Chung Ying Theatre Company in Hong Kong staged a Cantonese version of the musical at Kwai Tsing Theatre, to celebrate the company's 30th anniversary. It was directed by Chung King Fai and Ko Tin Lung and ran from March 14 to 21, 2009.
The Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, Canada production ran from June 11 to November 7, 2009, with Des McAnuff directing and Wayne Cilento as choreographer. Bruce Dow originally performed the role of Pseudolus, but was forced to withdraw from the entire 2009 season due to an injury, and the role was then performed by Seán Cullen as of September 5, 2009. Stephen Ouimette played Hysterium. Mirvish Productions presented the earlier Stratford production at the Canon Theatre, Toronto, in December 2010 through January 2011. Bruce Dow and Sean Cullen were alternates in the lead role.
In October 2012 the play opened at Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne, Australia, with Geoffrey Rush as Pseudolus, Magda Szubanski as Domina and Shane Bourne as Senex.
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum was produced at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey from November 14, 2015, to December 13, 2015, with an all-male cast (Paul Castree, Eddie Cooper, Kevin Isola, David Josefsberg, Max Kumangai, Graham Rowat, Manny Stark, Bobby Conte Thornton, David Turner, Michael Urie, Tom Deckman, and Christopher Fitzgerald).
In March 2024, the musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum premiered at Teatro Claro Mais in São Paulo, marking the first official Brazilian production of this Broadway classic. Starring Miguel Falabella as Pseudolus, the show features a prominent cast, including Edgar Bustamante, Ivan Parente, Giovanna Zotti, Carlos Capeletti, Mauricio Xavier, Lucas Colombo, and Luci Salutes.
Plot
In ancient Rome, some neighbors live in three adjacent houses. In the center is the house of Senex, who lives there with wife Domina, son Hero, and several slaves, including head slave Hysterium and the musical's main character Pseudolus. A slave belonging to Hero, Pseudolus wishes to buy, win, or steal his freedom. One of the neighboring houses is owned by Marcus Lycus, who is a buyer and seller of beautiful women; the other belongs to the ancient Erronius, who is abroad searching for his long-lost children (stolen in infancy by pirates).
One day, Senex and Domina go on a trip and leave Pseudolus in charge of Hero. Hero confides in Pseudolus that he is in love with the lovely Philia, one of the courtesans in the House of Lycus who is nevertheless still a virgin. Pseudolus promises to help him win Philia's love in exchange for his own freedom. Unfortunately (as the two find out when they visit Lycus), Philia has been sold to the renowned warrior, Captain Miles Gloriosus, who is expected to claim her very soon. Pseudolus, an excellent liar, uses Philia's cheery disposition to convince Lycus that she has picked up a plague from Crete, which causes its victims to smile endlessly in its terminal stages. By offering to isolate her in Senex's house, he is able to give Philia and Hero some time alone together, and the two fall in love. But Philia insists that, even though she is in love with Hero, she must honor her contract with the captain, for "that is the way of a courtesan." To appease her, he tells her to wait ("that's what virgins do best, isn't it?") inside, and that he will have the captain knock three times when he arrives. Pseudolus comes up with a plan to slip Philia a sleeping potion. He will then tell Lycus that she has died of the Cretan plague and will offer to remove the body. Hero will stow away with Philia on a ship headed for Greece. Pseudolus steals Hysterium's book of potions and has Hero read him the recipe for the sleeping potion; the only ingredient he lacks is a cup of mare's sweat, and Pseudolus goes to search for it.
Unexpectedly, Senex returns home early from his trip, and knocks three times on his own door. Philia comes out of the house, and, thinking that Senex is the captain, offers herself up to him. Surprised but game, Senex instructs Philia to wait in the house for him, and she does. Hysterium arrives and nervously tells Senex that Philia is the new maid that he has hired. Pseudolus returns, having procured the mare's sweat; seeing that Senex has returned and grasping the need to keep him out of the way, Pseudolus discreetly sprinkles some of the horse-sweat onto him, then suggests that the road trip has left Senex in dire need of a bath. Taking the bait, Senex instructs Hysterium to draw him a bath in the long-empty house of Erronius. But while this is happening, Erronius returns home, finally having given up the search for his long-lost children. Hysterium, desperate to keep him out of the house where his master is bathing, tells the old man that his house has become haunted – a story seemingly confirmed by the sound of Senex singing in his bath. Erronius immediately determines to have a soothsayer come and banish the spirit from his house, and Pseudolus obligingly poses as one, telling Erronius that, in order to banish the spirit, he must travel seven times around the seven hills of Rome (thus keeping the old man occupied and out of the way for quite a while).
When Miles Gloriosus arrives to claim his courtesan-bride, Pseudolus hides Philia on the roof of Senex's house; told that she has "escaped", Lycus is terrified to face the captain's wrath. Pseudolus offers to impersonate Lycus and talk his way out of the mess but, his ingenuity flagging, he ends up merely telling the captain that Philia has disappeared, and that he, "Lycus", will search for her. Displeased and suspicious, Miles insists that his soldiers accompany Pseudolus, but the wily slave loses them in Rome's winding streets.
Complicating matters further, Domina returns from her trip early, suspicious that her husband Senex is "up to something low." She disguises herself in virginal white robes and a veil (much like Philia's) to try to catch Senex being unfaithful. Pseudolus convinces Hysterium to help him by dressing in drag and pretending to be Philia, "dead" from the plague. Unfortunately, it turns out that Miles Gloriosus has just returned from Crete, where there is of course no actual plague. With the ruse thus revealed, the main characters run for their lives, resulting in a madcap chase across the stage with both Miles and Senex pursuing all three "Philia"s (Domina, Hysterium, and the actual Philia – all wearing identical white robes and veils). Meanwhile, the courtesans from the house of Marcus Lycus, who had been recruited as mourners at "Philia"'s ersatz funeral, have escaped, and Lycus sends his eunuchs out to bring them all back, adding to the general pandemonium.
Finally, the captain's troops are able to round everyone up. His plot thoroughly unraveled, Pseudolus appears to be in deep trouble – but Erronius, completing his third circuit of the Roman hills, shows up fortuitously to discover that Miles Gloriosus and Philia are wearing matching rings which mark them as his long-lost children. Philia's betrothal to the captain is nullified by the unexpected revelation that he is her brother, and, as the daughter of a free-born citizen, she is freed from Marcus Lycus. Philia weds Hero with Erronius' blessing; Pseudolus gets his freedom and the lovely courtesan Gymnasia; Gloriosus receives twin courtesans to replace Philia; and Erronius is reunited with his children. A happy ending prevails for all – except for poor Senex, stuck with his shrewish wife Domina.
Characters
*Pseudolus: A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win freedom by helping Hero win the heart of Philia. The slave name Pseudolus means "Faker". While originally written as a male role, it has been performed by female actors as well.
*Hero: Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia.
*Philia: (Greek for "love") A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest. Her name is also a homophone of the Latin word "Filia", which means daughter. This foreshadows her status as the daughter of Erronius.
* Hysterium: (Latin for "Hysterical", or "Anxious", the suffix "-um" makes the name neuter, and the character's gender is often mistaken throughout the piece) The chief slave in the house of Senex.
*Senex: (Latin for "old man") A henpecked, sardonic Roman senator living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome.
*Domina: (Latin for "mistress") The wife of Senex. A manipulative, shrewish woman who is loathed by even her husband.
*Marcus Lycus: A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex. (Name based on Lycus, the pimp in Plautus's Poenulus.)
*Miles Gloriosus: (Latin for "boastful soldier", the archetype of the braggart soldier in Roman comedies) A captain in the Roman army to whom Marcus Lycus has promised Philia.
*Erronius: (Latin for "wandering") Senex's elderly neighbor in the house to the right. He has spent the past twenty years searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates.
*Gymnasia: (Greek for "Athletic", with the connotation of nakedness) A courtesan from the house of Lycus with whom Pseudolus falls in love.
*Tintinabula: (Latin for "Bells") A jingling, bell-wearing courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Vibrata: (Latin for "Vibrant") A wild, vibrant courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Geminae: (Latin for "Twins") Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus.
*Panacea: (Greek for "Cure All") A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Proteans: Choristers who play multiple roles (slaves, citizens, soldiers, and eunuchs). They accompany Pseudolus in "Comedy Tonight". On Broadway, three people played all of these roles.
Cast
{|class"wikitable" style"width:100%;"
|-
! Role
!Original Broadway
!Original London
!1966 film
!1972 Broadway revival
!1996 Broadway revival
!2004 London revival
|-
!Prologus/<br/>Pseudolus
| style="text-align:center;" | Zero Mostel
| style="text-align:center;" | Frankie Howerd
| style="text-align:center;" | Zero Mostel
| style="text-align:center;" | Phil Silvers
| style="text-align:center;" | Nathan Lane
| style="text-align:center;" | Desmond Barrit
|-
!Hero
| style="text-align:center;" | Brian Davies
| style="text-align:center;" | John Rye
| style="text-align:center;" | Michael Crawford
| style"text-align:center;" | John Hansen
| style="text-align:center;" | Jim Stanek
| style="text-align:center;" | Vince Leigh
|-
!Philia
| style="text-align:center;" | Preshy Marker
| style="text-align:center;" | Isla Blair
| style="text-align:center;" | Annette Andre
| style="text-align:center;" | Pamela Hall
| style="text-align:center;" | Jessica Boevers
| style="text-align:center;" | Caroline Sheen
|-
!Hysterium
| style="text-align:center;" | Jack Gilford
| style="text-align:center;" | Kenneth Connor
| style="text-align:center;" | Jack Gilford
| style="text-align:center;" | Larry Blyden
| style="text-align:center;" | Mark Linn-Baker
| style="text-align:center;" | Hamish McColl
|-
!Senex
| style="text-align:center;" | David Burns
| style="text-align:center;" | Eddie Gray
| style="text-align:center;" | Michael Hordern
| style="text-align:center;" | Lew Parker
| style="text-align:center;" | Lewis J. Stadlen
| style="text-align:center;" | Sam Kelly
|-
!Domina
| style="text-align:center;" | Ruth Kobart
| style="text-align:center;" | Linda Gray
| style="text-align:center;" | Patricia Jessel
| style="text-align:center;" | Lizabeth Pritchett
| style="text-align:center;" | Mary Testa
| style="text-align:center;" | Isla Blair
|-
!Marcus Lycus
| style="text-align:center;" | John Carradine
| style="text-align:center;" | Jon Pertwee
| style="text-align:center;" | Phil Silvers
| style="text-align:center;" | Carl Ballantine
| style="text-align:center;" | Ernie Sabella
| style="text-align:center;" | David Schneider
|-
! Miles Gloriosus
| style="text-align:center;" | Ronald Holgate
| colspan2 style"text-align:center;" | Leon Greene
| style="text-align:center;" | Carl Lindstrom
| style="text-align:center;" | Cris Groenendaal
| style="text-align:center;" | Philip Quast
|-
! Erronius
| style="text-align:center;" | Raymond Walburn
| style="text-align:center;" | Robertson Hare
| style="text-align:center;" | Buster Keaton
| style="text-align:center;" | Reginald Owen
| style="text-align:center;" | William Duell
| style="text-align:center;" | Harry Towb
|-
!Panacea
|
|
|
|
| style="text-align:center;"| Leigh Zimmerman
| style="text-align:center;"| Lorraine Stewart
|}
Songs
Act I
* "Comedy Tonight" – Pseudolus and Company
* "Love, I Hear" – Hero
* "Free" – Pseudolus and Hero
* "The House of Marcus Lycus" – Lycus, Pseudolus and Courtesans
* "Lovely" – Philia and Hero
* "Pretty Little Picture" – Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia
* "Everybody Ought to Have a Maid" – Senex, Pseudolus, Hysterium and Lycus
* "I'm Calm" – Hysterium
* "Impossible" – Senex and Hero
* "Bring Me My Bride" – Miles Gloriosus, Pseudolus and Company
Act II
* "That Dirty Old Man" – Domina
* "That'll Show Him" – Philia
* "Lovely" (reprise) – Pseudolus and Hysterium
* "Funeral Sequence" – Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company
* "Finale" – Company
Cut songs:
*"Love Is in the Air" – Prologus (Played by Senex) and Proteans (Originally intended as the opening number, replaced with "Comedy Tonight". The song was later featured in the film The Birdcage (1996) where it was performed by Robin Williams and Christine Baranski.)
*"Invocation and Instructions to the Audience" (Another version of the opening number. Used in subsequent revues of Sondheim songs and was sung by Nathan Lane in the musical The Frogs.)
*"I Do Like You" – Pseudolus and Hysterium
*"There's Something About a War" – Miles Gloriosus
*"Echo Song" – Philia and Hero
*"Your Eyes Are Blue" – Hero
*"The Gaggle of Geese" – Erronius
*"What Do You Do With a Woman?" – Hero
Notes:
"Pretty Little Picture" is frequently dropped from productions, and one verse of "I'm Calm" is also often trimmed. A song for Domina entitled "Farewell" was added for the 1972 revival as she and Senex depart for the country. "Echo Song" was reinstated in the same revival.
Awards and honors
Original Broadway production
{| class"wikitable" width"95%"
|-
! width="5%"| Year
! width="25%"| Award ceremony
! width="40%"| Category
! width="20%"| Nominee
! width="10%"| Result
|-
| 1962
| Outer Critics Circle Award
| Special Award
| George Abbott
|
|-
| rowspan"8" align"center"| 1963
| rowspan="8"| Tony Award
| colspan="2"| Best Musical
|
|-
| Best Producer of a Musical
| Harold Prince
|
|-
| Best Author
| Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical
| Zero Mostel
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical
| David Burns
|
|-
| Jack Gilford
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical
| Ruth Kobart
|
|-
| Best Direction of a Musical
| George Abbott
|
|}
1972 Broadway revival
{| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;"
|-
! style="width:5%;"| Year
! style="width:20%;"| Award
! style="width:45%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Nominee
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|-
| rowspan=3|1972
| rowspan=3|Tony Award
| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical
| Phil Silvers
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical
| Larry Blyden
|
|-
| Best Direction of a Musical
| Burt Shevelove
|
|}
1996 Broadway revival
{| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;"
|-
! style="width:5%;"| Year
! style="width:20%;"| Award
! style="width:45%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Nominee
! style="width:10%;"| Result
|-
| rowspan=9|1996
| rowspan=4|Tony Award
| colspan=2|Best Revival of a Musical
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical
| Nathan Lane
|
|-
| Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical
| Lewis J. Stadlen
|
|-
| Best Direction of a Musical
| Jerry Zaks
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Drama Desk Award
| colspan=2|Outstanding Revival of a Musical
|
|-
| Outstanding Actor in a Musical
| Nathan Lane
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Outer Critics Circle Award
| Outstanding Actor in a Musical
| Nathan Lane
|
|-
| Outstanding Director of a Musical
| Jerry Zaks
|
|-
| Drama League Award
| colspan=2|Distinguished Production of a Revival
|
|}
.
References
Notes
Bibliography
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071023093217/http://libretto.musicals.ru/text.php?textid6&language1 "'A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum' plot summary & character descriptions"] from [http://www.stageagent.com StageAgent.com]
*[http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_f/forum.htm "Plot and production information", guidetomusicaltheatre.com]
External links
*
*[http://www.sondheimdatabase.com/shows/a-funny-thing-happened-on-the-way-to-the-forum A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum] at the Sondheim Database
* [http://www.sondheimguide.com/forum.html ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Sondheim Guide]
*
* [http://www.mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000038 A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum] at the Music Theatre International website
Category:1962 musicals
Category:Broadway musicals
Category:West End musicals
Category:Musicals based on plays
Category:Musicals set in ancient Rome
Category:Musicals by Stephen Sondheim
Category:American plays adapted into films
Category:Plays based on works by Plautus
Category:Musicals choreographed by Jerome Robbins
Category:Tony Award for Best Musical
Category:Musicals by Larry Gelbart | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.601532 |
3034 | Aleuts | (west) or (east) ) are the Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleuts and the islands are politically divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai. This group is also known as the Unangax̂ in Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language. There are 13 federally recognized Aleut tribes in the Aleut Region of Alaska. In 2000, Aleuts in Russia were recognized by government decree as a small-numbered Indigenous people.
Etymology
In the Aleut language, they are known by the endonyms Unangan (eastern dialect) and Unangas (western dialect); both terms mean "people". and , respectively.}} The Russian term "Aleut" was a general term used for both the native population of the Aleutian Islands and their neighbors to the east in the Kodiak Archipelago, who were also referred to as "Pacific Eskimos" or Sugpiat/Alutiit. Language Aleut people speak Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language, as well as English and Russian in the United States and Russia respectively. An estimated 150 people in the United States and five people in Russia speak Aleut. The language belongs to the Eskaleut language family and includes three dialects: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof Islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect.
The Pribilof Islands has the highest number of active speakers of Unangam Tunuu. Most native elders speak Aleut, but it is rare for common people to speak the language fluently.
Beginning in 1829, Aleut was written in the Cyrillic script. From 1870, the language has been written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut.
* Attuan dialect and speaking tribes:
** Sasignan (in Attuan dialect)/Sasxnan (in Eastern dialect)/Sasxinas (in Western dialect) or Near Islanders: in the Near Islands (Attu, Agattu, Semichi).
** Kasakam Unangangis (in Aleut, lit. 'Russian Aleut') or Copper Island Aleut: in the Commander Islands of Russian Federation (Bering, Medny).
*? Qax̂un or Rat Islanders : in the Buldir Island and Rat Islands (Kiska, Amchitka, Semisopochnoi).
* Atkan dialect or Western Aleut or Aliguutax̂ (in Aleut) and speaking tribes:
** Naahmiĝus or Delarof Islanders : in the Delarof Islands (Amatignak) and Andreanof Islands (Tanaga).
** Niiĝuĝis or Andreanof Islanders : in the Andreanof Islands (Kanaga, Adak, Atka, Amlia, Seguam).
* Eastern Aleut dialect and speaking tribes:
** Akuuĝun or Uniiĝun or Islanders of the Four Mountains : in the Islands of Four Mountains (Amukta, Kagamil).
** Qawalangin or Fox Islanders : in the Fox Islands (Umnak, Samalga, western part of Unalaska).
** Qigiiĝun or Krenitzen Islanders : in the Krenitzin Islands (eastern part of Unalaska, Akutan, Akun, Tigalda).
** Qagaan Tayaĝungin or Sanak Islanders : in the Sanak Islands (Unimak, Sanak).
** Taxtamam Tunuu dialect of Belkofski.
** Qaĝiiĝun or Shumigan Islanders : in the Shumagin Islands.
Population and distribution
Aleuts historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula, with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact. In the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands (within the Aleutsky District of the Kamchatka Krai in Russia) and to the Pribilof Islands (in Alaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities.
According to the 2000 census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago. The Encyclopædia Britannica Online states that more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century.
by Gustav-Fyodor Khristianovich Pauli (1862)]]
Recorded uprising against the Russians
In the 18th century, Russia promyshlenniki traders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleuts provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleuts revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to the Aleuts, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleuts less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleuts felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov ( ) and Kazhimov ( ) to kill his mistress Oniishin ( ), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods.
After the four leaders had been killed, the Aleuts began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials. (According to , written by Katsuragawa Hoshū after interviewing Daikokuya Kōdayū.)
Aleut genocide against the Nicoleño Tribe in California
According to Russian American Company (RAC) records which were translated and published in the Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, a 200-ton otter hunting ship named Il’mena with a mixed-nationality crew, including a majority Aleut contingent, was involved in conflict resulting in a massacre of the indigenous natives of San Nicolas Island.
In 1814, to obtain more of the commercially valuable otter pelts, a Russian company brought a party of conscripted Aleut hunters to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally resident Nicoleño nation sought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; an Aleut was killed, and in retaliation Aleuts killed a number of Nicoleño (the exact amount is unknown). In 1835, the remaining Nicoleños were removed from the island, except for one woman and possibly her child, who were left behind. In 1853 that woman, later christened Juana Maria, was found and taken to Santa Barbara. She may have been the last living Nicoleñan, as what happened to the others after they were brought to the mainland is unknown (Juana Maria, the Lone Woman of San Nicolas).Internment during World War IIIn June 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Kiska and Attu Islands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaido, where they were held as prisoners of war in harsh conditions. Fearing a Japanese attack on other Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska, the U.S. government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died of measles, influenza and other infectious diseases which spread quickly in the overcrowded dormitories. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 22died while prisoners of the Japanese. The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the U.S. Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps.
The World War II campaign by the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in the American and Pacific theaters.
Population's decline
Before their way of life was changed by major influences from the outside world, approximately 25,000 Aleuts were located on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of aboriginal society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors.
Culture
Housing
Aleuts constructed partially underground houses called barabara. According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, s keep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area". Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, and then covered with earth for insulation. Inside trenches were dug along the sides, with mats placed on top to keep them clean. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance. Several families would stay in one house, with their own designated areas. Rather than fireplaces or bonfires in the middle, lanterns were hung in the house.Subsistence
Aleuts survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as hunting sea mammals such as seal, walrus, and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted. Caribou, muskoxen, deer, moose, whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed as , a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus.
Today, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also buy processed foods from abroad, which is expensive in Alaska.
Ethnobotany
A full list of their ethnobotany has been compiled, with 65 documented plant uses. Visual arts
basket and lid embellished with wool embroidery, early 20th century, Brooklyn Museum ]]
Customary arts of the Aleuts include weapon-making, building of baidarkas (special hunting boats), weaving, figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. Nineteenth century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and walrus ivory. Andrew Gronholdt of the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building the chagudax or bentwood hunting visors.
Aleuts also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Each clan would have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads.
Before the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among Aleuts, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle's feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins.
Piercing ears was also common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect.
Tattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, after menstruation, at about age 20. Historically, men received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, an important rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a wealthy, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose.
Aleut clothing
, or sea mammal intestine coat.]]
Aleuts developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps.
Sea-lions, harbor seals, and sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing.
Hunting technologies
Boats
, by Louis Choris, 1817]]
The interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs.
To hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft called baidarkas. For regular travel, they used their large s.
The (small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. Aleut resembles that of a Yup'ik kayak, but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made the for one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-man s were about long and wide, whereas a two-man was on average about long and wide. It was from the that Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea.
Harpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleuts used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals. The story is about revenge due in part to perceived mistreatment of the Aleuts.See also
*Adamagan
*Aleutian Islands
*Aleutian tradition
*Alutiiq
*Indigenous Amerindian genetics
*Maritime Fur Trade
*Sadlermiut
*Shamanism among Alaska Natives
*Unangan Aleut
* List of Native American peoples in the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
<!--B-->
*Black, Lydia T. Aleut Art: Unangam Aguqaadangin. Anchorage, Alaska: Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, 2005.
<!--J-->
* Jochelson, Waldemar. History, Ethnology, and Anthropology of the Aleut. Washington: Carnegie institution of Washington, 1933.
* Jochelson, Waldemar, Bergsland, Knut (Editor) & Dirks, Moses (Editor). Unangam Ungiikangin Kayux Tunusangin Unangam Uniikangis ama Tunuzangis Aleut Tales and Narratives. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1990..
<!--K-->
* Kohlhoff, Dean. When the Wind Was a River Aleut Evacuation in World War II. Seattle: University of Washington Press in association with Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, Anchorage, 1995.
*
<!--L-->
*Lee, Molly, Angela J. Linn, and Chase Hensel. Not Just a Pretty Face: Dolls and Human Figurines in Alaska Native Cultures. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, 2006. Print.
<!--M-->
* Madden, Ryan Howard. "An enforced odyssey: The relocation and internment of Aleuts during World War II" (PhD thesis U of New Hampshire, Durham, 1993) [https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article2766&contextdissertation online]
* Murray, Martha G., and Peter L. Corey. Aleut Weavers. Juneau, AK: Alaska State Museums, Division of Libraries, Archives and Museums, 1997.
