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2274 | Arthur Eddington | | image = Arthur Stanley Eddington.jpg
| caption | birth_name Arthur Stanley Eddington
| birth_date
| death_date
| birth_place = Kendal, Westmorland, England
| death_place = Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England
| fields = Astrophysics
| workplaces = Trinity College, Cambridge
| alma_mater = University of Manchester<br />Trinity College, Cambridge
| doctoral_advisor = <!--There was no PhD at Cambridge before 1919-->
| academic_advisors =
| doctoral_students Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar<br />Leslie Comrie<br />Hermann Bondi
| notable_students = Georges Lemaître<br />Vibert Douglas<br />George C. McVittie
| known_for = Arrow of time<br />Eddington approximation<br />Eddington experiment<br />Eddington's affine geometry<br />Eddington limit<br />Eddington number<br />Eddington valve<br />Eddington–Dirac number<br />Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates<br />Eddington stellar model<br />Eddington–Sweet circulation
| author_abbrev_bot | author_abbrev_zoo
| awards = Royal Society Royal Medal (1928)<br /> Smith's Prize (1907) <br /> RAS Gold Medal (1924)<br />Henry Draper Medal (1924) <br /> Bruce Medal (1924)<br />Knight Bachelor (1930)<br />Order of Merit (1938)
| signature = <!--(filename only)-->
}}
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician. He was also a philosopher of science and a populariser of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.
Around 1920, he foreshadowed the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars". At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington was the first to correctly speculate that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium.
Eddington wrote a number of articles that announced and explained Einstein's theory of general relativity to the English-speaking world. World War I had severed many lines of scientific communication, and new developments in German science were not well known in England. He also conducted an expedition to observe the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 on the Island of Príncipe that provided one of the earliest confirmations of general relativity, and he became known for his popular expositions and interpretations of the theory.
Early years
Eddington was born 28 December 1882 in Kendal, Westmorland (now Cumbria), England, the son of Quaker parents, Arthur Henry Eddington, headmaster of the Quaker School, and Sarah Ann Shout.
His father taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the typhoid epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother was left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The family moved to Weston-super-Mare where at first Stanley (as his mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school. The family lived in a house called Varzin, at 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare. A commemorative plaque on the building explains Eddington's contributions to science.
In 1893 Eddington entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most capable scholar, particularly in mathematics and English literature. His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester (what was later to become the University of Manchester), in 1898, which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but he turned to physics for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and mathematics teachers, Arthur Schuster and Horace Lamb. At Manchester, Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting influence of the Quaker mathematician J. W. Graham. His progress was rapid, winning him several scholarships, and he graduated with a BSc in physics with First Class Honours in 1902.
Based on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1902. His tutor at Cambridge was Robert Alfred Herman and in 1904 Eddington became the first ever second-year student to be placed as Senior Wrangler. After receiving his M.A. in 1905, he began research on thermionic emission in the Cavendish Laboratory. This did not go well, and meanwhile he spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students. This hiatus was brief. Through a recommendation by E. T. Whittaker, his senior colleague at Trinity College, he secured a position at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where he was to embark on his career in astronomy, a career whose seeds had been sown even as a young child when he would often "try to count the stars".
Eddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for Cepheid variable stars. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star (thermodynamic anisotropy), and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates.
Eddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his results, particularly his important mass–luminosity relation. This had the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including giants and dwarfs, behaved as ideal gases. In the process of developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, which was based on classical mechanics, while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and quantitative consequences of possible proton–electron annihilation and nuclear fusion processes.
Around 1920, he anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".RelativityDuring World War I, Eddington was secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters and papers from Willem de Sitter regarding Einstein's theory of general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general relativity, but owing to his internationalist and pacifist views inspired by his Quaker religious beliefs, one of the few at the time who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of relativity in Britain. He and Astronomer Royal Frank Watson Dyson organized two expeditions to observe a solar eclipse in 1919 to make the first empirical test of Einstein's theory: the measurement of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field. In fact, Dyson's argument for the indispensability of Eddington's expertise in this test was what prevented Eddington from eventually having to enter military service. allegedly confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as evidence of general relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific relations.
It has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor quality, and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at Sobral, Brazil, which appeared closer to the Newtonian model, but a 1979 re-analysis with modern measuring equipment and contemporary software validated Eddington's results and conclusions. The quality of the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of the results from the expedition to Brazil was due to a defect in the telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well understood by contemporary astronomers.
Throughout this period, Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the Mathematical Theory of Relativity in 1923, which Albert Einstein suggested was "the finest presentation of the subject in any language." He was an early advocate of Einstein's general relativity, and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humour and personal intellectual investment: Ludwik Silberstein, a physicist who thought of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the Royal Society's (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended Einstein's relativity with his Brazil-Príncipe solar eclipse calculations with some degree of scepticism, and ruefully charged Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself and Einstein as the other). When Eddington refrained from replying, he insisted Arthur not be "so shy", whereupon Eddington replied, "Oh, no! I was wondering who the third one might be!"CosmologyEddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both Lemaître's 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble's work on the recession of the spiral nebulae. He felt the cosmological constant must have played the crucial role in the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. In The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, Eddington interpreted the cosmological constant to mean that the universe is "self-gauging". Fundamental theory and the Eddington number
<!-- This section is linked from Chandrasekhar limit & redirect Fundamental theory (Eddington) -->
During the 1920s until his death, Eddington increasingly concentrated on what he called "fundamental theory" which was intended to be a unification of quantum theory, relativity, cosmology, and gravitation. At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost numerological analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants.
His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 10<sup>40</sup>, its square, or its square root. He was convinced that the mass of the proton and the charge of the electron were a "natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe" and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, Paul Dirac, also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.
A somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the fine-structure constant, α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the degrees of freedom, so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the Eddington number. Wags at the time started calling him "Arthur Adding-one". This change of stance detracted from Eddington's credibility in the physics community. The current CODATA value is 1/
Eddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for fundamental physics, which he termed "E-numbers" (representing a certain group – a Clifford algebra). These in effect incorporated spacetime into a higher-dimensional structure. While his theory has long been neglected by the general physics community, similar algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a grand unified theory. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. In particular, he predicted a number of hydrogen atoms in the Universe ≈ , or equivalently the half of the total number of particles protons + electrons. He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944; his book Fundamental Theory was published posthumously in 1948.
Eddington number for cycling
Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist's long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist has cycled at least E miles on at least E days.
For example, an Eddington number of 70 would imply that the cyclist has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on at least 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult, since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will (probably) require more than five new long-distance rides, since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. Eddington's own life-time E-number was 84.
The Eddington number for cycling is analogous to the h-index that quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist.
Ian Barbour, in his book Issues in Science and Religion (1966), p. 133, cites Eddington's The Nature of the Physical World (1928) for a text that argues the Heisenberg uncertainty principle provides a scientific basis for "the defense of the idea of human freedom" and his Science and the Unseen World (1929) for support of philosophical idealism, "the thesis that reality is basically mental".
Charles De Koninck points out that Eddington believed in objective reality existing apart from our minds, but was using the phrase "mind-stuff" to highlight the inherent intelligibility of the world: that our minds and the physical world are made of the same "stuff" and that our minds are the inescapable connection to the world. As De Koninck quotes Eddington,
Science
Against Albert Einstein and others who advocated determinism, indeterminism—championed by Eddington—says that a physical object has an ontologically undetermined component that is not due to the epistemological limitations of physicists' understanding. The uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, then, would not necessarily be due to hidden variables but to an indeterminism in nature itself.
Eddington agreed with the tenet of logical positivism that "the meaning of a scientific statement is to be ascertained by reference to the steps which would be taken to verify it".
Popular and philosophical writings
Eddington wrote a parody of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, recounting his 1919 solar eclipse experiment. It contained the following quatrain:
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
In addition to his textbook The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, during the 1920s and 30s, Eddington gave numerous lectures, interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity, and later, quantum mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including The Nature of the Physical World and New Pathways in Science. His use of literary allusions and humour helped make these difficult subjects more accessible. One familiar image drawn by Eddington consisted of his "two tables", which represent a paradox concerned with what really exists: one table is the familiar and commonplace one, with properties of extension, colour, and permanence, it is "substantial" in the sense that it is constituted of "substance"; the other is his 'scientific' one, nothing but myriad minute particles in empty space: the table which "modern physics has by delicate test and remorseless logic assured me . . . is the only one which is really there ... wherever 'there' may be." He began the lectures where he discussed this paradox in 1927 with an allusion to these two tables: The second table is mostly emptiness, with numerous electric charges moving around at great speed, and this table is not "substantial" in any way. Eddington portrays the two tables as a recent innovation: physicists "used to borrow the raw material of [their] world from the familiar world", but for the new concepts, such as the electron, quantum or potential, there is no "familiar counterpart to these things" in "the world of commonplace experience".
Eddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public, not only because of his clear exposition, but also for his willingness to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new physics. He argued for a deeply rooted philosophical harmony between scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the positivist nature of relativity and quantum physics provided new room for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide proof of religious propositions.
His popular writings made him a household name in Great Britain between the world wars.
Death
Eddington died of cancer in the Evelyn Nursing Home, Cambridge, on 22 November 1944. He was unmarried. His body was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium (Cambridgeshire) on 27 November 1944; the cremated remains were buried in the grave of his mother in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge.
Cambridge University's North West Cambridge development has been named Eddington in his honour.
Eddington was played by David Tennant in the television film Einstein and Eddington, with Einstein played by Andy Serkis. The film was notable for its groundbreaking portrayal of Eddington as a somewhat repressed gay man. It was first broadcast in 2008.
The actor Paul Eddington was a relative, mentioning in his autobiography (in light of his own weakness in mathematics) "what I then felt to be the misfortune" of being related to "one of the foremost physicists in the world". Paul's father Albert and Sir Arthur were second cousins, both great-grandsons of William Eddington (1755–1806).
Honours
Awards and honors
* Smith's Prize (1907)
* International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1922)
* Bruce Medal of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924)
* Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences (1924)
* Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1924)
* International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences (1925)
* Foreign membership of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1926)
* Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) (1928)
* Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1928)
* Knighthood (1930)
* International Member of the American Philosophical Society (1931)
* Order of Merit (1938)
* Honorary member of the Norwegian Astronomical Society (1939)
* Hon. Freeman of Kendal, 1930Named after him
* Lunar crater Eddington
* asteroid 2761 Eddington
* Royal Astronomical Society's Eddington Medal
* Eddington mission, now cancelled
* Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the University of Essex
* Eddington Astronomical Society, an amateur society based in his hometown of Kendal
* Eddington, a house (group of students, used for in-school sports matches) of Kirkbie Kendal School
* Eddington, new suburb of North West Cambridge, opened in 2017
* Eddington Community Interest Company (CIC), 2003. A Community Centre focusing on Climate Information and projects, including a Waste Food Community Café and Larder, in partnership with SLACC (South Lakes Action on Climate Change), converting the former United Reform Church in KendalService
* Gave the Swarthmore Lecture in 1929
* Chairman of the National Peace Council 1941–1943
* President of the International Astronomical Union; of the Physical Society, 1930–32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921–23
* The song “In Transit”, from the 2023 album Signs Of Life by Neil Gaiman and Fourplay String Quartet was written in memory of him.
Publications
* 1914. Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe. London: Macmillan.
* 1918. [https://archive.org/details/reportontherelat028829mbp Report on the relativity theory of gravitation]. London, Fleetway Press, Ltd.
* 1920. Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory. Cambridge University Press.
* 1922. The theory of relativity and its influence on scientific thought
* 1923. 1952. The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge University Press.
* 1925. The Domain of Physical Science. 2005 reprint:
* 1926. [http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html Stars and Atoms]. Oxford: British Association.
* 1926. The Internal Constitution of Stars. Cambridge University Press.
* 1928. The Nature of the Physical World. MacMillan. 1935 replica edition: , University of Michigan 1981 edition: (1926–27 Gifford lectures)
* 1929. [https://archive.org/stream/scienceunseenwor00eddi#page/n5/mode/2up Science and the Unseen World]. US Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin. 1980 Reprint Arden Library . 2004 US reprint – Whitefish, Montana : Kessinger Publications: . 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin (Swarthmore Lecture), with a new foreword by George Ellis.
* 1930. Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDjjY8CW4QMC Arrow/scrollable preview.]
* 1933. ''The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900–1931. Cambridge University Press.
* 1935. New Pathways in Science. Cambridge University Press.
* 1936. Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons. Cambridge Univ. Press.
* 1939. Philosophy of Physical Science. Cambridge University Press. (1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge)
* 1946. Fundamental Theory. Cambridge University Press.
See also
Astronomy
* Chandrasekhar limit
* Eddington luminosity (also called the Eddington limit)
* Gravitational lens
* Outline of astronomy
* Stellar nucleosynthesis
* Timeline of stellar astronomy
* List of astronomers
Science
* Arrow of time
* Classical unified field theories
* Degenerate matter
* Dimensionless physical constant
* Dirac large numbers hypothesis (also called the Eddington–Dirac number)
* Eddington number
* Introduction to quantum mechanics
* Luminiferous aether
* Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism
* Special relativity
* Theory of everything (also called "final theory" or "ultimate theory")
* Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
* List of experiments
People
* List of science and religion scholars
Other
* Infinite monkey theorem
* Numerology
* Ontic structural realism
References
Further reading
* Durham, Ian T., "Eddington & Uncertainty". Physics in Perspective (September – December). Arxiv, History of Physics''
*
* Lecchini, Stefano, "How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass–Luminosity Relation" Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, pp. 224. (2007)
*
* Stanley, Matthew. "An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919 Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer." Isis 94 (2003): 57–89.
* Stanley, Matthew. "So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington, and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology" in British Journal for the History of Science, 2007, 40: 53–82.
*
External links
*
*
*
* [http://www.trinitycollegechapel.com/about/memorials/brasses/eddington/ Trinity College Chapel]
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944)] . University of St Andrews, Scotland.
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html Quotations by Arthur Eddington]
* [http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur Stanley Eddington] The Bruce Medalists.
* Russell, Henry Norris, "[http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928092625/http://www.cosmobrain.com.br/cosmoforum/viewtopic.php?t=118 Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space] project in proceeding in fórum astronomical.
*
* [http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Eddington/index.html Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley Eddington]
* [http://www.allais.wiki/priorartdocs/eddington.htm Eddington books: The Nature of the Physical World, The Philosophy of Physical Science, Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons, and Fundamental Theory]
Obituaries
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html Obituary 1] by Henry Norris Russell, Astrophysical Journal 101 (1943–46) 133
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html Obituary 2] by A. Vibert Douglas, Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 39 (1943–46) 1
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html Obituary 3] by Harold Spencer Jones and E. T. Whittaker, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 105 (1943–46) 68
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html Obituary 4] by Herbert Dingle, The Observatory 66 (1943–46) 1
* The Times, Thursday, 23 November 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D: Obituary (unsigned) – Image of cutting available at
Category:1882 births
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Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
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Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Eddington | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.000241 |
2275 | Apple II (original) | | price
| discontinued =
| os = Integer BASIC / Apple DOS
| cpu = MOS Technology 6502 <br /> @
| storage = Audio cassette,<br />Disk II (5.25-inch, 140 KB, Apple)
| memory = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 36, 48, or 64 KiB
| display = NTSC video out (built-in RCA connector)
| graphics Lo-res: 40×48, 16-color<br />Hi-res: 280×192, 8-color
| sound = 1-bit speaker (built-in)<br />1-bit cassette input (built-in microphone jack)<br />1-bit cassette output (built-in headphone jack)
| input = Upper-case keyboard, 52 keys
| controllers = Paddles
| connectivity = Parallel port card (Apple and third party); Serial port card (Apple and third party); SCSI
| predecessor = Apple I
| successor = Apple II Plus
}}
]]
The Apple II (stylized as ) is a personal computer released by Apple Inc. in June 1977. It was one of the first successful mass-produced microcomputer products and is widely regarded as one of the most important personal computers of all time due to its role in popularizing home computing and influencing later software development.
The Apple II was designed primarily by Steve Wozniak. The system is based around the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. Jerry Manock designed the foam-molded plastic case, Rod Holt developed the switching power supply, while Steve Jobs was not involved in the design of the computer. It was introduced by Jobs and Wozniak at the 1977 West Coast Computer Faire, and marks Apple's first launch of a computer aimed at a consumer market—branded toward American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists.
Byte magazine referred to the Apple II, Commodore PET 2001, and TRS-80 as the "1977 Trinity". As the Apple II had the defining feature of being able to display color graphics, the Apple logo was redesigned to have a spectrum of colors.
The Apple II was the first in a series of computers collectively referred to by the Apple II name. It was followed by the Apple II+, Apple IIe, Apple IIc, Apple IIc Plus, and the 16-bit Apple IIGS—all of which remained compatible. Production of the last available model, the Apple IIe, ceased in November 1993.HistoryBy 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced product designer Jerry Manock (who had formerly worked at Hewlett Packard designing calculators) to create the "shell" for the Apple II—a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that concealed the internal mechanics. printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore. The first computers went on sale on June 10, 1977 with an MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz ( of the NTSC color subcarrier), two game paddles 4 KiB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into ROMs. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of monochrome, uppercase-only text on the screen (the original character set matches ASCII characters 20<sub>h</sub> to 5F<sub>h</sub>), with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a video monitor or on a regular TV set (by way of a separate RF modulator).
The original retail price of the computer with 4 KiB of RAM was and with the maximum 48 KiB of RAM, it was To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries; it opened the doors to software marketed at consumers. This included his design of color graphics circuitry, the addition of game paddle support and sound, and graphics commands in Integer BASIC, with which he wrote Brick Out, a software clone of his own hardware game. Wozniak said in 1984: "Basically, all the game features were put in just so I could show off the game I was familiar with—Breakout—at the Homebrew Computer Club. It was the most satisfying day of my life [when] I demonstrated Breakout—totally written in BASIC. It seemed like a huge step to me. After designing hardware arcade games, I knew that being able to program them in BASIC was going to change the world."
Overview
In the May 1977 issue of Byte, Steve Wozniak published a detailed description of his design; the article began, "To me, a personal computer should be small, reliable, convenient to use, and inexpensive."
The Apple II used peculiar engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs, such as:
* Taking advantage of the way the 6502 processor accesses memory: it occurs only on alternate phases of the clock cycle; video generation circuitry memory access on the otherwise unused phase avoids memory contention issues and interruptions of the video stream;
* This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for DRAM chips, as video transfer accessed each row of dynamic memory within the timeout period. In addition, it did not require separate RAM chips for video RAM, while the PET and TRS-80 had SRAM chips for video;
* Apart from the 6502 CPU and a few support chips, the vast majority of the semiconductors used were 74LS low-power Schottky chips;
* Rather than use a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Wozniak used a simple timer circuit, built around a quad 555 timer IC called a 558, whose period is proportional to the resistance of the game controller, and he used a software loop to measure the timers;
* A single 14.31818 MHz master oscillator (f<sub>M</sub>) was divided by various ratios to produce all other required frequencies, including microprocessor clock signals (f<sub>M</sub>/14), video transfer counters, and color-burst samples (f<sub>M</sub>/4). A solderable jumper on the main board allowed to switch between European 50 Hz and USA 60 Hz video.
The text and graphics screens have a complex arrangement. For instance, the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory. This complexity was reportedly due to Wozniak's realization that the method would allow for the refresh of dynamic RAM as a side effect (as described above). This method had no cost overhead to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline and avoided the need for significant extra hardware. Similarly, in high-resolution graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and thus can be implemented in software, saving Wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors. This also allowed the ability to draw text with subpixel rendering, since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels.
The Apple II at first used data cassette storage, like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978, the company introduced an external -inch floppy disk drive, called Disk II (stylized as Disk ][), attached through a controller card that plugs into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6). The Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.
The approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniak's designs. With a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM (programmable read-only memory), he created a functional floppy disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations.
Case design
The first production Apple II computers had hand-molded cases; these had visible bubbles and other lumps in them from the imperfect plastic molding process, which was soon switched to machine molding. In addition, the initial case design had no vent openings, causing high heat buildup from the PCB and resulting in the plastic softening and sagging. Apple added vent holes to the case within three months of production; customers with the original case could have them replaced at no charge.
PCB revisions
The Apple II's printed circuit board (PCB) underwent several revisions, as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6,000 units shipped used it. Later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in an undefined mode and had garbage on-screen, requiring the user to press Reset. This was eliminated in later board revisions. Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors in hi-res mode, but Wozniak was able to increase this to six hi-res colors on later board revisions. (Technically it was eight, but only six were visible.)
The PCB had three RAM banks for a total of 24 RAM chips. Original Apple IIs had jumper switches to adjust RAM size, and RAM configurations could be 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 36, or 48 KiB. The three smallest memory configurations used 4kx1 DRAMs, with larger ones using 16kx1 DRAMs, or mix of 4-kilobyte and 16-kilobyte banks (the chips in any one bank have to be the same size). The early Apple II+ models retained this feature, but after a drop in DRAM prices, Apple redesigned the circuit boards without the jumpers, so that only 16kx1 chips were supported. A few months later, they started shipping all machines with a full 48 KiB complement of DRAM.
Unlike most machines, all integrated circuits on the Apple II PCB were socketed; although this cost more to manufacture and created the possibility of loose chips causing a system malfunction, it was considered preferable to make servicing and replacement of bad chips easier.
The Apple II PCB lacks any means of generating an interrupt request, although expansion cards may generate one. Program code had to stop everything to perform any I/O task; like many of the computer's other idiosyncrasies, this was due to cost reasons and Steve Wozniak assuming interrupts were not needed for gaming or using the computer as a teaching tool.
Display and graphics
Color on the Apple II series uses a quirk of the NTSC television signal standard, which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement. The original NTSC television signal specification was black and white. Color was added later by adding a 3.58-megahertz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by black-and-white TV sets. Color is encoded based on the phase of this signal in relation to a reference color burst signal. The result is that the position, size, and intensity of a series of pulses define color information. These pulses can translate into pixels on the computer screen, with the possibility of exploiting composite artifact colors.
The Apple II display provides two pixels per subcarrier cycle. When the color burst reference signal is turned on and the computer attached to a color display, it can display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels, magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels, and white by placing two pixels next to each other. Blue and orange are available by tweaking the pixel offset by half a pixel-width in relation to the color-burst signal. The high-resolution display offers more colors by compressing more (and narrower) pixels into each subcarrier cycle.
The coarse, low-resolution graphics display mode works differently, as it can output a pattern of dots per pixel to offer more color options. These patterns are stored in the character generator ROM, and replace the text character bit patterns when the computer is switched to low-res graphics mode. The text mode and low-res graphics mode use the same memory region and the same circuitry is used for both.