<!--N-->
* National Park Service. "[http://www.nps.gov/aleu/index.htm Aleutian World War II] ."
<!--R-->
* Reedy-Maschner, Katherine. "Aleut Identities : Tradition and Modernity in an Indigenous Fishery". Montréal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010.
<!--V-->
* Veltre, Douglas W. Aleut Unangax̂ Ethnobotany An Annotated Bibliography. Akureyri, Iceland: CAFF International Secretariat, 2006.
External links
* [http://www.aleutcorp.com/ Aleut Corporation]
* [http://www.aleutmgt.com/ Aleut Management Services]
* [http://www.apiai.org/ Aleutian Pribilof Island Association]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180806204148/https://www.qawalangintribe.com/ Qawalangin Tribe of Unalaska]
* [http://www.aleutians.org/ Museum of the Aleutians]
* [http://jukebox.uaf.edu/com_unalaska/index.html Unalaska Communities of Memory Project Jukebox];
* [https://aleut-international.org/ Aleut International Association]
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1130 A Grammar of Fox Island Aleutian Manuscript] at Dartmouth College Library
* [https://www.apicda.com/ Aleutian Pribilof Island Community Development Association]
Category:Alaska Native ethnic groups
Category:Ethnic groups in Russia
Category:Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East
Category:Native American history of Alaska
Category:People from Kamchatka Krai | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleuts | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.647381 |
3035 | Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act | The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971, constituting what is still the largest land claims settlement in United States history. ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska.
The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations.
Background
Alaskan statehood
and AFN President Emil Notti discussing ANCSA in the Senate TV Studio in 1969.]]
When Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the Alaska Statehood Act provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo. Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 allowed for the state government to claim lands deemed vacant. The state government also attempted to acquire lands under section 6 of the Statehood Act that were subject to Native claims under section 4, and that were currently occupied and used by Alaska Natives.
A 9.2-magnitude earthquake struck the state in 1964. Recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government.Founding of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN)
In 1966, Emil Notti called for a statewide meeting inviting numerous leaders around Alaska to gather and create the first meeting of a committee. The historic meeting was held October 18, 1966 - on the 99th anniversary of the transfer of Alaska from Russia. Notti presided over the three-day conference as it discussed matters of land recommendations, claims committees, and political challenges the act would have in getting through congress. Many respected politicians and businessmen attended the meeting and delegates were astonished at the attention which they received from well-known political figures of the state. The growing presence and political importance of Natives was evidenced when members were able to gain election to seven of the sixty seats in the legislature.
When the group met a second time early in 1967, it emerged with a new name, The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN), and a new full-time President, Emil Notti. AFN went on to profoundly change the human rights and economic stability of the Alaska Native population.
Native Land Claims Task Force
In 1967, Governor Walter Hickel summoned a group of Indigenous leaders and politicians to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives.OilIn 1968, the Atlantic-Richfield Company discovered oil at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast, catapulting the issue of land ownership into headlines. In order to lessen the difficulty of drilling at such a remote location and transporting the oil to the lower 48 states, the oil companies proposed building a pipeline to carry the oil across Alaska to the port of Valdez. At Valdez, the oil would be loaded onto tankers and shipped to the contiguous states.Government negotiations and policy
was appointed as President Nixon's Interior Secretary.]]
In 1969, President Nixon appointed Hickel as Secretary of the Interior. The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) protested against Hickel's nomination, but he was eventually confirmed. The AFN wanted rights to land, while then-Governor Keith Miller believed Natives did not have legitimate claims to state land in light of the provisions of the Alaska Statehood Act. The following month, he established the National Council on Indian Opportunity, headed by Vice President Spiro Agnew, which included eight Native leaders: Frank Belvin (Choctaw), Bergt (Iñupiat), Betty Mae Jumper (Seminole), Earl Old Person (Blackfeet), John C. Rainer (Taos Pueblo), Martin Seneca Jr. (Seneca), Harold Shunk (Yankton-Sioux), and Joseph C. "Lone Eagle" Vasquez (Apache-Sioux).
was key in the bill's passage.]]During the state administration of Governor William A. Egan positions were staked out upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree. Native leaders, in addition to Alaska's congressional delegation and the state's newly elected Governor Egan, eventually reached the basis for presenting an agreement to Congress. That meeting held on March 12, marked a turning-point in negotiations with the various parties. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Nixon. In return, Natives retained up to of land and were paid $963 million.
Alaskan officials were originally divided on the bill, though by 1970, with Interior Secretary Walter Hickel, Governor William Egan, Representative Nick Begich & Senators Ted Stevens & Mike Gravel all backing the bill, the opposition died down. Stevens was particularly strongminded, and was key in the bill's passage. Stevens, a freshman Senator for most of the fight, would later remark:
.... It didn't occur to me that some Senators had the opportunity to ease into their jobs. Life in the Senate for me was fast-paced from the beginning.... With my experience working in the Department of the Interior and with the Statehood Act, and my faith in the determination and unity of purpose of Alaska's Native people, I believed from the beginning that a settlement could be achieved.... My memories of the Congressional action as ANCSA took shape aren't of a battle as much as they are of long hours of tough, hard negotiating, often two steps forward and one step back....}}Effect of land conveyancesIn 1971, barely one million acres of land in Alaska were in private hands.
When the bill passed in 1971, it included provisions that had never before been attempted in previous United States settlements with Native Americans.
The idea originated with the AFN, who believed that the Natives would have to become a part of the capitalist system in order to survive. If the corporations were managed properly, they could make profits that would enable individuals to stay, rather than having to leave Native villages to find better work.Native and state land selectionAlaska Natives had three years from passage of ANCSA to make land selections of the granted under the act. In some cases Native corporations received outside aid in surveying the land.
The state of Alaska to date has been granted approximately 85% or of the land claims it has made under ANCSA. The state is entitled to a total of under the terms of the Statehood Act. Amendments to ANCSA extended that deadline until 1994, with the expectation that BLM would complete processing of land transfers subject to overlapping Native claims by 2009. Nonetheless, some Native and state selections under ANCSA remained unresolved as late as December 2014.
Criticism of ANCSA
There was largely positive reaction to ANCSA, although not entirely. The act was supported by Natives as well as non-Natives, and likewise enjoyed bipartisan support. Natives were heavily involved in the legislative process, and the final draft of the act used many AFN ideas.
Some Natives have argued that ANCSA has hastened cultural genocide of Alaska Natives. Some Natives critiqued ANCSA as an illegitimate treaty since only tribal leaders were involved and the provisions of the act were not voted on by indigenous populations. Other critics attacked the act as "Native welfare" and such complaints continue to be expressed. But supporters of the system argue that it has provided economic benefits for indigenous peoples that outweigh these problems.Selected provisions of ANCSA* Native claims in Alaska were extinguished by means of section 4 of ANCSA.
* In exchange for abrogating Native claims, approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million were distributed to more than 200 local Alaska Native "village corporations" established under section 8, in addition to 12 land-owning for-profit Alaska Native "regional corporations" and a non-land-owning thirteenth corporation for Alaska Natives who had left the state established under section 6.
* Of the compensation monies, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing.
* Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately two-thirds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation.
* The remaining one-third would be "at large" shareholders with 100 shares in a regional corporation with additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources. Successful applicants would be excluded under ANCSA by section 14(h)(5) from land to be used for a primary residence.
* The surface rights to the patented land were granted to the village corporations and the subsurface right to the land were granted to the regional corporation, creating a split estate pursuant to section 14(f). These include scholarships for Native students, sponsorship of cultural and artistic events, preservation efforts for Native languages, and protection of sites with historic or religious importance. Below is a representative list of village and urban corporations created under ANCSA:
* Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation, village corporation for Utqiaġvik
* [http://www.bnc-alaska.com Bethel Native Corporation], village corporation for Bethel
* [http://www.capefoxcorp.com Cape Fox Corporation], village corporation for Saxman
* [http://www.deloycheet.com/ Deloycheet, Inc.], village corporation for Holy Cross
* Huna Totem Corporation, village corporation for Hoonah
* [http://www.haidacorporation.com Haida Corporation], village corporation for Hydaburg
* [http://www.goldbelt.com/ Goldbelt, Inc.], urban corporation for Juneau
* [http://www.pvil.com Paug-Vik, Inc. Ltd.], village corporation for Naknek
* [http://www.chenega.com Chenega Corporation], village corporation for Chenega
* [http://www.afognak.com/ Afognak Native Corporation], village corporation for Afognak and Port Lions
* [http://www.kavilco.com/ Kavilco Incorporated], village corporation for Kasaan
* [http://www.adn.com/article/20120810/klukwan-files-bankruptcy Klukwan, Inc.], village corporation for Klukwan
* [http://www.kuskokwim.com/ The Kuskokwim Corporation] , village corporation for Aniak, Crooked Creek, Georgetown, Kalskag, Lower Kalskag, Napaimute, Red Devil, Russian Mission, Sleetmute and Stony River
* [http://www.nativesofkodiak.com/ Natives of Kodiak, Inc.], urban corporation for Kodiak
* Ounalashka Corporation, village corporation for Unalaska
* [http://www.ouzinkienativecorporation.com/ Ouzinkie Native Corporation], village corporation for Ouzinkie
* [http://www.sheeatika.com/ Shee Atika, Incorporated], urban corporation for Sitka
See also
*Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act
*Alaska Statehood Act
*Alaska Native Allotment Act
*Alaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act
*Emil Notti
Notes
ReferencesBibliography*Borneman, Walter R. [https://books.google.com/books?idA9QXxo-MeUEC&q=Saga+of+a+Bold+Land Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land]. Harper Perennial. (2004)
*Dombrowski, Kirk. [https://books.google.com/books?id-Snl8E4H5RUC&dqANCSA+remain+in+villages&pg=PA75 Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska] U of Nebraska Press. (2001)
*Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?idnatRq6WCu4oC&qland+selection Alaska: An American Colony]. University of Washington Press. (2006)
*Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?idZQUYAAAAYAAJ&qten+percent Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska] Oregon University Press. (2002)
*Haynes, James B. [http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic28-3-201.pdf "Land Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," Arctic Institute of North America], Vol. 28–3, pp. 201–208 (September 1975)
*Linxwiler, James D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141204222219/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20Paper%20with%20Table%20of%20Contents%201992.pdf "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: The First Twenty Years," Proceedings from the 38th Annual Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute]. (1992)
*Roderick, Libby. [https://books.google.com/books?id=l571YST99fIC Alaska Native Cultures and Issues: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions]. University of Alaska Press. (2010)
*Williams, Maria Sháa Tláa. [https://books.google.com/books?id1qe5vzMqJW0C&pgPA388 The Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics]. Duke University Press. (2009).
*Worl, Rosita. [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/reconstructing-sovereignty-alaska "Reconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska," Cultural Survival Quarterly]. (Fall 2001)
Further reading
*Arnold, Robert D. Alaska Native Land Claims, (Alaska Native Foundation 1978).
*Berry, Mary Clay. The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims, (Indiana University Press 1975).
*Berger, Thomas R. Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission, (Farrar, Straus and Giroux 1985).
*Case, David S. Alaska Natives and American Laws, (University of Alaska Press 3d ed. 2012)
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06399.pdf GAO Report: Increased Use of Alaska Native Corporations’ Special 8(a) Provisions Calls for Tailored Oversight] (April 2006)
*Kentch, Gavin. [http://mississippilawjournal.org/2012/04/a-corporate-culture-the-environmental-justice-challenges-of-the-alaska-native-claims-settlement-act/ "A Corporate Culture? The Environmental Justice Challenges of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act"]. 81 Miss. L.J. 813 (2012)
*Lazarus, Arthur Jr. [http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article3475&contextlcp "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: A Flawed Victory," Law and Contemporary Problems]. (Winter 1976)
*London, J. Tate. [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handlehein.journals/staev8&div10&id&page "The "1991 Amendments" to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Protection for Native Lands?"], 8 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 200. (1989)
*Mitchell, Donald Craig. Sold American: The Story of Alaska Natives and Their Land, 1867-1959, (University of Alaska Press 2003).
*Mitchell, Donald Craig. Take My Land Take My Life: The Story of Congress's Historic Settlement of Alaska Native Land Claims, 1960-1971, (University of Alaska Press 2001).
*Morgan, Lael. Art and Eskimo Power: The Life and Times of Alaskan Howard Rock, (Epicenter Press 1988).
*Senungetuk, Joseph E. Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle, (The Indian Historian Press 1971).
*"Settling the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act", 38 Stan. L. Rev. 227 (1985).
External links
* [http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Resource Center]
* [http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/Landclaims Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act of 1971]
* [http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/ancsaindx.htm Revisiting the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)]
* [http://fairbanks-alaska.com/alaska-native-corporations.htm Alaska Native Corporation Links]
Category:United States federal legislation articles without infoboxes
Category:1971 in Alaska
Category:1971 in American law
Category:91st United States Congress
Category:Ted Stevens | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.670286 |
3036 | Adoptionism | 's The Baptism of Christ, when Jesus became one with God according to adoptionism]]
Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, is an early Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine,
Under adoptionism, Jesus is divine and has been since his adoption although he is not equal to the Father per "my Father is greater than I" and as such is a kind of subordinationism. (However, the quoted scripture can be orthodoxically interpreted as the fact that in the Trinity the Father is the source without origin, while the Son eternally receives the divinity from the Father.) Adoptionism is sometimes but not always related to a denial of the virgin birth of Jesus.
History
Early Christianity
Adoptionism and high Christology
Bart Ehrman claims that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology". The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come," as witnessed in the Gospels. According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, and thus adopted as God's Son, when he was resurrected, signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted. Adoptionist concepts can be found in the Gospel of Mark.}} As Daniel Johansson notes, the majority of scholars hold Mark's Jesus as "an exalted, but merely human figure", especially when read in the apparent context of Jewish beliefs. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. Quotes from second and third century Christian writers almost always use this variant as well, with many fourth and fifth century writers continuing to use it, if occasionally with embarrassment; Augustine cites the line, for example, but clarifies God meant an eternal "today". Ehrman speculates that Orthodox scribes of the fourth and fifth century changed the passage in Luke to align with the version in Mark as a defense against adoptionists citing the passage in their favor.
Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested, and a majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul.}} According to the "New ", or the Early High Christology Club,
According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the "low Christology" an "adoptionist Christology, and "the "high Christology" an "incarnation Christology". Conversely, Michael Bird has argued that adoptionism did not first emerge until the 2nd century as a result of later theological debates and other socio-religious influences on the reading of certain biblical texts.
New Testamental epistles
Adoptionist theology may also be reflected in canonical epistles, the earliest of which pre-date the writing of the gospels. The letters of Paul the Apostle, for example, do not mention a virgin birth of Christ. Paul describes Jesus as "born of a woman, born under the law" and "as to his human nature was a descendant of David" in the Epistle to the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans. Christian interpreters, however, take his statements in Philippians 2 to imply that Paul believed Jesus to have existed as equal to God before his incarnation.
Shepherd of Hermas
The 2nd-century work Shepherd of Hermas may also have taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son. While the Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it did not retain canonical status, if it ever had it.
Theodotus of Byzantium
Theodotus of Byzantium ( late 2nd century), a Valentinian Gnostic, According to Hippolytus of Rome (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii) Theodotus taught that Jesus was a man born of a virgin, according to the Council of Jerusalem, that he lived like other men, and was most pious. At his baptism in the Jordan the "Christ" came down upon the man Jesus, in the likeness of a dove (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii), but Jesus was not himself God until after his resurrection.
Adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 3rd century and was rejected by the Synods of Antioch and the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and identified the man Jesus with the eternally begotten Son or Word of God in the Nicene Creed. The belief was also declared heretical by Pope Victor I.Ebionites
Adoptionism was also adhered to by the Jewish Christians known as Ebionites, who, according to Epiphanius in the 4th century, believed that Jesus was chosen on account of his sinless devotion to the will of God.
The Ebionites were a Jewish Christian movement that existed during the early centuries of the Christian Era. They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a "reaction to the law-free Gentile mission". They regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth, and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites. They used the Gospel of the Ebionites, one of the Jewish–Christian gospels; the Hebrew Book of Matthew starting at chapter 3; revered James the brother of Jesus (James the Just); and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law. Their name (, derived from , meaning or ) suggests that they placed a special value on voluntary poverty.
Distinctive features of the Gospel of the Ebionites include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus; an Adoptionist Christology,; p. 435 – "This belief, known as "adoptionism", held that Jesus was not divine by nature or by birth, but that God chose him to become his son, i.e., adopted him."}} in which Jesus is chosen to be God's Son at the time of his Baptism; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus; and an advocacy of vegetarianism.; p. 168 – "Jesus' task is to do away with the 'sacrifices'. In this saying (16.4–5), the hostility of the Ebionites against the Temple cult is documented."}}
Spanish Adoptionism
Iberian Adoptionism was a theological position which was articulated in Umayyad and Christian-held regions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th and 9th centuries. The issue seems to have begun with the claim of archbishop Elipandus of Toledo that – in respect to his human nature – Christ was adoptive Son of God. Another leading advocate of this Christology was Felix of Urgel. In the Iberian peninsula, adoptionism was opposed by Beatus of Liebana, and in the Carolingian territories, the Adoptionist position was condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Alcuin of York, Agobard, and officially in Carolingian territory by the Council of Frankfurt (794).
Despite the shared name of "adoptionism" the Spanish Adoptionist Christology appears to have differed sharply from the adoptionism of early Christianity. Spanish advocates predicated the term of Christ only in respect to his humanity; once the divine Son "emptied himself" of divinity and "took the form of a servant" (Philippians 2:7), Christ's human nature was "adopted" as divine.
Historically, many scholars have followed the Adoptionists' Carolingian opponents in labeling Spanish Adoptionism as a minor revival of "Nestorian" Christology. John C. Cavadini has challenged this notion by attempting to take the Spanish Christology in its own Spanish/North African context in his study, The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820.
Scholastic Neo-adoptionism
A third wave was the revived form ("Neo-adoptionism") of Peter Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended adoptionism as essentially orthodox.
Modern adoptionist groups
A form of adoptionism surfaced in Unitarianism during the 16th and 17th in Polish Brethren and the 18th century as denial of the virgin birth became increasingly common, led by the views of Joseph Priestley and others.
A similar form of adoptionism was expressed in the writings of James Strang, a Latter Day Saint leader who founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. In his Book of the Law of the Lord, a purported work of ancient scripture found and translated by Strang, he offers an essay entitled "Note on the Sacrifice of Christ" in which he explains his unique (for Mormonism as a whole) doctrines on the subject. Jesus Christ, said Strang, was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind, but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents (rather than being begotten by the Father or the Holy Spirit) to be able to truly fulfill his Messianic role. Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence "adopted" as God's son at birth, and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration. After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life, he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men, prior to his resurrection and ascension.
The Christian Community, an esoteric Christian denomination informed by the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, assumes an adoptionist Christology that treats Jesus and the Christ as separate beings until they are joined at baptism. "Steiner's Christology is discussed as a central element of his thought in Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner: A Documentary Biography, trans. Leo Twyman (East Grinstead, Sussex: Henry Goulden, 1975), pp. 96-100. From the perspective of orthodox Christianity, it may be said that Steiner combined a docetic understanding of Christ's nature with the Adoptionist heresy."
See also
* Adoptivi
* Arianism
* Binitarianism
Notes
References Sources
;Printed sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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* Philip Schaff History of the Christian Church, Volume IV, 1882.
*
* (6th German edition, translated by George Ogg)
*
;Web sources
External links
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01150a.htm Adoptionism] in Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1a&wordADOPTIONISM Adoptionism] in Christian Cyclopedia
* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/4_ch11.htm Chapter XI. Doctrinal Controversies], from Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church
Category:Nontrinitarianism
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Heresy in ancient Christianity
Category:Adoption and religion
Category:Nature of Jesus Christ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionism | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.689566 |
3037 | Apollinarism | Apollinarism or Apollinarianism is a Christological position proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea that argues that Jesus had a human body and sensitive human soul, but a divine mind and not a human rational mind, the Divine Logos taking the place of the latter. It was deemed heretical by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and virtually died out within the following decades.History
The Trinity had been recognized at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism ("one nature"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Apollinaris's rejection of Christ having a human mind was considered an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was a lesser god.
Theodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead and giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking it up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites.
Apollinaris, considering the rational soul and spirit as essentially liable to sin and capable, at its best, of only precarious efforts, saw no way of saving Christ's impeccability and the infinite value of Redemption, except by the elimination of the human spirit from Jesus' humanity, and the substitution of the Divine Logos in its stead.
Craig also clarifies "what I called a Neo-Apollinarian Christological model" by stating that
See also
*
*
*
References
Sources
*
*Artemi, E., «Mia physis of God Logos sesarkomeni» a)The analysis of this phrase according to Cyril of Alexandria b)The analysis of this phrase according to Apollinaris of Laodicea», Ecclesiastic Faros t. ΟΔ (2003), 293 – 304.
*Chan, Joyce (2021). [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:Carey_HIST501/Project_1/Apollarianism/Apollinarianism Apollinarianism], Carey Theological College, University of British Columbia.
*McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chapter 1.
*
Category:4th-century Christianity
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Heresy in ancient Christianity
Category:Nature of Jesus Christ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollinarism | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.692568 |
3038 | Acid–base reaction | and ammonia (base), forming white ammonium chloride]]
In chemistry, an acid–base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH via titration. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.
Their importance becomes apparent in analyzing acid–base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. The first of these concepts was provided by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, around 1776.
It is important to think of the acid–base reaction models as theories that complement each other. For example, the current Lewis model has the broadest definition of what an acid and base are, with the Brønsted–Lowry theory being a subset of what acids and bases are, and the Arrhenius theory being the most restrictive.Acid–base definitionsHistoric developmentThe concept of an acid–base reaction was first proposed in 1754 by Guillaume-François Rouelle, who introduced the word "base" into chemistry to mean a substance which reacts with an acid to give it solid form (as a salt). Bases are mostly bitter in nature.Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acidsThe first scientific concept of acids and bases was provided by Lavoisier in around 1776. Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxoacids, such as (nitric acid) and (sulfuric acid), which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids (HF, HCl, HBr, and HI), he defined acids in terms of their containing oxygen, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" (). The Lavoisier definition held for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in hydrogen sulfide (), hydrogen telluride (), and the hydrohalic acids. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that "acidity does not depend upon any particular elementary substance, but upon peculiar arrangement of various substances". One notable modification of oxygen theory was provided by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who stated that acids are oxides of nonmetals while bases are oxides of metals.
Liebig's hydrogen theory of acids
In 1838, Justus von Liebig proposed that an acid is a hydrogen-containing compound whose hydrogen can be replaced by a metal. This redefinition was based on his extensive work on the chemical composition of organic acids, finishing the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids started by Davy. Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.
Arrhenius definition
]]
The first modern definition of acids and bases in molecular terms was devised by Svante Arrhenius. A hydrogen theory of acids, it followed from his 1884 work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903.
As defined by Arrhenius:
* An Arrhenius acid is a substance that ionises in water to form hydrogen ions (); that is, an acid increases the concentration of H<sup>+</sup> ions in an aqueous solution.
This causes the protonation of water, or the creation of the hydronium () ion.) ions; that is, a base increases the concentration of ions in an aqueous solution.
The Arrhenius definitions of acidity and alkalinity are restricted to aqueous solutions and are not valid for most non-aqueous solutions, and refer to the concentration of the solvent ions. Under this definition, pure and HCl dissolved in toluene are not acidic, and molten NaOH and solutions of calcium amide in liquid ammonia are not alkaline. This led to the development of the Brønsted–Lowry theory and subsequent Lewis theory to account for these non-aqueous exceptions.
The reaction of an acid with a base is called a neutralization reaction. The products of this reaction are a salt and water.