A single HGR page occupied 8 KiB of RAM; in practice this meant that the user had to have at least 12 KiB of total RAM to use HGR mode and 20 KiB to use two pages. Early Apple II games from the 1977–79 period often ran only in text or low-resolution mode in order to support users with small memory configurations; HGR not being near universally supported by games until 1980.
Sound
Rather than a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II contains a toggle circuit that can only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line-out jack. More complex sounds, such as music or audio samples, are generated by software manually toggling the speaker at an appropriate frequency. This technique requires careful and precise timing, rendering it difficult to display moving graphics while sound is playing. Third party expansion cards were later released which addressed this problem.
A similar technique is used for cassette storage: cassette output works the same as the speaker, and input uses a simple zero-crossing detector as a 1-bit audio digitizer. Routines in machine ROM encode and decode data in frequency-shift keying for the cassette.
Programming languages
Initially, the Apple II was shipped with Integer BASIC encoded in the motherboard ROM chips. Written by Wozniak, the interpreter enabled users to write software applications without needing to purchase additional development utilities. Written with game programmers and hobbyists in mind, the language only supported the encoding of numbers in 16-bit integer format. Since it only supported integers between -32768 and +32767 (signed 16-bit integer), it was less suitable to business software, and Apple soon received complaints from customers. Because Steve Wozniak was busy developing the Disk II hardware, he did not have time to modify Integer BASIC for floating point support. Apple instead licensed Microsoft's 6502 BASIC to create Applesoft BASIC.
Disk users normally purchased a so-called Language Card, which had Applesoft in ROM, and was located below the Integer BASIC ROM in system memory. The user could switch between either BASIC by typing or in BASIC prompt. Apple also offered a different version of Applesoft for cassette users, which occupied low memory, and was started by using the command in Integer BASIC.
As shipped, Apple II incorporated a machine code monitor with commands for displaying and altering the computer's RAM, either one byte at a time, or in blocks of 256 bytes at once. This enabled programmers to write and debug machine code programs without further development software. The computer powers on into the monitor ROM, displaying a prompt. From there, enters BASIC, or a machine language program can be loaded from cassette. Disk software can be booted with followed by , referring to Slot 6 which normally contained the Disk II controller.
A 6502 assembler was soon offered on disk, and later the UCSD compiler and operating system for the Pascal language were made available. The Pascal system requires a 16 KiB RAM card to be installed in the language card position (expansion slot 0) in addition to the full 48 KiB of motherboard memory.Manual
The first 1,000 or so Apple IIs shipped in 1977 with a 68-page mimeographed "Apple II Mini Manual", hand-bound with brass paper fasteners. This was the basis for the Apple II Reference Manual, which became known as the Red Book for its red cover, published in January 1978. All existing customers who sent in their warranty cards were sent free copies of the Red Book. The Apple II Reference Manual contained the complete schematic of the entire computer's circuitry, and a complete source listing of the "Monitor" ROM firmware that served as the machine's BIOS.
An Apple II manual signed by Steve Jobs in 1980 with the inscription "Julian, your generation is the first to grow up with computers. Go change the world." sold at auction for $787,484 in 2021.
Operating system
The original Apple II came with an 8 KiB ROM containing a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC as well as a resident monitor called the Apple System Monitor. Initially, only cassette tape was available for storage, which was considered too slow and unreliable for business use. In late 1977, Apple began to develop the Disk II floppy disk drive and required an operating system to utilize it. The existing standard at the time was CP/M, but due to incompatibility with the 6502 processor and a perceived clunkiness, Apple contracted Shepardson Microsystems for $13,000 to write Apple DOS. At Shepardson, Paul Laughton developed the software in just 35 days, a remarkably short deadline, even for the time. The Disk II and Apple DOS were released in late 1978. The final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3.
Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. The Z80 card also allowed the connection to a modem, and thereby to any networks that a user might have access to. In the early days, such networks were scarce. But they expanded significantly with the development of bulletin board systems in later years. There was also a third-party 6809 card that allowed OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Apple II accelerator cards doubled or quadrupled the computer's speed.
Early Apple IIs were often sold with a Sup'R'Mod, which allowed the composite video signal to be viewed in a television.
The Soviet Union radio-electronics industry designed Apple II-compatible computer Agat. Roughly 12,000 Agat 7 and 9 models were produced and they were widely used in Soviet schools. Agat 9 computers could run "Apple II" compatibility and native modes. "Apple II" mode allowed to run a wider variety of (presumably pirated) Apple II software, but at the expense of less RAM. Because of that Soviet developers preferred native mode over "Apple II" compatibility mode.
In 1978, Bob Bishop of Apple Computer, Inc. programmed 9 Apple II computers to run the gameboard on the TV game show Tic-Tac-Dough;. Each Apple was responsible for displaying various contents for each box of the gameboard (category, X, O, bonus game numbers and amounts, TIC, TAC or Dragon, as well displaying custom messages and an active screensaver), and in turn controlled by an Altair 8800 system. It was the first game show to use computerized graphics.ReceptionJesse Adams Stein wrote, "As the first company to release a 'consumer appliance' micro-computer, Apple Computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a machine to an appliance." But the company also had "to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers, bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new technologies in multiple contexts. The office, the home and the 'office-in-the-home' were implicated in these changing spheres of gender stereotypes and technological development." After seeing a crude, wire-wrapped prototype demonstrated by Wozniak and Steve Jobs in November 1976, Byte predicted in April 1977, that the Apple II "may be the first product to fully qualify as the 'appliance computer' ... a completed system which is purchased off the retail shelf, taken home, plugged in and used". The computer's color graphics capability especially impressed the magazine. The magazine published a favorable review of the computer in March 1978, concluding: "For the user that wants color graphics, the Apple II is the only practical choice available in the 'appliance' computer class."
Although it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market, when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as the defining killer app in the microcomputer industry.
By the end of 1977 Apple had sales of for the fiscal year, which included sales of the Apple I. This puts Apple clearly behind the others of the "holy trinity" of the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, even though the TRS-80 was launched last of the three. However, during the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, annual sales grew from to . During this period the sole products of the company were the Apple II and its peripherals, accessories, and software.
In 2006, PC World wrote that the Apple II was the greatest PC of all time.
References
External links
* [http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/apple/apple_II/ Additional documentation in Bitsavers PDF Document archive]
* [https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c68&st1 Apple II on Old-computers.com]
* [https://sites.google.com/a/my.sduhsd.net/apple-ii-resource/ Online Apple II Resource]
* [http://apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb2 Apple2History.org]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VStscvYLYLs <nowiki>How the Apple ][ Works!</nowiki>] – on YouTube by the 8-Bit Guy
Category:Apple II computers
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1977
Category:6502-based home computers
Category:8-bit computers
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1979
Category:1977 establishments in the United States
Category:1979 disestablishments in the United States
ca:Apple II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II_(original) | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.017506 |
2279 | April 3 | Events
Pre-1600
* 686 – Maya king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk' assumes the crown of Calakmul.
*1043 – Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
*1077 – The Patriarchate of Friûl, the first Friulian state, is created.
*1559 – The second of two treaties making up the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis is signed, ending the Italian Wars.
*1589 – The janissaries revolt in response to the debasement of coins.1601–1900*1721 – Robert Walpole becomes, in effect, the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, though he himself denied that title.
*1851 – Rama IV is crowned King of Thailand after the death of his half-brother, Rama III.
*1860 – The first successful United States Pony Express run from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, begins.
*1865 – American Civil War: Union forces capture Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States of America.
*1882 – American Old West: Robert Ford kills Jesse James.
*1885 – Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for a light, high-speed, four-stroke engine, which he uses seven months later to create the world's first motorcycle, the Daimler Reitwagen.
*1888 – Jack the Ripper: The first of 11 unsolved brutal murders of women committed in or near the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London, occurs.
*1895 – The trial in the libel case brought by Oscar Wilde begins, eventually resulting in his imprisonment on charges of homosexuality.
1901–present
*1920 – Attempts are made to carry out the failed assassination attempt on General Mannerheim, led by Aleksander Weckman by order of Eino Rahja, during the White Guard parade in Tampere, Finland.
*1922 – Joseph Stalin becomes the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
*1933 – First flight over Mount Everest, the British Houston-Mount Everest Flight Expedition, led by the Marquis of Clydesdale and funded by Lucy, Lady Houston.
*1936 – Bruno Richard Hauptmann is executed for the kidnapping and death of Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr., the infant son of pilot Charles Lindbergh.
*1942 – World War II: Japanese forces begin an assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula.
*1946 – Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.
*1948 – Cold War: U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the Marshall Plan, authorizing $5 billion in aid for 16 countries.
* 1948 – In Jeju Province, South Korea, a civil-war-like period of violence and human rights abuses known as the Jeju uprising begins.
*1955 – The American Civil Liberties Union announces it will defend Allen Ginsberg's book Howl against obscenity charges.
*1956 – Hudsonville–Standale tornado: The western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan is struck by a deadly F5 tornado.
*1968 – Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech; he was assassinated the next day.
*1969 – Vietnam War: United States Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announces that the United States will start to "Vietnamize" the war effort.
*1973 – Martin Cooper of Motorola makes the first handheld mobile phone call to Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs.
*1974 – The 1974 Super Outbreak occurs, the second largest tornado outbreak in recorded history (after the 2011 Super Outbreak). The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.
*1975 – Vietnam War: Operation Babylift, a mass evacuation of children in the closing stages of the war begins.
* 1975 – Bobby Fischer refuses to play in a chess match against Anatoly Karpov, giving Karpov the title of World Champion by default.
*1980 – US Congress restores a federal trust relationship with the 501 members of the Shivwits, Kanosh, Koosharem, and the Indian Peaks and Cedar City bands of the Paiute people of Utah.
*1981 – The Osborne 1, the first successful portable computer, is unveiled at the West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco.
*1989 – The US Supreme Court upholds the jurisdictional rights of tribal courts under the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 in Mississippi Choctaw Band v. Holyfield.
*1996 – Suspected "Unabomber" Theodore Kaczynski is captured at his Montana cabin in the United States.
* 1996 – A United States Air Force Boeing T-43 crashes near Dubrovnik Airport in Croatia, killing 35, including Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown.
*1997 – The Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but one of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.
*2000 – United States v. Microsoft Corp.: Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust law by keeping "an oppressive thumb" on its competitors.
*2004 – Islamic terrorists involved in the 2004 Madrid train bombings are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves.
*2007 – Conventional-Train World Speed Record: A French TGV train on the LGV Est high speed line sets an official new world speed record of 574.8 km/h (159.6 m/s, 357.2 mph).
*2008 – ATA Airlines, once one of the ten largest U.S. passenger airlines and largest charter airline, files for bankruptcy for the second time in five years and ceases all operations.
* 2008 – Texas law enforcement cordons off the FLDS's YFZ Ranch. Eventually 533 women and children will be taken into state custody.
*2009 – Jiverly Antares Wong opens fire at the American Civic Association immigration center in Binghamton, New York, killing thirteen and wounding four before committing suicide.
*2010 – Apple Inc. released the first generation iPad, a tablet computer.
*2013 – More than 50 people die in floods resulting from record-breaking rainfall in La Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina.
*2016 – The Panama Papers, a leak of legal documents, reveals information on 214,488 offshore companies.
*2017 – A bomb explodes in the St Petersburg metro system, killing 14 and injuring several more people.
*2018 – YouTube headquarters shooting: A 38-year-old gunwoman opens fire at YouTube Headquarters in San Bruno, California, injuring three people before committing suicide.
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1016 – Xing Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1055)
*1151 – Igor Svyatoslavich, Kievan Rus' prince (d. 1202)
*1395 – George of Trebizond, Greek philosopher, scholar and humanist (d. 1486)
*1438 – John III of Egmont, Dutch nobleman (d. 1516)
*1529 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1581)
*1540 – Maria de' Medici, Italian noblewoman, the eldest daughter of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Eleonora di Toledo. (d. 1557)
*1593 – George Herbert, English poet (d. 1633)
1601–1900
*1643 – Charles V, duke of Lorraine (d. 1690)
*1682 – Valentin Rathgeber, German organist and composer (d. 1750)
*1693 – George Edwards, English ornithologist and entomologist (d. 1773)
*1715 – William Watson, English physician, physicist, and botanist (d. 1787)
*1764 – John Abernethy, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1831)
*1769 – Christian Günther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian politician and diplomat (d. 1835)
*1770 – Theodoros Kolokotronis, Greek general (d. 1843)
*1778 – Pierre Bretonneau, French doctor who performed the first successful tracheotomy (d. 1862)
*1781 – Swaminarayan, Indian religious leader (d. 1830)
*1782 – Alexander Macomb, American general (d. 1841)
*1783 – Washington Irving, American short story writer, essayist, biographer, historian (d. 1859)
*1791 – Anne Lister, English diarist, mountaineer, and traveller (d. 1840)
*1798 – Charles Wilkes, American admiral, geographer, and explorer (d. 1877)
*1807 – Mary Carpenter, English educational and social reformer (d. 1877)
*1814 – Lorenzo Snow, American religious leader, 5th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1901)
*1822 – Edward Everett Hale, American minister, historian, and author (d. 1909)
*1823 – George Derby, American lieutenant and journalist (d. 1861)
* 1823 – William M. Tweed, American politician (d. 1878)
*1826 – Cyrus K. Holliday, American businessman (d. 1900)
*1837 – John Burroughs, American botanist and author (d. 1921)
*1842 – Ulric Dahlgren, American colonel (d. 1864)
*1848 – Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and captain (d. 1879)
*1852 – Talbot Baines Reed, English author (d. 1893)
*1858 – Jacob Gaudaur, Canadian rower (d. 1937)
*1860 – Frederik van Eeden, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 1932)
*1864 – Emil Kellenberger, Swiss target shooter (d. 1943)
*1875 – Mistinguett, French actress and singer (d. 1956)
*1876 – Margaret Anglin, Canadian actress, director, and producer (d. 1958)
* 1876 – Tomáš Baťa, Czech businessman, founded Bata Shoes (d. 1932)
*1880 – Otto Weininger, Jewish-Austrian philosopher and author (d. 1903)
*1881 – Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1954)
*1882 – Philippe Desranleau, Canadian archbishop (d. 1952)
*1883 – Ikki Kita, Japanese philosopher and author (d. 1937)
*1885 – Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1981)
* 1885 – Bud Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 1954)
* 1885 – Marie-Victorin Kirouac, Canadian botanist and academic (d. 1944)
* 1885 – St John Philby, English colonial and explorer (d. 1960)
*1886 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (d. 1953)
*1887 – Ōtori Tanigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 24th Yokozuna (d. 1956)
* 1887 – Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966)
*1888 – Thomas C. Kinkaid, American admiral (d. 1972)
*1889 – Grigoraș Dinicu, Romanian violinist and composer (d. 1949)
*1893 – Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943)
*1895 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American composer and educator (d. 1968)
* 1895 – Zez Confrey, American pianist and composer (d. 1971)
*1897 – Joe Kirkwood Sr., Australian golfer (d. 1970)
* 1897 – Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos, Greek general (d. 1989)
*1898 – David Jack, English footballer and manager (d. 1958)
* 1898 – George Jessel, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1981)
* 1898 – Henry Luce, American publisher, co-founded Time magazine (d. 1967)
*1900 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (d. 1987)
* 1900 – Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1958)
1901–present
* 1903 – Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Indian social reformer and freedom fighter (d. 1988)
*1904 – Iron Eyes Cody, American actor and stuntman (d. 1999)
* 1904 – Sally Rand, American dancer (d. 1979)
* 1904 – Russel Wright, American furniture designer (d. 1976)
*1905 – Robert Sink, American general (d. 1965)
*1910 – Ted Hook, Australian public servant (d. 1990)
*1911 – Nanette Bordeaux, Canadian-American actress (d. 1956)
* 1911 – Michael Woodruff, English-Scottish surgeon and academic (d. 2001)
* 1911 – Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (d. 1980)
*1912 – Dorothy Eden, New Zealand-English author (d. 1982)
* 1912 – Grigoris Lambrakis, Greek physician and politician (d. 1963)
*1913 – Per Borten, Norwegian politician, 18th Prime Minister of Norway (d. 2005)
*1914 – Ray Getliffe, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008)
* 1914 – Sam Manekshaw, Indian field marshal (d. 2008)
*1915 – Piet de Jong, Dutch politician and naval officer, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2016)
* 1915 – İhsan Doğramacı, Turkish physician and academic (d. 2010)
*1916 – Herb Caen, American journalist and author (d. 1997)
* 1916 – Cliff Gladwin, English cricketer (d. 1988)
* 1916 – Louis Guglielmi, Catalan composer (d. 1991)
*1918 – Mary Anderson, American actress (d. 2014)
* 1918 – Louis Applebaum, Canadian composer and conductor (d. 2000)
*1919 – Ervin Drake, American songwriter and composer (d. 2015)
* 1919 – Clairette Oddera, French-Canadian actress and singer (d. 2008)
*1920 – Stan Freeman, American composer and conductor (d. 2001)
* 1920 – Yoshibayama Junnosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 43rd Yokozuna (d. 1977)
*1921 – Robert Karvelas, American actor (d. 1991)
* 1921 – Jan Sterling, American actress (d. 2004)
*1922 – Yevhen Bulanchyk, Ukrainian hurdler (d. 1996)
* 1922 – Doris Day, American singer and actress (d. 2019)
*1923 – Daniel Hoffman, American poet and academic (d. 2013)
*1924 – Marlon Brando, American actor and director (d. 2004)
* 1924 – Roza Shanina, Russian sergeant and sniper (d. 1945)
*1925 – Tony Benn, English pilot and politician, Secretary of State for Industry (d. 2014)
*1926 – Alex Grammas, American baseball player, manager, and coach (d. 2019)
* 1926 – Gus Grissom, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1967)
* 1927 – Wesley A. Brown, American general and engineer (d. 2012)
*1928 – Don Gibson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)
* 1928 – Emmett Johns, Canadian priest, founded Dans la Rue (d. 2018)
* 1928 – Earl Lloyd, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)
* 1928 – Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television personality (d. 1999)
*1929 – Fazlur Rahman Khan, Bangladeshi engineer and architect, co-designed the Willis Tower and John Hancock Center (d. 1982)
* 1929 – Poul Schlüter, Danish lawyer and politician, 37th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 2021)
*1930 – Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (d. 1998)
* 1930 – Helmut Kohl, German politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 2017)
* 1930 – Mario Benjamín Menéndez, Argentinian general and politician (d. 2015)
* 1930 – Wally Moon, American baseball player and coach (d. 2018)
*1931 – William Bast, American screenwriter and author (d. 2015)
*1933 – Bob Dornan, American politician
* 1933 – Rod Funseth, American golfer (d. 1985)
*1934 – Pamela Allen, New Zealand children's writer and illustrator
* 1934 – Jane Goodall, English primatologist and anthropologist
* 1934 – Jim Parker, American football player (d. 2005)
*1935 – Harold Kushner, American rabbi and author (d. 2023)
*1936 – Jimmy McGriff, American organist and bandleader (d. 2008)
* 1936 – Harold Vick, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 1987)
*1938 – Jeff Barry, American singer-songwriter, and producer
* 1938 – Phil Rodgers, American golfer (d. 2018)
*1939 – François de Roubaix, French composer (d. 1975)
* 1939 – Hawk Taylor, American baseball player and coach (d. 2012)
* 1939 – Paul Craig Roberts, American economist and politician
*1941 – Jan Berry, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)
* 1941 – Philippé Wynne, American soul singer (d. 1984)
*1942 – Marsha Mason, American actress
* 1942 – Wayne Newton, American singer
* 1942 – Billy Joe Royal, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)
*1943 – Mario Lavista, Mexican composer (d. 2021)
* 1943 – Jonathan Lynn, English actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1943 – Richard Manuel, Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1986)
* 1943 – Hikaru Saeki, Japanese admiral, the first female star officer of the Japan Self-Defense Forces
*1944 – Peter Colman, Australian biologist and academic
* 1944 – Tony Orlando, American singer
*1945 – Doon Arbus, American author and journalist
* 1945 – Bernie Parent, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1945 – Catherine Spaak, French actress (d. 2022)
*1946 – Nicholas Jones, English actor
* 1946 – Dee Murray, English bass player (d. 1992)
* 1946 – Marisa Paredes, Spanish film actress (d. 2024)
* 1946 – Hanna Suchocka, Polish politician, Prime Minister of Poland
*1947 – Anders Eliasson, Swedish composer (d. 2013)
*1948 – Arlette Cousture, Canadian author and screenwriter
* 1948 – Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Dutch academic, politician, and diplomat, 11th Secretary General of NATO
* 1948 – Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck, German footballer
* 1948 – Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Mexican economist and politician, 53rd President of Mexico
*1949 – Lyle Alzado, American football player and actor (d. 1992)
* 1949 – A. C. Grayling, English philosopher and academic
* 1949 – Richard Thompson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1950 – Indrajit Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan cricketer and economist
*1951 – Brendan Barber, English trade union leader
* 1951 – Annette Dolphin, British academician and educator
* 1951 – Mitch Woods, American singer-songwriter and pianist
*1952 – Mike Moore, American lawyer and politician
*1953 – Sandra Boynton, American author and illustrator
* 1953 – Wakanohana Kanji II, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 56th Yokozuna (d. 2022)
* 1953 – James Smith, American boxer
*1954 – Elisabetta Brusa, Italian composer
* 1954 – K. Krishnasamy, Indian physician and politician