<math chem display=block>\text{acid} \ + \ \text{base} \ \longrightarrow \ \text{salt} \ + \ \text{water}</math>
In this traditional representation an acid–base neutralization reaction is formulated as a double-replacement reaction. For example, the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions produces a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) and some additional water molecules.
<math chem display=block>\ce{HCl_{(aq)} {} + NaOH_{(aq)} -> NaCl_{(aq)} {} + H2O}</math>
The modifier (aq) in this equation was implied by Arrhenius, rather than included explicitly. It indicates that the substances are dissolved in water. Though all three substances, HCl, NaOH and NaCl are capable of existing as pure compounds, in aqueous solutions they are fully dissociated into the aquated ions and .
Example: Baking powder
Baking powder is used to cause the dough for breads and cakes to "rise" by creating millions of tiny carbon dioxide bubbles. Baking powder is not to be confused with baking soda, which is sodium bicarbonate (). Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and acidic salts. The bubbles are created because, when the baking powder is combined with water, the sodium bicarbonate and acid salts react to produce gaseous carbon dioxide.
Whether commercially or domestically prepared, the principles behind baking powder formulations remain the same. The acid–base reaction can be generically represented as shown:
<math chem display=block>\ce{NaHCO3 + H+ -> Na+ + CO2 + H2O}</math>
The real reactions are more complicated because the acids are complicated. For example, starting with sodium bicarbonate and monocalcium phosphate (), the reaction produces carbon dioxide by the following stoichiometry:
<math chem display=block>\ce{14 NaHCO3 + 5 Ca(H2PO4)2 -> 14 CO2 + Ca5(PO4)3OH + 7 Na2HPO4 + 13 H2O}</math>
("MCP") is a common acid component in domestic baking powders.]]
A typical formulation (by weight) could call for 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5–12% monocalcium phosphate, and 21–26% sodium aluminium sulfate. Alternately, a commercial baking powder might use sodium acid pyrophosphate as one of the two acidic components instead of sodium aluminium sulfate. Another typical acid in such formulations is cream of tartar (), a derivative of tartaric acid. is based upon the idea of protonation of bases through the deprotonation of acids – that is, the ability of acids to "donate" hydrogen ions () otherwise known as protons to bases, which "accept" them.
An acid–base reaction is, thus, the removal of a hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base. The removal of a hydrogen ion from an acid produces its conjugate base, which is the acid with a hydrogen ion removed. The reception of a proton by a base produces its conjugate acid, which is the base with a hydrogen ion added.
Unlike the previous definitions, the Brønsted–Lowry definition does not refer to the formation of salt and solvent, but instead to the formation of conjugate acids and conjugate bases, produced by the transfer of a proton from the acid to the base. in the same year as Brønsted–Lowry, but it was not elaborated by him until 1938.
For example, boron trifluoride, is a typical Lewis acid. It can accept a pair of electrons as it has a vacancy in its octet. The fluoride ion has a full octet and can donate a pair of electrons. Thus
<math chem display=block>\ce{BF3 + F- -> BF4-}</math>
is a typical Lewis acid, Lewis base reaction. All compounds of group 13 elements with a formula can behave as Lewis acids. Similarly, compounds of group 15 elements with a formula , such as amines, , and phosphines, , can behave as Lewis bases. Adducts between them have the formula with a dative covalent bond, shown symbolically as ←, between the atoms A (acceptor) and D (donor). Compounds of group 16 with a formula may also act as Lewis bases; in this way, a compound like an ether, , or a thioether, , can act as a Lewis base. The Lewis definition is not limited to these examples. For instance, carbon monoxide acts as a Lewis base when it forms an adduct with boron trifluoride, of formula .
Adducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds; each ligand donates a pair of electrons to the metal ion.
Germann pointed out that in many solutions, there are ions in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules:
* solvonium ions: a generic name for positive ions. These are also sometimes called solvo-acids; when protonated solvent, they are lyonium ions.
* solvate ions: a generic name for negative ions. These are also sometimes called solve-bases;|groupnote}} antimony trichloride into dichloroantimonium and tetrachloroantimonate, and phosgene into chlorocarboxonium and chloride:
<math chem display=block>\begin{align}
\ce{N2O4} & \ce{\, <=> NO+ + NO3-} \\[4pt]
\ce{2 SbCl3} & \ce{\, <=> SbCl2+ + SbCl4-} \\[4pt]
\ce{COCl2} & \ce{\, <=> COCl+ + Cl-}
\end{align}</math>
A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the concentration of solvate ions is defined as an acid. A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvate ions and a decrease in the concentration of the solvonium ions is defined as a base.
Thus, in liquid ammonia, (supplying ) is a strong base, and (supplying ) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (), thionyl compounds (supplying ) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying ) behave as bases.
The non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water:
<math chem display=block>\begin{align}
\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{2 NaNH2}} + \underset{\text{amphiphilic} \atop \text{amide}}{\ce{Zn(NH2)2}} &\longrightarrow \ce{Na2[Zn(NH2)4]} \\[4pt]
\underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{2 NH4I}} \ + \ \ce{Zn(NH2)2} &\longrightarrow \ce{[Zn(NH3)4]I2}
\end{align}</math>
Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:
<math chem display=block>\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{HNO3}} + \ce{2 H2SO4 -> NO2+ + H3O+ + 2 HSO4-}</math>
The unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid :
<math chem display=block>\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{AgNO3}} + \underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{NOCl_{\ }}} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{solvent}}{\ce{N2O4}} + \underset{\text{salt}}{\ce{AgCl_{\ }}}</math>
Because the solvent system definition depends on the solute as well as on the solvent itself, a particular solute can be either an acid or a base depending on the choice of the solvent: is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid; this characteristic of the theory has been seen as both a strength and a weakness, because some substances (such as and ) have been seen to be acidic or basic on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts. in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood and is still used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts. This definition describes an acid as an oxide ion () acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:
<math chem display=block>\begin{array}{ccccl}
_\text{(base)} & & _\text{(acid)} \\[4pt]
\ce{MgO} &+& \ce{CO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{MgCO3} \\[4pt]
\ce{CaO} &+& \ce{SiO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{CaSiO3} \\[4pt]
\ce{NO3-} &+& \ce{S2O7^2-} \!\! &\longrightarrow& \ce{NO2+ + 2 SO4^2-}
\end{array}</math>
This theory is also useful in the systematisation of the reactions of noble gas compounds, especially the xenon oxides, fluorides, and oxofluorides.Usanovich definitionMikhail Usanovich developed a general theory that does not restrict acidity to hydrogen-containing compounds, but his approach, published in 1938, was even more general than Lewis theory. later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. 'Hard' applies to species that are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species that are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact, and the most stable interactions are hard–hard and soft–soft. This theory has found use in organic and inorganic chemistry.ECW model
The ECW model created by Russell S. Drago is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, . The model assigned and parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an and a . Each base is likewise characterized by its own and . The and parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is
<math displayblock>-\Delta H E_{\rm A}E_{\rm B} + C_{\rm A}C_{\rm B} + W</math>
The term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths.
Acid–base equilibrium
The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example,
<math chem display=block>\ce{HCl_{(aq)} {} + Na(OH)_{(aq)} -> H2O + NaCl_{(aq)} }</math>
In this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction,
<math chem display=block>\ce{H + OH- -> H2O}</math>
does not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a buffer solution. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution. When a weak acid reacts with a weak base an equilibrium mixture is produced. For example, adenine, written as AH, can react with a hydrogen phosphate ion, .
<math chem displayblock>\ce{AH + HPO4^2- <> A- + H2PO4-}</math>
The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be derived from the acid dissociation constants of adenine and of the dihydrogen phosphate ion.
<math chem display=block>\begin{align}
\left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a1}\bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \\[4pt]
\left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a2}\left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right]
\end{align}</math>
The notation [X] signifies "concentration of X". When these two equations are combined by eliminating the hydrogen ion concentration, an expression for the equilibrium constant, is obtained.
<math chem displayblock>\left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right] K \bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \! \left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right]; \quad K \frac{K_{a1}}{K_{a2}}</math>Acid–alkali reaction
An acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an alkali. When an acid reacts with an alkali salt (a metal hydroxide), the product is a metal salt and water. Acid–alkali reactions are also neutralization reactions.
In general, acid–alkali reactions can be simplified to
:<math chem>\ce{OH_{(aq)}- + H+_{(aq)} -> H2O} </math>
by omitting spectator ions.
Acids are in general pure substances that contain hydrogen cations () or cause them to be produced in solutions. Hydrochloric acid () and sulfuric acid () are common examples. In water, these break apart into ions:
:<math chem>\begin{align}
\ce{HCl} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + Cl_{(aq)}- } \\[4pt]
\ce{H2SO4} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + HSO4_{\,(aq)}- }
\end{align}</math>
The alkali breaks apart in water, yielding dissolved hydroxide ions:
:<math chem>\ce{NaOH -> Na^+_{(aq)} {} + OH_{(aq)}- }</math>.
See also
* Acid–base titration
* Deprotonation
* Donor number
* Electron configuration
* Gutmann–Beckett method
* Lewis structure
* Nucleophilic substitution
* Neutralization (chemistry)
* Protonation
* Redox reactions
* Resonance (chemistry)
Notes
ReferencesSources*
*
*
*
External links
*[http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/AcidBaseBook/ABindex.php Acid–base Physiology] – an on-line text
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070207082349/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Acids_Bases.html John W. Kimball's online biology book section of acid and bases.]
Category:Acids
Category:Bases (chemistry)
Category:Chemical reactions
Category:Equilibrium chemistry
Category:Inorganic reactions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid–base_reaction | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.711218 |
3040 | Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani | | birth_place = Isfahan, Abbasid Caliphate
| death_date =
| death_place = Baghdad
| death_cause | resting_place
| resting_place_coordinates <!---->
| other_names = Ali ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥaytham
| residence | era Islamic golden age (Abbasid era)
| fields = History
| workplaces | patrons Sayf ad-Dawlah
| education | alma_mater
| thesis_title <!--(or | thesis1_title and | thesis2_title = )-->
| thesis_url <!--(or | thesis1_url and | thesis2_url = )-->
| thesis_year <!--(or | thesis1_year and | thesis2_year = )-->
| doctoral_advisor <!--(or | doctoral_advisors )-->
| academic_advisors | doctoral_students
| notable_students | known_for Book of Songs
| influences | influenced
| awards | author_abbrev_bot
| author_abbrev_zoo | spouse <!--(or | spouses = )-->
| partner <!--(or | partners )-->
| children | signature <!--(filename only)-->
| signature_alt | website <!---->
| footnotes =
}}
Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Iṣfahānī (), also known as Abul-Faraj, (full form: Abū al-Faraj ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥaytham al-Umawī al-Iṣfahānī) (897–967CE / 284–356AH) was a writer, historian, genealogist, poet, musicologist and scribe. He was of Arab-Quraysh origin and mainly based in Baghdad. He is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), which includes information about the earliest attested periods of Arabic music (from the seventh to the ninth centuries) and the lives of poets and musicians from the pre-Islamic period to al-Isfahani's time. Given his contribution to the documentation of the history of Arabic music, al-Isfahani is characterised by George Sawa as "a true prophet of modern ethnomusicology".
Dates
The commonly accepted dates of al-Isfahani's birth and death are 897–898 and 967, based on the dates given by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi which itself based its information on the testimony of al-Isfahani's student, Muhammad ibn Abi al-Fawaris.}} However, the credibility of these dates is to be treated with caution. No source places his death earlier than 967, but several place it later. These dates are at odds with a reference in the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba ("The Book of the Etiquettes of Strangers"), attributed to al-Isfahani, to his being in the prime of youth (fi ayyam al-shabiba wa-l-siba) in 967. On the opposite side are:}} Calculation of the approximate dates of his birth and death through the life spans of his students and his direct informants suggests that he was born before 902 and died after 960.
Biography
Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani was born in Isfahan, Persia (present-day Iran) but spent his youth and undertook his early studies in Baghdad (present-day Iraq). He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, and was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in al-Andalus, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.
His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, including in Aleppo with its Hamdanid governor Sayf ad-Dawlah (to whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), and in Ray with the Buwayhid vizier Ibn 'Abbad.
Family
The epithet, al-Isfahani,}} refers to the city, Isfahan, on the Iranian plateau. Instead of indicating al-Isfahani's birthplace, was first disseminated by Ṭāshkubrīzādah (d. 968/1560) and was thereafter followed by modern scholars.}} this epithet seems to be common to al-Isfahani's family. Every reference al-Isfahani makes to his paternal relatives includes the attributive, al-Isfahani. According to Ibn Hazm (994–1064), some descendants of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan b. Muhammad (691–750), al-Isfahani's ancestor, The majority opinion:}} settled in Isfahan. However, it has to be borne in mind that the earliest information available regarding al-Isfahani's family history only dates to the generation of his great-grandfather, Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, who settled in Samarra sometime between 835–6 and 847.
Based on al-Isfahani's references in the Kitab al-Aghani (hereafter, the Aghani), Ahmad b. al-Haytham seems to have led a privileged life in Sāmarrāʾ, while his sons were well-connected with the elite of the Abbasid capital at that time.}} His son, Abd al-Aziz b. Ahmad, was "one of the high ranking scribes in the days of al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) (min kibār al-kuttāb fī ayyām al-Mutawakkil)". Another son, Muhammad b. Ahmad (viz. al-Isfahani's grandfather), was associated with Abbasid officials, the vizier Ibn al-Zayyāt (d. 847), the scribe Ibrahim b. al-Abbas al-Ṣūlī (792–857), and the vizier Ubaydallah b. Sulayman (d. 901), along with the Ṭālibid notables, including al-Husayn b. al-Husayn b. Zayd, who was the leader of the Banu Hashim. The close ties with the Abbasid court continued with Muhammad's sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn (al-Isfahani's father).
In various places in the Aghani, al-Isfahani refers to Yahya b. Muhammad b. Thawaba (from the Al Thawaba) as his grandfather on his mother's side.}} It is often suggested that the family of Thawaba, being Shi'i,}} bequeathed their sectarian inclination to al-Isfahani.}} However, the identification of the Thawaba family as Shi'is is only found in a late source, Yaqut's (1178–1225) work. While many elite families working under the Abbasid caliphate were Shi'i-inclined, indeed allied with Alids or their partisans, there is no evidence that members of the Thawaba family embraced an extreme form of Shi'ism.
In summary, al-Isfahani came from a family well-entrenched in the networks of the Abbasid elite, which included the officials and the Alids. Despite the epithet, al-Isfahani, it does not seem that the Isfahani family had a strong connection with the city of Isfahan. Rather, the family was mainly based in Sāmarrāʾ, from the generation of Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, and then Baghdad.
In the seats of the caliphate, a few members of the al-Isfahani family worked as scribes, while maintaining friendship or alliance with other scribes, viziers and notables. Like many of the court elite, al-Isfahani's family maintained an amicable relationship with the offspring of Ali and allied with families, such as the Thawaba family,}} sharing their veneration of Ali and Alids. However, it is hard to pinpoint such a reverential attitude towards Alids in terms of sectarian alignment, given the scanty information about al-Isfahani's family and the fluidity of sectarian identities at the time.
Education and career
The Isfahani family's extensive network of contacts is reflected in al-Isfahani's sources. Among the direct informants whom al-Isfahani cites in his works, are members of his own family, who were further connected to other notable families, the Al Thawaba,|namefn19}} the Banū Munajjim, About the Banu Munajjim; see:|namefn20}} the Yazīdīs,|namefn21}} the Ṣūlīs, See also:|namefn22}} the Banū Ḥamdūn, about the Banū Ḥamdūn; see:|namefn23}} the Ṭāhirids, See also:|namefn24}} the Banū al-Marzubān I owe this reference to: Muhammad b. Khalaf b. al-Marzubān is a ubiquitous informant in the Aghānī; see:|namefn25}} and the Ṭālibids.|namefn26}}
Given that al-Isfahani and his family very likely settled in Baghdad around the beginning of the tenth century,}} he interacted with a considerable number of the inhabitants of or visitors to that city, including: Jaḥẓa (d. 936), al-Khaffāf, Ali b. Sulaymān al-Akhfash (d. 927/8), and Muhammad b. Jarir al-Ṭabari (d. 922). Like other scholars of his time, al-Isfahani travelled in pursuit of knowledge. Although the details are insufficient to establish the dates of his journeys, based on the chains of transmission (asānīd, sing. isnād) al-Isfahani cites consistently and meticulously in every report, it is certain that he transmitted from ʿAbd al-Malik b. Maslama and ʿĀṣim b. Muhammad in Antakya; ʿAbdallāh b. Muhammad b. Ishaq in Ahwaz; and Yahya b. Aḥmad b. al-Jawn in Raqqa. If we accept the attribution of the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba to al-Isfahani, he once visited Baṣra as well as Ḥiṣn Mahdī, Mattūth, and Bājistrā. Yet, none of these cities seems to have left as much of an impact on al-Isfahani as Kūfa and Baghdad did. While al-Isfahani's Baghdadi informants were wide-ranging in their expertise as well as sectarian and theological tendencies, his Kūfan sources can be characterised as either Shi'i or keen on preserving and disseminating memories that favoured Ali and his family. For example, Ibn ʿUqda (d. 944), mentioned in both the Aghānī and the Maqātil, was invariably cited for the reports about the Alids and their merits.}}
The journey in search for knowledge taken by al-Isfahani may not be particularly outstanding by the standard of his time,}} but the diversity of his sources' occupations and expertise is impressive. His informants can be assigned into one or more of the following categories: philologists and grammarians; singers and musicians; booksellers and copyists (sahhafun or warraqun, sing. sahhaf or Warraq); friends;}} tutors (muʾaddibūn, sing. muʾaddib); scribes (kuttāb, sing. kātib); imams or preachers (khuṭabāʾ, sing. khaṭīb); religious scholars (of the ḥadīth, the Qurʾānic recitations and exegeses, or jurisprudence) and judges; poets; and akhbārīs (transmitters of reports of all sorts, including genealogical, historical, and anecdotal reports). The variety of the narrators and their narrations enriched al-Iṣfahānī's literary output, which covers a wide range of topics from amusing tales to the accounts of the Alids' martyrdom. His erudition is best illustrated by Abu Ali al-Muhassin al-Tanukhi's (941–994) comment: "With his encyclopaedic knowledge of music, musicians, poetry, poets, genealogy, history, and other subjects, al-Iṣfahānī established himself as a learned scholar and teacher."
He was also a scribe and this is not surprising, given his families’ scribal connections, but the details of his kātib activities are rather opaque.}} Although both al-Tanūkhī and al-Baghdādī refer to al-Isfahani with the attribute, kātib, they mention nothing of where he worked or for whom. The details of his occupation as a scribe only came later, with Yaqut, many of whose reports about al-Isfahani prove problematic. For instance, a report from Yaqut claims that al-Isfahani was the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla (d. 976) and mentions his resentment towards Abū al-Faḍl b. al-ʿAmīd (d. 970). However, the very same report was mentioned by Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (active tenth century) in his Akhlāq al-wazīrayn, where the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla is identified as Abū al-Faraj Ḥamd b. Muhammad, not Abū al-Faraj al-Isfahani.}}}} Thus, it is hard to know with certainty how and where al-Isfahani was engaged in his capacity as a kātib. Nevertheless, al-Isfahani's association with the vizier, Abū Muḥammad al-Muhallabī (903–963), is well-documented. The friendship between the two began before al-Muhallabī's became vizier in 950.}} The firm relationship between them is supported by al-Isfahani's poetry collected by al-Thaʿālibī (961–1038): half of the fourteen poems are panegyrics dedicated to al-Muhallabī. In addition, al-Isfahani's own work, al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir (“Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry”), is dedicated to the vizier, presumably, al-Muhallabī. His no longer surviving Manājīb al-khiṣyān (“The Noble Eunuchs”), which addresses two castrated male singers owned by al-Muhallabī, was composed for him. His magnum opus, the Aghānī, was very likely intended for al-Muhallabī, as well. In return for his literary efforts, according to al-Tanūkhī, al-Isfahani frequently received rewards from the vizier. Furthermore, for the sake of their long-term friendship and out of his respect for al-Isfahani's genius, al-Muhallabī exceptionally tolerated al-Isfahani's uncouth manners and poor personal hygiene. The sources say nothing about al-Isfahani's fate after al-Muhallabī's death. In his last years, according to his student, Muhammad b. Abī al-Fawāris, he suffered from senility (khallaṭa).}}
Personality, preferences, and beliefs
As a friend, al-Isfahani was unconventional in the sense that he did not seem to have been bothered to observe the social decorum of his time, as noted by a late biographical source: with his uncleanliness and gluttony, he presented a counterexample to elegance (ẓarf), as defined by one of his teachers, Abu al-Ṭayyib al-Washshāʾ (d. 937). }} His unconformity to the social norms did not hinder him from being part of al-Muhallabī's entourage or participation in the literary assemblies, but, inevitably, it resulted in frictions with other scholars and detraction by his enemies. Although al-Isfahani appeared eccentric to his human associates, he was a caring owner of his cat, named Yaqaq (white): he treated Yaqaq's colic (qulanj) with an enema (al-ḥuqna).}}
In contrast to his personal habits, al-Isfahani's prose style is lucid, “in clear and simple language, with unusual sincerity and frankness”.}} Al-Isfahani's capacity as a writer is well illustrated by Abu Deeb, who depicts al-Isfahani as "one of the finest writers of Arabic prose in his time, with a remarkable ability to relate widely different types of aḵbār in a rich, lucid, rhythmic, and precise style, only occasionally exploiting such formal effects as saǰʿ (rhyming prose). He was also a fine poet with an opulent imagination. His poetry displays preoccupations similar to those of other urban poets of his time". His pinpoint documentation of asānīd}} and meticulous verification of information, provided in all his works, embody a truly scholarly character. Usually, in his treatment of a subject or an event, al-Isfahani lets his sources speak, but, occasionally, he voices his evaluation of poems and songs, as well as their creators. When dealing with conflicting reports, al-Isfahani either leaves his readers to decide or issues his judgement as to the most credible account. Yet, he frankly condemns sources whom he holds to be unreliable, for instance, Ibn Khurdādhbih on musicological information and Ibn al-Kalbī on genealogy. Indeed, al-Isfahani assesses his source material with a critical eye, while striving to present a more balanced view on his biographies, by focusing on their merits instead of elaborating on their flaws.
That said, al-Isfahani's personal preferences and sectarian partisanship are not absent from his works. In terms of music and songs, al-Isfahani favours Ishaq b. Ibrahim al-Mawsili (772–850). In al-Isfahani's view, Ishaq b. Ibrahim was a multi-talented man, who excelled in a number of subjects, but, most importantly, music. Ishaq b. Ibrahim, as a collector of the reports about poets and singers, is an important source in his Aghānī. Besides being a mine of information, Ishaq b. Ibrahim's terminology for the description of the melodic modes is preferred over that of his opponent, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (779–839), and adopted by al-Isfahani in his Aghani.}} Furthermore, al-Isfahani embarked on the compilation of the Aghānī because he was commissioned by his patron to reconstruct the list of the exquisite songs selected by Ishaq. In other words, the raison d’etre of the Aghānī is partly related to al-Isfahani's idol, Ishaq b. Ibrahim, and its information about singers, songs and performance owes a tremendous amount to him. Al-Isfahani's admiration for scholars or men of letters can be detected from time to time, usually in the passing comments in the chains of transmission. Yet al-Isfahani outspokenly expresses his admiration, in some cases, such as that of Ibn al-Muʿtazz (862–909).
As an Umayyad by ancestry, al-Isfahani's later biographers mention his Shi'i affiliation with surprise. This is then repeated in later sources; see
}} Yet, in the light of the history of the family's connections with the Abbasid elite of Shi'i inclination and the Ṭālibids, and of his learning experience in Kūfa, his Shi'i conviction is understandable. Al-Tusi (995–1067) is the only early source specifying the exact sect to which al-Isfahani belonged in the fluid Shi'i world: he was a Zaydī. Although al-Ṭūsī's view is widely accepted, its veracity is not beyond doubt. Al-Isfahani does not seem to have been informed of the latest Zaydī movements in Yemen and Ṭabaristān during his life, while his association with the Kūfan Zaydī community, which to some degree became less distinguishable from the Sunnīs, is yet to be studied in depth. It is clear, based on examination of how al-Isfahani amended the reports at his disposal, that he honoured Ali, who played a far more prominent role in his works than the first three caliphs, and some of his descendants, including Zaydi Shi'ism's eponym, Zayd ibn Ali (694–740), by presenting them positively, while, in some cases, leaving their enemies’ rectitude in question. In spite of that, al-Isfahani is neither keen to identify the imams in the past, nor discuss the qualities of an imam. al-Ḥādī ilā al-Ḥaqq also singled out a line of the Zaydi imams up till his time in his Kitab al-Ahkam''; see:}} As a matter of fact, he hardly uses the word, not even applying it to Zayd b. Ali. Furthermore, he does not unconditionally approve any Alid revolt and seems lukewarm towards the group he refers to as Zaydis. Taken together, al-Isfahani's Shi'i conviction is better characterised as moderate love for Ali without impugning the dignity of the caliphs before him. Legacy Al-Isfahani authored a number of works, but only a few survive. Three of them are preserved through quotations: al-Qiyan ("The Singing Girls Enslaved by Men"), al-Diyarat ("The Monasteries"), and Mujarrad al-aghani (“The Abridgement of the Book of Songs”). A fragment of the Mujarrad al-aghani is found in Ibn Abi Uṣaybi'a's ʿ''Uyun al-anba' fi tabaqat al-atibbaʾ, which quotes a poem by the caliph, al-Maʾmūn (r. 813–833), which was arranged as a song by Mutayyam. The first two have been reconstructed and published by al-ʿAtiyya, who collected and collateed the passages from later works that quote from al-Isfahani. The former, al-Qiyān, is a collection of the biographies of the enslaved singing girls. In it, al-Isfahani provided the basic information about the biographical subjects, the men who enslaved them, and their interaction with poets, notables such as caliphs, and their admirers, with illustration of their poetic and/or musical talents. The latter, al-Diyārāt, provides information related to monasteries, with the indication of their geographical locations and, sometimes, history and topographical characteristics. However, it is questionable to what extent the reconstructed editions can represent the original texts, since the passages, which quote al-Isfahani as a source for the given subject and are thus included by the editor, seldom identify the titles of the works.
Four works survive in manuscripts and have been edited and published: Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn ("The Ṭālibid Martyrs"), Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of the Songs"), Adab al-ghuraba ("The Etiquettes of the Strangers"), and al-Ima al-shawair'' ("The Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry"). As noted above, al-Isfahani's authorship of the Adab al-ghurabaʾ is disputed. The author, whoever he may have been, mentions in the preface his sufferings from the hardship of time and vicissitude of fate, and the solace which he seeks through the stories of bygone people. Hence, he collects in the Adab al-ghuraba the reports about the experiences of strangers; those away from their homes or their beloved ones. Some of the stories centre on the hardship which strangers, anonymous or not, encountered in their journey or exile, usually shown in the epigrams written on monuments, rocks, or walls. }} Others relate excursions to the monasteries for drinking.
The al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir was composed at the order of the vizier al-Muhallabī, al-Isfahani's patron, who demanded the collection of the reports about the enslaved women who composed poetry from the Umayyad to the Abbasid periods. Al-Isfahani confesses that he could not find any noteworthy poetess in the Umayyad period, because the people at that time were not impressed with verses featuring tenderness and softness. Thus, he only records the Abbasid poetesses, with mention of the relevant fine verses or the pleasant tales, and arranges them in chronological order. There are 31 sections, addressing 32 poetesses, most of which are short and usually begin with al-Isfahani's summary of the subject.
The Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn is a historical-biographical compilation concerning the descendants of Abu Talib, who died by being killed, poisoned to death in a treacherous way, on the run from the rulers’ persecution, or confined until death. The Maqātil literature was rather common, particularly amongst Shi'is, before al-Isfahani and he used many works of this genre as sources for the Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn. Al-Isfahani does not explain the motivation behind this compilation nor mention to whom they were dedicated, but according to the preface of this work, he sets out as a condition to recount the reports about the Ṭālibids who were “praiseworthy in their conduct and rightly guided in their belief (maḥmūd al-ṭarīqa wa-sadīd al-madhhab)”.
Like the al-Imāʾ, the work is structured in chronological order, beginning with the first Ṭālibī martyr, Jaʿfar b. Abī Ṭālib, and ends in the year of its compilation, August 925 (Jumādā I 313). For each biographical entry, al-Isfahani gives the full name, the lineage (sometimes adding the maternal side). Less often, he additionally gives the virtues and personal traits of the subject and other material he thinks noteworthy, for example the prophetic ḥadīth about, or transmitted by, the subject of the biography in question. Then, al-Isfahani gives the account of the death which, more often than not, constitutes the end of the entry. Sometimes poetry for or by the subject is attached. The Maqātil was used as a reliable source of information by many Shi'i and non-Shi'i compilers of the following centuries.
The Kitab al-Aghani, al-Isfahanis best known work, is an immense compilation, including songs provided with musical indications (melodic modes and meters of songs), the biographies of poets and musicians of different periods in addition to historical material. As noted above, al-Isfahani embarks on compiling the Aghani first under the command of a patron, whom he calls ''ra'is'' (chief), to reconstruct the list of one hundred fine songs, selected by Ishaq b. Ibrahim. Due to an obscure report in Yaqut's ''Mu'jam, this raʾīs is often assumed to be Sayf al-Dawla al-Ḥamdānī (r. 945–967), Although Khalafallah admits that his reading is conjectural, he rightly points out the obscurities in this text.}} but recent studies suggest that a more plausible candidate for the dedication of the Aghani is the vizier al-Muhallabī.
The Aghani is divided into three parts: first, The Hundred Songs (al-mi'a al-ṣawt al-mukhtara) and other song collections; second, the songs of the caliphs and of their children and grandchildren (aghani al-khulafa wa-awladihim wa-awlad awladihim); and third, al-Isfahanis selection of songs. The articles in each part are arranged based on different patterns, but it is mostly the song which introduces the articles on biographies or events. The Kitab al-Aghani'' is not the first book or collection of songs in Arabic, but it can be asserted that it is the most important one, for it "is a unique mine of information not only on hundreds of song texts with their modes and meters, but also on the lives of their poets and composers, and on the social context of music making in early Islam and at the courts of the caliphs in Damascus and Baghdad". Because of al-Isfahani's pedantic documentation of his sources, the Kitab al-Aghani can also be used to reconstruct earlier books of songs or biographical dictionaries on musicians that are otherwise lost.
As for the works that did not survive, based on their contents, as implied by their titles, they can be divided into the following categories:
The genealogical works: Nasab Bani Abd Shams ("The Genealogy of the Banu Abd Shams"), Jamharat al-nasab ("The Compendium of Genealogies"), Nasab Bani Shayban ("The Genealogy of the Banu Shayban"), and Nasab al-Mahaliba ("The Genealogy of the Muhallabids"), this last probably dedicated to his patron, the vizier al-Muhallabi.
The reports about specified or unspecified topics, such as Kitab al-Khammarin wa-l-khammarat ("The Book of Tavern-Keepers, Male and Female"), Akhbar al-tufayliyin ("Reports about Party Crashers"), al-Akhbar wa-l-nawadir ("The Reports and Rare Tales"), and Ayyam al-arab ("The Battle-Days of the Arabs"), which mentions 1700 days of the pre-Islamic tribal battles and was in circulation only in Andalusia.}}
The reports about music, musicians and singers: the aforementioned Manajib al-khisyan ("The Noble Eunuchs"), Akhbzr Jahza al-Barmaki ("The Reports concerning Jahza al-Barmaki"), ''al-Mamalik al-shu'ara ("The Slave Poets"), Adab al-samz ("The Etiquettes of Listening to Music"), and Risala fi 'ilal al-nagham ("The Treatise on the Rules of Tones").
There are two works, only mentioned by al-Tusi: Kitab ma nazala min al-Qur'an fi amir al-mu'minīn wa-ahl baytih 'alayhim al-salam'' ("The Book about the Qur'anic Verses Revealed regarding the Commander of the Faithful and the People of His Family, Peace upon Them") and Kitab fihi kalam Fatima alayha al-salam fi Fadak ("The Book concerning the Statements of Fāṭima, Peace upon Her, regarding Fadak"). Should the attribution of these two works to al-Isfahani be correct, together with the Maqatil al-Talibiyin, they reveal al-Isfahani's Shi'i partisanship.WorksAl-Isfahani is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), an encyclopaedia of over 20 volumes and editions. However, he additionally wrote poetry, an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work. Abu ‘l-Faraj employs the classical Arabic genealogical device, or isnad, (chain of transmission), to relate the biographical accounts of the authors and composers.<!----> Although originally the poems were put to music, the musical signs are no longer legible. Abu ‘l-Faraj spent in total 50 years creating this work, which remains an important historical source.
The first printed edition, published in 1868, contained 20 volumes. In 1888 Rudolf Ernst Brünnow published a 21st volume being a collection of biographies not contained in the Bulāq edition, edited from manuscripts in the Royal Library of Munich.
*Maqātil aṭ-Ṭālibīyīn (), Tālibid Fights, a collection of more than 200 biographies of the descendants of Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, from the time of Muhammad to the writing of the book in 925/6, who died in an unnatural way. As Abul-Faraj said in the foreword to his work, he included only those Tālibids who rebelled against the government and were killed, slaughtered, executed or poisoned, lived underground, fled or died in captivity. The work is a major source for the Umayyad and Abbāsid Alid uprisings and the main source for the Hashimite meeting that took place after the assassination of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walīd II in the village of al-Abwā' between Mecca and Medina. At this meeting, al-'Abdallah made the Hashimites pledge an oath of allegiance to his son Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya as the new Mahdi.
*''Kitāb al-Imā'āš-šawā'ir'' () 'The Book of the Poet-slaves', a collection of accounts of poetic slaves of the Abbasid period.
See also
*List of Arab scientists and scholars
*List of Iranian scientists and scholars
Notes
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References
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Category:897 births
Category:967 deaths
Category:10th-century Arabic-language writers
Category:10th-century biographers
Category:10th-century historians from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Arab historians
Category:10th-century Arabic-language poets
Category:Encyclopedists of the medieval Islamic world
Category:Iraqi genealogists
Category:Writers from Isfahan
Category:Poets from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:People from the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo
Category:Sayf al-Dawla
Category:Zaydis
Category:Umayyad dynasty
Category:Musicians from the Abbasid Caliphate
Category:Buyid-period poets
Category:Historians under the Buyid dynasty
Category:10th-century Shia Muslims
Category:Iranian Arabic-language poets
Category:Poets of the medieval Islamic world | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.779333 |
3043 | Alcobaça, Portugal | |region = Oeste e Vale do Tejo
|CIM = Oeste
|district = Leiria
| leader_party = PSD
| leader_name = Hermínio Rodrigues
| area_total_km2 = 408.14
| elevation_m = 42
|population_total = 53649
|population_as_of = 2011
| postal_code = 2460, 2461, 2475
| area_code | parishes 13
| patron = Saint Bernard
| holiday = 20 August
| website =
}}
Alcobaça () is a Portuguese city and municipality in the intermunicipal community Oeste and the region Oeste e Vale do Tejo, in the historical province of Estremadura, and in the Leiria District. The city grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça, from which it derives its name. The municipality population in 2011 was 56,693, in an area of . The city proper has a population of 15,800 inhabitants.
The city of Alcobaça became notable after the first king of Portugal, Afonso Henriques, decided to build a church to commemorate the Conquest of Santarém from the Moors in 1147. The church later evolved into the Monastery of Alcobaça, one of the most magnificent Gothic monuments in the country. In the church are the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Over the centuries this monastery played an important role in shaping Portuguese culture.
A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is the Monastery of Batalha, another Gothic building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota. To the west of Alcobaça is the fishing village of Nazaré, now a popular resort town. To the south is the city of Caldas da Rainha and the medieval town of Óbidos. To the northeast is the town of Porto de Mós with its rebuilt castle.
History
Alcobaça became notable in the 12th century, when it was chosen as the future site of Portugal's largest church. In March 1147, the young King Dom Afonso Henriques defeated the Moors by capturing the city of Santarém. As a tribute to his victory, he vowed to build a magnificent home for the Order of Cistercians. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The monarchy continued to carry out further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister. The monastery was consecrated in 1262.
The church contains the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Pedro had married Constanza, the Infanta (princess) of Castile, but escaped with his mistress Inês and later lived in the city of Coimbra. His father, King Afonso IV, believing that the family of Inês was a threat to his kingdom, had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father, Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, and took a gruesome revenge on the killers and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at the court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on Judgment Day his first sight would be of Inês.
During the following centuries, the monks from this monastery had a major influence on the development of Portuguese culture. Notably, in 1269 they were the first to give public lessons to their congregation, and later they produced the first authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In 1810, the invading French pillaged the abbey, taking with them most of its most important treasures, including the noteworthy library. The items that remained were later stolen in 1834 during an anti-clerical riot and the banning of religious orders in Portugal.
Climate
Alcobaça has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen:Csb) with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters.
in the background]]
Parishes
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 13 civil parishes (freguesias):
* Alcobaça e Vestiaria
* Alfeizerão
* Aljubarrota
* Bárrio
* Benedita
* Cela
* Coz, Alpedriz e Montes
* Évora de Alcobaça
* Maiorga
* Pataias e Martingança
* São Martinho do Porto
* Turquel
* Vimeiro
City information
The main feature of the city is essentially the monastery that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th-century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of "Cloister of Silence". In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In 1794, Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks "living in a very splendid manner"!
<gallery>
Alcobaça - panoramio (1).jpg|Alcobaça, panoramio
Alcobaça Praça da República.jpg|Square in Alcobaça
</gallery>
Nearby locations
A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in 1385, when King John I of Portugal defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Castilian invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in 1388 and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world-famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in 1917 by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its caverns. The best known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale.
Major events
* Market days – Every Monday
* Carnaval de Alcobaça – February/March
* Cistermúsica – classical music festival – June / July
* Saint Bernard's fair – August 20
* Municipal holiday – August 20
* Marionetas na Cidade – puppetry festival – mid-October
* Saint Simon's fair – 4th week of October
* International display of Sweets and Conventual Liqueurs – November
Notable people from Alcobaça
* Joaquim Ferreira Bogalho (1889–1977) the 20th president of S.L. Benfica
* Virgínia Vitorino (1895–1967) a teacher, poet and playwright.
* Joaquim Vieira de Natividade, (Wiki PT) (1899–1968) an agricultural engineer
* Valdemar José Correia Barbosa Rodrigues, (Wiki PT) (b. 1965) an environmental engineer, ensaist and poet
* José Aurélio, (Wiki PT) (born 1938) a sculptor, works in stone, wood and bronze
* João Lourenço (born 1942) a former footballer with 207 club caps
* Alberto Costa (born 1947) politician, Minister of Justice, 2005–2009.
* Nuno Gonçalves, a Portuguese musician, founder of The Gift.
* João Traquina (born 1988) a Portuguese footballer with over 350 club caps
* João Pedro Silva (born 1989) a Portuguese professional triathlete, competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics
* The Gift (formed 1994) a Portuguese alternative rock band
* Loto (formed 2002) an electro-pop-rock-dance music band
* Spartak! (2006–2008) a musical collective from Alcobaça
* JÜRA Popular pop artist based in Lisbon
International relations
Alcobaça is twinned with:
* Aubergenville, France
* Bełchatów, Poland
* Cacuaco, Angola
* Chicopee, United States
See also
*Alcobaça IPR
*Monastery of Alcobaça
*Monastery of Batalha
*Nazaré
References
External links
*[http://www.cm-alcobaca.pt/ Municipality official website]
Category:Populated places in Leiria District
Category:Cities in Portugal
Category:Populated places in Oeste e Vale do Tejo
Category:Municipalities of Leiria District
Category:World Heritage Sites in Portugal
Category:UNESCO
Category:Iberian locality names of Arabic origin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcobaça,_Portugal | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.795589 |
3044 | Amphisbaena | }}
(c. 1200)]]
The amphisbaena (, , or , plural: amphisbaenae; ) is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The name of the creature is alternatively written amphisbaina, amphisbene, amphisboena, amphisbona, amphista, amfivena, amphivena, or anphivena (the last two being feminine), and is also known as the "Mother of Ants". Its name comes from the Greek words , meaning "both ways", and , meaning "to go".
Mythology
According to Lucan, the amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the Gorgon Medusa's head as Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with her head in his hand: in "Pharsalia" (IX, 719), the Roman poet names it along with other serpents that Cato's army encountered in Libya. Amphisbaena fed on the corpses left behind. Although it is a legendary creature, it has been referred to by various Greek and Latin authors, scientists as well as poets: Nicander, Lucan, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville, and later Thomas Browne, the last of whom debunked its existence ( book three chapter XV). Modern poets are John Milton, Alexander Pope, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Alfred Tennyson, Aimé Césaire, A. E. Housman and Allen Mandelbaum.
Appearance
in Buckinghamshire]]
These early descriptions of the amphisbaena depict a venomous, dual-headed snakelike creature. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet, and feathered wings. Some even depict it as a horned, dragon-like creature with a serpent-headed tail and small, round ears, while others have both "necks" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet Nicander, the first to speak about it, described it as "always dull of eye". He also wrote: "From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other." Nicander's account seems to be referring to a group of real lizards what is today called the Amphisbaenia, after the legendary creature, because their tail truncates in a manner that vaguely resembles the head. Habitat
of Gmina Zapolice in Poland]]
The amphisbaena is said to make its home in the desert. Folk medicine In ancient times, the supposedly dangerous amphisbaena had many uses in the art of folk medicine and other magical remedies. Pliny notes that expecting women wearing a live amphisbaena around their necks would have safe pregnancies (Naturalis historia XXX, 128); however, if one's goal was to cure ailments such as arthritis or the common cold, one should wear only its skin (Naturalis historia XXX, 85): lumberjacks suffering from cold weather on the job could nail its carcass or skin to a tree to keep warm, while in the process allowing the tree to be felled more easily.
By eating the meat of the amphisbaena, one could supposedly attract many lovers of the opposite sex, and slaying one during the full moon could give power to one who is pure of heart and mind. <sup>[primary reference needed]</sup>
Origins
In The Book of Beasts, T.H. White suggests that the creature derives from sightings of the worm lizards of the same name. But it is the other way around. These creatures are found in the Mediterranean countries where many of these legends originated.
The Códice Casanatense (), a Portuguese book describing the areas the Portuguese had visited, includes an illustration of the flora and fauna of India. One of the animals shown is a two-headed snake (conjoined twin snakes), with one head on each end, much like an amphisbaena. The image is captioned, "two headed snakes of India are harmless". It is possible a sighting of an animal like this was the origin of the amphisbaena, or that the Greek mythological creature is used, as well as others, to literarily embellish the description of an exotic country.
In literature and other media
In Dante's Inferno, the amphisbaena is listed as one of the types of reptiles that torment thieves in the seventh bolgia.
In John Milton's Paradise Lost, after the Fall and the return of Satan to Hell, some of the fallen angelic host are transformed into the amphisbaena, to represent the animal by which the Fall was caused, i.e. a snake.
Amphisbaena appears in some editions of the tabletop roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons.
Amphisbaena has appeared in several video games as an enemy or boss monster, including La-Mulana and Bravely Second: End Layer. A creature called Amphisbaena appears in the games Castlevania: Symphony of the Night and Portrait of Ruin but bears little resemblance to other renditions of the creature, appearing as an eyeless 4-legged reptile with the upper body of a human woman sprouting from its long tail instead of a double-headed serpent.
In the 1984 animated film Gallavants, an amphisbaena (called a 'Vanterviper' in the film) appears as a minor antagonist. The two heads, a red one named Edil and a blue one called Fice, frequently disagree and argue, and sing a song about their miserable plight.
The amphisbaena is mentioned in The Last Wish, from The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski, while protagonist Geralt of Rivia recalls past events. The amphisbaena was endangering the region of Kovir until the beast was slain by Geralt's hand.
Amphisbaena is referenced in RWBY, an animated web series created by Monty Oum, in the form of an evil creature called Grimm. Of the different Grimm, the amphisbaena appears to be the King Taijitu, a two-headed snake or serpent. The king's name references the taijitu, a symbol or diagram in Chinese philosophy representing Taiji in both its monist and dualist aspects. The Grimm's coloration visually symbolizes the taijitu, with one head and body section black and the opposite side white.
The amphisbaena appears in the Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles episode "Battle Nexus: New York." This version is one of the known champions of the Battle Nexus. Big Mama had Michelangelo and Meat Sweats compete to feed each of its heads in order to satisfy the amphisbaena. They managed to work together to pull it off.
Brandon Sanderson's novel Skyward has a character whose name is Arturo Mendez. His call sign is amphisbaena.
In Beyblade has a character named Enrique whose bit beast (ancient spirits contained within spinning tops) named Amphilyon. It takes the form of a medieval amphisbaena with bat wings.
The primary antagonist of Elden Ring: Shadow of the Erdtree, Messmer the Impaler, is conjoined with a winged amphisbaena.
Use as a Proverb
The amphisbaena appears also in the saying "to the amphisbaena, Perseus is good" which can have various meanings depending in the connotation in which it is used. However, one main meaning lies in the connection between Perseus and the creation of the amphisbaena. Though created out of the violent murder of Medusa by Perseus, it shows that the creation will always see the creator in a positive light. See also
* Amphisbaenia
* Polycephaly
* Ouroboros
* Double-headed serpent
* Pushmi-Pullyu
References
Bibliography
* Hunt, Jonathan (1998). Bestiary: An Illuminated Alphabet of Medieval Beasts (1st ed.). Hong Kong: Simon & Schuster. .
* Levy, Sidney J. (1996). "Stalking the Amphisbaena", Journal of Consumer Research, 23 (3), Dec. 1996, pp. 163–176.
External links
*
* [http://www.theoi.com/Thaumasios/Amphisbainai.html Theoi Greek Mythology : Amphisbaena]
Category:Monsters in Greek mythology
Category:Legendary serpents
Category:Mythical many-headed creatures
Category:Medusa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphisbaena | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.801970 |
3045 | Amyl alcohol | Amyl alcohols are alcohols with the formula C5H11OH. Eight are known. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterification, by which is produced amyl acetate and other products. The name amyl alcohol without further specification applies to the normal (straight-chain) form, 1-pentanol.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Amyl alcohol isomers
|-
! Common name !! Structure !! Type !! IUPAC name !! Boiling point (°C)
|-
| 1-pentanolor normal amyl alcohol
| 150px
| primary
| Pentan-1-ol
| 138.5
|-
| 2-methyl-1-butanolor active amyl alcohol
| 120px
| primary
| 2-Methylbutan-1-ol
| 128.7
|-
| 3-methyl-1-butanolor isoamyl alcoholor isopentyl alcohol
| 120px
| primary
| 3-Methylbutan-1-ol
| 131.2
|-
| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanolor neopentyl alcohol
| 100px
| primary
| 2,2-Dimethylpropan-1-ol
| 113.1
|-
| 2-pentanolor sec-amyl alcoholor methyl (n) propyl carbinol
| 100px
| secondary
| Pentan-2-ol
| 118.8
|-
| 3-methyl-2-butanolor sec-isoamyl alcoholor methyl isopropyl carbinol
| 80px
| secondary
| 3-Methylbutan-2-ol
| 113.6
|-
| 3-Pentanol
| 100px
| secondary
| Pentan-3-ol
| 115.3
|-
| 2-methyl-2-butanolor tert-amyl alcohol
| 100px
| tertiary
| 2-Methylbutan-2-ol
| 102
|}
Three of these alcohols, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 2-pentanol, and 3-methyl-2-butanol (methyl isopropyl carbinol), contain stereocenters, and are therefore chiral and optically active.