*1956 – Kalle Kulbok, Estonian politician
* 1956 – Boris Miljković, Serbian director and producer
* 1956 – Miguel Bosé, Spanish musician and actor
* 1956 – Ray Combs, American game show host (d. 1996)
*1958 – Alec Baldwin, American actor, comedian, producer and television host
* 1958 – Adam Gussow, American scholar, musician, and memoirist
* 1958 – Francesca Woodman, American photographer (d. 1981)
*1959 – David Hyde Pierce, American actor and activist
*1960 – Arjen Anthony Lucassen, Dutch singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1961 – Tim Crews, American baseball player (d. 1993)
* 1961 – Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
*1962 – Dave Miley, American baseball player and manager
* 1962 – Mike Ness, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1962 – Jaya Prada, Indian actress and politician
*1963 – Les Davidson, Australian rugby league player
* 1963 – Ricky Nixon, Australian footballer and manager
* 1963 – Criss Oliva, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1993)
*1964 – Marco Ballotta, Italian footballer and manager
* 1964 – Nigel Farage, English politician
* 1964 – Claire Perry, English banker and politician
* 1964 – Bjarne Riis, Danish cyclist and manager
* 1964 – Andy Robinson, English rugby player and coach
* 1964 – Jay Weatherill, Australian politician, 45th Premier of South Australia
*1965 – Nazia Hassan, Pakistani pop singer-songwriter, lawyer and social activist (d. 2000)
*1966 – John de Vries, Australian race car driver
*1967 – Cat Cora, American chef and author
* 1967 – Pervis Ellison, American basketball player
* 1967 – Brent Gilchrist, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1967 – Cristi Puiu, Romanian director and screenwriter
* 1967 – Mark Skaife, Australian race car driver and sportscaster
*1968 – Sebastian Bach, Bahamian-Canadian singer-songwriter and actor
* 1968 – Charlotte Coleman, English actress (d. 2001)
* 1968 – Jamie Hewlett, English director and performer
* 1968 – Tomoaki Kanemoto, Japanese baseball player
*1969 – Rodney Hampton, American football player
* 1969 – Peter Matera, Australian footballer and coach
* 1969 – Ben Mendelsohn, Australian actor
* 1969 – Lance Storm, Canadian wrestler and trainer
*1971 – Vitālijs Astafjevs, Latvian footballer and manager
* 1971 – Emmanuel Collard, French race car driver
* 1971 – Picabo Street, American skier
*1972 – Jennie Garth, American actress and director
* 1972 – Catherine McCormack, English actress
* 1972 – Sandrine Testud, French tennis player
*1973 – Nilesh Kulkarni, Indian cricketer
* 1973 – Adam Scott, American actor
*1974 – Marcus Brown, American basketball player
* 1974 – Lee Williams, Welsh model and actor
*1975 – Shawn Bates, American ice hockey player
* 1975 – Michael Olowokandi, Nigerian-American basketball player
* 1975 – Aries Spears, American comedian and actor
* 1975 – Yoshinobu Takahashi, Japanese baseball player
* 1975 – Koji Uehara, Japanese baseball player
*1976 – Nicolas Escudé, French tennis player
*1978 – Matthew Goode, English actor
* 1978 – Tommy Haas, German-American tennis player
* 1978 – John Smit, South African rugby player
*1979 – Simon Black, Australian footballer and coach
*1980 – Andrei Lodis, Belarusian footballer
* 1980 – Megan Rohrer, American pastor and transgender activist
*1981 – Aaron Bertram, American trumpet player
* 1981 – DeShawn Stevenson, American basketball player
*1982 – Jared Allen, American football player
* 1982 – Iain Fyfe, Australian footballer
* 1982 – Cobie Smulders, Canadian actress
*1983 – Ben Foster, English footballer
* 1983 – Stephen Weiss, Canadian ice hockey player
*1984 – Jonathan Blondel, Belgian footballer
* 1984 – Maxi López, Argentinian footballer
*1985 – Jari-Matti Latvala, Finnish race car driver
* 1985 – Leona Lewis, English singer-songwriter and producer
*1986 – Amanda Bynes, American actress
* 1986 – Stephanie Cox, American soccer player
* 1986 – Annalisa Cucinotta, Italian cyclist
* 1986 – Sergio Sánchez Ortega, Spanish footballer
*1987 – Rachel Bloom, American actress, writer, and producer
* 1987 – Jay Bruce, American baseball player
* 1987 – Yileen Gordon, Australian rugby league player
* 1987 – Jason Kipnis, American baseball player
* 1987 – Martyn Rooney, English sprinter
* 1987 – Julie Sokolow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1987 – Yuval Spungin, Israeli footballer
*1988 – Kam Chancellor, American football player
* 1988 – Brandon Graham, American football player
* 1988 – Peter Hartley, English footballer
* 1988 – Tim Krul, Dutch footballer
*1989 – Romain Alessandrini, French footballer
* 1989 – Israel Folau, Australian rugby player and footballer
* 1989 – Joel Romelo, Australian rugby league player
* 1989 – Thisara Perera, Sri Lankan cricketer
*1990 – Karim Ansarifard, Iranian footballer
* 1990 – Madison Brengle, American tennis player
* 1990 – Sotiris Ninis, Greek footballer
* 1990 – Natasha Negovanlis, Canadian actress and singer
*1991 – Hayley Kiyoko, American actress and singer
*1992 – Simone Benedetti, Italian footballer
* 1992 – Yuliya Yefimova, Russian swimmer
*1993 – Pape Moussa Konaté, Senegalese footballer
*1994 – Kodi Nikorima, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1994 – Dylann Roof, American mass murderer
*1996 – Mayo Hibi, Japanese tennis player
*1997 – Gabriel Jesus, Brazilian footballer
*1998 – Paris Jackson, American actress, model and singer
*1999 – Chanel Harris-Tavita, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 33 – Jesus of Nazareth
* 963 – William III, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 915)
*1153 – al-Adil ibn al-Sallar, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate
*1171 – Philip of Milly, seventh Grand Master of the Knights Templar (b. )
*1203 – Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1187)
*1253 – Saint Richard of Chichester
*1287 – Pope Honorius IV (b. 1210)
*1325 – Nizamuddin Auliya, Sufi saint (b. 1238)
*1350 – Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295)
*1538 – Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire (b. 1480)
*1545 – Antonio de Guevara, Spanish chronicler and moralist (b. 1481)
1601–1900
*1606 – Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1563)
*1630 – Christopher Villiers, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English noble (b. c. 1593)
*1637 – Joseph Yuspa Nördlinger Hahn, German rabbi
*1680 – Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Indian emperor, founded the Maratha Empire (b. 1630)
*1682 – Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1618)
*1691 – Jean Petitot, French-Swiss painter (b. 1608)
*1695 – Melchior d'Hondecoeter, Dutch painter (b. 1636)
*1717 – Jacques Ozanam, French mathematician and academic (b. 1640)
*1728 – James Anderson, Scottish lawyer and historian (b. 1662)
*1792 – George Pocock, English admiral (b. 1706)
*1804 – Jędrzej Kitowicz, Polish priest, historian, and author (b. 1727)
*1826 – Reginald Heber, English priest (b. 1783)
*1827 – Ernst Chladni, German physicist and academic (b. 1756)
*1838 – François Carlo Antommarchi, French physician and author (b. 1780)
*1844 – Edward Bigge, English cleric, 1st Archdeacon of Lindisfarne (b. 1807)
*1846 – William Braine, English soldier and explorer (b. 1814)
*1849 – Juliusz Słowacki, Polish-French poet and playwright (b. 1809)
*1868 – Franz Berwald, Swedish composer and surgeon (b. 1796)
*1880 – Felicita Vestvali, German actress and opera singer (b. 1831)
*1882 – Jesse James, American criminal and outlaw (b. 1847)
*1897 – Johannes Brahms, German pianist and composer (b. 1833)
1901–present
*1901 – Richard D'Oyly Carte, English composer and talent agent (b. 1844)
*1902 – Esther Hobart Morris, American lawyer and judge (b. 1814)
*1930 – Emma Albani, Canadian-English operatic soprano (b. 1847)
*1936 – Richard Hauptmann, German-American murderer (b. 1899)
*1941 – Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 22nd Yokozuna (b. 1877)
* 1941 – Pál Teleki, Hungarian academic and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1879)
*1943 – Conrad Veidt, German actor, director, and producer (b. 1893)
*1946 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (b. 1887)
*1950 – Kurt Weill, German-American composer and pianist (b. 1900)
* 1950 – Carter G. Woodson, American historian, author, and journalist, founded Black History Month (b. 1875)
*1951 – Henrik Visnapuu, Estonian poet and playwright (b. 1890)
*1952 – Miina Sillanpää, Finnish minister and politician (b. 1866)
*1957 – Ned Sparks, Canadian-American actor (b. 1883)
*1958 – Jaan Kärner, Estonian poet and author (b. 1891)
*1962 – Manolis Kalomiris, Greek composer and educator (b. 1883)
*1970 – Avigdor Hameiri, Israeli author (b. 1890)
*1971 – Joseph Valachi, American gangster (b. 1904)
*1972 – Ferde Grofé, American pianist and composer (b. 1892)
*1975 – Mary Ure, Scottish-English actress (b. 1933)
*1976 – David M. Dennison, American physicist and academic (b. 1900)
* 1976 – Claude-Henri Grignon, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1894)
*1978 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (b. 1903)
* 1978 – Winston Sharples, American composer (b. 1909)
*1981 – Juan Trippe, American businessman, founded Pan American World Airways (b. 1899)
*1982 – Warren Oates, American actor (b. 1928)
*1983 – Jimmy Bloomfield, English footballer and manager (b. 1934)
*1986 – Peter Pears, English tenor and educator (b. 1910)
*1987 – Tom Sestak, American football player (b. 1936)
*1988 – Milton Caniff, American cartoonist (b. 1907)
*1990 – Sarah Vaughan, American singer (b. 1924)
*1991 – Charles Goren, American bridge player and author (b. 1901)
* 1991 – Graham Greene, English novelist, playwright, and critic (b. 1904)
*1993 – Pinky Lee, American television host (b. 1907)
*1994 – Frank Wells, American businessman (b. 1932)
*1995 – Alfred J. Billes, Canadian businessman, co-founded Canadian Tire (b. 1902)
*1996 – Ron Brown, American captain and politician, 30th United States Secretary of Commerce (b. 1941)
*1997 – John Ugelstad, Norwegian chemical engineer and inventor (b. 1921)
*1998 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic (b. 1900)
*1999 – Lionel Bart, English composer (b. 1930)
* 1999 – Geoffrey Walsh, Canadian general (b. 1909)
*2000 – Terence McKenna, American botanist and philosopher (b. 1946)
* 2000 – Dina Abramowicz, Librarian and YIVO and Yiddish language expert (b. 1909)
*2005 – François Gérin, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1944)
*2007 – Nina Wang, Chinese businesswoman (b. 1937)
*2008 – Hrvoje Ćustić, Croatian footballer (b. 1983)
*2012 – Mingote, Spanish cartoonist and journalist (b. 1919)
* 2012 – Richard Descoings, French civil servant (b. 1958)
* 2012 – Govind Narain, Indian politician, 8th Governor of Karnataka (b. 1917)
* 2012 – Chief Jay Strongbow, American wrestler (b. 1928)
* 2012 – José María Zárraga, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1930)
*2013 – Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (b. 1930)
* 2013 – Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German-American author and screenwriter (b. 1927)
*2014 – Régine Deforges, French author, playwright, and director (b. 1935)
* 2014 – Fred Kida, American illustrator (b. 1920)
* 2014 – Prince Michael of Prussia (b. 1940)
* 2014 – Jovan Pavlović, Serbian metropolitan (b. 1936)
* 2014 – Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith, American guitarist, fiddler, and composer (b. 1921)
*2015 – Sarah Brady, American activist and author (b. 1942)
* 2015 – Bob Burns, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1950)
* 2015 – Shmuel Wosner, Austrian-Israeli rabbi and author (b. 1913)
*2016 – Cesare Maldini, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1932)
* 2016 – Joe Medicine Crow, American anthropologist, historian, and author (b. 1913)
* 2016 – Koji Wada, Japanese singer and songwriter (b. 1974)
*2017 – Kishori Amonkar, Indian classical vocalist (b. 1931)
*2021 – Stan Stephens, Canadian-American politician, 20th Governor of Montana (b. 1929)
*2022 – June Brown, English actress (b. 1927)
*2024 – Bob Lanigan, Australian rugby league player (b. 1942)
* 2024 – Gaetano Pesce, Italian architect and designer (b. 1939)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not add fictional characters to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Agape, Chionia, and Irene
** Burgundofara
** Luigi Scrosoppi
** Richard of Chichester
** April 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/3 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/3 Historical Events on April 3]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_3 | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.057238 |
2282 | Alexis Korner | | birth_place = Paris, France
| death_date
| death_place = London, England
| instrument Vocals, acoustic & electric guitar, mandolin, piano
| genre = Blues, blues rock
| occupations = Musician, singer-songwriter, historian, broadcaster
| years_active = 1955–1984
| label = Decca, Polydor, Spot Records, CBS Records, Transatlantic Records, Fontana, RAK Records, Tempo, Brain Records, Liberty, Atlantic/Metronome, 77 Records, Warner Bros., Charisma
| past_member_of = Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated, Free At Last, CCS, Snape
| website =
}}
Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner (19 April 1928 – 1 January 1984), known professionally as Alexis Korner, was a British blues musician and radio broadcaster, who has sometimes been referred to as "a founding father of British blues". A major influence on the sound of the British music scene in the 1960s, to an Austrian Jewish father and a mother of Greek, Turkish and Austrian descent. He spent his childhood in France, Switzerland and North Africa, and arrived in London in 1940 after the start of the Second World War. One memory of his youth was listening to a record by black pianist Jimmy Yancey during a German air raid. Korner said, "From then on all I wanted to do was play the blues."
After the war, Korner played piano and guitar (his first guitar was built by friend and author Sydney Hopkins, who wrote Mister God, This Is Anna) and in 1949 joined Chris Barber's Jazz Band where he met blues harmonica player Cyril Davies. They started playing together as a duo, started the influential London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in 1955 and made their first record together in 1957.The 1960s
In 1961, Korner and Davies formed Blues Incorporated, initially a loose-knit group of musicians with a shared love of electric blues and R&B music.
Although Cyril Davies left the group in late 1962, Blues Incorporated continued to record, with Korner at the helm, until 1966. However, by that time its originally stellar line-up (and crowd of followers) had mostly left to start their own bands. While his one-time acolytes, the Rolling Stones and Cream, made the front pages of music magazines all over the world, Korner was relegated to the role of 'elder statesman'.
Although Free At Last was short-lived, Korner ensured its name lived on in part by christening another young group of aspiring musicians, Free. Korner was instrumental in the formation of the band in April 1968, and continued to mentor them until they secured a deal with Island Records.
Although he himself was a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians during the blues boom of the late 1960s for their blind adherence to Chicago blues, as if the music came in no other form. He liked to surround himself with jazz musicians and often performed with a horn section drawn from a pool that included, among others, saxophone players Art Themen, Mel Collins, Dick Heckstall-Smith, and Lol Coxhill.
While touring Scandinavia he formed the band New Church with guitarist and singer Peter Thorup. and in 1977 he established a Sunday-night show on Radio 1, ''Alexis Korner's Blues and Soul Show'', which ran until 1981.
1970s to 1984
In 1973, he and Peter Thorup formed another group, Snape, with Boz Burrell, Mel Collins, and Ian Wallace, who were previously together in King Crimson. He had a daughter, singer Sappho Gillett Korner (died 2006), and two sons, guitarist Nicholas 'Nico' Korner (died 1989) and sound engineer Damian Korner (died 2008).
Alexis Korner died in London from lung cancer on 1 January 1984, at the age of 55.
Album discography (selected UK and other releases)
* Blues from the Roundhouse 10-inch (1957) – Alexis Korner's Breakdown Group
* R&B from the Marquee (1962) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated
* Red Hot from Alex (1964) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated
* At the Cavern (1964) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated
* ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated'' (1965) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated
* Sky High (1966) – Alexis Korner Blues Incorporated
* I Wonder Who (1967)
* ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated (re-issue of Sky High'') – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated
* A New Generation of Blues (1968)
* Both Sides (1970) – New Church
* CCS 1st (1970) – CCS
* Alexis Korner (1971)
* Bootleg Him! (1972)
* CCS 2nd (1972) – CCS
* Accidentally Borne in New Orleans (1972) – with Peter Thorup; Snape
* Live on Tour in Germany (1973) – with Peter Thorup; Snape
* The Best Band in the Land (1973) – CCS
* Alexis Korner (1974)
* Get Off My Cloud (1975)
* The Lost Album (1977)
* Just Easy (1978)
* The Party Album (1979) – Alexis Korner and Friends
* Me (1980)
* Rocket 88 (1981) – Rocket 88
* Juvenile Delinquent (1984)
* Testament (1985) – with Colin Hodgkinson
* Live in Paris (1988) – with Colin Hodgkinson
Bibliography
* Bob Brunning (1986), Blues: The British Connection, London: Helter Skelter, 2002.
* Bob Brunning, The Fleetwood Mac Story: Rumours and Lies, Omnibus Press, 2004; foreword by B.B. King
* Dick Heckstall-Smith (2004), The Safest Place in the World: A Personal History of British Rhythm and Blues, Clear Books. . First Edition: Blowing the Blues – Fifty Years Playing the British Blues
* Christopher Hjort, Strange Brew: Eric Clapton and the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970, foreword by John Mayall, Jawbone, 2007.
* Harry Shapiro, Alexis Korner: The Biography, London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 1997; Discography by Mark Troster.
References
External links
* [ Biography] at AllMusic
* [http://www.britishmusicexperience.com/?PageID=98 Biography at British Music Experience]
* [http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/radio1/alexis_korner_page.htm Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind]
* [https://vimeo.com/62745824 BBC Radio 2 radio documentary about Alexis Korner] on Vimeo
*
*
Category:1928 births
Category:1984 deaths
Category:20th-century British guitarists
Category:20th-century British male singers
Category:BBC Radio 1 presenters
Category:Blues Incorporated members
Category:Blues revival musicians
Category:British DJs
Category:British blues guitarists
Category:British blues singers
Category:British male guitarists
Category:British male singer-songwriters
Category:British radio presenters
Category:British rhythm and blues boom musicians
Category:CCS (band) members
Category:Charisma Records artists
Category:Columbia Records artists
Category:Deaths from lung cancer in England
Category:Decca Records artists
Category:English people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Category:English people of Greek descent
Category:English people of Turkish descent
Category:Fontana Records artists
Category:Liberty Records artists
Category:Musicians from London
Category:Polydor Records artists
Category:Transatlantic Records artists
Category:Warner Records artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Korner | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.068540 |
2284 | Assault gun | | image1 = StuG III Ausf. G.jpg
| image2 = Sherman Tank WW2.jpg
| image3 = Ikv 90 rolling (cropped).jpg
| image4 = JGSDF Type 16.jpg
| footer = Top left: German WWII Stug III assault guns in Finnish service.<br />Top right: US WWII M4A3 (105) assault gun.<br />Lower left: Swedish Cold War Ikv 91 assault gun.<br />Lower right: Japanese Type 16 maneuver combat vehicle )}} modern assault gun.
}}
An assault gun (from , , meaning "assault gun") is a type of armored infantry support vehicle and self-propelled artillery, mounting an infantry support gun on a protected self-propelled chassis, intended for providing infantry with heavy direct fire support during engagement, especially against other infantry or fortified positions, secondarily also giving some armored protection and anti-armor capability.
Assault guns were pioneered by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany during the 1930s, initially being self-propelled guns with direct fire in mind (such as the Soviet SU-5-1), with Germany introducing the first purpose-built (and purpose-named) assault gun, the , in 1940. However, during World War II assault guns were more mobile than tanks and could be utilized as both direct and indirect fire artillery.
German and Soviet assault guns introduced during World War II usually carried their main armament in a fully enclosed casemate rather than a gun turret. Although this limited the field of fire and traverse of the armament, it also had the advantage of a reduced silhouette and simplified the manufacturing process. The classic assault gun concept was largely abandoned during the postwar era in favor of tanks or multipurpose tank destroyers attached to infantry formations, which were also capable of providing direct fire support as needed. In the United States and most Western countries, the assault gun ceased to be recognized as a unique niche, with individual examples being classified either as a self-propelled howitzer or a tank, one exception being Sweden, which continued to develop casemate assault guns post-war, such as the Infanterikanonvagn 72, all the way into the 1960s before settling on a turreted design in 1968, becoming the Infanterikanonvagn 91. The Soviet Union continued funding development of new assault guns as late as 1967, although few of its postwar designs were adopted in large numbers. In Soviet and Eastern European armies, the traditional assault gun was primarily superseded by tank destroyers, such as the SU-100, which is capable of supporting either infantry or armor. Independent battalions were also deployed as "stiffeners" for infantry divisions, and the StuG III's anti-tank capabilities bolstered dwindling tank numbers on the Eastern and Western fronts.
assault gun M8 Scott]]
US and UK forces also deployed vehicles designed for a close support role, but these were conventional tanks whose only significant modification was the replacement of the main gun with a howitzer. Two versions of the American Sherman tank were armed with the M4 105 mm howitzer, the M4(105) and the M4A3(105); these were designated assault guns in US usage of the term. The M8 Scott, based on the chassis of the M5 Stuart light tank, was also an assault cannon and carried a 75 mm short howitzer. The Churchill, Centaur and Cromwell tanks were all produced in versions armed with 95 mm howitzers: the Churchill Mark V and Mark VIII, the Centaur Mark IV and the Cromwell Mark VI. Earlier British tanks, such as the Crusader cruiser tank and the Matilda II Infantry tank were produced in versions armed with the 3-inch howitzer; the first versions of the Churchill tank also had this gun in a hull mounting. American tank destroyer units were often used in the assault gun role for infantry support.
The AVRE version of the Churchill tank was armed with a spigot mortar that fired a HE-filled projectile (nicknamed the Flying Dustbin) . Its task was to attack fortified positions such as bunkers at close range (see Hobart's Funnies). Since World War II
In the post-World War II era, most vehicles fitting into an "assault gun" category were developed as a light-weight, air-deployable, direct fire combat vehicles for use with airborne troops. Those weapons were either based on light utility vehicles or small tracked vehicles and the airborne troops thus always fought at a distinct disadvantage in terms of heavy weapons. The Soviet Union and the United States were the most attracted to the idea of providing this capability to traditionally light airborne forces. Their answers to the problem were similar, with the United States developing the M56 Scorpion and the Soviet Union developing the ASU-57, both essentially airdroppable light anti-tank guns.
air-deployable assault gun]]
The Soviets went on to develop an improved airdroppable assault gun, the ASU-85, which served through the 1980s, while their SU-100 remained in service with Communist countries, including Vietnam and Cuba, years after World War II. The US M56 and another armoured vehicle, the M50 Ontos, were to be the last of the more traditional assault guns in US service. Improvised arrangements such as M113 personnel carriers with recoilless rifles were quickly replaced by missile carrier vehicles in the anti-tank role.
The only vehicle with the qualities of an assault gun to be fielded after the removal of the M50 and M56 from service within the US military was the M551 Sheridan. The Sheridan's gun was a low-velocity weapon suitable in the assault role, but with the addition of the Shillelagh missile could double in the anti-tank role as well. The Sheridan, however, was not developed as an assault gun but as a light reconnaissance vehicle.
assault gun]]
Currently, there appears to be a move toward wheeled vehicles fitting a "tank destroyer" or "assault gun" role, such as the M1128 mobile gun system of the United States Army, the B1 Centauro wheeled tank destroyer of the Italian and Spanish Armies, the Chinese anti-tank gun PTL-02 and ZBL08 assault gun, and the French AMX-10 RC heavy armoured car. While these vehicles might be useful in a direct fire role, none were developed with this specifically in mind, reminiscent of the use of tank destroyers by the US military in the assault gun role during World War II.