The most important amyl alcohol is isoamyl alcohol, the chief one generated by fermentation in the production of alcoholic beverages and a constituent of fusel oil. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically.
References
Category:Alkanols
Category:GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_alcohol | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.804511 |
3046 | Amyl nitrite | | DrugBank = DB01612
| ChEBI_Ref =
| ChEBI = 2691
| SMILES CC(C)CCONO
| UNII_Ref =
| UNII = 5N0U5TUC9Z
| PubChem = 8053
| StdInChI_Ref =
| StdInChI = 1S/C5H11NO2/c1-5(2)3-4-8-6-7/h5H,3-4H2,1-2H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref =
| StdInChIKey = OWFXIOWLTKNBAP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CAS_number = 110-46-3
| CAS_number_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID = 7762
| KEGG_Ref =
| KEGG = D00517
| C = 5
| H = 11
| N = 1
| O = 2
| density = 0.872
| solubility = Slightly soluble
| melting_point | boiling_point 99
| ATC_prefix = V03
| ATC_suffix = AB22
<!-- | OtherCompounds = Nitroglycerine<br/>Isopentanol<br/>Butyl nitrite<br/>Isobutyl nitrite<br/> Ethyl nitrite<br/> Methyl nitrite<br/> Isopropyl nitrite<br/> Cyclohexyl nitrite -->}}
Amyl nitrite is a chemical compound with the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group (the amyl in this case) is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet.
<!-- Society and culture -->
It was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.
Uses
* Amyl nitrite was historically employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina.
* Amyl nitrite was sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. It was thought to act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin. However, it has been replaced by hydroxocobalamin which had better efficacy, and the use of amyl nitrite has been found to be ineffective and unscientific.
* Trace amounts are added to some perfumes.
* It is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a "come down"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug .Nomenclature
The term "amyl nitrite" encompasses several isomers. In older literature, the common non-systematic name amyl was often used for the pentyl group, where the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, and the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONO, also referred to as n-amyl nitrite.
A common form of amyl nitrite is the isomer with the formula (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONO, which may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite.
The similarly named amyl nitrate has very different properties. At the same time, isopropyl nitrite has a similar structure and similar uses (also called 'poppers') but with worse side-effects.
Amyl nitrite is sometimes referred to colloquially as banapple gas.Synthesis and reactionsAlkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:
:ROH + HONO → RONO + H<sub>2</sub>O, where R = alkyl group
The reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture.
Isoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol:
:C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>ONO + NaOH → C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>OH + NaNO<sub>2</sub>
Amyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.
Amyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used, whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.
Physiological effects
Amyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites, is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite may be used during cardiovascular stress testing in patients with suspected hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to cause vasodilation and thereby reduce afterload and provoke obstruction of blood flow towards the aorta from the ventricle by increasing the pressure gradient, thereby causing left ventricular outflow obstruction. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia. Amyl nitrite, when given as a medication for patients with angina, can also be administered as an ampule. The ampule is put in a gauze pad and then inhaled by the patient during an angina attack and repeated every fifteen minutes. However, oral dosing of amyl nitrite is ineffective due to poor absorption and extensive hepatic metabolism. Amyl nitrite has been widely replaced by nitroglycerin for the treatment of acute angina.
Toxicity
Although there are case reports of life-threatening toxicity involving unusually large amounts, typical inhaled doses of amyl nitrite are considered relatively safe. However, liquid amyl nitrite is highly toxic when ingested because of the unsafely high concentration it causes in blood. Regardless of the form or route of administration, acute toxicity principally results when the nitrite oxidizes a significant proportion of hemoglobin in the blood without oxygen, forming methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen. Severe poisoning cases will progress to methemoglobinemia, characterized by a blue-brown discoloration under the skin which could be mistaken for cyanosis.
The 1978 Derek Jarman film Jubilee features a character named Amyl Nitrate (a misspelled reference to amyl nitrite).
The title of the 1993 song Animal Nitrate by English band Suede is a pun on amyl nitrite, referencing its recreational use, although singer Brett Anderson has said the song has more to do with other drugs like ecstasy and cocaine.
In the 1999 film Fight Club, the character Chloe, a terminally ill woman mentions having a collection of amyl nitrite while openly discussing her unfulfilled desires at a cancer support group.
The punk band Amyl and the Sniffers reference recreational use of amyl nitrite in their name.
The Hunter S. Thompson book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas sees amyl nitrite as one of the many drugs Raoul Duke packs for the trip to Las Vegas, taking about two dozen ampules of it with him and usually justifying its usage by him and Dr. Gonzo to other people around them by claiming it is for angina.
In Season 1, Episode 9 of Bob's Burgers, "Spaghetti Western and Meatballs", Gene guesses amyl nitrite for the A in the ABS program near the end of the episode.
References
Further reading
* Editorial on the use of the word "amyl".
Category:Antianginals
Category:Antidotes
Category:Alkyl nitrites
Category:Muscle relaxants
Category:Vasodilators
Category:Isoamyl esters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyl_nitrite | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.814307 |
3049 | Autumn | Autumn, also known as fall (especially in US & Canada), is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern Hemisphere). Autumn is the season when the duration of daylight becomes noticeably shorter and the temperature cools considerably. Day length decreases and night length increases as the season progresses until the winter solstice in December (Northern Hemisphere) and June (Southern Hemisphere). One of its main features in temperate climates is the striking change in colour of the leaves of deciduous trees as they prepare to shed.
Date definitions
Some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn", while others with a longer temperature lag treat the equinox as the start of autumn. In the English-speaking world of high latitude countries, autumn traditionally began with Lammas Day and ended around Hallowe'en, the approximate mid-points between midsummer, the autumnal equinox, and midwinter. Meteorologists (and Australia and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere) use a definition based on Gregorian calendar months, with autumn being September, October, and November in the northern hemisphere, and March, April, and May in the southern hemisphere.
In the higher latitude countries in the Northern Hemisphere, autumn traditionally starts with the September equinox (21 to 24 September) and ends with the winter solstice (21 or 22 December). Popular culture in the United States associates Labor Day, the first Monday in September, as the end of summer and the start of autumn. Certain summer traditions, such as wearing white, are discouraged after that date. As daytime and nighttime temperatures decrease, trees change colour and then shed their leaves. Persians celebrate the beginning of the autumn on Mehregan.
Under the traditional East Asian solar term system, autumn starts on or around 8 August and ends on or about 7 November. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are September, October, and November. However, according to the Irish Calendar, which is based on ancient Gaelic traditions, autumn lasts throughout the months of August, September, and October, or possibly a few days later, depending on tradition. In the Irish language, September is known as ("middle of autumn") and October as ("end of autumn"). Late Roman Republic scholar Marcus Terentius Varro defined autumn as lasting from the third day before the Ides of Sextilis (August 11) to the fifth day before the Ides of November (November 9).Etymology
The word autumn () is derived from Latin autumnus, archaic auctumnus, possibly from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year. Alternative etymologies include ) or ('dry').
After the Greek era, the word continued to be used as the Old French word ( in modern French) or in Middle English, and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period, there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century, it was in common use.
Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch , German , and Scots ). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.
The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English or and the Old Norse all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning "to fall from a height" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th-century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year". Compare the origin of spring from "spring of the leaf" and "spring of the year".
During the 17th century, English settlers began emigrating to the new North American colonies, and took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became nearly obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.
The name backend, a once common name for the season in Northern England, has today been largely replaced by the name autumn.
Associations
Harvest
Association with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Many cultures feature autumnal harvest festivals, often the most important on their calendars.
Still-extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States and Canada, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full-moon harvest festival of "tabernacles" (living in outdoor huts around the time of harvest). There are also the many festivals celebrated by indigenous peoples of the Americas tied to the harvest of ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather.
This view is presented in English poet John Keats' poem To Autumn, where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of "mellow fruitfulness".
In North America, while most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods usually associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.
Melancholia
picture of 1875 presenting a typical view of autumn in the Polish 19th-century countryside]]
Autumn, especially in poetry, has often been associated with melancholia. The possibilities and opportunities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, the amount of usable daylight drops rapidly, and many people turn inward, both physically and mentally. It has been referred to as an unhealthy season.
Similar examples may be found in Irish poet W.B. Yeats' poem The Wild Swans at Coole where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own ageing self. Like the natural world that he observes, he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. French poet Paul Verlaine's "''Chanson d'automne''" ("Autumn Song") is likewise characterised by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' To Autumn, written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season. The song "Autumn Leaves", based on the French song "Les Feuilles mortes", uses the melancholic atmosphere of the season and the end of summer as a metaphor for the mood of being separated from a loved one.
Halloween
in Lower Manhattan is the world's largest Halloween parade, with millions of spectators annually, and has its roots in New York City's queer community.]]
Autumn is associated with Halloween (influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival), and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The Celtic people also used this time to celebrate the harvest with a time of feasting. At the same time though, it was a celebration of death as well. Crops were harvested, livestock were butchered, and Winter was coming.
Halloween, 31 October, is in autumn in the northern hemisphere. Television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery businesses use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such a holiday, with promotions going from late August or early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas.
In the southern hemisphere Halloween takes place in Spring.
Other associations
, Finland.]]
In some parts of the northern hemisphere, autumn has a strong association with the end of summer holiday and the start of a new school year, particularly for children in primary and secondary education. "Back to School" advertising and preparations usually occurs in the weeks leading to the beginning of autumn.
Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada, on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States (where it is commonly regarded as the start of the Christmas and holiday season), and around the same part of the year in other places. Similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan.
Television stations and networks, particularly in North America, traditionally begin their regular seasons in their autumn, with new series and new episodes of existing series debuting mostly during late September or early October (series that debut outside the autumn season are usually known as mid-season replacements). A sweeps period takes place in November to measure Nielsen Ratings.
American football is played almost exclusively in the autumn months; at the high school level, seasons run from late August through early November, with some playoff games and holiday rivalry contests being played as late as Thanksgiving. In many American states, the championship games take place in early December. College football's regular season runs from September through November, while the main professional circuit, the National Football League, plays from September through to early January.
Summer sports, such as association football (in Northern America, East Asia and South Africa), Canadian football, stock car racing, tennis, golf, cricket, and professional baseball, wrap up their seasons in early to late autumn; Major League Baseball's championship World Series is popularly known as the "Fall Classic". (Amateur baseball is usually finished by August.) Likewise, professional winter sports, such as ice hockey and basketball, and most leagues of association football in Europe, are in the early stages of their seasons during autumn; American college basketball and college ice hockey play teams outside their athletic conferences during the late autumn before their in-conference schedules begin in winter.
The Christian religious holidays of All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day are observed in autumn in the Northern hemisphere. Easter falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere.
The secular celebration of International Workers' Day also falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Since 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States.
In Indian mythology, autumn is considered to be the preferred season for the goddess of learning Saraswati, who is also known by the name of "goddess of autumn" (Sharada).
In Asian mysticism, Autumn is associated with the element of metal, and subsequently with the colour white, the White Tiger of the West, and death and mourning.
Tourism
, Vermont, U.S.]]
Although colour change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, coloured autumn foliage is noted in various regions of the world: most of North America, Eastern Asia (including China, Korea, and Japan), Europe, southeast, south, and part of the midwest of Brazil, the forest of Patagonia, eastern Australia and New Zealand's South Island.
Eastern Canada and New England are famous for their autumnal foliage, and this attracts major tourism (worth billions of US dollars) for the regions.Views of autumn
<gallery>
File:Acer saccharum Equinox Mountain Vermont.jpg|Autumn foliage in Vermont, US
File:Maple Trees by Creek.jpg|Maple leaves changing colour by a creek.
File:Pumpkin-Pie-Whole-Slice.jpg|Pumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America
File:01259 All Saints Day Sanok, 2011.jpg|All Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok, Poland—flowers and lit candles are placed to honour the memory of deceased relatives.
File:Autumnleavesfalling-kanagawa-2022Dec5.webm|Falling autumn leaves in Kanagawa, Japan
File:Harvest Straw Bales in Schleswig-Holstein.jpg|Harvest straw bales in a field of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
File:Pumpkins-2009.jpg|Halloween pumpkins
File:Чарівна мить жовтневого світанку.jpg|Autumn in Sedniv, Ukraine
File:Autumn in Arrowtown, New Zealand.jpg|Autumn colours in Arrowtown, New Zealand
File:Autumn in Spanish park.jpg|Autumn seen in a park in Madrid, Spain
</gallery>
Allegories of autumn in art
<gallery>
File:Allegory_of_Autumn_-_sala_di_Prometeo.jpg|Autumn, by Giuseppe Collignon
File:Autumn_Legros_Louvre_MR1981.jpg|Autumn, by Pierre Le Gros the Elder
File:Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Autumn, 1573.jpg|Autumn (1573), by Giuseppe Arcimboldo
File:Alfons_Mucha_-_1896_-_Autumn.jpg|Autumn (1896), by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha
File:Autumn_LCCN90708855.jpg|Autumn (1871), by Currier & Ives
File:Maxfield_Parrish_-_Autumn_(1905).jpg|This 1905 print by Maxfield Frederick Parrish illustrated John Keats' poem To Autumn
</gallery>
See also
* Autumn in New England
* Diwali
References
External links
Category:Etymologies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumn | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.830664 |
3052 | Alameda, California | Alameda}}
| image_flag = Flag of Alameda, California.svg
| flag_border = no
| image_seal = Seal of Alameda, California.svg
| nickname The Island City
| motto Prosperita terra mari que<br>("Prosperity from the land and the sea")
| image_map #########|zoomSWITCH:11;8;5;3|typeSWITCH:shape-inverse;shape;point;point|markercity|stroke-width2|stroke-color#5f5f5f|id2SWITCH:Q490744;Q107146;Q99;Q30|type2shape|fill2#ffffff|fill-opacity2SWITCH:0;0.1;0.1;0.1|stroke-width22|stroke-color2#5f5f5f|stroke-opacity2SWITCH:0;1;1;1|switchAlameda;Alameda County;California;the United States}}
<!-- Location ------------->| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
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<!-- History -------------->| established_title = Founded<br />Incorporated
| established_date = June 6, 1853<br />April 19, 1854
<!-- Government ----------->| government_type = Council–manager
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Marilyn Ezzy Ashcraft
| leader_title1 = State senator
| leader_name1
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| area_land_sq_mi = 10.45
| area_water_sq_mi = 12.53
| area_water_percent = 53.79
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| area_land_km2 = 27.06
| area_water_km2 = 32.45
<!-- Elevation ------------>| elevation_footnotes =
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| population_footnotes | pop_est_as_of
| pop_est_footnotes | population_est
| population_demonym = Alamedan
<!-- Time zones ----------->| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes
| postal_code = 94501–94502
| area_code = 510, 341
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Alameda ( ; ; Spanish for "tree-lined path") is a city in Alameda County, California, United States, located in the East Bay region of the Bay Area. The city is built on an informal archipelago in San Francisco Bay, consisting of Alameda Island, Bay Farm Island and Coast Guard Island, along with other smaller islands. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 78,280. The area was low-lying and marshy, while higher ground was part of one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. A local band of the Ohlone tribe inhabited the region for more than 3,000 years. They were present at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century. The Ohlone created numerous oyster shell mounds across the peninsula, some as large as 14 feet tall.Spanish and Mexican eras
was part of Rancho San Antonio, granted to the Peralta family in 1820.|left]]
Spanish colonists called the area Encinal, meaning "forest of evergreen oak". What is now Alameda, and much of the East Bay was included in the vast Rancho San Antonio granted to Don Luis María Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the Republic of Mexico after its independence in 1821 from Spain. Over time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio.Early California era
The city of Alameda was founded on June 6, 1853, following the Mexican–American War of 1848 and the subsequent acquisition of California by the U.S.
The name Alameda is Spanish for "grove of poplar trees" or "tree-lined avenue" and was chosen in 1853 as city's official name by popular vote.
At the time, Alameda comprised three small settlements:
* Alameda — a village at Encinal and High streets
* Hibbardsville — ocated at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and
* Woodstock — on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast and the Central Pacific Railroads. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole.
The borders of Alameda were expanded to include the entire island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda.
The first post office opened in 1854. Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. marking the first coast to coast transcontinental railroad in North America.
The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, used as training quarters for some of the most popular fighters in boxing from 1883 to 1914. Jack Johnson and several other champions all stayed and trained here.
The need for expanded shipping facilities and increased flow of current through the estuary led to the dredging of a tidal canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda. Construction started in 1874, but it was not completed until 1902, resulting in Alameda becoming an island.
Modern era
, established in 1917]]
In 1917, a private entertainment park called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove, which became a major recreation destination in the 1920s and 1930s. Both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll became the original prize for winning games of chance at the beach, another Neptune Beach innovation. The park closed down in 1939.
The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best-equipped shipyards in the country. Together with other industrial facilities, it became part of the defense industry buildup before and during World War II, which attracted many migrants from other parts of the United States for the high-paying jobs. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and shipbuilding industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary.
In the early 21st century, the Port of Oakland, across the estuary, has become one of the largest ports on the West Coast. Its operators use shipping technologies originally experimented within Alameda. As of April 2006, Alameda is a "Coast Guard City", one of six then designated in the country (as of 2025, it is one of 34).
In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific). Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops, where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired. These were later adapted as the East Bay Electric Lines. The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole.
In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along with the fill that led to the Alameda Mole, the original home base for the China Clipper flying boat. In 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda).
In the late 1950s, the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the Old Sea Wall and created South Shore.
On February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station suddenly caught fire above the San Francisco Bay, crashing into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people including the pilot died in the crash and fire.
Geography
Alameda's nickname is "The Island". Today, the city consists of three major sections:
* Alameda Island – The main original section created by dredging a channel between Oakland to the north, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, South Shore along the southern side of Alameda Island,
* Bay Farm Island – Part of the mainland proper, and attached to Oakland.
* Coast Guard Island – A small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, home of Integrated Support Command Alameda.
, spanning the Oakland Estuary, connects Alameda in the south to Oakland in the north.]]
The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point." The South Shore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point, Bay Farm Island, and South Shore are largely built on bay fill.
]] ]]
Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda; a small portion of a dump site west of the former runway at Alameda Naval Air Station extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and therefore part of the City and County of San Francisco. Ballena Isle, an even smaller island, is also part of Alameda. <!-- Notice the small grey sliver on Alameda Point; it is part of San Francisco.-->
Climate
This region experiences warm (but not hot), dry summers, and cool (but not cold), wet winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. Annual precipitation is about , all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay Area).
Hazards
The low-lying island has seen sea-level and groundwater level rise threaten its infrastructure and people not just through flooding events, but through the increased liquefaction risk from more saturated soils. The locations of increasing groundwater-induced risks and flooding risks may be most precise in private insurance company maps.
Demographics
2020
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Alameda, California – Racial and ethnic composition<br><small></small>
!Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small>
!Pop 2000
!Pop 2010
!
!% 2000
!% 2010
!
|-
|White alone (NH)
|37,921
|33,468
|style='background: #ffffe6; |32,152
|52.48%
|45.34%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |41.07%
|-
|Black or African American alone (NH)
|4,350
|4,516
|style='background: #ffffe6; |4,399
|6.02%
|6.12%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |5.62%
|-
|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)
|365
|247
|style='background: #ffffe6; |173
|0.51%
|0.33%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.22%
|-
|Asian alone (NH)
|18,757
|22,822
|style='background: #ffffe6; |25,107
|25.96%
|30.92%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |32.07%
|-
|Pacific Islander alone (NH)
|407
|342
|style='background: #ffffe6; |356
|0.56%
|0.46%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.45%
|-
|Other race alone (NH)
|235
|278
|style='background: #ffffe6; |556
|0.33%
|0.38%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.71%
|-
|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)
|3,499
|4,047
|style='background: #ffffe6; |6,102
|4.84%
|5.48%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |7.80%
|-
|Hispanic or Latino (any race)
|6,725
|8,092
|style='background: #ffffe6; |9,435
|9.31%
|10.96%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |12.05%
|-
|Total
|72,259
|73,812
|style='background: #ffffe6; |78,280
|100.00%
|100.00%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |100.00%
|}
2010
The 2010 United States census reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630)
The population density was . The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8%) White, 23,058 (31.2%) Asian, 4,759 (6.4%) African American, 426 (0.6%) Native American, 381 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3%) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0%).
The Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9%) were institutionalized.
There were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or same-sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,874 (9.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.06.
The age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7%) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4%) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5%) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.
Per capita annual income (in 2013 dollars) in 2009–2013 was $41,340 per the US Census. Median household income in 2009–2013 was $74,606 per the US Census.
There were 32,351 housing units at an average density of , of which 30,123 were occupied, of which 14,488 (48.1%) were owner-occupied, and 15,635 (51.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 37,042 people (50.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units.
2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3/km (6,693.4/mi<sup>2</sup>). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km (2,931.2/mi<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 30,226 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. Of all households, 32.2% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.
There is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street before World War II, when the city's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda's pre-war Japanese American community.
Economy
, built 1879]]
]]
;Top employers
According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! #
! Employer
! # of Employees
|-
|1
|Penumbra Inc.
|1,839
|-
|2
|Alameda Unified School District
|1,068
|-
|3
|Alameda Hospital
|750
|-
|4
|Abbott Diabetes Care Inc.
|565
|-
|5
|City of Alameda
|543
|-
|6
|Kaiser Foundation Health Plan
|450
|-
|7
|U.S. Department of Transportation
|370
|-
|8
|Alameda Alliance For Health
|366
|-
|9
|Bay Ship & Yacht Co.
|316
|-
|10
|College of Alameda
|266
|}
Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS), decommissioned in 1997, was turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development, today known as Alameda Point.
A cluster of artisan distilleries, wineries, breweries and tasting rooms along Monarch Street at Alameda Point is now referred to by the City of Alameda as "Spirits Alley". Admiral Maltings also sits in this area, supplying craft brewers and whisky producers, and is the first craft malting house in California.
Arts and culture
]]
Arts
Photo-realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including Alameda Gran Torino, which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle's most famous works.TheatersThe landmark Alameda Theatre is an Art Deco movie theatre designed by architect Timothy L. Pflueger and opened up in 1932. The city restored and expand it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.
The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas, and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Radium is a planned performing arts complex at the former naval air station and has seasonal shows in an outdoor theater.
Festivals
The Fourth of July parade is advertised as the longest in the United States. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire-breathing dragons, and marching bands.
There are multiple major events when streets in Alameda's historic downtown district are closed to vehicular traffic. Park Street Art and Wine Faire is the biggest and takes place the last weekend of every July with more than 200 artists and vendors. Seasonal events like the spring and winter markets, as well as themed rum, whiskey and hot cocoa strolls are spread out through the year.
The annual Sand Castle and Sculpture Contest takes place in June at the Robert Crown Memorial State Beach, attracting hundreds of participants. The first contest was held in 1967.
Alameda Point Antiques Faire is held on the first Sunday of every month at the former Naval Air Station runways. It is the largest antiques and collectibles show in Northern California, attracting upwards of 10,000 visitors and featuring 800 dealer booths. The faire specializes in items 20 years or older, including furniture, decorations, clothing, jewelry, art, pottery, books, and collectibles.
Museums
* Alameda Museum – includes exhibits about the history and culture the city with old dioramas, model ships, toys, Native American culture, and Neptune Beach.
* Alameda Naval Air Museum – is focused on the history of Naval Air Station Alameda and aviation.
* California Historical Radio Society Museum – set in a 125 year old telephone building, the museum covers electronic communication with artifacts from the late 1800’s on display.
* Pacific Pinball Museum – an interactive museum/arcade with a chronological and historical selection of rare and early pinball games including a rotating set of more than 100 playable pinball machines ranging in era from the 1940s to present day located on Webster Street.
* USS Hornet Museum – a museum ship of the aircraft carrier . It has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as since 1998.
Government
Alameda is a charter city governed by a five-member City Council, including the Mayor, who are all elected at large. The City operates under a council-manager system defined by the City Charter, with a professional City Manager overseeing daily administration. The City Manager is responsible for city operations, budget administration, and implementing council policies, distinguishing Alameda from strong-mayor systems often in bigger cities. The City Attorney and City Clerk report directly to the Council.
The budget for the city is greater than $310 million a year as of the 2023-25 biannual budgets planning cycle. The City Treasurer and City Auditor are independently elected. Residents appointed by the Mayor and City Council serve on a range of boards and commissions overseeing major components of the city (for example recreation and parks, library, transportation and planning).
Alameda's government is responsible for a range of municipal services, including public safety, transportation, parks, and land use planning. Rare to a city of its size, it operates its own city-wide electricity utility, Alameda Municipal Power, which has 100% clean electricity and as much as a 48% savings over comparable PG&E rates.Alameda Free LibraryThere are three library locations: the Main Library in downtown Alameda, the Bay Farm Island Library and the West End Library. Beyond books, services at the library include events and author talks, computer labs, home delivery of books, as well as e-book, streaming digital media, and audio book catalogs. Historical resources of Alameda's past include local newspaper and magazine archives, high school yearbooks, books by local authors and maps.
In 2000 voters authorized a bond measure to construct a new main library to replace the city's Carnegie Library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new main library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006.
Education
]]
Public primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District (AUSD), which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). More than 9,000 students are enrolled in the AUSD system across nine elementary, four middle, four high schools. The California Department of Education School Dashboard reports student performance is "green" and above state standards for English, math and college/career preparation.
The College of Alameda, a two-year community college is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school.
Media
The community is currently served by a non-profit online news outlet called the [http://www.alamedapost.com Alameda Post]. Additionally, a weekly newspaper section of the East Bay Times, the Alameda Journal, is published by the Bay Area News Group, based in Walnut Creek, CA.
Alameda's first newspaper, the Encinal, appeared in the 1860s. Following the Encinal, several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the Daily Argus eventually rose to prominence. Around 1900, the Daily Argus began to fade in importance and east and west papers The Times and The Star combined to take the leading role as the Alameda Times-Star in the 1930s. The Times-Star was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s. In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder. Between 2001 and 2023, the Alameda Sun ran a local weekly print newspaper.
Transportation
]]
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|caption=Alameda Island and connections:
# Posey and Webster Street tubes
# Park Street Bridge
# Fruitvale Bridge
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# Bay Farm Island Bridge
}}
Alameda is well connected to the region via road, ferries and nearby rail and air connections.
Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one-way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Alameda and Bay Farm Islands are connected via the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge in the United States).
California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport. The island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland. The speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road.
Transportation options include:
* Bus – AC Transit connects the island to Oakland and Berkeley, and express service to downtown San Francisco's Salesforce Transit Center.
* Ferry – San Francisco Bay Ferry connects Alameda with San Francisco across four routes; three on the main island's west end Alameda Main St./Oakland Ferry, Alameda Seaplane Lagoon Ferry, Alameda/South San Francisco and from Bay Farm Island via the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry routes.
* Water Shuttle – The Oakland Alameda Water Shuttle is pedestrian/bike boat that connects Alameda Landing and Oakland's Jack London Square runs five days a week for free.
* BART and Rail – The closest BART stations are Lake Merritt and 12th Street, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge. BART's long-term plans for a second tunnel include Alameda as a candidate for the first stop on a new East Bay line. The closest Amtrak rail station is Oakland-Jack London Square.
* Air – Oakland International Airport abuts the eastern border of Alameda's Bay Farm Island, and includes passenger, freight and private aircraft flights.
Notable buildings
* Alameda City Hall; NRHP-listed
* Alameda High School; NRHP-listed
* Croll Building; NRHP-listed and a California Historical Landmark
* Masonic Temple and Lodge; NRHP-listed, and part of the Park Street Historic Commercial District
* John Baker, MLB catcher for San Diego Padres and Chicago Cubs, was born in Alameda.
* Clinton Ballou (1923–2021), biochemist, died in Alameda.
* Hester A. Benedict (1838–1921), president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association
* Mike Brisiel, an offensive guard for Oakland Raiders.
* Virginia Lee Burton, Caldecott-winning children's author and illustrator.
* Harold Camping, television and radio personality, president and general manager of Family Stations, Inc.
* Phyllis Diller, television comedian, attended Sunday school at First Presbyterian, married and lived in Alameda at the start of her comedy career in San Francisco in the 1950s.
* Garrett Eckbo, landscape architect who lived in Alameda as a child, later forming the Bay Area firm of Eckbo, Royston, Williams with Robert Royston and Edward Williams.
* Leif Erickson, actor, born in Alameda in 1911.
* Larry Eustachy, college basketball coach, born in Alameda.
* Debbi Fields, founder of Mrs. Fields Cookies, attended Alameda High School, where she was a cheerleader.
* Albert Ghiorso, nuclear scientist, co-discoverer of 12 chemical elements on the periodic table; in Guinness Book of World Records for Most Elements Discovered.
* Brad Gillis, guitarist with Night Ranger, a San Francisco rock band formed in the 1980s.
* Katharine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post, lived in Alameda as a child, according to Personal History, her autobiography.
* Tim Hardaway Jr., a professional basketball player, was born in Alameda.
* Horace Heidt, bandleader and radio personality, born in Alameda on May 21, 1901.
* Emily Heller, comedian
* Marielle Heller, actress and director
* Bruce Henderson, author, grew up in Alameda, according to his book Hero Found: The Greatest POW Escape of the Vietnam War.
* Benjamin Jealous, former President of the NAACP, lived in Alameda.
* Joseph R. Knowland, congressman and Alameda native, was editor and publisher of the Oakland Tribune.
* William Fife Knowland, U.S. Senator, was student body president at Alameda High School.
* Robert L. Lippert, theater chain owner and film producer, was an Alameda native.
* Paul Mantz, air racer and Hollywood stunt pilot, was born in Alameda in 1903.
* Louis A. McCall Sr., drummer and musician known as the co-founder of Con Funk Shun.
* Margaret McNamara, founder of Reading is Fundamental, and wife of Robert McNamara, grew up in Alameda.
* George P. Miller, a congressman from 1945 to 1973.
* Jack Mingo, author
* Hugo Wilhelm Arthur Nahl, designer of the Seal of California.
* Don Perata, former President Pro Tempore of California State Senate, lives in Alameda; once taught at Saint Joseph Notre Dame High, Encinal High, and Alameda High, among other Alameda schools.
* Emily Browne Powell (1847-1938), writer; president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association
* Carl Ravazza, bandleader, born in Alameda, 1910.
* Bill Rigney, Major League Baseball player and manager, was born in Alameda.
* Dutch Ruether, pitcher for 1927 New York Yankees, was born in Alameda.
*Jane Sibbett, actress and comedian, grew up in Alameda.
* Operatic mezzo-soprano Frederica Von Stade has lived in Alameda since 1992.
* Sharon Tate, actress, resident in early to late-1960s.
* Charles Lee Tilden, for whom Tilden Regional Park is named, was a longtime resident of Alameda; Tilden Way at the southeast end of the city is named for him.
* Baseball Hall of Famer Willie Stargell, MLB player Tommy Harper, MLB player Curtell Howard Motton, 2003 National League Rookie of the Year Dontrelle Willis, 2007 National League Most Valuable Player Jimmy Rollins, NBA player J.R. Rider, and NFL players Melvin Carver and Junior Tautalatasi all attended Encinal High School.
* Jason Kidd (NBA player and coach) and Joe Nelson (MLB pitcher) attended St. Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda.
* MLB players Ray French, Johnny Vergez, Andy Carey, Bill Serena, Erik Schullstrom, Dick Bartell, Duffy Lewis, Chris Speier, and Bryan Woo all attended Alameda High School.
* Many people from naval families, including celebrities such as Ann Curry, Brigette Lundy-Paine, Tom Hanks, and Jim Morrison of The Doors, have lived in Alameda.
Sister cities
The city has four active and formal sister city relations as well as inactive ones.
* Dumaguete, Philippines (2015)
* Jiangyin, China (2008)
* Varazze, Italy (2019)
* Yeongdong-gun, South Korea (2017)
Friendship city
* Wuxi, China
** A Friendship city since 2004, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.
Inactive cities
* Arita, Japan
* Lidingö, Sweden
** Initiated in 1959 as part of President Eisenhower's people-to-people-movement, whose purpose was to develop better understanding among people from different countries after World War II. Both Alameda and Lidingö are islands with a bridge connecting them to a big city.
See also
* Alameda Island
* Bay Farm Island
* Coast Guard Island
* List of islands of California
* List of ships built in Alameda, California
References
Further reading
* Merlin, Imelda. [https://alamedamuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Imelda_smallpics_4printing.pdf Alameda: a Geographical History]. Illus. with photos. Alameda: Friends of the Alameda Free Library, (1977).
External links
*
*
*
*
*
Category:1854 establishments in California
Category:Cities in Alameda County, California
Category:Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California
Category:Populated places established in 1854
Category:Populated coastal places in California | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda,_California | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.878321 |
3054 | Alpha helix | ]]
An alpha helix (or α-helix) is a sequence of amino acids in a protein that are twisted into a coil (a helix).
The alpha helix is the most common structural arrangement in the secondary structure of proteins. It is also the most extreme type of local structure, and it is the local structure that is most easily predicted from a sequence of amino acids.
The alpha helix has a right-handed helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone CO group of the amino acid that is four residues earlier in the protein sequence. Other names
The alpha helix is also commonly called a:
* Pauling–Corey–Branson α-helix (from the names of three scientists who described its structure)
* 3.6<sub>13</sub>-helix because there are 3.6 amino acids in one ring, with 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond (starting with amidic hydrogen and ending with carbonyl oxygen)
Discovery
. The protein chain runs upward here; that is, its N-terminus is at the bottom and its C-terminus at the top. Note that the sidechains (black stubs) angle slightly downward, toward the N-terminus, while the peptide oxygens (red) point up and the peptide NHs (blue with grey stubs) point down.
| image2 = alpha helix neg60 neg45 topview.png
| caption2 = Top view of the same helix shown above. Four carbonyl groups are pointing upwards toward the viewer, spaced roughly 100° apart on the circle, corresponding to 3.6 amino-acid residues per turn of the helix.
}}
In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ≈.
Astbury initially proposed a linked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that:
* the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form)
* the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form).
Although incorrect in their details, Astbury's models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix.
Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of planar peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix. Structure Geometry and hydrogen bonding The amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of along the helical axis. Dunitz describes how Pauling's first article on the theme in fact shows a left-handed helix, the enantiomer of the true structure. Short pieces of left-handed helix sometimes occur with a large content of achiral glycine amino acids, but are unfavorable for the other normal, biological -amino acids. The pitch of the alpha-helix (the vertical distance between consecutive turns of the helix) is , which is the product of 1.5 and 3.6. The most important thing is that the N-H group of one amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the CO group of the amino acid four residues earlier; this repeated i + 4 → i hydrogen bonding is the most prominent characteristic of an α-helix. Official international nomenclature specifies two ways of defining α-helices, rule 6.2 in terms of repeating φ, ψ torsion angles (see below) and rule 6.3 in terms of the combined pattern of pitch and hydrogen bonding. The α-helices can be identified in protein structure using several computational methods, such as DSSP (Define Secondary Structure of Protein).
Similar structures include the 3<sub>10</sub> helix (i + 3 → i hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix (i + 5 → i hydrogen bonding). The α-helix can be described as a 3.6<sub>13</sub> helix, since the i + 4 spacing adds three more atoms to the H-bonded loop compared to the tighter 3<sub>10</sub> helix, and on average, 3.6 amino acids are involved in one ring of α-helix. The subscripts refer to the number of atoms (including the hydrogen) in the closed loop formed by the hydrogen bond.
(φ, ψ plot), with data points for α-helical residues forming a dense diagonal cluster below and left of center, around the global energy minimum for backbone conformation.]]
Residues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (φ, ψ) dihedral angles around (−60°, −45°), as shown in the image at right. In more general terms, they adopt dihedral angles such that the ψ dihedral angle of one residue and the φ dihedral angle of the next residue sum to roughly −105°. As a consequence, α-helical dihedral angles, in general, fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran diagram (of slope −1), ranging from (−90°, −15°) to (−70°, −35°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 3<sub>10</sub> helix is roughly −75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly −130°. The general formula for the rotation angle Ω per residue of any polypeptide helix with trans isomers is given by the equation
: 1 − 4 cos<sup>2</sup> }}
The α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side-chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly "downward" (i.e., toward the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone. Stability
Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). In general, short polypeptides do not exhibit much α-helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. In general, the backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase, oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Furthermore, crosslinks can be incorporated into peptides to conformationally stabilize helical folds. Crosslinks stabilize the helical state by entropically destabilizing the unfolded state and by removing enthalpically stabilized "decoy" folds that compete with the fully helical state. It has been shown that α-helices are more stable, robust to mutations and designable than β-strands in natural proteins, and also in artificially designed proteins. Visualization The three most popular ways of visualizing the alpha-helical secondary structure of oligopeptide sequences are (1) a helical wheel, (2) a wenxiang diagram, and (3) a helical net. Each of these can be visualized with various software packages and web servers. To generate a small number of diagrams, Heliquest can be used for helical wheels, and NetWheels can be used for helical wheels and helical nets. To programmatically generate a large number of diagrams, helixvis can be used to draw helical wheels and wenxiang diagrams in the R and Python programming languages.
Experimental determination
Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds and backbone conformation, the most detailed experimental evidence for α-helical structure comes from atomic-resolution X-ray crystallography such as the example shown at right. It is clear that all the backbone carbonyl oxygens point downward (toward the C-terminus) but splay out slightly, and the H-bonds are approximately parallel to the helix axis. Protein structures from NMR spectroscopy also show helices well, with characteristic observations of nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) couplings between atoms on adjacent helical turns. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR.
There are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (in particular of the C<sup>α</sup>, C<sup>β</sup> and C′) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170–250 nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at around 208 and 222 nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research.
Long homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence, and measurements of the diffusion constant. In stricter terms, these methods detect only the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment.
Amino-acid propensities
Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Alanine, uncharged glutamate, leucine, charged arginine, methionine and charged lysine have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline and glycine have poor helix-forming propensities. Proline either breaks or kinks a helix, both because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (because it has none) and because its sidechain interferes sterically with the backbone of the preceding turn inside a helix, which forces a bend of about 30° in the helix's axis.
!rowspan=2| Amino acid
!rowspan2 class"unsortable"| 3-<br>letter
!rowspan2 class"unsortable"| 1-<br>letter
!colspan=2| Helical penalty
|-
!kcal/mol
!kJ/mol
|-
| Alanine
| Ala
| A
|
|-
| Arginine
| Arg
| R
|
|-
| Asparagine
| Asn
| N
|
|-
| Aspartic acid
| Asp
| D
|
|-
| Cysteine
| Cys
| C
|
|-
| Glutamic acid
| Glu
| E
|
|-
| Glutamine
| Gln
| Q
|
|-
| Glycine
| Gly
| G
|
|-
| Histidine
| His
| H
|
|-
| Isoleucine
| Ile
| I
|
|-
| Leucine
| Leu
| L
|
|-
| Lysine
| Lys
| K
|
|-
| Methionine
| Met
| M
|
|-
| Phenylalanine
| Phe
| F
|
|-
| Proline
| Pro
| P
|
|-
| Serine
| Ser
| S
|
|-
| Threonine
| Thr
| T
|
|-
| Tryptophan
| Trp
| W
|
|-
| Tyrosine
| Tyr
| Y
|
|-
| Valine
| Val
| V
|
|}
Dipole moment
A helix has an overall dipole moment due to the aggregate effect of the individual microdipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. The effects of this macrodipole are a matter of some controversy. α-helices often occur with the N-terminal end bound by a negatively charged group, sometimes an amino acid side chain such as glutamate or aspartate, or sometimes a phosphate ion. Some regard the helix macrodipole as interacting electrostatically with such groups. Others feel that this is misleading and it is more realistic to say that the hydrogen bond potential of the free NH groups at the N-terminus of an α-helix can be satisfied by hydrogen bonding; this can also be regarded as set of interactions between local microdipoles such as . Coiled coils Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a "supercoil" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a heptad repeat, in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence (amino acid residues, not DNA base-pairs). The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the a and d positions) are almost always hydrophobic; the fourth residue is typically leucine this gives rise to the name of the structural motif called a leucine zipper, which is a type of coiled-coil. These hydrophobic residues pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. In general, the fifth and seventh residues (the e and g positions) have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin or the "stalks" of myosin or kinesin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils a four-helix bundle is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle. Facial arrangements
The amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids (see the article for leucine zipper for such a diagram). Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an α-helix will exhibit two "faces" one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein.
Changes in binding orientation also occur for facially-organized oligopeptides. This pattern is especially common in antimicrobial peptides, and many models have been devised to describe how this relates to their function. Common to many of them is that the hydrophobic face of the antimicrobial peptide forms pores in the plasma membrane after associating with the fatty chains at the membrane core. Larger-scale assemblies
molecule has four heme-binding subunits, each made largely of α-helices.]]
Myoglobin and hemoglobin, the first two proteins whose structures were solved by X-ray crystallography, have very similar folds made up of about 70% α-helix, with the rest being non-repetitive regions, or "loops" that connect the helices. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a large category specifically for all-α proteins.
Hemoglobin then has an even larger-scale quaternary structure, in which the functional oxygen-binding molecule is made up of four subunits.
Functional roles
: transcription factor Max (PDB file 1HLO)]]
file 1GZM), with a bundle of seven helices crossing the membrane (membrane surfaces marked by horizontal lines)]]
DNA binding
α-Helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of an α-helix is about including an average set of sidechains, about the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA, and also because coiled-coil (or leucine zipper) dimers of helices can readily position a pair of interaction surfaces to contact the sort of symmetrical repeat common in double-helical DNA. An example of both aspects is the transcription factor Max (see image at left), which uses a helical coiled coil to dimerize, positioning another pair of helices for interaction in two successive turns of the DNA major groove.
Membrane spanning
α-Helices are also the most common protein structure element that crosses biological membranes (transmembrane protein), presumably because the helical structure can satisfy all backbone hydrogen-bonds internally, leaving no polar groups exposed to the membrane if the sidechains are hydrophobic. Proteins are sometimes anchored by a single membrane-spanning helix, sometimes by a pair, and sometimes by a helix bundle, most classically consisting of seven helices arranged up-and-down in a ring such as for rhodopsins (see image at right) and other G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs). The structural stability between pairs of α-Helical transmembrane domains rely on conserved membrane interhelical packing motifs, for example, the Glycine-xxx-Glycine (or small-xxx-small) motif.
Mechanical properties
α-Helices under axial tensile deformation, a characteristic loading condition that appears in many alpha-helix-rich filaments and tissues, results in a characteristic three-phase behavior of stiff-soft-stiff tangent modulus. Phase I corresponds to the small-deformation regime during which the helix is stretched homogeneously, followed by phase II, in which alpha-helical turns break mediated by the rupture of groups of H-bonds. Phase III is typically associated with large-deformation covalent bond stretching.
Dynamical features
Alpha-helices in proteins may have low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed via the quasi-continuum model. Helices not stabilized by tertiary interactions show dynamic behavior, which can be mainly attributed to helix fraying from the ends.
Helix–coil transition
Homopolymers of amino acids (such as polylysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is "melted out" at high temperatures. This helix–coil transition was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix.
In art
's Alpha Helix for Linus Pauling (2004), powder coated steel, height . The sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home on 3945 SE Hawthorne Boulevard in Portland, Oregon, USA.]]
At least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture.
San Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting "Rise of the Alpha Helix" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, "the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world". based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The , bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon.
Ribbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase. Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2.
Mike Tyka is a computational biochemist at the University of Washington working with David Baker. Tyka has been making sculptures of protein molecules since 2010 from copper and steel, including ubiquitin and a potassium channel tetramer.
See also
* 3<sub>10</sub> helix
* Beta sheet
* Davydov soliton
* Folding (chemistry)
* Knobs into holes packing
* Pi helix
*
References
Further reading
* .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* [http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetSurfP/ NetSurfP ver. 1.1 – Protein Surface Accessibility and Secondary Structure Predictions]
* [http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Alpha+helix+%28rotational+angle%29 α-helix rotational angle calculator]
* [http://www.brushwithscience.com/ Artist Julie Newdoll's website]
* [http://www.JulianVossAndreae.com/ Artist Julian Voss-Andreae's website]
Category:Protein structural motifs
Category:Helices | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helix | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.921097 |
3055 | Accrington | | post_town = ACCRINGTON
| postcode_area = BB
| postcode_district = BB5
| dial_code = 01254
| constituency_westminster = Hyndburn
| shire_district = Hyndburn
| shire_county = Lancashire
| pushpin_map = United Kingdom Borough of Hyndburn
| pushpin_map_caption = Shown within Hyndburn
}}
Accrington is a town in the Hyndburn borough of Lancashire, England. It lies about east of Blackburn, west of Burnley, east of Preston, north of Manchester and is situated on the culverted River Hyndburn. Commonly abbreviated by locals to "Accy", the town has a population of 35,456 according to the 2011 census. Accrington is the largest settlement and the seat of the Hyndburn borough council.
Accrington is a former centre of the cotton and textile machinery industries. The town is famed for manufacturing the hardest and densest building bricks in the world, "The Accrington NORI" (iron), which were used in the construction of the Empire State Building and for the foundations of Blackpool Tower and the Haworth Art Gallery which holds Europe's largest collection of Tiffany glass. The club is home to EFL club Accrington Stanley. The town played a part in the founding of the football league system, with a defunct club(Accrington F.C.) being one of the twelve original clubs of the English Football League.
History
Etymology
The name "Accrington" likely has Anglo-Saxon origins. The earliest known recording of the name is found in the Parish of Whalley records from 850, where it is written as "Akeringastun". In subsequent records, the name appears in various forms, including "Akarinton" in 1194, "Akerunton", "Akerinton", and "Akerynton" in 1258, "Acrinton" in 1292, "Ackryngton" in 1311, and "Acryngton" in 1324. The name may derive from the Old English words "æcern", meaning "acorn", and "tun", meaning "farmstead" or "village", thus possibly meaning "acorn farmstead". However, some sources argue that this interpretation is not definitive and that alternative explanations may exist.
New Accrington, the southern part of the town, was historically part of the Forest of Blackburnshire. The area's abundance of oak trees can be inferred from local place names such as Broad Oak and Oak Hill. Acorns, a product of oak trees, were once a crucial food source for swine, which may have led to the naming of a farmstead after this resource. In the Lancashire dialect, "acorn" is pronounced "akran", which might have influenced the name's development.
No known Old English personal name corresponds to the first element in "Accrington". Nevertheless, the Frisian names "Akkrum" and "Akkeringa", as well as the Dutch name "Akkerghem", are believed to derive from the personal name "Akker". This finding suggests the possibility of a related Old English name from which "Accrington" could have originated. who seems to have founded Waddington, Paddington (Padiham) and Akeringastun (Accrington). Descendants of the Wada held much of the lands until the sixteenth century. In 1442, the Waddingtons' hold leases on Berefeld (Bellfield), and in 1517 it is recorded that Thomas Waddington transferred the lands Scaytcliff (Scaitcliffe) and Peneworth (Pennyworth) to Nicholas Rishton and to his Son Geoffrey.