Assault guns per nation
Germany
]]
* 1940 – Sturmgeschütz III
* 1940 – Sturmpanzer I Bison
* 1941 – Sturmpanzer II
* 1942 – Sturmpanzer III
* 1942 – Sturm-Infanteriegeschütz 33B
* 1943 – Sturmhaubitze 42
* 1943 – Sturmgeschütz IV
* 1943 – Sturmpanzer IV Stupa
* 1943 – Sturmpanzer 38(t) Grille Ausf. H
* 1944 – Sturmpanzer 38(t) Grille Ausf. K
* 1944 – Sturmpanzer VI Sturmtiger
Hungary
]]
* 1943 – 43M Zrínyi II
* 1944 – 44M Zrínyi I
Sweden
]]
* 1943 – Stormpjäs fm/43
* 1944 – Stormpjäs fm/43-44
* 1944 – Stormartillerivagn m/43
* 1953 – Infanterikanonvagn 72
* 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 73
* 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 102
* 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 103
* 1976 – Infanterikanonvagn 91
* 1994 – Stridsfordon 90105
* 1998 – Stridsfordon 90120 USA
]]
* 1941 – T18 HMC
* 1942 – M8 Scott
* 1944 – M4 Sherman 105
* 1953 – M56 Scorpion
* 1956 – M50 Ontos
* 1985 – CCVL
* 1992 – M8 AGS
See also
*
*
*
* List of infantry support guns
Notes
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_gun | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.078736 |
2286 | Tank destroyer | thumb|Two American M10 tank destroyers in Belgium during World War II
A tank destroyer, tank hunter or tank killer is a type of armoured fighting vehicle, predominantly intended for anti-tank duties. They are typically armed with a direct fire artillery gun, also known as a self-propelled anti-tank gun, or missile launcher, also called an anti-tank missile carrier. The vehicles are designed specifically to engage and destroy enemy tanks, often with limited operational capacities.
While tanks are designed for front-line combat, combining operational mobility and tactical offensive and defensive capabilities and performing all primary tasks of the armoured troops, the tank destroyer is specifically designed to take on enemy tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. Many are based on a tracked tank chassis, while others are wheeled.
Since World War II, gun-armed powerful tank destroyers have fallen out of favor as armies have favored multirole main battle tanks. However, lightly armoured anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank work. The resurgence of expeditionary warfare in the first two decades of the 21st century has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called "protected gun systems", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low-intensity operations, as was done in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
World War II
Dedicated anti-tank vehicles made their first major appearance in the Second World War as combatants developed effective armoured vehicles and tactics. Some were little more than stopgap solutions, mounting an anti-tank gun on a tracked vehicle to give mobility, while others were more sophisticated designs. An example of the development of tank destroyer technology throughout the war is the Marder III and Jagdpanzer 38 vehicles, which were very different in spite of being based on the same chassis: Marder was straightforwardly an anti-tank gun on tracks, whereas the Jagdpanzer 38 traded some firepower (its 7.5 cm Pak 39, designed to operate within the confines of a fully armoured fighting compartment, fires the same projectiles from a reduced propellant charge compared to Marder's 7.5 cm Pak 40) for better armour protection and ease of concealment on the battlefield.
Except for most American designs, all tank destroyers were turretless vehicles with fixed or casemate superstructures. When a tank destroyer was used against enemy tanks from a defensive position such as by ambush, the lack of a rotating turret was not particularly critical, while the lower silhouette was highly desirable. The turretless design allowed accommodation of a more powerful gun, typically a dedicated anti-tank gun (in lieu of a regular tank's general-purpose main gun that fired both anti-tank and high explosive ammunition) that had a longer barrel than could be mounted in a turreted tank on the same chassis. The lack of a turret increased the vehicle's internal volume, allowing for increased ammunition stowage and crew comfort. Eliminating the turret let the vehicle carry thicker armour, and also let this armour be concentrated in the hull. Sometimes there was no armoured roof (only a weather cover) to keep the overall weight down to the limit that the chassis could bear. The absence of a turret meant that tank destroyers could be manufactured significantly cheaper, faster, and more easily than the tanks on which they were based, and they found particular favor when production resources were lacking.
Germany
thumb|Panzerjäger I
The first German tank destroyers were the Panzerjäger ("Tank Hunters"), which mounted an existing anti-tank gun on a convenient chassis for mobility, usually with just a three-sided gun shield for crew protection. For instance, 202 obsolete Panzer I light tanks were modified by removing the turret and were rebuilt as the Panzerjäger I self-propelled 4.7 cm PaK(t). Similarly, Panzer II tanks were used on the eastern front. Captured Soviet anti-tank guns were mounted on modified Panzer II chassis, producing the Marder II self-propelled anti-tank gun. The most common mounting was a German anti-tank gun on the Czech Panzer 38(t) chassis as the Marder III. The Panzer 38(t) chassis was also used to make the Jagdpanzer 38 casemate style tank destroyer. The Panzerjäger series continued up to the equipped Nashorn.
German tank destroyers based on the Panzer III medium tank and later German tanks had more armour than their tank counterparts. One of the more successful German tank destroyers was designed as a self-propelled artillery gun, the Sturmgeschütz III. Based on the Panzer III tank chassis, the Sturmgeschütz III was originally fitted with a short barreled low-velocity howitzer-like gun, and was assigned to the artillery arm for infantry fire support as an assault gun. Later, after encountering Soviet tanks, it was refitted with a comparatively short-barreled high-velocity anti-tank gun, usually with a muzzle brake, enabling it to function as a tank destroyer. The Sturmgeschütz III from its 1938 origin used a new casemate-style superstructure with an integrated design, similar to the later Jagdpanzer vehicle designs' superstructure, to completely enclose the crew. It was employed in infantry support and offensive armoured operations as well as in the defensive anti-tank role. The StuG III assault gun was Germany's most-produced fully tracked armoured fighting vehicle during World War II, and second-most produced German armoured combat vehicle of any type after the Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track.
thumb|right|Jagdpanther
Although the early German Panzerjäger carried more effective weapons than the tanks on which they were based, they were generally lacking in protection for the crew, having thinly armoured open-topped superstructures. The "open-topped" design format of the Panzerjäger vehicles was succeeded by the Jagdpanzer ("hunting tanks"), which mounted the gun in true casemate-style superstructures, completely enclosing the crew compartment in armor that was usually integral to the hull. The first of these Jagdpanzers was the 70-ton Ferdinand (later renamed Elefant), based on the chassis, hulls, and drive systems of ninety-one Porsche VK4501 (P) heavy tanks, mounting a long-barreled 88 mm cannon in an added casemate, more like the earlier Panzerjägers had with their added-on armour shielding for the gun crew, but in the Ferdinand completely enclosing the gun and firing crew in the added casemate, as the later purpose-built Jagdpanzers would. However, the Ferdinand was mechanically unreliable and difficult to maneuver, and once all ninety-one unturreted "Porsche Tiger" hulls/drive systems were converted, no more were built. The German Army had more success with the Jagdpanther. Introduced in mid-1944, the Jagdpanther, of which some 415 examples were produced, was considered the best of the casemate-design Jagdpanzer designs. It featured the same powerful PaK 43 88 mm cannon used on the unwieldy Elefant, now fitted to the chassis of the medium Panther tank, providing greatly improved armour-penetrating capability in a medium-weight vehicle.
Facing an increasingly defensive war, the German Army turned to larger and more powerfully armed Jagdpanzer designs, and in July 1944 the first Jagdtiger rolled off the production line; it was the heaviest German armoured fighting vehicle to go into active service. If the vehicle became immobilized due to engine failure or track damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing tanks, making it highly vulnerable to counterfire. This vulnerability was later exploited by opposing tank forces. Even the largest and most powerful of German tank destroyers were found abandoned on the field after a battle, having been immobilized by one or more hits by high explosive (HE) or armour-piercing (AP) shells to the track or front drive sprocket.
Italy
thumb|Semovente da 75/18
The most famous Italian tank destroyer of the Second World War was a self-propelled gun. The Semovente da 75/18, based on the M13/40 frame, was developed to support front-line infantry, and therefore had fixed armament: a 75 mm gun in casemate. However, thanks to its low height (185 cm) and the caliber of its gun the 75/18 also had good results in anti-tank combat, fighting against British and American (but not Soviet) units. After the Armistice of 1943, the 75/18 remained in use by German forces.
Built on the same frame, the Semovente da 105/25 was equipped with a 105 mm gun and known as "bassotto" (Italian for dachshund) due to its lower height. As manufacturing began in 1943, the 105/25 was used by German forces. A further development was the Semovente da 75/46, which had a longer gun than the 75/18 and inclined armour 100 mm thick, making it similar to Sturmgeschütz III. Only 11 of these were manufactured. Before the Semovente da 75/18, the L40, built on an L6/40 light tank chassis, saw action in Africa and in Russia, but with disappointing results.
Japan
thumb|Type 3 Ho-Ni III
The Type 1 Ho-Ni I was the first self-propelled gun design of the Imperial Japanese Army. They were meant to be self-propelled artillery and tank destroyers for armoured divisions. The plan was for the Type 1 Ho-Ni I gun tank to form part of a fire support company in each of the tank regiments. The Type 1 Ho-Ni I was developed by using the existing Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tank chassis and engine, and replacing the gun turret with a Type 90 75 mm field gun mounted in an open casemate with frontal and side armour only. They entered service in 1942 and were first deployed in combat at the Battle of Luzon in the Philippines in 1945. Some were used in static entrenched positions.
A variant, known as the Type 1 Ho-Ni II mounted a Type 91 105 mm howitzer and had a slightly changed superstructure as far as the side armor with re-positioned observation visors. Production began in 1943, with only 54 completed.
The other variant produced was the Type 3 Ho-Ni III, which mounted a Type 3 75 mm tank gun in a completely enclosed armored casemate to address the issue of crew protection in close combat. The welded superstructure had sloped armour and the gun mount had additional stamped armour plate. The total number produced of all three types in the Ho-Ni series were 111 units. Most of the Ho-Ni units were retained within the Japanese home islands to form part of the defenses against the projected American invasion, and did not see combat before the surrender of Japan.
The Type 2 Ho-I Gun tank used the Type 1 Chi-He medium tank chassis. It was designed as a self-propelled howitzer, mounting a short barreled Type 99 75 mm gun to provide close-in fire support. For deployment, the gun tank was intended to be used in a fire support company for each of the tank regiments. No Type 2 Ho-I gun tanks are known to have engaged in combat prior to Japan's surrender. The prototype was built in 1942 and 31 units were produced in 1944.
The Type 4 Ho-Ro self-propelled artillery used a modified Type 97 chassis. On to this platform, a Type 38 150 mm howitzer was mounted. The main gun could fire Type 88 APHE rounds and HEAT rounds. Given its breech loader, the maximum rate of fire was only 5 rounds per minute. The gun's elevation was restricted to 30 degrees by the construction of the chassis. Other design issues included the fact that although the gun crew was protected by a gun shield with armour thickness of 25 mm at the front, the shield only extended a very short distance on the sides; leaving the rest of the sides and back exposed. They were rushed into service, deployed and saw combat during the Philippines Campaign in the last year of World War II. Remaining units were deployed to Okinawa in ones and twos for island defense during the Battle of Okinawa, but were severely outnumbered by American artillery.
Soviet Union
thumb|Soviet SU-100 in the Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps
As with the Germans of 1943, most of the Soviet designs mounted anti-tank guns, with limited traverse in casemate-style turretless hulls, in a general design format looking much like the Germans' own Jagdpanzer vehicles. The results were smaller, lighter, and simpler to build weapons that could carry larger guns than any contemporary tank, including the King Tiger. The Soviets produced high numbers of the SU-85 and SU-100 self-propelled guns based on the same chassis as the T-34 medium tank; the heavier-duty powertrain and hull of the IS-2 heavy tank were instead used to produce the heavier-hitting -armed ISU-122 and -armed ISU-152, both of which had impressive anti-tank capabilities earning each of them the Russian nickname Zveroboy ("beast killer") for their ability to destroy German Tigers, Panthers and Elefants. The predecessor of the ISU 152 was the SU-152, built on the KV-1s chassis and shared many similarities (including its gun) with the ISU-152. The ISU-152 built as a heavy assault gun, relied on the weight of the shell fired from its M-1937/43 howitzer to defeat tanks. In 1943, the Soviets also shifted all production of light tanks like the T-70 to much simpler and better-armed SU-76 self-propelled guns, which used the same drive train. The SU-76 was originally designed as an anti-tank vehicle, but was soon relegated to the infantry-support role.
United States
U.S. Army and counterpart British designs were very different in conception. U.S. doctrine was based, in light of the fall of France, on the perceived need to defeat German blitzkrieg tactics, and U.S. units expected to face large numbers of German tanks, attacking on relatively narrow fronts. These were expected to break through a thin screen of anti-tank guns, hence the decision that the main anti-tank units—the Tank Destroyer (TD) battalions—should be concentrated and very mobile. In practice, such German attacks rarely happened. Throughout the war, only one battalion ever fought in an engagement like that originally envisaged (the 601st, at the Battle of El Guettar). The Tank Destroyer Command eventually numbered over 100,000 men and 80 battalions each equipped with 36 self-propelled tank destroyers or towed guns.
thumb|The first US tank destroyer was a 75 mm gun on a half-track chassis
right|thumb|M10 tank destroyer
Only a few shots were expected to be fired from any firing position. Strong reconnaissance elements were provided so that TDs could use pre-arranged firing positions to best advantage. Flanking fire by TDs was emphasized, both to penetrate thinner enemy side armour, and to reduce the likelihood of accurate enemy return fire.
All American tank destroyers were officially known by exactly the same collective term used for American self-propelled artillery ordnance, "gun motor carriage". The designs were intended to be very mobile and heavily armed. Most of the tank-hull based designs used special open-topped turrets of a differing design from the original tank it was based on, which was meant to both save weight and to accommodate a larger gun. The earliest expedient design was mounting a 75 mm M1897 field gun in a limited-traverse mount on an M3 half-track, which was designated 75 mm gun motor carriage M3. Another, considerably less successful, early design was the M6 gun motor carriage which mounted the US 37 mm anti-tank gun facing to the rear on the bed of a Dodge 3/4-ton light truck.
The M3 was first used against the Japanese in the Philippines and then in the Tunisian campaign of the war in North Africa. Some were supplied to British units who used them within armoured car reconnaissance regiments for fire support. The M6 GMC was unarmoured and the 37 mm gun was ineffective against most enemy tanks by the time it entered service.
By far the most common US design, and the first that was fully tracked and turreted (which became the American hallmark of World War II "tank destroyer" design) was the 3-inch gun motor carriage M10, later supplemented by the 90 mm gun motor carriage M36—both based on the M4 Sherman hull and powertrain—and the 76 mm gun motor carriage M18 (Hellcat), based on a unique hull and powertrain design, with a slight visual resemblance to what was used for the later M24 Chaffee light tank. The M18 came closest to the US ideal; the vehicle was very fast, small, and mounted a gun in a roofless open turret. The M36 Jackson GMC possessed the only American-origin operational gun that could rival the German 8.8 cm Pak 43 anti-tank gun and its tank mounted variant, the 90 mm M3 gun, and the M36 remained in service well after World War II. The only dedicated American casemate hull design fighting vehicle of any type built during the war, that resembled the German and Soviet tank destroyers in hull and general gun mounting design, was the experimental T28 super-heavy tank, which mounted a 105 mm T5E1 long-barrel cannon. This gun had a maximum firing range of 12 miles (20 km), and the vehicle was originally designed as a very heavily armoured self-propelled assault gun to breach Germany's Siegfried Line defenses.
Of these tank destroyers, only the gun of the M36 proved effective against the frontal armour of Germans' larger armored vehicles at long range. The open top and light armour made these tank destroyers vulnerable to anything greater than small-arms fire. As the number of German tanks encountered by American forces steadily decreased throughout the war, most battalions were split up and assigned to infantry units as supporting arms, fighting as assault guns or being used essentially as tanks. In this sense they were an alternative to the Independent tank battalions that were attached to various Infantry Divisions.
The expectation that German tanks would be engaged in mass formation was a failed assumption. In reality, German attacks effectively used combined arms on the ground, fighting cohesively. American tank destroyer battalions comprised three tank destroyer companies supported by nine security sections. The single-purpose tactics of the tank destroyer battalion failed to account for non-tank threats.
In the 1950s the goal of providing airborne forces with a parachute-capable self-propelled anti-tank weapon led to the deployment of the M56 Scorpion and M50 Ontos. The concept later led to the M551 Sheridan light tank of the mid-1960s.
United Kingdom
thumb|A British Achilles self-propelled anti-tank gun on the east bank of the Rhine following Operation Plunder
British tanks in the early years of the war, both infantry tanks and cruiser tanks, were (with the exception of the pre-war Matilda I design) equipped with a gun capable of use against contemporary enemy tanks—the 40 mm Ordnance QF 2 pounder. This was replaced with the 57 mm Ordnance QF 6 pounder when that became available. There was extra impetus given to the development of anti-tank weaponry, which culminated in the 76mm Ordnance QF 17 pounder, widely considered one of the best anti-tank guns of the war.
Towed anti-tank guns were the domain of the Royal Artillery and vehicles adapted to mount artillery, including anti-tank self-propelled guns such as the Deacon (6pdr on an armoured wheeled truck chassis) and Archer (17pdr on tracked chassis) and US-supplied vehicles, were their preserve rather than the Royal Armoured Corps.
The self-propelled guns that were built in the "tank destroyer" mould came about through the desire to field the QF 17 pounder anti-tank gun and simultaneous lack of suitable standard tanks to carry it. As a result, they were of a somewhat extemporized nature. Mounting the gun on the Valentine tank chassis in a fixed superstructure gave the Archer, looking somewhat like the light-chassis German Marder III in appearance. The 17 pounder was also used to re-equip the US-supplied M10 tank destroyer, replacing the American 3-inch gun to produce the 17pdr SP Achilles.
In 1942 the General Staff agreed on investigating self-propelled mountings of the 6-pounder, 17-pounder, 3-inch 20cwt guns and the 25-pounder field gun/howitzer on the Matilda II, Valentine, Crusader and Cavalier (Cruiser Mark VII) tank chassis. In October 1942 it was decided to progress using the Valentine chassis with a 17-pdr (which would become Archer) and 25-pdr (which entered service as Bishop).
While there was a general move to a general purpose gun that was usable against both tanks and in supporting infantry, there was a need to put the 17 pdr into a tank for use against the enemy's heavy tanks. The Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger was a project to bring a 17 pdr tank into use to support the Cromwell cruiser tank. Delays led to it being outnumbered in use by the Sherman Firefly—but a derivative of Challenger was the more or less open-topped variant Avenger, which was delayed until post war before entering service. A cut-down 17 pdr, the 77mmHV was used to equip the Comet tank in the last year of the war.
thumb|Self-propelled 17pdr, Valentine, Mk I, Archer. The gun faced to the rear.
The closest the British came to developing an armoured tank destroyer in the vein of the German Jagdpanzers or Soviet ISU series was the Churchill 3-inch gun carrier—a Churchill tank chassis with a boxy superstructure in place of the turret and mounting a 3-inch anti-aircraft gun. Although a number were ordered and fifty delivered in 1942, they were not put into service as the immediate threat passed. The design was rejected in favor of developing a 17 pounder armed Cromwell tank variant, ultimately leading to the Comet tank. The Tortoise "heavy assault tank", intended for use in breaking through fixed defensive lines, was well armoured and had a very powerful 32-pounder (94 mm) gun, but did not reach service use.
By 1944, a number of the Shermans in British use were being converted to Sherman Fireflies by adding the QF 17 pounder gun. Initially this gave each troop (platoon) of Shermans one powerfully armed tank. By war's end—through the production of more Fireflies and the replacement of Shermans by British tanks—about 50% of Shermans in British service were Fireflies. The Sherman Firefly, however, is not considered a tank destroyer since it could still perform the other duties of the regular M4 Sherman, albeit the Firefly was less capable due to the late development of a HE round for the QF 17 pounder.
Romania
thumb|The Romanian Mareșal tank destroyer, developed starting in late 1942, is proposed to have inspired the German Hetzer's design.
Until 1942, the Romanian tank force was equipped exclusively with obsolete R-1, R-2 and R35 tanks. Having faced big problems against Soviet T-34 and KV-1 tanks on the Eastern Front, the Romanian Army leadership sought for ways to improve its anti-tank capabilities. The initial plan was the creation of a tank comparable in characteristics to the T-34; instead, Romania went for a number of tank destroyers, since they were more adequate for its industry.
The Mareșal is probably the best known Romanian AFV from the war; historians Steven Zaloga and Mark Axworthy state that it inspired the design of the later German Hetzer. Standing at only around 1.5 m tall, which would have made it very difficult to hit for its enemies, the Mareșal was a lightly armored, but highly mobile vehicle. It was armed with the Romanian 75 mm Reșița M1943 anti-tank gun, which proved to be among the best of its class during World War II, according to Mark Axworthy. During tests, the Mareșal proved to be superior in many aspects to the StuG III G, against which it competed. Those facts suggest that the Mareșal would have been an effective tank destroyer, had it been deployed into combat. There were, however, also critics of the vehicle, especially among high-ranking Romanian officials. It never saw action because the invading Soviet army had stopped its production.
Other Romanian tank destroyers include the TACAM R-2 and TACAM T-60, which were converted from R-2 and T-60 light tanks respectively. Both of them saw action. One TACAM R-2 survives today and is displayed at the National Military Museum in Bucharest. Another conversion was the VDC R-35, Romania's only turreted tank destroyer. Two other proposed tank destroyers existed: the TACAM R-1 and TACAM T-38.
Poland
Variants of the Polish TKS and TK-3 tankettes up-armed with 20 mm gun (23–26 vehicles) were operationally deployed in the invasion of Poland. They were used as an anti-tank component of the reconnaissance units. There were also 37 mm armed TKS-D (2 experimental vehicles) and 47 mm armed TKD (4 experimental vehicles). It is not certain whether they were used operationally at all.
France
Due to the quick defeat of France, few French vehicles were built. The Laffly W15 TCC (Chasseur de chars) was an attempt to quickly build a light tank destroyer by mounting a 47 mm SA37 anti-tank gun onto a lightly armoured Laffly W15T artillery tractor. Other French tank destroyers were being developed, including the SOMUA SAu-40, ARL V39 and various ad hoc conversions of the Lorraine 37L.
Subsequent developments
Missile-based tank destroyers
thumb|A Norwegian anti-tank platoon equipped with NM142 TOW missile launchers
thumb|Mowag Piranha–based, TOW-armed ATGM carrier of the Swiss Army
thumb|NAMICA, a contemporary Indian Tank destroyer based on the BMP-2 chassis and equipped with the NAG anti-tank missiles.
In the face of the Warsaw Pact, a general need for extra firepower was identified. In the late 1960s, West Germany developed the Kanonenjagdpanzer, essentially a modernized World War II Jagdpanzer mounting a gun. As Soviet designs became more heavily armoured, the gun became ineffective and the Kanonenjagdpanzers were retrofitted for different roles or retired. Some provisions were made for the fitting of a 105 mm cannon, and many of the vehicles were modified to fire HOT or TOW missiles in place of a main gun. These upgraded variants remained in service into the 1990s.
With the development of flexible anti-tank missiles, which were capable of installation on almost any vehicle in the 1960s, the concept of the tank destroyer has morphed into light vehicles with missiles. With the weight of main battle tanks growing to the forty to seventy-tonne range, airborne forces were unable to deploy reasonable anti-tank forces. The result was a number of attempts to make a light vehicle, including the conventional ASU-85, M56 Scorpion, the recoilless rifle-armed Ontos, and missile-armed Humber Hornet armoured truck and Sheridan light assault vehicle. The recent entries into that category are the 2S25 Sprut-SD, armed with a current-issue 125 mm tank gun that is also capable of launching missiles like the 9M119 Svir, and Israeli-modified Pandur IIs, which is to enter service with the Philippine Army by 2022 armed with an Elbit Turret and a 105 mm gun.
Many forces' infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) carry anti-tank missiles in every infantry platoon, and attack helicopters have also added anti-tank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated anti-tank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, and ones intended for airborne use.
There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armored car chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM reconnaissance car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Marder IFV. India fields the NAMIS (Nag Missile System) equipped with Nag Missiles on certain modified BMP-2 IFV's called NAMICA.
A US Army combined arms battalion has two infantry companies with TOW missile-armed Bradley IFVs and can bring a large concentration of accurate and lethal fire to bear on an attacking enemy unit that uses AFVs. They can be complemented by mobile units of AH-64 Apache helicopters armed with Hellfire antitank missiles.
Missile carrying vehicles are often referred to as anti-tank missile carriers instead of tank destroyers.
Postwar gun-based tank destroyers
thumb|Chinese-built PTL-02 tank destroyer armed with a cannon, being used by the Senegalese military near the Gambian border in 2017.
Despite the proliferation of ATGMs, some gun-armed tank destroyers remain in use. China has developed the tracked PTZ89 and the wheeled PTL02 tank destroyers. The PTZ89 is armed with a smoothbore cannon while the PTL02, developed by NORINCO for the PLA's new light (rapid reaction) mechanized infantry divisions, carries a one (a version armed with a 105 mm rifled gun is available for export). The PTL02 is built on the 6×6 wheeled chassis of the WZ551 APC.
Italy and Spain use the Italian-built B1 Centauro, a wheeled tank destroyer with a cannon.
Russia, meanwhile, uses the Russian-built 2S25 Sprut-SD, operating as an amphibious light tank/tank destroyer armed with a cannon.
The Sabrah Pandur II is a wheeled tank destroyer variant of the Sabrah light tank developed by the Elbit Systems of Israel for the Philippine Army's future combat systems.
See also
Armoured warfare
Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon
Self-propelled artillery
Notes
References
Harry Yeide, (2005) The Tank Killers: A History of America's World War II Tank Destroyer Force. Havertown, PA: Casemate.
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External links
Tankdestroyer.net
Popular Science, April 1940, Tanks Can Be Destroyed article on early US Army concepts for tank destroyers
Tank Destroyer List
Category:Anti-tank weapons
ms:Pemusnah kereta kebal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_destroyer | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.117358 |
2287 | Armored car (military) | thumb|upright=1.2|U.S. T17E1 Staghound armoured car of World War II
thumb|NMSS 4x4 Yörük, a modern armoured car of the Turkish Land Forces.
A military armored (also spelled armoured) car is a wheeled armoured fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to light cavalry. Following the invention of the tank, the armoured car remained popular due to its faster speed, comparatively simple maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a cheaper weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armoured cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, while others were devoted to communications tasks. Some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African campaign.
History
Precursors
During the Middle Ages, war wagons covered with steel plate, and crewed by men armed with primitive hand cannon, flails and muskets, were used by the Hussite rebels in Bohemia. These were deployed in formations where the horses and oxen were at the centre, and the surrounding wagons were chained together as protection from enemy cavalry.
With the invention of the steam engine, Victorian inventors designed prototype self-propelled armored vehicles for use in sieges, although none were deployed in combat. H. G. Wells' short story "The Land Ironclads" provides a fictionalized account of their use.
Armed car
thumb|F.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car
The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F.R. Simms in 1898. It was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar. An iron shield in front of the car protected the driver.
Another early armed car was invented by Royal Page Davidson at Northwestern Military and Naval Academy in 1898 with the Davidson-Duryea gun carriage and the later Davidson Automobile Battery armored car.
However, these were not "armored cars" as the term is understood today, as they provided little protection for their crews from enemy fire.
First armoured cars
At the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles.
thumb|left|F.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the first armored car to be built
The first armored car was the Simms' Motor War Car, designed by F.R. Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim of Barrow on a special Coventry-built Daimler chassis The prototype was finished in 1902, It had a crew of four. Simms' Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, in April 1902.
Another early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with armour for the gunner.
One of the first operational armored cars with four wheel (4x4) drive and partly enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armored with thick curved plates over the body (drive space and engine) and had a thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns. It had a four-cylinder engine giving it average cross country performance. Both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to raise them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed.
The Spanish Schneider-Brillié was the first armored vehicle to be used in combat, being first used in the Kert Campaign. The vehicle was equipped with two machineguns and built from a bus chassis.
An armored car known as the Death Special was built at the CFI plant in Pueblo and used by the Badlwin-Felts detective agency during the Colorado Coalfield War. thumb|right|Austro-Daimler four-wheel-drive Armoured Car (1904)
World War I
A great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, armored cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars were primarily armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a mobile platform for antiaircraft guns.
thumb|left|Belgium Minerva Armored car 1914
The first effective use of an armored vehicle in combat was achieved by the Belgian Army in August–September 1914. They had placed Cockerill armour plating and a Hotchkiss machine gun on Minerva touring cars, creating the Minerva Armored Car. Their successes in the early days of the war convinced the Belgian GHQ to create a Corps of Armoured Cars, who would be sent to fight on the Eastern front once the western front immobilized after the Battle of the Yser.
The British Royal Naval Air Service dispatched aircraft to Dunkirk to defend the UK from Zeppelins. The officers' cars followed them and these began to be used to rescue downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas. They mounted machine guns on them and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised boiler plate armoring on the vehicles provided by a local shipbuilder. In London Murray Sueter ordered "fighting cars" based on Rolls-Royce, Talbot and Wolseley chassis. By the time Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars arrived in December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front was already over.
More tactically important was the development of formed units of armored cars, such as the Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade, which was the first fully mechanized unit in the history. The brigade was established on September 2, 1914, in Ottawa, as Automobile Machine Gun Brigade No. 1 by Brigadier-General Raymond Brutinel. The brigade was originally equipped with eight Armoured Autocars mounting two machine guns. By 1918 Brutinel's force consisted of two motor machine gun brigades (each of five gun batteries containing eight weapons apiece). The brigade, and its armored cars, provided yeoman service in many battles, notably at Amiens. The RNAS section became the Royal Naval Armoured Car Division reaching a strength of 20 squadrons before disbanded in 1915. and the armoured cars passing to the army as part of the Machine Gun Corps. Only NO.1 Squadron was retained; it was sent to Russia. As the Western Front turned to trench warfare unsuitable to wheeled vehicles, the armoured cars were moved to other areas.
The 2nd Duke of Westminster took No. 2 Squadron of the RNAS to France in March 1915 in time to make a noted contribution to the Second Battle of Ypres, and thereafter the cars with their master were sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British campaign in Palestine and elsewhere The Duke led a motorised convoy including nine armoured cars across the Western Desert in North Africa to rescue the survivors of the sinking of the SS Tara which had been kidnapped and taken to Bir Hakiem.
In Africa, Rolls Royce armoured cars were active in German South West Africa and Lanchester Armoured Cars in British East Africa against German forces to the south.
Armored cars also saw action on the Eastern Front. From 18 February - 26 March 1915, the German army under General Max von Gallwitz attempted to break through the Russian lines in and around the town of Przasnysz, Poland, (about 110 km / 68 miles north of Warsaw) during the Battle of Przasnysz (Polish: Bitwa przasnyska). Near the end of the battle, the Russians used four Russo-Balt armored cars and a armored car to break through the Germans' lines and force the Germans to retreat.
World War II
The British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Morris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that had been serving in the Middle East since 1915. In September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF Regiment Company was detached to General Wavell's ground forces during the first offensive against the Italians in Egypt. During the actions in the October of that year the company was employed on convoy escort tasks, airfield defense, fighting reconnaissance patrols and screening operations.
thumb|upright|American troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris
During the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located in the British Mandate of Palestine were sent to Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars. "Fordson" armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt.
By the start of the new war, the German army possessed some highly effective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the Schwerer Panzerspähwagen. The Soviet BA-64 was influenced by a captured Leichter Panzerspähwagen before it was first tested in January 1942.
In the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured turrets mounting light guns (40 mm or less). As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament and off-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises.
Military use
A military armored car is a type of armored fighting vehicle having wheels (from four to ten large, off-road wheels) instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars are typically less expensive and on roads have better speed and range than tracked military vehicles. They do however have less mobility as they have less off-road capabilities because of the higher ground pressure. They also have less obstacle climbing capabilities than tracked vehicles. Wheels are more vulnerable to enemy fire than tracks, they have a higher signature and in most cases less armor than comparable tracked vehicles. As a result, they are not intended for heavy fighting; their normal use is for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicle.
Light armored cars, such as the British Ferret are armed with just a machine gun. Heavier vehicles are armed with autocannon or a large caliber gun. The heaviest armored cars, such as the German, World War II era Sd.Kfz. 234 or the modern, US M1128 mobile gun system, mount the same guns that arm medium tanks.
Armored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is said to be more compatible with tight urban spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. However, they do have a larger turning radius compared to tracked vehicles which can turn on the spot and their tires are vulnerable and are less capable in climbing and crushing obstacles. Further, when there is true combat they are easily outgunned and lightly armored. The threatening appearance of a tank is often enough to keep an opponent from attacking, whereas a less threatening vehicle such as an armored car is more likely to be attacked.
Many modern forces now have their dedicated armored car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Examples would be the M1117 armored security vehicle of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era in the United Kingdom.
Alternatively, civilian vehicles may be modified into improvised armored cars in ad hoc fashion. Many militias and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored fighting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some regional conflicts these "technicals" are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor and scrounged weapons.
Scout cars
In the 1930s, a new sub-class of armored car emerged in the United States, known as the scout car. This was a compact light armored car which was either unarmed or armed only with machine guns for self-defense. Scout cars were designed as purpose-built reconnaissance vehicles for passive observation and intelligence gathering.
Examples of armored cars also classified as scout cars include the Soviet BRDM series, the British Ferret, the Brazilian EE-3 Jararaca, the Hungarian D-442 FÚG, and the American Cadillac Gage Commando Scout.
See also
thumb|A preserved, World War II, German Sd.Kfz. 234/4 heavy armored car (German Tank Museum, 2006)
Armored bus
Armored personnel carrier
Armored car (valuables)
Armored car (VIP)
Armoring:
Aramid
Bulletproof glass
Twaron
Vehicle armor
Gun truck
SWAT vehicle
Tankette
Technical (vehicle)
Notes
References
Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ, 1976. .
Category:Armoured fighting vehicles by type
Category:Internal security vehicles
Category:Paramilitary vehicles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored_car_(military) | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.135458 |
2288 | Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon | "Shilka" in California during a USMC exercise, 1997]]
An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability.
Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, autocannons, larger guns, or surface-to-air missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles (e.g. the Pantsir missile system). Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as armoured personnel carriers and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment.
Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. In addition, most anti-aircraft guns can be used in a direct-fire role against surface targets to great effect. Today, surface-to-air missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) have largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns, but they may return as a cheap way to counter unmanned aerial systems (drones), cruise missiles, and ultralight aircraft.
History
World War I
Anti-aircraft machine guns have long been mounted on trucks, and these were quite common during World War I. A predecessor of the WWII German "88" anti-aircraft gun, the WWI German 77 mm anti-aircraft gun, was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks.
The British QF 3 inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front. The British also had a first dedicated anti aircraft weapon, the QF 1-pounder pom-pom. Mounted on an armoured truck titled the Pierce-Arrow armoured AA lorry, which was produced in limited numbers and only seeing service throughout 1915. Towards the end of the war Germany produced three prototype SPAAGs with AA guns mounted on A7V chassis known as the A7V Flakpanzer.Inter-war period
Between the two World Wars, the United Kingdom developed the Birch gun, a general-purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis capable of maintaining formation with their current tanks over terrain. The gun could be elevated for anti-aircraft use.
The first tracked SPAAG-design to be manufactured in series was most likely the British/Siamese Vickers Armstrong "Type 76" (per Buddhist year 2476 = 1933 CE), as named by the Royal Siamese Army, a SPAAG based on the chassis of the Dragon, Medium, Mark IV artillery tractor (Vickers Mk.E 6-ton light tank derivative), mounting a revolving Vickers 40 mm QF 2 pounder pom-pom autocannon in an open fighting compartment. About 26 were sold to Siam in 1932 and saw action as infantry support guns and AA guns during the Franco-Thai war (1940–1941) along with 30 Vickers Mk.E Type B 6-ton tanks. Despite being the first tracked SPAAG en masse, the open-top design of the Vickers Type 76 made it outdated even by the early 1930s.
The first modern SPAAG to be produced was most likely the Swedish Landsverk L-62 Anti in 1936, featuring a tracked armoured body with a revolving turret, a so-called anti-aircraft tank. It was based on a widened chassis of the Landsverk L-60 light tank and was armed with a Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60 in an open-top revolving turret. The design was bought by Hungary just prior to the war and Finland ordered a refined model in 1941, known as the Anti II.
By the late 1930s, the British had developed a version of the Mk.VI Light Tank armed with four machine guns that were known as Light Tank AA Mk.I, and also a twin 15 mm version based on the Light Tank Mk.V was built. Among early pre-war pioneers of self-propelled AA guns were the Germans. By the time of the war, they fielded the Sd.Kfz. 10/4 and Sd.Kfz. 6/2, cargo half-tracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively). Later in the war similar German half-tracks mounted quadruple 20 mm weapons.
World War II
" - a 20 mm Flakvierling quadmount on a Panzer IV chassis.]]
Larger guns followed on larger trucks, but these mountings generally required off-truck setup in order to unlimber the stabilizing legs these guns needed. One exception to this rule was the Italian Cannone da 90/53 which was highly effective when mounted on trucks, a fit known as the "autocannoni da 90/53". The 90/53 was a feared weapon, notably in the anti-tank role, but only a few hundred had been produced by the time of the armistice in 1943.
Other nations tended to work on truck chassis. Starting in 1941, the British developed the "en portee" method of mounting an anti-tank gun (initially a 2 pounder) on a truck. This was to prevent the weapon from being damaged by long-distance towing across rough, stony deserts, and it was intended only to be a carrying method, with the gun unloaded for firing. However, crews tended to fire their weapons from their vehicles for the mobility this method provided, with consequent casualties. This undoubtedly inspired their Morris C9/B (officially the "Carrier, SP, 4x4, 40 mm AA"), a Bofors 40 mm AA gun mounted on a chassis derived from the Morris "Quad" Field Artillery Tractor truck. Similar types, based on 3-ton lorries, were produced in Britain, Canada and Australia, and together formed the most numerous self-propelled AA guns in British service.
The U.S. Army brought truck-towed Bofors 40 mm AA guns along with truck-mounted units fitted with mechanized turrets when they sailed, first for Great Britain and then onto France. The turrets carried four .50 inch (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were designed to be adjusted to converge at the single point where enemy aircraft were expected to appear at low altitude in conduction of strafing runs directed at large infantry and field artillery units.
Interest in mobile AA turned to heavier vehicles with the mass and stability needed to easily train weapons of all sizes. Probably the desire, particularly in German service, for anti-aircraft vehicles to be armoured for their own protection also assisted this trend.
anti-aircraft battery.]]
The concept of using armored SPAAG (anti-aircraft tanks) en masse was pioneered by Hungary during World War II with the production of the 40M Nimrod, a license-produced version of the previously mentioned late 1930s Landsverk L-62 Anti I SPAAG. Germany followed later with their "Flakpanzer" series. German World War II SPAAGs include the Möbelwagen, Wirbelwind, Ostwind and Kugelblitz. Other forces followed with designs of their own, notably the American M16 created by mounting quadruple M2HB Browning machine guns on a M3 Half-track.
The British developed their own SPAAGs throughout the war mounting multiple machine guns and light cannon on various tank and armoured car chassis and by 1943, the Crusader AA tanks, which mounted the Bofors 40 mm gun or two-three Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Although used during the Normandy landings, by that point German aircraft were contained by the Allies own air forces and they were largely unneeded.
Cold War and later
developed in the late 1950s.]]
, combining radars, fire control and two 35 mm guns in a new turret mounted on a Leopard chassis.]]
mounts both missiles and cannons.]]The introduction of jet engines and the subsequent rough doubling of aircraft speeds greatly reduced the effectiveness of the SPAAG against attack aircraft. A typical SPAAG round might have a muzzle velocity on the order of and might take as long as two to three seconds to reach a target at its maximum range. An aircraft flying at is moving at a rate of about . This means the aircraft will have moved hundreds of meters during the flight time of the shells, greatly complicating the aiming problem to the point where close passes were essentially impossible to aim using manual gunsights. This speed also allowed the aircraft to rapidly fly out of range of the guns; even if the aircraft passes directly over the SPAAG, it would be within its firing radius for under 30 seconds.
SPAAG development continued through the early 1950s with ever-larger guns, improving the range and allowing the engagement to take place at longer distances where the crossing angle was smaller and aiming was easier. Examples including the 40 mm U.S. M42 Duster and the 57 mm Soviet ZSU-57-2. However, both were essentially obsolete before they entered service, and found employment solely in the ground-support role. The M42 was introduced to the Vietnam War to counter an expected North Vietnamese air offensive, but when this failed to materialize it was used as an effective direct-fire weapon. The ZSU-57 found similar use in the Yugoslav Wars, where its high-angle fire was useful in the mountainous terrain.
By the late 1950s, the US Army had given up on the SPAAG concept, considering all gun-based weapons to be useless against modern aircraft. This belief was generally held by many forces, and the anti-aircraft role turned almost exclusively to missile systems. The Soviet Union remained an outlier, beginning the development of a new SPAAG in 1957, which emerged as the ZSU-23-4 in 1965. This system included search-and-track radars, fire control, and automatic gun-laying, greatly increasing its effectiveness against modern targets. The ZSU-23 proved very effective when used in concert with SAMs; the presence of SAMs forced aircraft to fly low to avoid their radars, placing them within range of the ZSUs.
The success of the ZSU-23 led to a resurgence of SPAAG development. This was also prompted by the introduction of attack helicopters in the 1970s, which could hide behind terrain and then "pop up" for an attack lasting only a few tens of seconds; missiles were ineffective at low altitudes, while the helicopters would often be within range of the guns for a rapid counterattack. Notable among these later systems is the German Gepard, the first western SPAAG to offer performance equal to or better than the ZSU. This system was widely copied in various NATO forces.
SPAAG development continues, with many modern examples often combining both guns and short-range missiles. Examples include the Soviet/Russian Tunguska-M1, which supplanted the ZSU-23 in service, the newer versions of the Gepard, the Chinese Type 95 SPAAA, and the British Marksman turret, which can be used on a wide variety of platforms. Some forces, like the US Army and USMC have mostly forgone self-propelled guns in favor of systems with short-range infrared-guided surface-to-air missiles in the AN/TWQ-1 Avenger and M6 Linebacker, which do not require radar to be accurate and are generally more reliable and cost-effective to field, though their ability to provide ground support is more limited. The U.S. Army did use the M163 VADS and developed the prototype design of the M247 Sergeant York.
Present day
Modern SPAAGs usually have short-range missiles for longer range engagement. The Pantsir system from Russia is primarily a missile battery, although it does have twin cannons as secondary armament.