Accrington covers two townships which were established in 1507 following disafforestation; those of Old Accrington and New Accrington; which were merged in 1878 with the incorporation of the borough council. The William Yates map of The county Palatine of Lancaster printed in 1786 shows Old Accrington included the area of Oaklea and also the intersection of the Winburn River (now the River Hyndburn) and Warmden Brook. New Accrington included the area of Green Haworth and Broadfield. There have been settlements there since the medieval period, likely in the Grange Lane and Black Abbey area, and the King's Highway which passes above the town was at one time used by the kings and queens of England when they used the area for hunting when the Forest of Accrington was one of the four forests of the hundred of Blackburnshire.
Robert de Lacy gave the manor of Accrington to the monks of Kirkstall in the 12th century. The monks built a grange there; removing the inhabitants to make room for it. The locals got their revenge by setting fire to the new building, destroying its contents and in the process killing the three lay brothers who occupied it. with the population increasing from 3,266 in 1811 to 10,376 in 1851 to 43,211 in 1901
This fast population growth and slow response from the established church allowed non-conformism to flourish in the town. By the mid-19th century, there were Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, United Free Methodist, Congregationalist, Baptist, Swedenborgian, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and Catholic Apostolic churches in the town.
In 1842 'plug riots' a general strike spread from town to town due to conditions in the town. In a population of 9,000 people as few as 100 were fully employed. From 15 August 1842 the situation boiled over and bands of men entered the mills which were running and stopped the machinery by knocking out the boiler plugs. This allowed the water and steam to escape shutting down the mill machinery. Thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike in civil disturbances that lasted about a week. The strike was associated with the Chartist movement but eventually proved unsuccessful in its aims.
In the early 1860s the Lancashire cotton famine badly affected Accrington, although less so than the wider area due to its more diverse economy, with as many as half of the town's mill employees out of work at one time.
Conditions were such that a Local Board of Health was constituted in 1853 and the town itself incorporated in 1878 allowing the enforcement of local laws to improve the town.
The Pals' first day of action, 1 July 1916, took place in Serre, near Montauban in the north of France. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the Battle of the Somme) that was intended to force the German Army into a retreat from the Western Front, a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed and a further 350 wounded – more than half of the battalion – within half an hour. Similarly, desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British Army (approximately 19,000 British soldiers were killed in a single day).
Later in the year, the East Lancashire Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers – in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The cenotaph also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from World War II. The trenches from which the Accrington Pals advanced on 1 July 1916 are still visible in John Copse west of the village of Serre, and there is a memorial there made of Accrington brick.
After the war and until 1986, Accrington Corporation buses were painted in the regimental colours of red and blue with gold lining. The mudguards were painted black as a sign of mourning.
Demography
The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town as 35,200. The figure for the urban area was 71,220, increased from 70,442 in 1991. This total includes Accrington, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Oswaldtwistle.
The 2011 census gave a population of 35,456 for the Accrington built-up area subdivision (which includes Huncoat, Baxenden and Rising Bridge in Rossendale) and a population of 125,000 for the wider Accrington/Rossendale Built-up area. The area in 2001 was listed as , whereas in 2011 it was . This includes Accrington Urban Area and other outlying towns and villages such as; Altham, Rishton, part of Belthorn, and Knuzden and Whitebirk (considered suburbs of Blackburn).EconomyHistorically, cotton and textile machinery were important industries in Accrington, with many mills and factories operating in the town during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The town was renowned for its production of cotton cloth, and several of its mills became famous for their high-quality fabrics, including the Victoria and Jubilee mills. However, like many other towns in Lancashire, the decline of the cotton industry in the mid-20th century led to a significant reduction in manufacturing activity in Accrington.
One notable industrial product associated with Accrington is NORI bricks, a type of iron-hard engineering brick that was produced in nearby Huncoat. The NORI brickworks were established in the 1860s, and their products were widely used in the construction of mills, factories, and other industrial buildings throughout the north of England, as well as Blackpool Tower and the Empire State Building. The brickworks closed in 2013 due to declining demand, but reopened in 2015 after being acquired by a local businessman.
Today, the town's economy is more diverse, with a range of businesses and services operating in the area. Many of the old mill and factory buildings have been repurposed as offices, workshops, and other facilities, providing space for a variety of enterprises. The town also has a number of retail and commercial areas, including the Arndale Centre and the Peel Centre, which are home to a range of shops, restaurants, and other businesses.
Accrington power station was a coal and refuse-fired electricity generating station that operated on Argyle Street adjacent to the gasworks between 1900 and 1958. The power station supplied electricity to Accrington, Haslingden, and the Altham and Clayton-le-Moors areas. The site is now a residential area.
In recent years, the town has seen investment in new development projects, including the £60 million "Civic Quarter" regeneration scheme, which aims to revitalize the town center and create new jobs and opportunities for local people. The project includes the construction of a new public square, a state-of-the-art leisure center, and new office and retail spaces, as well as the refurbishment of existing buildings.
In addition to its commercial and industrial activities, Accrington is also home to a number of cultural and recreational amenities. The town has a rich sporting heritage, with Accrington Stanley Football Club, founded in 1968, representing the town in the English Football League. The town also has a strong tradition of brass band music, with several local bands competing at regional and national level. Other cultural attractions in the town include the Haworth Art Gallery, which houses a collection of British art and decorative arts, and the Accrington Market Hall, which runs events and activities.Poverty, regeneration and investmentSome areas of Accrington have high levels of poverty and deprivation. In one area of the town in 2020, 77% of children were living in poverty. The Accrington Town Centre Investment Plan 2022-2032 states "Accrington has severe pockets of deprivation – particularly around employment, income and living environment - which has been getting worse during the last 20 years".
The council has a regeneration plan in place, which will, according to the council, boost the local economy. The plan is to upgrade old shops and to build a bus station. A memorial for the Accrington Pals may be built outside the town hall.
The Hyndburn Borough Council plans to spend £10 million to refurbish the town centre, including:
*Revitalising the town square to attract visitors. The bus station was completed during and officially opened on 11 July 2016. The new station was criticised by traders as the old station was closer and easier to get to.
Half of Blackburn Road is being refurbished and is now being made into a more attractive shopping street, upgrading shops, adding more trees, and repaving the pavements.
As of 2014, two new phases were being built: the first one called the Acorn Park, where new houses were being built with balconies and greener spaces, and Project Phoenix, which will also include new housing.
Geography
Accrington is a hill town located at between the Pennines and the West Pennine Moors, within a bowl and largely encircled by surrounding hills to rising to a height of in the case of Hameldon Hill to the east. The River Hyndburn or Accrington Brook flows through the centre of the town. Hill settlements origins were as the economic foci of the district engaging in the spinning and weaving of woollen cloth. Wool, lead and coal were other local industries.
Geographical coordinates: 53° 46' 0" North, 2° 21' 0" West. Height above sea level: there is a spot height outside the Market Hall which is the benchmark on the side of the neighbouring Town Hall is . The highest height in the town is which is in Baxenden and the lowest at the town hall which is at . Accrington is lowering in elevation travelling northwards towards the Hyndburn. North of the river the elevation rises again, crossing over the watershed between Hyndburn and River Calder, both eventually leading into River Ribble via separate routes. The Hyndburn district further north eventually falls to the modest elevation of the Calder river banks.
Transport
Railway
Accrington railway station, located on the East Lancashire Line, provides strong local travel links. The station runs trains locally and from Blackpool to York. However, recent changes to the train timetables have increased the journey time to Preston by up to 1.5 hours, a vital link to London or Scotland. In 2015, a train service to Manchester via the Todmorden Curve opened, providing a new rail link south to Manchester.
Roads
The town is served by junction seven of the M65 motorway and the A680 road, which runs from Rochdale to Whalley. The town is also linked from the A56 dual carriageway which briefly merges with the A680, connecting to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester. The closest airports are Manchester Airport, Blackpool Airport, and Leeds Bradford Airport, all within 30 miles. Regular bus services connect Accrington to other towns in East Lancashire, including Blackburn, Oswaldtwistle, Rishton, Burnley, and Clitheroe. M&M Coaches provided services in the area until the company ceased business suddenly on 21 September 2016.Cycleways and footpathsThe trackbed from Accrington to Baxenden, which was once a rail link south to Manchester, is now a linear treelined cycleway/footpath. The cycleway/footpath is a popular route for cycling and walking, offering views
Public services
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Accrington Library, on St James Street was built in 1908 as a Carnegie library. It has a stained glass window by Gustav Hiller and was a place of inspiration for the young Jeanette Winterson.
Near the Tesco supermarket, there is Accrington Skate Park which is popular during the school holidays. On Broadway, Accrington Police Station serves the Borough of Hyndburn. In April 2003, Hyndburn Community Fire Station opened, also serving the Borough of Hyndburn.
Police services
The town is served by the Lancashire Constabulary Police station on Broadway after moving into town from its previous location on Manchester Road as an effort to save money due to rising expenses and decreasing funding by the government. Crime is very low in Accrington compared to nearby towns.
Policing of the Railway station and railway-owned properties are served by the British Transport Police, nearest post in Preston.
Social
Governance
Accrington is represented in parliament as a part of the constituency of Hyndburn. The constituency boundaries do not align exactly with those of the district of the same name.
Accrington was first represented nationally after the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 after the 1885 general election by Accrington (UK Parliament constituency). This seat was abolished in the 1983 general election and replaced with the present constituency of Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency).
Accrington became incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. Under the Local Government Act 1972, since 1974, the town has formed part of the larger Borough of Hyndburn including the former Urban Districts of Oswaldtwistle, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Rishton.
Hyndburn consists of 16 wards, electing a total of 35 councillors. Due to its size Accrington is represented by a number of wards in the Borough of Hyndburn. The town largely consists of the Milnshaw, Peel, Central, Barnfield and Spring Hill wards, although some parts of those wards are in other towns in the borough.
Health
The local hospital is Accrington Victoria Hospital however, as it only deals with minor issues, Accident and Emergency is provided by the Royal Blackburn Hospital. Other services are provided at the Accrington Pals Primary Health Care Centre and the Accrington Acorn Primary Health Care Centre.
Media
Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lancashire on 95.5 FM, Heart North West on 96.9 FM, Smooth North West on 100.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire on 96.5 FM, Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR) on 99.8 FM, and Central Radio North West.
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter and one of the three local relay transmitters (Woodnook, Pendle Forest and Haslingden).
The town is served by the local newspaper, Accrington Observer, which publishes on Fridays, and by the Lancashire Post and Lancashire Telegraph.Accrington dialectThe dialect spoken in Accrington is part of the broader Lancashire dialect, which belongs to the larger category of Northern English dialects. This dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages, with influences from Old Norse due to the Viking invasions in the region. Features of the Accrington dialect include pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammatical structures that distinguish it from other dialects in the Lancashire region.
Vocabulary specific to the Accrington dialect may include words such as "ginnel" (a narrow passage between buildings) or "snap" (referring to a packed lunch or a meal taken to work).
In terms of grammar, the Accrington dialect may exhibit features common to other Northern English dialects, such as the use of "thee" and "thou" for "you" and "were" instead of "was" in certain contexts. Additionally, the Accrington dialect might display non-standard verb conjugations and a preference for certain sentence structures or word order.
The Accrington dialect, like many local dialects, is subject to change and variation over time due to factors such as increased mobility, urbanization, and exposure to other dialects and languages.<!-- --> This may lead to a gradual loss or modification of certain dialect features and an increased convergence with more standardised forms of English.
History of Accrington dialect
The history of the Accrington dialect is intertwined with the broader history of the Lancashire dialect, as well as the linguistic influences that have shaped the region over time. Although specific information about the Accrington dialect's history is limited, it is reasonable to assume that it has been impacted by similar historical events and linguistic developments as the wider Lancashire area.
Influence of Old English and Middle English
The Accrington dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages that were spoken in England during the early and late medieval periods, respectively.
Mither - A verb meaning to bother or annoy someone, or to be fussy or worried about something.
Industry and occupation-related terminology
Tackler - A term referring to a skilled worker responsible for setting up and maintaining looms in the textile industry, which was used in Accrington during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Landscape and geography-related vocabulary
Clough - A term used in Accrington and other parts of Lancashire to describe a steep-sided, wooded valley or ravine, as in the case of Woodnook Clough.
Brook - A small stream or watercourse, such as the Hyndburn Brook, which runs through Accrington.
Ancient customs and traditions of Accrington
Accrington, as a historic town, has been home to several ancient customs and traditions that have shaped its local culture and identity. While some of these customs may no longer be practised, they offer valuable insights into the town's past.
Rush-Bearing Festival
One of the most notable ancient customs in Accrington was the rush-bearing festival. This annual event involved the gathering of rushes from nearby marshlands and meadows to be used as fresh flooring material in local churches. The rushes were then transported to the churches in decorative carts or wagons, accompanied by a festive procession, music, and dancing. This event was once widespread across Lancashire and the North of England, but its prevalence in Accrington is particularly noteworthy. Wakes Week Another significant custom in Accrington was Wakes Week, a holiday period that took place in the town and surrounding areas. Typically, it occurred during the summer months and lasted for one week. During this time, local mills and factories closed, allowing workers to enjoy a much-needed break from their labor-intensive occupations. Wakes Week often featured various festivities, such as fairs, carnivals, and other communal events, which brought the community together in celebration. Local sports and games In the past, Accrington was known for hosting traditional sports and games, which were enjoyed by the local community. Some of these sports included football, cricket, and quoits. These games not only provided entertainment but also fostered a sense of community spirit and camaraderie.
Sport
Football team
Accrington Stanley F.C., entered the Football League in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually resigned from the League in 1962, due to financial problems, and folded in 1965. The club was reformed three years later and then worked its way through the non-league divisions to reach the Nationwide Conference in 2003. In the 2005–06 season, Stanley, after winning against Woking with three matches to spare, secured a place back in the Football League and the town celebrated with a small parade and honours placed on senior executives of the team. One of the teams relegated— and thus being replaced by Stanley—were Oxford United, who was voted into the Football League to replace the previous Accrington Stanley. The football stadium is called the Crown Ground. Until the 2012–13 season, when Fleetwood Town entered the league, Accrington was the smallest town in England and Wales with a Football League club.
Accrington Stanley Football Club has had its own pub in the town, the Crown, since July 2007.
Team history
An earlier club, Accrington F.C., was one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful and considerably briefer than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893 and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique "distinction" of having lost two separate clubs from league football. Accrington Stanley F.C. are currently placed in EFL League Two after being relegated from EFL League One in the 2022/23 season, having finished 23rd.
Cricket
Accrington Cricket Club plays at Thorneyholme Road in the Lancashire League. Cricket is also played in parks. Schools nearby have shown major interest in cricket and have held cricket training and tournaments.
Other sports
There are two sports centres, the main one being the Hyndburn Sports Centre, which recently renovated its swimming pool area and is situated near Lidl.
Education
Accrington has the following primary schools:
* St Mary's RC Primary School, Clayton le Moors
* Hyndburn Park Primary School,
* Peel Park Primary School,
* Sacred Heart Primary School,
* Benjamin Hargreaves CE Primary School,
* Springhill County Primary School,
* Accrington Huncoat Primary School,
* St Johns and St Augustines CE Primary School,
* St Mary Magdalen's CE Primary School,
* St Nicholas' CE Primary School,
* Woodnook Primary School,
* St James CE Primary School, Altham,
* St Johns CE Primary School, Baxenden,
* All Saints CE Primary School,
* Mount Pleasant Primary School,
* Green Haworth CE Primary School,
* Stonefold CE Primary School,
* St Peters CE Primary School.
* St Mary's RC Primary School, Oswaldtwistle.
* St Anne's and St Joseph's RC Primary School
* St Oswald's RC Primary School
* Hippings Methodist Primary School Oswaldtwistle
* St Andrews CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle
* St Oswalds CoE Primary School Knuzden
* West End Primary School Oswaldtwistle
* Moor End Community Primary School Oswaldtwistle
* St Paul's CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle
The secondary schools serving Accrington are:
* Accrington Academy
* Heathland School
* The Hollins
* The Hyndburn Academy
* Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School
* Rhyddings
* St Christopher's Church of England High School
The college in the town centre is Accrington and Rossendale College; nearby universities include University Centre at Blackburn College, and the University of Central Lancashire in Preston.
Landmarks
Haworth Art Gallery
The Haworth Art Gallery is an art museum located in Accrington, Lancashire, England. The gallery is housed in a Tudor-style mansion, originally known as Hollins Hill, which was built in 1909 by William Haworth, a local cotton manufacturer. Upon his death in 1913, William Haworth bequeathed the mansion and its surrounding parkland to the people of Accrington. The gallery opened in 1921.
The Haworth Art Gallery holds the largest public collection of Tiffany glass in Europe, known as the Tiffany Glass Collection. The collection was donated by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington native who worked for the famous American artist and designer Louis Comfort Tiffany. In addition to the Tiffany Glass Collection, the gallery holds a range of artwork, including 19th and 20th-century oil paintings, watercolours, prints, and sculptures.
The Haworth Art Gallery also holds temporary exhibitions showing contemporary art by local and national artists.The ViaductThe Viaduct is a bridge which has a railway line on it, it goes through the town and has many storage units and shop on sale by National Rail. The Viaduct ends at the Accrington Eco Station.Town HallAccrington Town Hall was built in memory of Sir Robert Peel and opened as the Peel Institute in 1858; it is also listed.
The Arcade
The Arcade is a Victorian shopping centre with about 10-15 shops and restaurants.Oak Hill ParkOak Hill Park is a large and old park with a view of Accrington. It has won awards, such as the Green Flag Award in 2024-25. It has also been awarded an Eco Award. It is on Manchester Road.Haworth ParkHaworth Park can be accessed from Manchester Road and is off Hollins Lane at the top of Harcourt Road. The Park was originally William Haworth's private residence. The Haworth Art Gallery holds the Tiffany Glass collection.The Coppice and Peel ParkPeel Park is a green space in the centre of Accrington. The park was opened by William Peel on 29 September 1909 and was originally called the Corporation Park. The park was renamed in honour of William Peel, the grandson of Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of his service as a Liberal MP for the town. The park covers an area of approximately 18 acres and includes a wide range of features, including a lake, flower gardens, a bandstand, and a bowling green.
The Coppice is a hill in the park, and provides a 2.2-mile scenic walk around the park, offering visitors views of the surrounding area. The Coppice has been part of the park since it was first opened, and there have been refurbishments to the paths and monuments at the top of the hill over the years.
In 2009, the people of Accrington celebrated the centenary of the Coppice being handed over to the town. The occasion was marked with a series of events and activities, including a refurbishment of the paths and monument at the top of the hill. Since then, there have been several revamps to the playground area of the park.
Events and festivals are held in the park throughout the year, including the annual Accrington Food and Drink Festival, which takes place in the summer. Early landownersThis section outlines the contributions of landowning families, including the de Lacy, Walmsley, Peel, Hargreaves and Haworth families, to the development of Accrington. De Lacy family The de Lacy family were the first recorded landowners in Accrington, instrumental in the town's establishment as a regional center for agriculture and trade.
Walmsley family
The Walmsley family acquired the manor of Accrington in the 16th century and owned several mills, contributing to the expansion of Accrington's textile industry.
Peel family
The Peel family were key figures in the 18th and 19th centuries, with Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, establishing textile mills in the area, significantly boosting Accrington's economy. Hargreaves family The Hargreaves family built the Broad Oak Print Works in 1778, which became one of the largest textile printing establishments in the region. Haworth family The Haworth family were prominent landowners in Accrington, with James Haworth establishing Haworth Mill in the early 1800s. The family's investments in local industry contributed to the town's economic development. Peel, Yates and Co. Peel, Yates and Co. was a partnership between the Peel family and the Yates family. The Peel family, led by Robert Peel (1750–1830), and the Yates family, led by William Yates (1769–1849), established Peel, Yates and Co. in 1795. The company owned and operated several cotton mills in Accrington, including the Woodnook Mill, which employed around 800 people during its peak operation.
Duckworth family
The Duckworth family were landowners and industrialists in Accrington during the 19th century. They invested in the local textile industry, owning several mills, such as the Broad Oak Mill and the Spring Hill Mill. The Duckworth family's mills employed hundreds of workers. Birtwistle family The Birtwistle family were involved in the cotton industry in Accrington, owning and operating cotton mills during the 19th century.
Holden family
The Holden family contributed to Accrington's development through their involvement in various industries, such as coal mining and brick manufacturing. The family-owned Accrington Brick and Tile Company, established by Joseph HoldenNotable residents
*Alan Ramsbottom, professional cyclist
*Andy Hargreaves, academic
*Andy Kanavan, rock drummer with Dire Straits and Level 9 was born in the town
*Jenny (Jane) Kenney, sister of suffragette Annie Kenney who taught at Montessori school in the 1900s
*Anthony Rushton, tech entrepreneur
*Barry Stanton (actor), actor for RSC and films such as The Madness of King George
*David Lloyd, cricketer, now a pundit for Sky Sports
*Diana Vickers, singer-songwriter, stage actress and fashion designer
*Edward Ormerod, mining engineer and inventor of the Ormerod safety link for use in coal mines
*Frederick Higginbottom, journalist and newspaper editor
*Graeme Fowler, cricketer, former England batsman, cricket coach and occasional pundit on BBC Radio's Test Match Special
*Harrison Birtwistle, composer
*Hollie Steel, ''Britain's Got Talent finalist of 2009
*Jeanette Winterson, author; Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is an account of her childhood in the town
*John Rex Whinfield, chemist, inventor of Terylene (polyester), the first completely synthetic fibre invented in UK
*John Virtue, artist
*Jon Anderson, singer with rock band Yes, was born in the town
*Jonathan Slinger, RADA trained actor
*Julie Hesmondhalgh, actor, Hayley Cropper in the TV Soap Coronation Street''
*Mick O'Shea, author and scriptwriter
*Mike Duxbury, footballer, was born in the town
*Mystic Meg, astrologer, was born in the town as Margaret Anne Lake in 1942
*Netherwood Hughes, World War I veteran, died in 2009, aged 108
*Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978), Award-winning Lancashire poet
*Pauline Aitken, artist
*Paul Manning, undercover police officer and whistleblower
*Reece Bibby, member of Stereo Kicks and 2014 finalist of The X Factor. Now a member of the band New Hope Club
*Ron Hill, long-distance and marathon runner
*Thomas Birtwistle, trade unionist
*Vicky Entwistle, actor, Janice Battersby in the TV Soap Coronation Street
*William Macrorie bishop of Maritzburg
*Stephen Heys, footballer
*Val Robinson, footballer and field hockey player
See also
* Listed buildings in Accrington
* Howard & Bullough
References
Further reading
*William Turner. Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword, 1998.
External links
* [http://www.hyndburnbc.gov.uk Hyndburn Borough Council]
Category:Towns in Lancashire
Category:Unparished areas in Lancashire
Category:Former civil parishes in Lancashire
Category:Geography of Hyndburn
Category:English royal forests | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accrington | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.949112 |
3058 | Armageddon | with archaeological remains from the Bronze and Iron Ages]]
According to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, Armageddon ( ; |}}; ; from ) is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, which is variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end-of-the-world scenario. In Islamic theology, Armageddon is also mentioned in Hadith as the Greatest Armageddon or Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (the great battle).
The "mount" of Megiddo in northern Israel is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a mound or hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding at the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. The nearby modern Megiddo is a kibbutz in the Kishon River area.EtymologyThe word Armageddon appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation 16:16. The word is a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew har məgīddō (). Har means "a mountain" or "a range of hills". This is a shortened form of harar meaning "to loom up; a mountain". Məgīddō refers to a fortification made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. Its name means "place of crowds".
Adam Clarke wrote in his Bible commentary (1817) on Revelation 16:16:<blockquote>Armageddon – The original of this word has been variously formed, and variously translated. It is har-megiddon, "the mount of the assembly;" or chormah gedehon, "the destruction of their army;" or it is har-megiddo, "Mount Megiddo."</blockquote>Christianity
''. Painting by Hieronymus Bosch (1505).]]
Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city". None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, either, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to ... Armageddon". The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. R. J. Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place." Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan, argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew moed (), meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly", which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion". 'Armageddon' is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of their elect, Israel, at Megiddo.