Some examples of modern SPAAG:<!-- In alphabetic order of countries, then in alphabetic order of systems -->
{| class"wikitable" style"width:100%;"
!style="text-align: left;"|Model
!Manufacturer
!Image
!style="text-align: left;"|Origin
!style="text-align: left;"|Platforms
!style="text-align: left;"|Weapons
! style="text-align: left;" |Caliber and ammunitions
!Number built
!style="text-align: left;"|Notes
|-
|CS/SA5 SPAAG
|Norinco
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|Type 08
|1 × Gatling gun <small>(6 barrels)</small>
2 × FN-6A
|30 × 113 mm
—
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|-
|PGZ-95 SPAAA
| rowspan="2" |Norinco
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |—
|4 × PG-87
4 × QW-2 IR missiles
| rowspan="2" |25 x 183 mmB
| rowspan"2" style"text-align: center;" |~ 270
|
|-
|PGZ-04/A SPAAA
|4 × Type 87
4 × FN-6 IR missiles
|Upgraded variant of PGZ-95 SPAAA
|-
|PGZ 625
<small>PGL-XX (Code name 625)</small>
|Norinco
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|Type 08
|1 × Gatling gun <small>(6 barrels)</small>
4 to 8 × FN-16 <small>(for PGZ 625E)</small>
|25 × 287 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|-
|PGL-12 (Type 12)
|Norinco
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|Type 08
|1 × Revolver Canon 35mm
4 × FN-6#Variant in PGZ-04A pod.
|
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|-
|Machbet
|IAI
<small>(Israeli Aircraft Industries)</small>
|
|<small></small>
|M113
|1 × M61A1 Vulcan <small>Gatling gun (6 barrels)</small>
4 × FIM-92 Stinger
|20 × 102 mm
—
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|Entered service in 1997, retired in 2006
|-
|OTOMATIC
<small>"OTO Main Anti-aircraft Tank for Intercept and Combat"</small>
|OTO-Melara
|
|
|Hulls of the:
* Leopard 1A2
* OF-40 Mk.2
* Palmaria
|1 × Cannone 76/62 OTO-Breda Super Rapido
|76 × 636 mmR
| style="text-align: center;" |2
|
|-
|SIDAM 25
|OTO Breda
|
|
|M113
|4 × Oerlikon KBA
|25 × 137 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |275
|
|-
|Stryker M-SHORAD
<small>"Maneuver Short Range Air Defense"</small>
|Leonardo DRS
|
|<small></small><small></small>
|Stryker
|1 × XM914 <small>(M230LF chain gun)</small>
1 M240 (7.62mm)
4 × FIM-92 Stinger
2 × AGM-114L Hellfire
|30 × 113 mm
7.62 × 51 mm
—
—
| style="text-align: center;" |312 to 361
|
|-
|Type 87 SPAAG
|MHI
<small>(Mitsubishi Heavy Industries)</small>
|
|<small></small>
|Type 74 tank
|2 × Oerlikon KDA
|
HEI ammunition
| style="text-align: center;" |52
|
|-
|Kongsberg RS6
MADIS RWS MK2
<small>"Marine Air Defense Integrated System US Marine Corps Ground Based Air Defense"</small>
|Kongsberg
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|<small></small>
|Oshkosh JLTV
|1 × XM914E1 <small>(M230LF chain gun)</small>
1 × M240C (7.62mm)
2 × Air-to-Air Stinger
|30 × 113 mm
7.62 × 51 mm
—
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|Future USMC SHORAD system
|-
|PZA Loara
|
|
|<small></small>
|T-72M chassis
|2 × Oerlikon KDA
|
HEI ammunition
| style="text-align: center;" |2 - 4
|
|-
|SA-35
|PIT-RADWAR
PGZ
<small>(Polska Grupa Zbrojeniowa)</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|<small></small>
|Jelcz 6×6
|1 × Oerlikon KDA
|35 x 228 mm
Air burst programmable rounds
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
Developed from AM-35K naval gun.
|-
|ZSU-23-4MP Biała
|ZMT SA
<small>(Zakłady Mechaniczne Tarnów)</small>
|
|<small></small>
|—
|4 × AZP-23
4 × Grom IR missiles
|23 × 152 mm
—
| style="text-align: center;" |~ 70
|Polish modernised variant
|-
|Mangart 25
|Valhalla Turrets
|
|<small></small>
|Oshkosh JLTV
|1 × Oerlikon KBA
1 × FN MAG
Option for short-range IR missiles
|25 × 137 mm
7.62 × 51 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|
|-
|K263 Cheongoong SPAAG
|Doosan
|
|<small></small>
|K200A1 KIFV
|1 × KM167 A1 VADS
Gatling gun (6 barrels)
|20 × 102 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |200
|
|-
|K30 Bi Ho
<small>"Flying Tiger"</small>
|Doosan
|
|<small></small>
|K200A1 KIFV
|2 × Oerlikon KCB
|30 × 170 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |176
|
|-
|K30 Bi Ho II
<small>"Flying Tiger"</small>
|Joint Venture
Hanwha Aerospace
SAMI <small>(Saudi Arabian Military Industries)</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|<small></small> <small></small>
|K808 White Tiger
|1 × Oerlikon KCB-B
4 SAM
|30 × 170 mm
Air burst programmable munitions
—
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|In development
|-
|Lvkv 9040
<small>Luftvärnskanonvagn 9040</small>
|BAE Systems Bofors
|
|<small></small>
|CV90
|1 × 40 mm Bofors L/70B autocanon
|40 × 365 mm
| style="text-align: center;" |30
|
|-
|Flakpanzer Gepard
| rowspan="2" |Oerlikon Contraves
Krauss-Maffei
|
| rowspan="2" |<small></small><small></small>
| rowspan="2" |
* Leopard 1
|2 × Oerlikon KDA
|
HEI ammunition
| rowspan"2" style"text-align: center;" |570
| rowspan"2" |
|-
|Flakpanzer Gepard 1A2
|
|2 ×
|35 x 228 mm
Airburst programmable rounds AHEAD
|-
|Skyranger 30
|Rheinmetall Air Defence (Oerlikon)
|
|<small></small><small></small>
|
* Boxer A3 / tracked
* KF-41 Lynx
* Pandur 6×6 EVO
* Piranha IV and V
* PMMC G5
|Oerlikon KCE
Option for short-range IR missiles (FIM-92 Stinger or Mistral)
|30 × 173 mm
Air burst programmable rounds AHEAD
—
| style="text-align: center;" |93 ordered
<small>(48 more planned, 9 in option)</small>
<small></small>
|
|-
|Skyranger 35
|Rheinmetall Air Defence (Oerlikon)
|
|<small></small><small></small>
|
* Boxer A3 / tracked
* KF-41 Lynx
* Leopard 2
* Piranha IV and V
|1 ×
|35 x 228 mm
Air burst programmable rounds AHEAD
| style="text-align: center;" |—
|Turret based on Skyshield / MANTIS
|-
|KORKUT
|Aselsan
|<small></small>
<small>(Turret adapted to land platform)''</small>
|<small></small>
|
* ACV-30 (FNSS)
* Arma 8×8 (Otokar)
|2 × KDC-02
|
ATOM airburst
| style="text-align: center;" |13
|
|-
|Marksman
|Marconi Electronic Systems
|
|<small></small>
|
* T-55AM
* Leopard 2A4
|2 × Oerlikon KDA
|
HEI ammunition
| style="text-align: center;" |7
|
|-
|}
See also
* 4M (artillery)
* Assault gun
* Flakpanzer, a collective term for German anti-aircraft tanks, particularly those used in World War II.
* List of anti-aircraft guns
* Man-portable air-defense system
* Self-propelled artillery
* Tank destroyer
Footnotes
<references group"note" responsive"1"></references>
References
Category:Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.201337 |
2289 | AZ Alkmaar | | dissolved | ground AFAS Stadion
| capacity = 19,478
| coordinates | owntitle Executive director <br /> Technical director
| owner = Merijn Zeeman <br /> Max Huiberts
| chrtitle | chairman René Neelissen
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager = Maarten Martens
| league =
| season =
| position =
| current = 2024–25 AZ Alkmaar season
| website = https://www.az.nl
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| pattern_la2 | pattern_b2 _az2425a
| pattern_ra2 | pattern_sh2
| pattern_so2 | leftarm2 000000
| body2 = FFFFFF
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| pattern_la3 = _az2425t
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}}
Alkmaar Zaanstreek (), better known internationally as AZ Alkmaar, or simply and most commonly as AZ () in the Netherlands, is a Dutch professional football club from Alkmaar and the Zaan district. The club plays in the Eredivisie, the highest professional football league in the Netherlands.
AZ won the Eredivisie in 1980–81 and 2008–09. In the same season as their first league title, they also reached the UEFA Cup Final, which they lost to Ipswich Town. The team has won the KNVB Cup on four occasions, and one Johan Cruyff Shield.
History
1910–1972: Foundation and first years
AZ was founded on 10 May 1967 as AZ '67, the result of a merger of Alkmaar '54 and FC Zaanstreek. Alkmaar '54 was founded as a professional team in April 1954 to play in the 10-team NBVB league, created because the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) refused to organize a professional league (the KNVB took over in 1955). Alkmaar '54, and by extension AZ, played the first professional match in the Netherlands: on 14 August 1954, they won 3–0 at home against Venlo '54, with Klaas Smit scoring the first and third goal. After winning the in 1960–61, it played one year in the Eredivisie.
FC Zaanstreek had been playing since 1910 as the Kooger Football Club (KFC). KFC had nearly become national champion in 1934 through a narrow loss to Ajax in the finals. The team became professional in 1955. In 1964 the professional part of KFC was renamed FC Zaanstreek, while the amateurs played on as KFC.
Also in 1964, the brothers Cees and Klaas Molenaar, former players and trainers for KFC and owners of a growing appliance store chain, sought to create a powerful football team in Zaanstreek by merging the two local professional teams: KFC and Zaanlandsche Football Club. After the ZFC leadership thwarted this attempt, the Molenaars successfully merged FC Zaanstreek with Alkmaar '54 in 1967. FC Zaanstreek had finished 7th and Alkmaar '54 12th in 1966–67 Eerste Divisie. The team would be based in Alkmaar, though the second team originally trained and played in Koog aan de Zaan.1972–1985: Molenaar years
Partially through the hiring of expensive foreign players, the new club soon acquired large debts. In 1972, the Molenaar brothers bailed it out and invested heavily in the club, to the point that AZ '67 were successful in the late 1970s and early '80s, regularly playing European football from 1977 to 1982 while also winning three KNVB Cups over that period.
After four close league campaigns, AZ finally became Dutch champions in 1981, becoming the only team other than the "big three" of Ajax, and PSV to do so in a 44-year period spanning from 1965 to 2009 (when AZ once again won the league title). They won the title with overwhelming power, winning 27 of 34 matches and only losing once, while scoring a club record 101 goals and conceding just 30. That same season, AZ reached the final of the UEFA Cup, losing 5–4 on aggregate to Ipswich Town. The next year, in the European Cup, they lost in the second round 3–2 on aggregate to Liverpool.
Georg Keßler was AZ's manager over most of these years (1978–82), while star players included: Kees Kist, the club's highest ever goalscorer with 212 goals and the first ever Dutchman to win the European Golden Boot in 1979 when he scored 34 goals in a season; Jan Peters, who played 120 matches for AZ during this period scoring 30 goals from midfield; and Hugo Hovenkamp, who played 239 matches in defence for AZ from 1975 to 1983, as well as receiving 31 caps for the Netherlands national team from 1977 to 1983 and playing each match in UEFA Euro 1980 while an AZ player. Additional stars included John Metgod, who spent six years at AZ playing 195 matches as a defender, scoring 26 goals including a goal against Ipswich Town in the final of the UEFA Cup. Like Hovenkamp, Metgod was also included in the Dutch squad for Euro 1980. Meanwhile, Danish forward Kristen Nygaard spent ten years at AZ, scoring 104 goals in 363 matches between 1972 and 1982.
1985–1993: Interim years
Co-owner Cees Molenaar died in 1979. AZ's fortunes deteriorated after his brother, Klaas Molenaar, left the club in 1985. After several mid-table finishes in previous seasons, AZ was relegated in 1988 from the Eredivisie, ending the season on 28 points from 34 matches and falling to the due to the superior goal difference of Roda JC. This relegation was significant since it occurred just seven years after the club's historic domestic double and marked the end of AZ's first period of success in Dutch football. Following this, AZ spent much of the next decade in the second tier, struggling to find a return to the top flight.1993–2009: Scheringa years
The involvement of businessman Dirk Scheringa in the mid-1990s marked the revival of the club as AZ returned to the Eredivisie, winning the 1997-98 Eerste Divisie title. The club achieved consecutive finishes around the middle positions in the league until ending up in third place in the 2004-05 Eredivisie season, AZ's highest position for 23 years. In the summer of 2006, the club moved to a new 17,000 capacity stadium, AZ Stadion.
Despite playing strongly for the majority of the 2006–07 season, AZ's season ended in disappointment. First, entering the last matchday of the 2006–07 Eredivisie season, AZ led PSV and Ajax on goal difference at the top of the league table, but ended up third after losing their last match against 16th placed team Excelsior, AZ played with ten men for 80 minutes. Additionally, AZ then lost the KNVB Cup final to Ajax 8–7 after a penalty shoot-out, while also falling to Ajax over two play-off matches for participation in the Champions League. After the season, key players like Tim de Cler, Danny Koevermans and Shota Arveladze left the team.
in a 2007–08 UEFA Cup match]]
A remarkable run ended in the 2007–08 season: after AZ lost a group stage match against Everton (3–2) in the UEFA Cup, the club's unbeaten run of 32 home matches in European competitions – lasting from 1977 to 2007 – ended. AZ had a poor season, suffering elimination in the first round of the KNVB Cup and the group stage of the UEFA Cup, as well as finishing the 2007–08 Eredivisie in a disappointing 11th place. Towards the latter stages of the season, in March 2008, AZ manager Louis van Gaal had initially tendered his resignation, but after protests the players and directors, he rescinded his resignation.
The 2008–09 season had an unpromising start after two opening defeats against NAC Breda and ADO Den Haag. However, starting with a 1–0 victory over defending league champions PSV, AZ did not lose a match in its next 28 matches, including a run of 11-straight matches where AZ did not concede an opposition goal. Three weeks before the end of the season, AZ became Eredivisie champions, edging nearest title rivals Twente and Ajax comfortably. This was a historic achievement for the club as this was the first title-winning season for 28 years, and it also meant a return to the UEFA Champions League.
Being league champions, AZ qualified for the Champions League for only the second time. It was drawn into a group alongside Arsenal FC, Standard Liège and Olympiacos but only took four points from six matches and finished bottom of their group.
2009–2014: Advocaat–Verbeek years
For the 2009–10 season, Ronald Koeman succeeded Louis van Gaal, who had departed to manage Bayern Munich after leading AZ to the championship. Koeman was officially hired on 17 May 2009, but on 5 December, AZ announced he was no longer in charge of the club after losing 7 of his first 16 matches. Former Rangers and Zenit Saint Petersburg manager Dick Advocaat took over for the remainder of the season. Under Advocaat, AZ achieved solid results and secured European football for the next season.
For the 2010–11 season, AZ appointed Gertjan Verbeek as its new manager. They finished the 2010–11 Eredivisie in fourth place, thus securing Europa League football for the next season, while in the KNVB Cup, AZ reached the last eight, where they were beaten by rivals Ajax by a 1–0 scoreline. AZ also finished third in their Europa League group, thus failing to qualifying for the competition's knockout round.
In the 2011–12 season, AZ finished fourth in the Eredivisie, though performed significantly better in cup competitions, reaching the semi-finals in the KNVB Cup (losing to Heracles after extra time) and the quarter-finals in the Europa League. In the latter, the club ultimately lost to Valencia after having defeated Udinese, Anderlecht, Malmö FF, Austria Wien, Metalist Kharkiv, Aalesund and Baumit Jablonec to reach that stage.
On 21 December 2011, during the quarter-finals of the 2011–12 KNVB Cup, a 19-year-old Ajax fan invaded the Amsterdam Arena pitch in the 36th minute with Ajax winning 1–0, attacking AZ goalkeeper Esteban Alvarado. The fan slipped and Alvarado kicked the fan twice, prompting the referee to issue the goalkeeper a red card. Following this, AZ manager Gertjan Verbeek ordered his players to leave the pitch for the dressing room in protest. The match was later played on 19 January 2012, with Alvarado's red card rescinded; AZ won 3–2.
The 2012–13 season started in the Europa League with a qualifying play-off round against Guus Hiddink's Anzhi Makhachkala. AZ was hammered 6–0 on aggregate. Disappointingly, AZ finished tenth in the 2012–13 Eredivisie, although the club won the 2012–13 KNVB Cup after defeating PSV 2–1 in the final. As cup winners, AZ automatically qualified for the 2013–14 Europa League.
In September 2013, just one day after emphatically beating PSV, at the time the league leaders, Verbeek was dismissed as first team manager by the club due to "a lack of chemistry" between management and players. He was replaced by Dick Advocaat for the remainder of the season until a permanent replacement could be found. Advocaat took AZ to the semi-finals of the KNVB Cup, the quarter-finals of the Europa League and eighth in the league, ultimately losing to Groningen in the Europa League play-off final round (their 58th match of the season, a club record).
2014–2019: Van den Brom years
The 2014–15 season began with a new manager, former Heerenveen manager and Ajax great Marco van Basten. However, after just three matches into the season, Van Basten resigned as manager to become assistant manager under Alex Pastoor, citing heavy stress as the main reason. Pastoor was the interim manager during two matches under Van Basten's absence and received the official title on 16 September, but contract negotiations failed and he left the club just two days later. A week later, John van den Brom was appointed manager. Under Van den Brom, AZ quickly rose up to the sub-top, eventually finished the season in third place, surpassing Feyenoord on the final season's matchday and qualifying for the 2015–16 Europa League.
The 2015–16 Eredivisie started with AZ selling most of its first-team players from the previous season during the summer transfer period. As a response, AZ bought players from other Dutch clubs, notably Vincent Janssen from Almere City, Alireza Jahanbakhsh from NEC and Ben Rienstra from PEC Zwolle. In December, it was announced free agent Ron Vlaar signed a contract until the end of the season after training with the club for a few weeks prior. Vlaar quickly became team captain and helped lift AZ from tenth place to a fourth-place finish in the league. Along this rise, new signing Vincent Janssen scored 27 goals for the club, earning him the Eredivisie top goalscorer title. In the 2015–16 KNVB Cup, AZ made it to the semi-finals, losing 3–1 to Feyenoord. AZ won the first two qualification rounds to qualify for the 2015–16 Europa League group stage, but finished last in their group.
At the start of the 2016–17 Eredivisie, AZ sold last season's performer Vincent Janssen to Tottenham Hotspur and long-time midfielder Markus Henriksen to Hull City. In the 2016–17 Europa League, AZ finished second in Group D, surviving the group stage for the third time in five seasons.
Since 2019: Slot–Jansen years
After an excellent 2019/20 season in which AZ beat league leaders Ajax home and away, aided by consistent performances from youth academy talents such as Teun Koopmeiners, Myron Boadu, Calvin Stengs and Owen Wijndal, the season was forced to end early due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Joint on points with Ajax at the top of the table, AZ were given second place on goal difference, and subsequently earned Qualification to the Champions League second qualifying round.
A poor start to their 2020/21 Eredivisie campaign saw AZ draw five games in a row, before eventually picking up a victory against RKC Waalwijk on 1 November 2020.
in the Champions League qualifiers 2021]]
AZ also struggled in European competitions this season. Despite a strong start, with a 3–1 extra time come back against Viktoria Plzen in the Champions League qualifiers, the club lost 2–0 to Dynamo Kyiv several weeks later, seeing them fall back into the Europa League. After victory against Napoli and Rijeka early in the pool stages, AZ was on track to advance, though lost to Real Sociedad away, obtained a 0–0 draw in the reverse fixture, and also drew 1–1 with Napoli. Following these results, AZ needed to defeat Rijeka away to advance. However, the departure the week before the game of manager Arne Slot saw an unorganised team lose 2–1 to Rijeka, ending their European dream.
In 2022–2023, AZ stepped up their performance in Europa Conference League play, winning five out of six Group E matches against SC Dnipro-1, Apollon Limassol and Vaduz, then beating Lazio 4–2 on aggregate. However, their run was ended by defeats to West Ham United, with AZ's home leg marred by supporter violence.Coaching staff
Statistic from January 2024
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Position
!Staff
|-
|Head coach|| Maarten Martens
|-
|Assistant coach|| Robert Franssen <br /> Kenneth Goudmijn <br/> Jan Sierksma
|-
|Goalkeeper coach|| Nick van Aart
|-
|Fitness coach|| Niels Kok
|-
|Chief Scout|| Carlos Aalbers
|-
|Scout|| Arthur Numan <br /> Koen Veenstra <br /> Lars Engel <br /> Hugo Hovenkamp
|-
|Head of Medical|| Rob Tamminga
|-
|Club doctor|| Ingrid Paul
|-
|Physiotherapist|| Martin Cruijff <br /> Frank Renzenbrink
|-
|Team Manager|| Ari Menmi
|-
|Technical director|| Max Huiberts
|}
Players
Current squad
}}
}}
Out on loan
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
Jong AZ
Participating in the Eerste Divisie, the reserve squad of AZ trains and plays their home games in Zaanstad.
Former players
National team players
The following players were called up to represent their national teams in international football and received caps during their tenure with AZ Alkmaar:
*;Argentina
** Sergio Romero (2007–2011)
*;Australia
** James Holland (2009–2012)
** Brett Holman (2008–2012)
** Mathew Ryan (2023–2024)
*;Austria
** Kurt Welzl (1978–1981)
*;Belgium
** Stein Huysegems (2003–2006)
** Maarten Martens (2006–2014)
** Sébastien Pocognoli (2007–2010)
** Gill Swerts (2008–2011)
*;Cameroon
** Willie Overtoom (2013–2014)
*;Costa Rica
** Esteban Alvarado (2010–2015)
*;Denmark
** Henrik Eigenbrod (1982–1984)
** Kristen Nygaard (1972–1982)
** Kenneth Perez (2000–2006)
** Simon Poulsen (2008–2012; 2014–2015)
*;Estonia
** Ragnar Klavan (2009–2012)
*;Finland
** Niki Mäenpää (2011–2012)
** Niklas Moisander (2008–2012)
** Juha Reini (2002–2006)
*;Georgia
** Shota Arveladze (2005–2007)
*;Ghana
** Kamal Sowah (2022)
*;Greece
** Pantelis Chatzidiakos (2015–2023)
** Vangelis Pavlidis (2021–2024)
*;Hungary
** Milos Kerkez (2022–2023)
*;Iceland
** Joey Guðjónsson (2006–2007)
** Albert Guðmundsson (2018–2022)
** Jóhann Berg Guðmundsson (2009–2014)
** Kolbeinn Sigþórsson (2010–2011)
** Grétar Steinsson (2006–2008)
*;Iran
** Alireza Jahanbakhsh (2015–2018)
*;Japan
** Yukinari Sugawara (2020–2024)
*;Mexico
** Héctor Moreno (2008–2011)
*;Morocco
** Zakaria Aboukhlal (2019–2022)
** Nourdin Boukhari (2007)
** Ali Elkhattabi (2001–2006)
** Abdelkrim El Hadrioui (1998–2002)
** Mounir El Hamdaoui (2007–2010; 2015–2016)
** Oussama Idrissi (2018–2020)
** Adil Ramzi (2004–2006)
** Tarik Sektioui (2004–2006)
*;Netherlands
** Peter Arntz (1976–1985)
** Roy Beerens (2011–2014)
** Marco Bizot (2017–2021)
** Myron Boadu (2017–2021)
** Dries Boussatta (1998–2002)
** Tim de Cler (2002–2007)
** Barry van Galen (1997–2006)
** Willem van Hanegem (1976–1979)
** Hugo Hovenkamp (1975–1983)
** Kew Jaliens (2004–2011)
** Vincent Janssen (2015–2016)
** Jos Jonker (1980–1983)
** Danny Koevermans (2005–2007)
** Kees Kist (1972–1982; 1984–1985)
** Teun Koopmeiners (2017–2021)
** Jan Kromkamp (2000–2005)
** Denny Landzaat (2003–2006)
** Adam Maher (2010–2013; 2018–2019)
** Dirk Marcellis (2010–2015)
** Bruno Martins Indi (2020–present)
** Joris Mathijsen (2004–2006)
** Martijn Meerdink (2002–2007)
** David Mendes da Silva (2006–2010)
** John Metgod (1976–1982)
** Oscar Moens (1996–2003)
** Barry Opdam (1996–2008)
** Jan Peters (1977–1982)
** Henk van Rijnsoever (1974–1982)
** Stijn Schaars (2005–2011)
** Ronald Spelbos (1974–1982)
** Calvin Stengs (2017–2021)
** Guus Til (2016–2019)
** Henk Timmer (2000–2006)
** Pier Tol (1978–1988)
*Netherlands (continued)
** Nick Viergever (2010–2014)
** Ron Vlaar (2004–2006; 2015–2021)
** Bobby Vosmaer (1974–1978)
** Wout Weghorst (2016–2018)
** Owen Wijndal (2017–2022)
** Demy de Zeeuw (2005–2009)
*;Norway
** Håkon Evjen (2020–2023)
** Markus Henriksen (2012–2017)
** Bjørn Maars Johnsen (2018–2020)
** Fredrik Midtsjø (2017–2022)
** Jonas Svensson (2017–2021)
** David Møller Wolfe (2023–present)
*;Paraguay
** Celso Ortiz (2010–2016)
*;Republic of Ireland
** Troy Parrott (2024–present)
*;Romania
** Dorin Rotariu (2018–2019)
*;Serbia
** Kristijan Belić (2024–present)
** Nemanja Gudelj (2013–2015)
*;Suriname
** Ramon Leeuwin (2020–2021)
*;Sweden
** Rasmus Elm (2009–2012)
** Mattias Johansson (2012–2017)
** Jesper Karlsson (2020–2023)
** Muamer Tanković (2014–2017)
** Pontus Wernbloom (2009–2012)
*;Trinidad & Tobago
** Levi García (2015–2018)
*;United States
** Jozy Altidore (2011–2013)
** Aron Jóhannsson (2013–2015)
** Djordje Mihailovic (2023–2024)
* Players in bold actively play for AZ Alkmaar and for their respective national teams. Years in brackets indicate careerspan with AZ.
National team players by Confederation
Member associations are listed in order of most to least amount of current and former AZ players represented Internationally
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left"
|+ Total national team players by confederation<br>
|-
! scope="row" | Confederation
! scope="col" | Total
! scope"col" class"unsortable" | (Nation) Association
|-
| AFC
| 5
| Australia (3), Iran (1), Japan (1)
|-
| CAF
| 10
| Morocco (8), Cameroon (1), Ghana (1)
|-
| CONCACAF
| 7
| United States (3), Costa Rica (1), Mexico (1), Suriname (1), Trinidad & Tobago (1)
|-
| CONMEBOL
| 2
| Argentina (1), Paraguay (1)
|-
| OFC
| 0
|
|-
| UEFA
| 73
| Netherlands (40), Norway (6), Iceland (5), Sweden (5), Belgium (4), Denmark (4), Finland (3), Greece (2), Serbia (2), Austria (1), Estonia (1), Georgia (1), Hungary (1), Ireland (1), Romania (1)
|}
Players in international tournaments
The following is a list of AZ players who have competed in international tournaments, including the FIFA World Cup, UEFA European Championship, AFC Asian Cup, Africa Cup of Nations, CONCACAF Gold Cup and the Copa América. To this date no AZ players have participated in the FIFA Confederations Cup or the OFC Nations Cup while playing for AZ Alkmaar.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: left"
|- style="text-align: center"
!Cup
!Players
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 1976|| Hugo Hovenkamp<br/> Kees Kist<br/> John Metgod
|-
|align="left"| 1978 FIFA World Cup|| Hugo Hovenkamp
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 1980|| Hugo Hovenkamp<br/> Kees Kist
|-
|align="left"| 2000 Africa Cup of Nations|| Abdelkarim El Hadrioui
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 2004|| Kenneth Perez
|-
|align="left"| 2006 FIFA World Cup|| Tim de Cler<br/> Kew Jaliens<br/> Denny Landzaat<br/> Joris Mathijsen<br/> Henk Timmer
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 2008|| Demy de Zeeuw
|-
|align="left"| 2010 FIFA World Cup|| Brett Holman<br/> Héctor Moreno<br/> Simon Poulsen<br/> Sergio Romero<br/> Stijn Schaars
|-
|align="left"| 2011 AFC Asian Cup|| Brett Holman
|-
|align="left"| 2011 Copa América|| Sergio Romero
|-
|align="left"| 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup|| Héctor Moreno
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 2012|| Rasmus Elm<br/> Simon Poulsen
|-
|align="left"| 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup|| Esteban Alvarado<br/> Aron Jóhannsson
|-
|align="left"| 2016 Copa América|| Celso Ortiz
|-
|align="left"| 2018 FIFA World Cup|| Alireza Jahanbakhsh
|-
|align="left"| 2019 Africa Cup of Nations|| Oussama Idrissi
|-
|align="left"| UEFA Euro 2020|| Marco Bizot<br/> Teun Koopmeiners<br/> Owen Wijndal
|-
|align="left"| 2021 Africa Cup of Nations|| Zakaria Aboukhlal
|-
|align="left"| 2023 AFC Asian Cup|| Mathew Ryan<br/> Yukinari Sugawara
|-
|align="left"| 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup|| Djordje Mihailovic
|-
|}
Stadium and sponsor
Stadium
AZ play its home matches at the AFAS Stadion, located in the southern part of the city of Alkmaar. The stadium, which is directly owned by the club, was opened in 2006 and replaced the old Alkmaarderhout venue as the DSB Stadion. The stadium currently has a capacity of 17,023. During its design stages, the name Victorie Stadion was frequently used, referring to the Dutch War of Independence, the phrase "In Alkmaar begint de victorie" (Victory begins in Alkmaar)'' in particular. Until now, this name has not been officially in use, the board instead opting for sponsorship deals because of financial motives. However, to this day, the name maintains a good share of support among the fans.
To further increase revenue, AZ's board of directors decided to expand the capacity of the new stadium to at least 30,000 somewhere in the future. The extension will be realised by constructing a second tier to three of the four stands. The main stand with all technical areas, VIP and sponsor and media facilities will remain in place. These plans, however, were put on hold after the DSB bankruptcy and there are no current plans to increase the capacity.
In October 2009, sponsor DSB Bank was declared bankrupt. The stadium name temporarily changed from DSB Stadion to AZ Stadion, as it was considered undesirable that the stadium was linked with a non-existent bank. In February 2010, a new main sponsor was found in construction works service provider BUKO, based in Beverwijk.
A year later, in the 2010–11 season, took over as official stadium sponsor. The current external name of the ground is the AFAS Stadion.
On 10 August 2019, the roof of the stadium partially collapsed. No people were injured during the incident. As the result AZ spent the rest of the year playing home matches at the Cars Jeans Stadion in The Hague whilst the damaged roof was being removed, before returning to the stadium on 15 December 2019, beating Ajax 1–0 in their first match back. AZ played the rest of the 2019/20 season, until the COVID-19 pandemic cut it short, without a roof. During the 2020/21 season, a new roof was installed, held up by 20 crane-like arms on three sides and a so-called mega truss on the main stand. The renewed stadium, which also included a capacity upgrade of nearly 2,500 seats for a new total capacity of 19,500, was officially opened on 11 September 2021, before the home game against PSV.Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors{| class"wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! Period
! Kit manufacturer
! Shirt sponsor
|-
| 1977–1982
| rowspan=2|Adidas
|
|-
| 1982–1986
| |Sony
|-
| 1986–1988
| rowspan=2|Lotto
| |Electrolux
|-
| 1988–1989
| |Swingbo
|-
| 1989–1990
| |Reebok
| |Reebok
|-
| 1990–1993
| |Hi-Tec
| rowspan=5|Frisia
|-
| 1993–1998
| Hummel
|-
| 1998–1999
| |Kappa
|-
| 1999–2001
| |none
|-
| 2001–2002
| rowspan=4|Umbro
|-
| 2002–2004
| |Actus Notarissen
|-
| 2004–2005
| |Frisia
|-
| 2005–2006
| rowspan=3|DSB
|-
| 2006–2008
| |Quick
|-
| 2008–2009
| |Canterbury
|-
| 2009–2010
| rowspan=2|Quick
| |BUKO
|-
| 2010–2011
| rowspan=4|AFAS Software
|-
| 2011–2015
| |Macron
|-
| 2015–2019
| |Under Armour
|-
| 2020–
| |Nike
|-
| 2022–2024
| |Nike
| |[https://www.kansino.nl/ Kansino]
|}
Honours
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
!style="width: 10%;"|Type
!style="width: 10%;"|Competition
!style="width: 5%;"|Titles
!style="width: 30%;"|Seasons
!Ref.
|-
| rowspan="5" |Domestic
! scope=col|Eredivisie
|2
|
1980–81,
2008–09
| rowspan="5" |
|-
! scope=col| Eerste Divisie
|3
|
1959–60<sup>1</sup>,
1995–96,
1997–98
|-
! scope=col| Tweede Divisie
|1
|1955–56<sup>2</sup>
|-
! scope=col| KNVB Cup
|4
|1977–78, 1980–81,
1981–82,
2012–13
|-
! scope=col| Johan Cruyff Shield
|1
|
2009
|-
|}
European record
Matches
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Season
! Competition
! Round
! Opponent
! Home
! Away
! Aggregate
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1977–78
| rowspan="2"| UEFA Cup
| First round
| Red Boys Differdange
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 11–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 16–1
|-
| Second round
| Barcelona
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
|-
| 1978–79
| European Cup Winners' Cup
| First round
| Ipswich Town
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1980–81
| rowspan="6"| UEFA Cup
| First round
| Red Boys Differdange
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 6–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 10–0
|-
| Second round
| Levski Sofia
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 6–1
|-
| Third round
| Radnički Niš
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 7–2
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Lokeren
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
|-
| Semi-finals
| Sochaux
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–3
|-
| Final
| Ipswich Town
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–3
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–5
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1981–82
| rowspan="2"| European Cup
| First round
| Start
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
|-
| Round of 16
| Liverpool
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–3
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–5
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1982–83
| rowspan="2"| European Cup Winners' Cup
| First round
| Limerick
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
|-
| Second round
| Inter Milan
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
|-
|rowspan=8| 2004–05
|rowspan=8| UEFA Cup
|rowspan=4| Group F
| Auxerre
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 | 1st
|-
| Amica Wronki
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 3–1
|-
| Rangers
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 1–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
| Grazer AK
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; | 0–2
|-
| Round of 32
| Alemannia Aachen
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
|-
| Round of 16
| Shakhtar Donetsk
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–2
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Villarreal
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
|-
| Semi-finals
| Sporting CP
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–4 (a)
|-
|rowspan=5| 2005–06
|rowspan=5| UEFA Cup
|rowspan=4| Group D
| Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 | 2nd
|-
| Middlesbrough
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center; | 0–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
| Litex Lovech
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 2–0
|-
| Grasshoppers
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 1–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
| Round of 32
| Real Betis
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–3
|-
|rowspan=7| 2006–07
|rowspan=7| UEFA Cup
|rowspan=4| Group C
| Braga
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 | 1st
|-
| Grasshoppers
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 5–2
|-
| Slovan Liberec
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center; | 2–2
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
| Sevilla
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 2–1
|-
| Round of 32
| Fenerbahçe
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–3
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–5 (a)
|-
| Round of 16
| Newcastle United
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–4
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–4 (a)
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Werder Bremen
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
|-
|rowspan=4| 2007–08
|rowspan=4| UEFA Cup
|rowspan=4| Group A
| Zenit Saint Petersburg
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 | 4th
|-
| Larissa
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 1–0
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
| 1. FC Nürnberg
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; | 1–2
|-
| Everton
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; | 2–3
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
|-
|rowspan=3| 2009–10
|rowspan=3| UEFA Champions League
|rowspan=3| Group H
| Olympiacos
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 4th
|-
| Standard Liège
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
|-
| Arsenal
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
|-
|rowspan=3| 2010–11
|rowspan=3| UEFA Europa League
|rowspan=3| Group E
| Sheriff Tiraspol
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 3rd
|-
| BATE Borisov
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
|-
| Dynamo Kyiv
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
|-
|rowspan=6| 2011–12
|rowspan=6| UEFA Europa League
|rowspan=3| Group G
| Malmö FF
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 2nd
|-
| Metalist Kharkiv
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
|-
| Austria Wien
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
|-
| Round of 32
| Anderlecht
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
|-
| Round of 16
| Udinese
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Valencia
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–4
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–5
|-
| 2012–13
| UEFA Europa League
| Play-off round
| Anzhi Makhachkala
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–5
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–6
|-
| rowspan="7"| 2013–14
| rowspan="7"| UEFA Europa League
| Play-off round
| Atromitos
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–1
|-
|rowspan=3| Group L
| Maccabi Haifa
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 1st
|-
| PAOK
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
|-
| Shakhter Karagandy
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
|-
| Round of 32
| Slovan Liberec
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1-2
|-
| Round of 16
| Anzhi Makhachkala
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Benfica
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–3
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2015–16
| rowspan="5"| UEFA Europa League
| Third qualifying round
| İstanbul Başakşehir
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
|-
| Play-off round
| Astra Giurgiu
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–3
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–3
|-
|rowspan=3| Group L
| Partizan
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–3
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 4th
|-
| Athletic Bilbao
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
|-
| FC Augsburg
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
|-
| rowspan="6"| 2016–17
| rowspan="6"| UEFA Europa League
| Third qualifying round
| PAS Giannina
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–1
|-
| Play-off round
| Vojvodina
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
|-
|rowspan=3| Group D
| Dundalk
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 2nd
|-
| Zenit Saint Petersburg
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–5
|-
| Maccabi Tel Aviv
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
|-
| Round of 32
| Lyon
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–7
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–11
|-
| 2018–19
| UEFA Europa League
| Second qualifying round
| Kairat
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–3
|-
| rowspan="7"| 2019–20
| rowspan="7"| UEFA Europa League
| Second qualifying round
| BK Häcken
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
|-
| Third qualifying round
| Mariupol
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–0
|-
| Play-off round
| Antwerp
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–2
|-
|rowspan=3| Group L
| Partizan
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 2nd
|-
| Manchester United
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–4
|-
| Astana
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 6–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–0
|-
| Round of 32
| LASK
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–3
|-
|rowspan=2| 2020–21
|rowspan=2| UEFA Champions League
|rowspan=1| Second qualifying round
| FC Viktoria Plzeň
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–1
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; | 3–1
|-
|rowspan=1| Third qualifying round
| FC Dynamo Kyiv
| style"text-align:center"|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span>
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" | 0-2
|-
|rowspan=3| 2020–21
|rowspan=3| UEFA Europa League
|rowspan=3| Group F
| Napoli
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 3rd
|-
| Rijeka
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
|-
| Real Sociedad
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
|-
|rowspan=4| 2021–22
|rowspan=4| UEFA Europa Conference League
|rowspan=3| Group D
| Randers
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 1st
|-
| Jablonec
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
|-
| CFR Cluj
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
|-
| Round of 16
| Bodø/Glimt
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–4
|-
| rowspan="9"| 2022–23
| rowspan="9"| UEFA Europa Conference League
| Second qualifying round
| Tuzla City
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 5–0
|-
| Third qualifying round
| Dundee United
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 7–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 7–1
|-
| Play-off round
| Gil Vicente
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 6–1
|-
|rowspan=3| Group E
| Dnipro-1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 1st
|-
| Vaduz
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
|-
| Apollon Limassol
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
|-
| Round of 16
| Lazio
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–1
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–2
|-
| Quarter-finals
| Anderlecht
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2 (4–1 p.)
|-
| Semi-finals
| West Ham United
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 0–1
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–3
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2023–24
| rowspan="5" | UEFA Europa Conference League
| Third qualifying round
| FC Santa Coloma
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–0
|-
| Play-off round
| Brann
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 3–3
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–4 (6–5 p.)
|-
| rowspan="3" |Group E
| Zrinjski Mostar
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"|1–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"|3–4
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 | 3rd
|-
| Legia Warsaw
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"|1–0
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"|0–2
|-
| Aston Villa
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–4
| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–2
|-
|rowspan=10| 2024–25
|rowspan="10" | UEFA Europa League
|rowspan=8| League phase
| IF Elfsborg
|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"|3–2
|
|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=8|19th
|-
| Athletic Bilbao
|
|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"|0–2
|-
| Tottenham Hotspur
|
|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"|0–1
|-
| Fenerbahçe
|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"|3–1
|
|-
| Galatasaray
|bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"|1–1
|
|-
| Ludogorets Razgrad
|
|bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"|2–2
|-
| Roma
|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"|1–0
|
|-
| Ferencváros
|
|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"|3–4
|-
|Knockout phase play-offs
| Galatasaray
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 4–1
| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 2–2
| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 6–3
|-
|Round of 16
| Tottenham Hotspur
|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"| 1–0
|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 1-3
|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"| 2-3
|}
UEFA coefficient ranking
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
! Rank !! Team !! Points
|-
|36||align=left| West Ham United||50.000
|-
|37||align=left| Milan||50.000
|-
|38||align=left| AZ||47.500
|-
|39||align=left| Rennes||44.000
|-
|40||align=left| Braga||44.000
|}
Domestic results
Below is a table with AZ's domestic results since the introduction of professional football in 1956.
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"width: 100%; text-align: center;"
! colspan=5 | Domestic results since 1956
|-
! width="20%"|Domestic league
! width="20%"|League result
! width="20%"|Qualification to
! width="20%"|KNVB Cup season
! width="20%"|Cup result
|-
|1956–57 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|style="background: silver" |2nd (group A)
| –
|1956–57
|Third round
|-
|1957–58 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|9th (group A)
| –
|1957–58
|Third round
|-
|1958–59 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|4th (group A)
| –
|1958–59
|Third round
|-
|1959–60 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|style="background: gold" |1st (group B)
|Eredivisie (promotion)
|not held
|not held
|-
|1960–61 Eredivisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|style="background: pink" |17th
|Eerste Divisie (relegation)
|1960–61
|First round
|-
|1961–62 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|style="background: pink" |12th (group A)
|Tweede Divisie (relegation)
|1961–62
|Second round
|-
|1962–63 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|4th (group A)
| –
|1962–63
|style"background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|1963–64 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54)
|style="background: silver" |1st (group A); 2nd overall losing play-off
|Eerste Divisie (winning promotion tournament)
|1963–64
|First round
|-
|1964–65 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) <br /> 1964–65 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek)
|11th <br /> 6th (group A)
| –
|1964–65
|First round <br /> First round
|-
|1965–66 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar'54) <br /> 1965–66 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek)
|4th <br /> 3rd (group A)
| – <br /> Eerste Divisie (promotion)
|1965–66
|Group stage <br /> Group stage
|-
|1966–67 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54 <br /> and FC Zaanstreek)
|12th <br /> 7th
| –
|1966–67
|First round <br /> First round
|-
|1967–68 Eerste Divisie
|style="background: silver" |2nd
|Eredivisie (promotion)
|1967–68
|Group stage
|-
|1968–69 Eredivisie
|16th
| – (after surviving relegation play-offs)
|1968–69
|Second round
|-
|1969–70 Eredivisie
|12th
| –
|1969–70
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1970–71 Eredivisie
|style="background: pink" |17th
|Eerste Divisie (relegation)
|1970–71
|Second round
|-
|1971–72 Eerste Divisie
|style="background: silver" |2nd
|Eredivisie (promotion)
|1971–72
|First round
|-
|1972–73 Eredivisie
|15th
| –
|1972–73
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|1973–74 Eredivisie
|7th
| –
|1973–74
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1974–75 Eredivisie
|5th
| –
|1974–75
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1975–76 Eredivisie
|5th
| –
|1975–76
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1976–77 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|UEFA Cup
|1976–77
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|1977–78 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1977–78
|style="background: gold" |Winner
|-
|1978–79 Eredivisie
|4th
| –
|1978–79
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1979–80 Eredivisie
|style="background: silver" |2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1979–80
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1980–81 Eredivisie
|style="background: gold" |1st
|European Cup
|1980–81
|style="background: gold" |Winner
|-
|1981–82 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1981–82
|style="background: gold" |Winner
|-
|1982–83 Eredivisie
|11th
| –
|1982–83
|Second round
|-
|1983–84 Eredivisie
|6th
| –
|1983–84
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1984–85 Eredivisie
|13th
| –
|1984–85
|First round
|-
|1985–86 Eredivisie
|9th
| –
|1985–86
|Second round
|-
|1986–87 Eredivisie
|15th
| –
|1986–87
|Second round
|-
|1987–88 Eredivisie
|style="background: pink" |16th
|Eerste Divisie (relegation)
|1987–88
|First round
|-
|1988–89 Eerste Divisie
|5th
| –
|1988–89
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1989–90 Eerste Divisie
|12th
| –
|1989–90
|First round
|-
|1990–91 Eerste Divisie
|4th
|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion
|1990–91
|First round
|-
|1991–92 Eerste Divisie
|13th
| –
|1991–92
|Second round
|-
|1992–93 Eerste Divisie
|10th
| –
|1992–93
|Third round
|-
|1993–94 Eerste Divisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion
|1993–94
|Round of 16
|-
|1994–95 Eerste Divisie
|5th
|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion
|1994–95
|Round of 16
|-
|1995–96 Eerste Divisie
|style="background: gold" |1st
|Eredivisie (promotion)
|1995–96
|Round of 16
|-
|1996–97 Eredivisie
|style="background: pink" |18th
|Eerste Divisie (relegation)
|1996–97
|Quarter-finals
|-
|1997–98 Eerste Divisie
|style="background: gold" |1st
|Eredivisie (promotion)
|1997–98
|First round (knock-out stage)
|-
|1998–99 Eredivisie
|9th
| –
|1998–99
|Round of 16
|-
|1999–2000 Eredivisie
|7th
| –
|1999–00
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2000–01 Eredivisie
|13th
| –
|2000–01
|Quarter-finals
|-
|2001–02 Eredivisie
|10th
| –
|2001–02
|Second round (knock-out stage)
|-
|2002–03 Eredivisie
|10th
| –
|2002–03
|Second round (knock-out stage)
|-
|2003–04 Eredivisie
|5th
|UEFA Cup
|2003–04
|Second round
|-
|2004–05 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|UEFA Cup
|2004–05
|Round of 16
|-
|2005–06 Eredivisie
|style="background: silver" |2nd
|UEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs)
|2005–06
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2006–07 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|UEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs)
|2006–07
|style="background: silver" |Final
|-
|2007–08 Eredivisie
|11th
| –
|2007–08
|Second round
|-
|2008–09 Eredivisie
|style="background: gold" |1st
|Champions League
|2008–09
|Quarter-finals
|-
|2009–10 Eredivisie
|5th
|Europa League (Q3)
|2009–10
|Round of 16
|-
|2010–11 Eredivisie
|4th
|Europa League (Q3)
|2010–11
|Round of 16
|-
|2011–12 Eredivisie
|4th
|Europa League (Q4)
|2011–12
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2012–13 Eredivisie
| 10th
|Europa League
|2012–13
|style="background: gold" |Winner
|-
|2013–14 Eredivisie
| 8th
| –
|2013–14
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2014–15 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|Europa League (Q3)
|2014–15
|Quarter-finals
|-
|2015–16 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |4th
|Europa League (Q3)
|2015–16
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2016–17 Eredivisie
| 6th
|–
|2016–17
|style="background: silver" |Final
|-
|2017–18 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|Europa League (Q3)
|2017–18
|style="background: silver" |Final
|-
|2018–19 Eredivisie
|4th
|Europa League (Q2)
|2018–19
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2019–20 Eredivisie
|style="background: silver"|2nd
|Champions League (Q2)
|2019–20
|Quarter-finals
|-
|2020–21 Eredivisie
|style="background: #CD7F32" |3rd
|Europa League (Q4)
|2020–21
|Round of 16
|-
|2021–22 Eredivisie
|5th
|Europa Conference League (Q2)
|2021–22
|style="background: #CD7F32" |Semi-finals
|-
|2022–23 Eredivisie
|4th
|Europa Conference League (Q3)
|2022–23
|Round of 16
|-
|2023–24 Eredivisie
|4th
|Europa League
|2023–24
|Quarter-finals
|}
Coaches
Alkmaar '54
* (1954–1956)
* Kick Smit (1956–1958)
* (1 July 1958 – 30 June 1960)
* Piet de Wolf (1960–1961)
* (1961–1962)
* Arie Rentenaar (1962–1963)
* (1 July 1963 – 30 June 1965)
* Barry Hughes (1 July 1965 – 30 June 1967)
KFC / FC Zaanstreek
* Bob Kelly (1955–1956)
* (1956–1958)
* (1958–1960)
* (1960–1963)
* (1963–1964)
* Piet de Wolf (1964–1965)
* (1965–1966)
AZ '67
* Lesley Talbot (1 July 1967 – 30 June 1968)
* (1968–1969)
* Robert Heinz (1969–1971)
* Cor van der Hart (1 July 1971 – 30 June 1973)
* Joop Brand (1 July 1973 – 30 June 1976)
* Hans Kraay Sr. (1 July 1976 – 30 June 1977)
* Jan Notermans (1977)
* Cor van der Hart (1 July 1977 – 30 June 1978)
* Georg Keßler (1 July 1978 – 30 June 1982)
* Hans Eijkenbroek (1 July 1982 – 30 June 1983)
* Piet de Visser (1 July 1983 – 30 June 1985)
* Joop Brand (1 July 1985 – 30 June 1986)
* Han Berger (1 July 1986 – 31 December 1986)
AZ
* Hans Eijkenbroek (1987 – 30 June 1989)
* Hans van Doorneveld (1 July 1989 – 30 June 1990)
* Henk Wullems (1 July 1990 – 30 June 1993)
* Piet Schrijvers (1 July 1993 – 30 June 1994)
* Theo Vonk (1 July 1994 – 28 February 1997)
* Hans de Koning (interim) (28 February 1997 – 30 June 1997)
* Willem van Hanegem (1 July 1997 – 30 June 1999)
* Gerard van der Lem (1 July 1999 – 30 March 2000)
* Henk van Stee (31 March 2000 – 30 October 2002)
* Co Adriaanse (30 October 2002 – 30 June 2005)
* Louis van Gaal (1 July 2005 – 30 June 2009)
* Ronald Koeman (1 July 2009 – 5 December 2009)
* Martin Haar (interim) (5 December 2009 – 10 December 2009)
* Dick Advocaat (10 December 2009 – 30 June 2010)
* Gertjan Verbeek (1 July 2010 – 29 September 2013)
* Martin Haar (interim) (29 September 2013 – 15 October 2013)
* Dick Advocaat (15 October 2013 – 30 June 2014)
* Marco van Basten (30 June 2014 – 16 September 2014)
* John van den Brom (29 September 2014 – 30 June 2019)
* Arne Slot (1 July 2019 – 5 December 2020)
* Pascal Jansen (5 December 2020 – 17 January 2024)
* Maarten Martens (17 January 2024 – present)
Notes
ReferencesExternal links
*
Category:1967 establishments in the Netherlands
Category:Association football clubs established in 1967
Category:Football clubs in the Netherlands
Category:Football clubs in Alkmaar | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZ_Alkmaar | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.313406 |
2296 | Adrenal gland | The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three main zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.