Christian scholar William Hendriksen writes:
Dispensationalism
In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted a chapter to the subject, "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses it as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes:
Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat" and "the valley of the passengers", "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when he returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself.
Pentecost further describes the area involved:
Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking.
Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book:
# "The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast–False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end'."
# The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy. Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed.
# "The full armies of the Beast move into Israel and shall conquer all that territory. Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape."
# "... a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast"
# "The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there."
# "It is there that his destruction will come."
After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows:
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans who will be free from sin and death. They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, only leaving righteous mankind.
They believe that the gathering of all of the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process which began in 1914 and was later seen in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars. These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and they are disgusting in that they stand in the place of God's kingdom before men as the only hope of mankind. Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments of the world will turn their attention to destroying Jehovah’s Witnesses, provoking God to intervene and precipitating Armageddon.
Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years. They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan will be destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free from sin and death.
The religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on passages that are found in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional passages that are found in the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of the Watch Tower Society's founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth. Tony Wills, the author of a historical study of Jehovah's Witnesses, wrote that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry, Rutherford allocated about half the space that was available in The Watchtower magazines to discussions about Armageddon.
Seventh-day Adventist
understanding of Revelation 13–22]]
The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event. Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further teaching in Seventh-day Adventist theology is that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium. They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound". The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth"; then follows the millennium.ChristadelphiansFor Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the "great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together 'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God."Baháʼí Faith
From Baháʼí literature, a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.
The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers. A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after.<ref name"Lambden"/>
See also
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦--->
* 1 Maccabees
* Al-Malhama Al-Kubra
* Amik Valley
* Antiochus Epiphanes
* Apocalyptic literature
* Armageddon (novel)
* Futurist view of the Book of Revelation
* Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation
* List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events
* Megiddo: The Omega Code 2
* Millenarianism
* Millennialism
* Preterist interpretation of the Book of Revelation
* Ragnarök
* Siege of Jerusalem (70)
* Waiting for Armageddon
* World War III
* Dagor Dagorath
References
External links
*
*
*
* [https://www.cdamm.org/articles/armageddon Armageddon], in James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.) Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements. 2021
Category:Apocalypticism
Category:Battlefields
Category:Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses
Category:Book of Revelation
Category:Christian terminology
Category:New Testament Hebrew words and phrases
Category:Prophecy in Christianity
Category:Seventh-day Adventist theology
Category:Tel Megiddo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armageddon | 2025-04-05T18:26:15.964987 |
3060 | Athlon | thumb|Original AMD Athlon logo
thumb|Logo used since 2018 for Zen-based Athlon processors
AMD Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD's high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor.
Brand history
K7 design and development
The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD's development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities.
Original release
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel's GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume, and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others.
Later Athlon iterations
The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to "low-cost, high-volume products", in a situation similar to both Intel's Celeron and Pentium Gold.
Generations
Athlon Classic (1999)
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon "Classic" was an enormous success.
The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 250 nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 180 nm process. split level-1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from setting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU.
AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch-predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology.
AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating-point unit (FPU). The 3DNow! floating-point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed "Enhanced 3DNow!" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed
MMX, 3DNow!
Slot A (EV6)
Front-side bus:100 MHz (200MT/s)
Vcore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75)
First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
Clock-rate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75)
Athlon Thunderbird (2000–2001)
right|thumb|150px|Athlon "Thunderbird"
The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird or T-Bird, debuted on June 4, 2000. making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout.
The Thunderbird was "cherished by many for its overclockability" and proved commercially successful, AMD's new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz. Palomino's design used 180 nm fabrication process size. Among other changes, Palomino consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. Palomino also had enhanced K7's TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. Palomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. Palomino was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the Athlon MP (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50 to 1.75 V
Power consumption: 68 W
First release: October 9, 2001
Clock-rate:
Athlon 4: 850–1400 MHz
Athlon XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)
Athlon MP: 1000–1733 MHz
Thoroughbred
thumb|right|150px|Athlon XP "Thoroughbred B" 2400+
The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the Thoroughbred core, or T-Bred, on April 17, 2002. The Thoroughbred core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
Clock-rate:
Thoroughbred "A": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
Thoroughbred "B": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)
Barton / Thorton
thumb|150px|Athlon XP "Barton" 2500+
Fifth-generation Athlon Barton-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than Thoroughbred-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The Thorton core, a blend of Thoroughbred and Barton, was a later variant of the Barton with half of the L2 cache disabled. The Barton was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some Barton models more efficiency. and Barton only saw a small performance increase over the Thoroughbred-B it derived from,
Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11× multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for, meaning that seamless overclocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification, but the result was not always reliable.
Specifications
Barton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.65 V
First release: February 10, 2003
Clock rate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
133 MHz FSB: 1867–2133 MHz (2500+ to 2800+); uncommon
166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)
Thorton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: September 2003
Clock rate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)
133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+)
200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+)
Mobile Athlon XP
thumb|225px|Athlon XP Mobile "Barton" 2400+
The Palomino core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market in May 2001, where it was branded as Mobile Athlon 4 with the codename "Corvette". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the Thunderbird instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later Palomino processors. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop's "level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand", thus extending "battery life by reducing processor power when it isn't needed by applications". Duron chips also included PowerNow!
In 2002 the Athlon XP-M (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer Thoroughbred core, with Barton cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers.
Athlon 64 (2003–2009)
The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture.
Athlon 64 X2 (2005–2009)
The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original Brisbane Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture and were released in 2007.
Athlon II (2009–2012)
Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based Regor was released in June 2009 with 45-nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version Sargas, followed by the quad-core Propus, the triple-core Rana in November 2009, and the Llano 32 nm version released in 2011.
Piledriver and Steamroller-based Athlon X4 (2013–2016)
Various Steamroller-based Athlon X4 and X2 FM2+ socketed processors were released in 2014 and the years after. The preceding Piledriver-based Athlon X4 and X2 processors were released before 2014, and are socket compatible with both FM2+ and FM2 mainboards.
Excavator-based Athlon X4 (2017)
The Bristol Ridge Athlon X4 lineup was released in 2017. It is based on the Excavator microarchitecture and uses 2 Excavator modules totalling 4 cores. It has a dual-channel DDR4-2400 memory controller with clock speeds up to 4.0 GHz. It runs on the new Socket AM4 platform that was later used for Zen 1 to Zen 3 CPUs.
Zen-based Athlon (2018–present)
The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD's Raven Ridge core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance.
On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE,
Zen 2-based Athlon with Radeon Graphics processors, codenamed "Mendocino", were released on September 20, 2022, for the entry-level laptop market, alongside the more powerful quad-core Ryzen 7020 mobile series under the same codename. Featuring two processing cores, with two threads on Athlon Silver and four threads on Athlon Gold models, Athlon 7020 series mobile processors are equipped with two compute units (CUs) of RDNA 2 graphics. These 7020U series models were followed by the release of Ryzen/Athlon 7020C series for Chromebooks on May 23, 2023. Unlike prior Athlon generations, AMD has not released desktop variants of Mendocino.
Specifications
Raven Ridge (14 nm), Picasso (12 nm) (see the list article for more details)
L1 cache: 192 KiB (2×64 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
L3 cache: 4 MiB
Memory: dual-channel DDR4-2666, 64 GiB max.
Socket AM4
TDP: 35 W
First release: September 6, 2018
CPU clock rate: 3.2 to 3.5 GHz
GPU clock rate: 1000 to 1100 MHz
Mendocino (6 nm) (see the list article for more details)
L1 cache: 128 KiB (2×32 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
L3 cache: 4 MiB
Memory: dual-channel LPDDR5-5500, 16 GiB max.
TDP: 15 W
First release: September 20, 2022
CPU clock rate: 2.4 GHz
GPU clock rate: 1900 MHz
Supercomputers
A number of supercomputers have been built using Athlon chips, largely at universities. Among them:
In 2000, several American students claimed to have built the world's least expensive supercomputer by clustering 64 AMD Athlon chips together, also marking the first time Athlons had been clustered in a supercomputer.
The PRESTO III, a Beowulf cluster of 78 AMD Athlon processors, was built in 2001 by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. That year it ranked 439 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers.
In 2002, a "128-Node 256-Processor AMD Athlon Supercomputer Cluster" was installed at the Ohio Supercomputer Center at the University of Toledo.
Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster—AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS.
See also
List of AMD Athlon processors
List of AMD Duron processors
List of AMD Phenom processors
List of AMD Opteron processors
List of AMD Sempron processors
References
External links
Website
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1999
Category:AMD x86 microprocessors
Category:AMD microarchitectures
Category:Superscalar microprocessors
Category:X86 microarchitectures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon | 2025-04-05T18:26:16.038715 |
3065 | Amnon | Amnon ( ’Amnōn, "faithful") was, in the Hebrew Bible, the oldest son of King David and his second wife, Ahinoam of Jezreel. He was born in Hebron during his father's reign in Judah. He was the heir apparent to the throne of Israel until he was assassinated by his half-brother Absalom to avenge the rape of Absalom's sister Tamar.
Biblical account
Amnon's background
Amnon was born in Hebron to Ahinoam and King David. As the presumptive heir to the throne of Israel, Amnon enjoyed a life of power and privilege.
Rape of Tamar
Although he was the heir-apparent to David's throne, Amnon is best remembered for the rape of his paternal half-sister Tamar, daughter of David and Maachah. Despite the biblical prohibition on sexual relations between half siblings, Amnon had an overwhelming desire for her. He acted on advice from his cousin, Jonadab son of Shimeah, David's brother, to lure Tamar into his quarters by pretending to be sick and desiring her to cook a special meal for him. While in his quarters, and over her protests, he raped her, then had her expelled from his house. While King David was angry about the incident, he could not bring himself to punish his eldest son, while Absalom, Amnon's half-brother and Tamar's full brother, nursed a bitter grudge against Amnon for the rape of his sister.
According to the Babylonian Talmud: "And Thou should not associate with a sinner:.... And so we find with Amnon, who associated with Jonadab, the son of Shim'ah, David's brother; and Jonadab was a very sensible man—sensible in wickedness, as it is written [Jer. Iv .22]: Wise are they to do evil." According to others, it is meant that one shall not associate with the wicked, even to study the Torah."
According to Rav, Tamar was not, by Biblical law, David's daughter, nor Amnon's sister. Tamar, was the earlier born daughter of David's wife, and thus not biologically related to David, nor Amnon. According to Michael D. Coogan's claims, however, it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married his sister (he claims that the Bible was incoherent about prohibiting incest). According to the Torah, per Leviticus 18, "the children of Israel"—Israelite men and women alike—are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are "near of kin" (cf. verse 6). Siblings and half siblings (cf. verses 9 and 11). Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and they are of the only two kinds incestuous relationships that are among the particularly-singled-out relationships—with the other particularly-singled-out relationships, being ones of non-incestuous family betrayal (cf. verse 20) and bestiality (cf. verse 21). Incestuous relationships are considered so severe among chillul hashem, acts which bring shame to the name of God, as to be, along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18, punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20. Those who committed incest were subject to two curses—one for committing incest and the second for breaking the Torah law. [27 Deuteronomy 22 and 26] and also the punishment of kareth.
thumb|220px|The Banquet of Absalom, attributed to Niccolò De Simone.
Two years later, to avenge Tamar, Absalom invited all of David's sons to a feast at sheep-shearing time, then had his servants kill Amnon after he had become drunk with wine. As a result, Absalom fled to Geshur.
records that in time David came to terms with the death of Amnon, his first-born. Methodist founder John Wesley is critical of David: "He can almost find in his heart to receive into favour the murderer of his brother. How can we excuse David from the sin of Eli, who honoured his sons more than God?"
In rabbinic literature
The sages of the Mishnah point out that Amnon's love for Tamar, his half-sister, did not arise from true affection, but from passion and lust, on which account, after having attained his desire, he immediately "hated her exceedingly." "All love which depends upon some particular thing ceases when that thing ceases; thus was the love of Amnon for Tamar" (Ab. v. 16). Amnon's love for Tamar was not, however, such a transgression as is usually supposed: for, although she was a daughter of David, her mother was a prisoner of war, who had not yet become a Jewess; consequently, Tamar also had not entered the Jewish community (Sanh. 21a). The incident of Amnon and Tamar was utilized by the sages as affording justification for their rule that a man must on no account remain alone in the company of a woman, not even of an unmarried one (Sanh. l.c. et seq.).
According to the Babylonian Talmud, Amnon hated Tamar because, as he raped her, Tamar tied one of her hairs around Amnon's penis and used it to castrate him. The Babylonian Talmud also asserts that Amnon's death was a punishment from the Lord for Amnon's "lewdness" and for his actions. As noted above those who committed incest are subject to two curses in the Torah and kareth; Amnon was said to be possibly consigned to the 2nd circle of Gehenna. For reasons of propriety, the Mishnah excludes the story from public reading in synagogue, whether in the original or in Aramaic translation (Meg. 4:10).
Literary references
The Spanish poet Federico García Lorca wrote a poem about Amnon's rape of his sister Tamar, included in Lorca's 1928 poetry collection Romancero Gitano (translated as Gypsy Ballads). Lorca's version is considerably different from the Biblical original – Amnon is depicted as being overcome by a sudden uncontrollable passion, with none of the cynical planning and premeditation of the original story. He assaults and rapes Tamar and then flees into the night on his horse, with archers shooting at him from the walls – whereupon King David cuts the strings of his harp.
The Rape of Tamar, novel by Dan Jacobson ()
The Death of Amnon poem by Elizabeth Hands
References
Category:Jewish royalty
Category:Children of David
Category:Biblical murder victims
Category:Rapists
Category:Mythological people involved in incest
Category:Incestual abuse
Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded
Category:Sons of kings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnon | 2025-04-05T18:26:16.050648 |
3067 | Amu Darya | (Âmudaryâ)
}}
| name_other = Oxus, Wehrōd, Amu River
| name_etymology = Named for the city of Āmul (now Türkmenabat)
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->| image = Amudaryasunset.jpg
| image_size = 285
| image_caption = Looking at the Amu Darya from Turkmenistan
| map = Aral_Sea_watershed.png
| map_size | map_caption Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are . The Amu Darya drainage basin is in orange, and the Syr Darya basin in yellow.
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| subdivision_name3 = Central Asia
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| subdivision_type5 | subdivision_name5 <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
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| width_max | depth_min
| depth_avg | depth_max
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<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->| source1 = Pamir River/Panj River
| source1_location = Lake Zorkul, Pamir Mountains, Afghanistan/Tajikistan
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| source2 = Kyzylsu River/Vakhsh River
| source2_location = Alay Valley, Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan
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| source_confluence_location = Tajikistan
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| mouth_location = Amudarya Delta, Uzbekistan
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}}
The Amu Darya ( ), }}<br/><br/><br/>/<br/>//}}<br/><br/>}}/<br/><br/>/<br><br/><br/>}}() also shortened to Amu and historically known as the Oxus ( ),; }} is a major river in Central Asia, which flows through Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan. Rising in the Pamir Mountains, north of the Hindu Kush, the Amu Darya is formed by the confluence of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve on the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and flows from there north-westwards into the southern remnants of the Aral Sea. In its upper course, the river forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. In ancient history, the river was regarded as the boundary of Greater Iran with Turan, which roughly corresponded to present-day Central Asia. The Amu Darya has a flow of about 70 cubic kilometres per year on average.NamesIn classical antiquity, the river was known as the in Latin and () in Greek — a clear derivative of Vakhsh, the name of the largest tributary of the river. In Sanskrit texts, the river is also referred to as (). The Brahmanda Purana refers to the river as which means 'an eye'. The Avestan texts too refer to the river as Yakhsha/Vakhsha (and Yakhsha Arta ('Upper Yakhsha'), referring to the Jaxartes/Syr Darya twin river to Amu Darya). In Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period the river is known as The Amu Darya passes through one of the world's highest deserts.As the river GozanWestern travelers in the 19th century mentioned that one of the names by which the river was known in Afghanistan was Gozan, and that this name was used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish, and Afghan historians. However, this name is no longer used.
:"Hara (Bokhara) and to the river of Gozan (that is to say, the Amu, (called the Oxus by Europeans )) ..."
:"the Gozan River is the River Balkh, i.e. the Oxus or the Amu Darya ..."
:"... and were brought into Halah (modern day Balkh), and Habor (which is Pesh Habor or Peshawar), and Hara (which is Herat), and to the river Gozan (which is the Ammoo, also called Jehoon) ..."
Description
The river's total length is and its drainage basin totals in area, providing a mean discharge of around Bill Colegrave's expedition to Wakhan in 2007 found that both claimants 2 and 3 had the same source, the Chelab stream, which bifurcates on the watershed of the Little Pamir, half flowing into Lake Chamaktin and half into the parent stream of the Little Pamir/Sarhad River. Therefore, the Chelab stream may be properly considered the true source or parent stream of the Oxus. The Panj River forms the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It flows west to Ishkashim where it turns north and then north-west through the Pamirs passing the Tajikistan–Afghanistan Friendship Bridge. It subsequently forms the border of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan for about , passing Termez and the Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge. It delineates the border of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for another before it flows into Turkmenistan at Atamurat. It flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing Türkmenabat, and forms the border of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan from Halkabat. It is then split by the Tuyamuyun Hydro Complex into many waterways that used to form the river delta joining the Aral Sea, passing Urgench, Daşoguz, and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea any more and is lost in the desert. Use of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation has been a major contributing factor to the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late 1950s. Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), into the Caspian Sea (from the east), or both, similar to the Syr Darya (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek). Partly based on such records, first Tsarist and later Soviet engineers proposed to divert the Amu Darya to the Caspian Sea by constructing the Transcaspian Canal.
Watershed
, in 2014 it was replaced by the stationary bridge.]]
The of the Amu Darya drainage basin include most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of Kyrgyzstan, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a narrow portion of eastern Turkmenistan and the western half of Uzbekistan. Part of the Amu Darya basin divide in Tajikistan forms that country's border with China (in the east) and Pakistan (to the south). About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.
The abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya comes almost entirely from glaciers in the Pamir Mountains and Tian Shan,
which, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably escape elsewhere. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not exist—because it rarely rains in the lowlands through which most of the river flows. Of the total drainage area, only about actively contribute water to the river.
This is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the Zeravshan River) have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is arid. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about .
History
]]
beside the Amu Darya river, AD 1504]]
The ancient Greeks called the Amu Darya the Oxus. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Greater Iran and Ṫūrān (}}). One southern route of the Silk Road ran along part of the Amu Darya northwestward from Termez before going westwards to the Caspian Sea.
According to the Quaternary International, it is possible that the Amu Darya's course across the Karakum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time – most recently from the 13th century to the late 16th century – the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas, reaching the latter via a large distributary called the Uzboy River. The Uzboy splits off from the main channel just south of the river's delta. Sometimes the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.
People began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century, establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities. In about AD 985, the massive Gurganj Dam at the bifurcation of the forks started to divert water to the Aral. Genghis Khan's troops destroyed the dam in 1221, and the Amu Darya shifted to distributing its flow more or less equally between the main stem and the Uzboy. But in the 18th century, the river again turned north, flowing into the Aral Sea, a path it has taken since. Less and less water flowed down the Uzboy. When Russian explorer Bekovich-Cherkasski surveyed the region in 1720, the Amu Darya did not flow into the Caspian Sea anymore.
. 1873]]
By the 1800s, the ethnographic makeup of the region was described by Peter Kropotkin as the communities of "the vassal Khanates of Maimene, Khulm, Kunduz, and even the Badakshan and Wahkran." An Englishman, William Moorcroft, visited the Oxus around 1824 during the Great Game period. Another Englishman, a naval officer called John Wood, came with an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern-day Lake Zorkul, called it Lake Victoria, and proclaimed he had found the source. Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Viné collected a lot of information about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.
The question of finding a route between the Oxus valley and India has been of concern historically. A direct route crosses extremely high mountain passes in the Hindu Kush and isolated areas like Kafiristan. Some in Britain feared that the Empire of Russia, which at the time wielded great influence over the Oxus area, would overcome these obstacles and find a suitable route through which to invade British India – but this never came to pass. The area was taken over by Russia during the Russian conquest of Turkestan.
The Soviet Union became the ruling power in the early 1920s and expelled Mohammed Alim Khan. It later put down the Basmachi movement and killed Ibrahim Bek. A large refugee population of Central Asians, including Turkmen, Tajiks, and Uzbeks, fled to northern Afghanistan. In the 1960s and 1970s the Soviets started using the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigate extensive cotton fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The Qaraqum Canal, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the largest of the irrigation diversions built. However, the Main Turkmen Canal, which would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, was never built. In the course of the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1970s, Soviet forces used the valley to invade Afghanistan through Termez. The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin.
During the Soviet era, a resource-sharing system was instated in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared water originating from the Amu and Syr Daryas with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer. In return, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan received Kazakh, Turkmen, and Uzbek coal, gas, and electricity in winter. After the fall of the Soviet Union this system disintegrated and the Central Asian nations have failed to reinstate it. Inadequate infrastructure, poor water management, and outdated irrigation methods all exacerbate the issue.
Siberian Tiger Introduction Project
The Caspian tiger used to occur along the river's banks. After its extirpation, the Darya's delta was suggested as a potential site for the introduction of its closest surviving relative, the Siberian tiger. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage.
Resource extraction
Since March 2022, the building of the 285 km Qosh Tepa Canal has been underway in northern Afghanistan to divert water from the Amu Darya. Uzbekistan has expressed concern that the canal will have an adverse effect on its agriculture. The canal is also expected to make the Aral Sea disaster worse, and in 2023 Uzbek officials held talks on the canal with the Taliban. The Taliban has made the canal a priority, with images supplied by Planet Labs demonstrate that from April 2022 to February 2023, more than 100 km of canal was excavated.
In January 2023, the Xinjiang Central Asia Petroleum and Gas Company (aka CAPEIC) signed a $720 million four-year investment deal with the Taliban government of Afghanistan for extraction on its side of the Amu Darya basin. The deal will see a 15% royalty given to the Afghan government over the course of its 25-year term. The Chinese see this basin as the third-largest potential gas field in the world.}}
The Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, fire the imaginations of the children who adventure with ponies over the moors of the West Country in the 1930s children's book The Far-Distant Oxus. There were two sequels, Escape to Persia and Oxus in Summer.
Robert Byron's 1937 travelogue, The Road to Oxiana, describes its author's journey from the Levant through Persia to Afghanistan, with the Oxus as his stated goal, "to see certain famous monuments, chiefly the Gonbad-e Qabus, a tower built as a mausoleum for an ancient king."
George MacDonald Fraser's Flashman at the Charge (1973), places Flashman on the Amu Darya and the Aral Sea during the (fictitious) Russian advance on India during The Great Game period.
}}
See also
* Oxus Treasure
* Vankhsh River
* Mount Imeon
* Sherabad River
* Surkhan Darya
* Transoxiana
* Zeravshan River
* Extreme points of Afghanistan
* List of rivers of Afghanistan
Notes
References
Further reading
* Curzon, George Nathaniel. 1896. The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. (pbk; (hbk).
* Gordon, T. E. 1876. The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
* Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. Between Oxus and Jumna. London. Oxford University Press.
* Wood, John, 1872. A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.
External links
*
* [http://amudaryabasin.net/content/amu-darya-river-basin The Amu Darya Basin Network]
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Category:Rivers of Afghanistan
Category:Rivers of Tajikistan
Category:Rivers of Turkmenistan
Category:Rivers of Uzbekistan
Category:International rivers of Asia
Category:Afghanistan–Turkmenistan border
Category:Afghanistan–Tajikistan border
Category:Afghanistan–Uzbekistan border
Category:Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan border
Category:Border rivers
Category:Landforms of Badakhshan Province
Category:Siberian Tiger Re-population Project
Category:Rivers in Buddhism
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amu_Darya | 2025-04-05T18:26:16.072411 |
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