The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia.
Adrenal cortex
thumb|right|Section of human adrenal gland under the microscope, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible.
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones.
The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.
Zona glomerulosa
The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.
This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.
Zona fasciculata
The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure
Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone.
Mineralocorticoids
The adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.
Regulation
thumb|right|Negative feedback in the HPA axis
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response.
Androgens
Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.
Catecholamines
Also called epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively, are catecholamines – water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline.
Gene and protein expression
The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla.
Development
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about at birth In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.
Medulla
The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.
Clinical significance
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing's syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.
Corticosteroid overproduction
Cushing's syndrome
Cushing's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression, and most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.
Primary aldosteronism
When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn's syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion sodium retention.
Addison's disease
thumb|right|Characteristic skin hyperpigmentation in Addison's disease
Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.
Secondary adrenal insufficiency
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland.
Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year.
History
Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder's illustrations in 1611.
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from Latin ad, "near", and ren, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin supra, "above", and ren, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison's disease.
See also
Adrenopause
Adrenochrome
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
Adrenal insufficiency
Adrenal gland disorder
References
External links
Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas
Adrenal gland histology
– "Adrenal Gland"
– "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands"
Adrenal Gland, from Colorado State University
Category:Adrenaline
Category:Endocrine system anatomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.389763 |
2299 | A360media | | location New York City, U.S.
| key_people = Anthony Melchiorre (owner)<br /> Roger Altman
| num_employees = 3,160 (2006)
| industry = Media
| products = Newspapers<br /> Magazines
| homepage =
| owner = Chatham Asset Management<br />Omega Charitable Partnership, L.P.
}}
A360 Media, LLC (branded a360media), formerly American Media, Inc. (AMI), was an American publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books based in New York City. Originally affiliated with only the National Enquirer, the media company's holdings expanded considerably in the 1990s and 2000s. In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to debts of nearly $1 billion, but has continued to buy and sell magazine brands since then.
AMI had been in the news affiliated with accusations of catch and kill operations. On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's Office reported that AMI admitted to paying $150,000 to Karen McDougal in concert with Donald Trump's presidential campaign for the sole purpose of preventing damaging allegations prior to the 2016 US presidential election.
According to its September 2018 non-prosecution agreement with Southern District of New York federal prosecutors, AMI "shall commit no crimes whatsoever" for three years, otherwise "A.M.I. shall thereafter be subject to prosecution for any federal criminal violation of which this office has knowledge."
On April 10, 2019, Chatham Asset Management, which controls 80 percent of AMI's stock, forced AMI to sell the National Enquirer. This came after Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who AMI has also relied on for survival, expressed dismay over the tabloid magazine's recent scandals involving hush money assistance to U.S. president Donald Trump's 2016 campaign and blackmail of Jeff Bezos.
In August 2020, Chatham Asset Management, AMI's owning holding company, announced it would merge AMI with Accelerate 360, a wholesale distribution company it also owned. As part of the merger, AMI was officially renamed A360 on October 1.
In February 2023, A360media agreed to sell the National Enquirer to VVIP Ventures, a joint venture of the digital media company Vinco Ventures and a new company set up for the purchase, Icon Publishing. As of July 7th, 2023 the deal has collapsed as reported by The Wall Street Journal.
History
thumb|right|Logo as American Media, Inc.The modern American Media came into being after Generoso Pope Jr., longtime owner of the National Enquirer, died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. American tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when American Media bought Star from Rupert Murdoch. The purchase of Globe Communications (owner of the Globe and the National Examiner) followed nine years later. Roger Altman, through Evercore Partners, bought a controlling stake in American Media in 1999.
American Media is not to be confused with American Media Distribution, the international news coverage firm. American Media's former corporate headquarters in Boca Raton, Florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company and other media outlets. Since then the corporate headquarters have moved to New York City at 1 Park Avenue in Manhattan, before moving to the Financial District to the former JP Morgan Chase headquarters at 4 New York Plaza. That building was severely damaged by Hurricane Sandy but reopened in February 2013.
AMI continued to expand after it bought Joe Weider's Weider Publications in 2002. Joe Weider continued to manage control of his magazines under AMI's Weider Publications subsidiary until his death in March 2013.
American Media also owns Distribution Services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. In fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, AMI Books.
2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions
In 2009, American Media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy.
In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to nearly $1 billion in debt, and assets of less than $50,000. Its subsidiary, American Media Operations Inc., listed assets of $100 to $500 million and debt of over $1 billion. It exited in December.
In May 2014, American Media announced a decision to shift the headquarters of the National Enquirer from Florida, where it had been located since 1971, back to New York City, where it originally began as The New York Enquirer in 1926. In August 2014, American Media was acquired by Chatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership.
In 2015, American Media sold Shape, Natural Health, and Fit Pregnancy to Meredith.
In 2016, Pecker revealed to the Toronto Star that AMI now relied on support from Chatham Asset Management and its owner Anthony Melchiorre. Three months later, in June 2017, American Media also acquired ''Men's Journal'' from Wenner Media.
In June 2018, American Media acquired 13 brands from Bauer Media Group including In Touch Weekly, Life & Style and Closer to add to their celebrity portfolio. They also acquired Bauer Media's kids group including J-14 and ''Girl's World''.
In February 2019, American Media acquired TEN's adventure sports properties.
In April 2019, the National Enquirer was reported to be up for sale and likely to be sold within days. The company stated that it had shifted its emphasis away from tabloids to its "glossy" magazines such as Us Weekly and ''Men's Journal''. This came following pressure from Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who expressed disapproval of the Enquirer's style of journalism.
In 2022, A360 acquired single issue magazine publisher Centennial Media. Also in 2022, A360 sold ''Men's Journal'' and the Adventure Sports Network properties to The Arena Group.
In December 2024, A360media merged with McClatchy. Prior to the merger its tabloids including the National Enquirer and the Globe were sold to an undisclosed buyer.Checkbook journalism controversyOn April 22, 2024, Pecker acknowledged that the National Enquirer engaged in a practice of checkbook journalism which involved paying sources for stories, and that he "gave a number to the editors that they could not spend more than $10,000" and he had final say over celebrity stories. He also acknowledged that "checkbook journalism" served as part of the editorial philosophy he followed when ran American Media Inc. AMI reporters were given the names of the woman and the alleged child, while Sajudin passed a lie detector test when testifying that he had heard the story from others. Shortly after the payment was made, Pecker ordered the reporters to drop the story. In April 2018, AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard denied the story was "spiked" in a so-called "catch and kill" operation, insisting that AMI did not run the story because Sajudin's story lacked credibility. On August 24, 2018, after AMI had released Sajudin from the contract, CNN obtained a copy of it and published excerpts. The contract instructed Sajudin to provide "information regarding Donald Trump's illegitimate child," but did not contain further specifics of Sajudin's story.
In April 2024, Pecker testified in Trump's New York criminal trial how the story was his first "catch-and-kill" target during Trump's campaign, with Sajudin also attempting to claim that the child was a girl.—but AMI never published the story. AMI publicly acknowledged having made the payment after The Wall Street Journal revealed it days before the 2016 presidential election, but AMI denied that its purpose had been to "kill damaging stories about" Trump; instead, AMI claimed it had paid only for "exclusive life rights to any relationship [McDougal] has had with a then-married man" and "two years' worth of her fitness columns and magazine covers." In March 2018, McDougal filed a lawsuit to invalidate the non-disclosure agreement she had with AMI. A month later, AMI settled with McDougal, allowing her to speak about the alleged affair. In August 2018, it was reported that AMI CEO/chairman David Pecker and AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard were granted witness immunity in exchange for their testimony regarding hush money payments made by Donald Trump's then-personal lawyer, Michael Cohen, in an attempt to influence the 2016 presidential election.
On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's office announced its agreement with AMI. "AMI admitted that it made the $150,000 payment in concert with a candidate's presidential campaign," the press release said, so that Karen McDougal wouldn't "publicize damaging allegations about the candidate before the 2016 presidential election. AMI further admitted that its principal purpose in making the payment was to suppress the woman's story so as to prevent it from influencing the election." As a result of this agreement, AMI did not face prosecution and agreed to provide extensive assistance to prosecutors about the involvement of Trump and other politicians with the company. The same press release also revealed that Michael Cohen had been sentenced to three years in prison for various crimes, including the $150,000 campaign finance violation—the facilitation of the payment to McDougal—to which he pled guilty on August 21, 2018. AMI agreed to pay the Federal Election Commission a $187,500 fine in June 2021.
In April 2024, Pecker testified how he, Howard and Cohen conspired to get the National Enquirer to acquire McDougal's story. Pecker stated that after Howard found out about McDougal's allegation, he sent Howard to California to interview her. President Trump has long expressed displeasure with Bezos, and Trump's irritation may have increased due to the ''Washington Post's'' critical coverage of the murder (and the subsequent cover-up) of one of its reporters, Jamal Khashoggi. This, Bezos suspects, may have been the political motivation for someone to leak his affair to the tabloid.
On February 7, 2019, Bezos shared emails that he had received the previous day Bezos wrote that he would refuse to make this "specific lie" or to otherwise participate in this blackmail bargain that "no real journalists [would] ever propose."
Lauren Sanchez's brother, Michael Sanchez, an ardent Trump supporter, stated he was told by multiple AMI employees that the Enquirer set out to do "a takedown to make Trump happy" and The Daily Beast reported seeing documents showing that Sanchez believed the Bezos story was run with "President Trump's knowledge and appreciation."Publications
Current
* Animal Tales
* Closer
* First for Women
* ''Girls' World
* In Touch
* J-14
* Life & Style
* Muscle & Fitness
* Muscle & Fitness Hers
* OK! (US)
* Puzzle Fun
* Quizfest
* RadarOnline.com
* Star
* Us Weekly
* Woman's World
Former
* Autoworld Weekly
* Bike
* Country Music
* Fit Pregnancy
* Flex
* Globe
* Men's Fitness
* Men's Journal
* Nash Country Weekly
* National Enquirer
* National Examiner
* Natural Health
* Pixie
* Powder
* Shape
* Snowboarder Magazine
* Soap Opera Digest
* Soaps in Depth
* Soap Opera Weekly
* Stallone
* Sun
* Surfer
* Teen Boss
* Transworld Skateboarding
* Weekly World News''
Divisions
* AMI Books
* AMI Entertainment Group
* Distribution Services, Inc.
* Dew Tour
See also
*2017–18 United States political sexual scandals
*Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal
*Death of Robert Stevens
References
External links
*
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/21/us/politics/trump-michael-cohen-american-media.html?emcedit_th_180722&nltodaysheadlines&nlid=78526480722 Tabloid Company, Aiding Trump Campaign, May Have Crossed Line Into Politics]
Category:Publishing companies established in 1936
Category:Magazine publishing companies of the United States
Category:Newspaper companies of the United States
Category:Privately held companies based in New York City
Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2010
Category:1936 establishments in New York (state)
Category:Publishing companies based in New York City
Category:2024 mergers and acquisitions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A360media | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.410579 |
2303 | Aramaic | , <br>
| region Fertile Crescent (Levant, Mesopotamia, Sinai and Southeastern Anatolia), eastern Arabia
| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2 = Semitic
| fam3 = West Semitic
| fam4 = Central Semitic
| fam5 = Northwest Semitic
| fam6 = Aramoid
| ancestor = Proto-Afroasiatic
| ancestor2 = Proto-Semitic
| ancestor3 = Old Aramaic
| ancestor5 = Middle Aramaic
| ancestor4 = Imperial Aramaic
| dia1 = Eastern Aramaic
| dia2 = Western Aramaic
| dia3 = Armazic
| dia4 = Palmyrene
| script =
| lc1 = arc
| ld1 = Imperial Aramaic
| lc2 = syc
| ld2 = Classical Syriac
| lc3 = myz
| ld3 = Classical Mandaic
| lc4 = xrm
| ld4 = Armazic
| lc5 = bjf
| ld5 = Barzani Neo-Aramaic
| lc6 = bhn
| ld6 = Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
| lc7 = hrt
| ld7 = Hertevin Neo-Aramaic
| lc8 = aij
| ld8 = Inter-Zab Neo-Aramaic
| lc9 = tmr
| ld9 = Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
| lc10 = jpa
| ld10 = Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
| lc11 = kqd
| ld11 = Koy Sanjaq Neo-Aramaic
| lc12 = lhs
| ld12 = Mlaḥsô
| lc13 = mid
| ld13 = Modern Mandaic
| lc14 = oar
| ld14 = Old Aramaic
| lc15 = sam
| ld15 = Samaritan Aramaic
| lc16 = syn
| ld16 = Senaya Neo-Aramaic
| lc17 = syr
| ld17 = Suret
| lc18 = huy
| ld18 = Trans-Zab Neo-Aramaic
| lc19 = tru
| ld19 = Turoyo
| lc20 = trg
| ld20 = Urmia Neo-Aramaic
| lc21 = amw
| ld21 = Western Neo-Aramaic
| glotto = aram1259
| glottorefname = Aramaic
| lingua = 12-AAA
| image | imagecaption
}}
]]
Aramaic ( ; . The form arāmāyā is less common in classical texts, but may be found (for example) in the Cave of Treasures (ed. Su-Min Ri) XXIV:10 and in Eusebius (ed. Cureton) p. 4 (Syriac pagination) line 10. See and in English at }}) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, southeastern Anatolia, Eastern Arabia and the Sinai Peninsula, where it has been continually written and spoken in different varieties for over three thousand years.<!--{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2024}> See: Brock [ibid.] 'request answered by title thereof'-->
Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, particularly the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Achaemenid Empire, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study within Judaism, Christianity, and Gnosticism. Several modern varieties of Aramaic are still spoken. The modern eastern branch is spoken by Assyrians, Mandeans, and Mizrahi Jews. Western Aramaic is still spoken by the Muslim and Christian Arameans (Syriacs) in the towns of Maaloula, Bakh'a and nearby Jubb'adin in Syria. Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches, as well as in Judaism, Samaritanism, and Mandaeism. The Aramaic language is now considered endangered, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations. Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct.
Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic. Aramaic varieties are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet. The most prominent variant of this alphabet is the Syriac alphabet, used in the ancient city of Edessa. The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.
Early Aramaic inscriptions date from 11th century BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down. Aramaicist notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown." Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary language spoken by Jesus of Nazareth both for preaching and in everyday life.
History
Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the ancient Aramean tribes. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, Arabian Peninsula, and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran, as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.
According to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by Adamthe Bible's first humanwas Aramaic.
Aramaic was the language of Jesus, who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra, and also the language of the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. It is also the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud, and Zohar.
The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC) and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars Imperial Aramaic, progressively also became the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories. Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as logograms, some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages, including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian.
Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians, Syriac Christians of Kerala, India. One of the liturgical dialects was Mandaic, which besides becoming a vernacular, Neo-Mandaic, also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism.
Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews (in particular, the Iraqi Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East, with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being Suret (~240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (~250,000 speakers). Western Neo-Aramaic (~3,000) persists in only two villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in western Syria. They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East.
Name
was the first ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic". Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when Ulrich Friedrich Kopp complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".]]
The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger. In 1819–21 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts. Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all". Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth.
Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans". The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version. This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.
In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob. Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age .
Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language", in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria, the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars.
The Koine Greek word (Hebraïstí) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews. However, is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and (Syristi) is used to mean Aramaic. In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome.Geographic distribution
inscription at the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church's Major Archbishop's House in Kerala, India]]
, Kerala, India (1799)]]
During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans began to settle in greater numbers in Babylonia, and later in the heartland of Assyria, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (Assur, Nineveh, and Arbela). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, and both empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.
Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate and the early Muslim conquests in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.
Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic, Iranian, and Kurdish.
The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide, also known as Seyfo "Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.Aramaic languages and dialectsAramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages. Some languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern varieties of Arabic.
Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by Syriac Christian communities in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it.
It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
Writing system
]]
The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script.
Periodization
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|-
| style="background:#ffffd9;"|<timeline>
ImageSize = width:320 height:700
PlotArea = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10
DateFormat = yyyy
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical order:reverse
Period = from:-1200 till:2005
AlignBars = early
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-1200
Colors =
id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85)
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
PlotData =
width:15 color:red
bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic
PlotData =
width:15 color:orange
bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic
PlotData =
width:15 color:yellow
bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic
PlotData =
bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white)
at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram
bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white)
at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic
bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white)
at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria
bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white)
at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I makes Aramaic official
bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white)
at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed
bar:test at:-330 mark:(line,white)
at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy
bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white)
at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire
bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white)
at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed
bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white)
at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah
bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white)
at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra & Osrhoene
bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white)
at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic
bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white)
at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent
bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white)
at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced
bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white)
at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition
bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white)
at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges
bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white)
at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age
bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white)
at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians
bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white)
at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced
bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white)
at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy
bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white)
at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed
bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black)
at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad
bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black)
at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain
bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black)
at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes
bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black)
at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print
bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black)
at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey
bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black)
at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel
bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black)
at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahsô & Bijil die
</timeline>
|}
Periodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.
Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer.
Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):
* Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 200 AD
* Middle Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD
* Modern Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times
Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):
* Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence 700 BC
* Official Aramaic, from 700 BC, to 200 BC
* Middle Aramaic, from 200 BC, to 200 AD
* Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 700 AD
* Modern Aramaic, from 700 AD, up to the modern times
Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:
* Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to 538 BC
* Achaemenid Aramaic, from 538 BC, to 333 BC
* Middle Aramaic, from 333 BC, to 200 AD
* Late Aramaic, from 200 AD, to 1200 AD
* Neo-Aramaic, from 1200 AD, up to the modern times
Old Aramaic
from Sam'al. The inscription is in the Samalian language (also considered a dialect).]]
Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic languages are largely restricted to Assyrian, Mandean and Mizrahi Jewish communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran, and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the Anti-Lebanon mountains, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic persisted in Mount Lebanon until as late as the 17th century.
The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.
The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC), Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC), and Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards.
Ancient Aramaic
"Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath, and Arpad.
There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.
From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.Imperial Aramaic
Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Consensus regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.
Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.
Biblical Aramaic
Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Old Testament:
* Ezra – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
* Daniel – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.
* Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
* Genesis – translation of a Hebrew place-name.
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Bible was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee). That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "Chaldean misnomer" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.
Post-Achaemenid Aramaic
bearing an Aramaic language inscription]]
(Greek and Aramaic) by the Indian king Ashoka, 3rd century BC at Kandahar, Afghanistan]]
with Targum intercalated between verses of Hebrew text]]
The fall of the Achaemenid Empire ( 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.
By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside Hebrew, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.
Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.
Targumic
Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
Nabataean
Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script that was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.
Palmyrene
Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.
Eastern dialects
magical "demon trap"]]
In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic.
In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BCE and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra and Assur.
Tatian the Assyrian (or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Adiabene (Syr. Beth-Hadiab), and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from ). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
The written form of Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.Western dialects
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD.
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean.
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta).
Languages during Jesus' lifetime
It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.
In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects spoken in the southern Levant. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaritan Aramaic was distinct; it ultimately merged [ʔ], [h], [ħ], and [ʕ] as a glottal stop, only maintaining [ʕ] in the initial position before the vowel [a]. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature, and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features, including the collapse of gutturals and the maintenance of diphthongs. In the Transjordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian Aramaic were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn "wealth" were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from Aramaic "seen, worthy".
New Testament Greek preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic, like talitha (), which represents the Aramaic noun , and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like Rabbounei (), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples:
* "Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)
* "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)
The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.
Middle Aramaic
During the Late Middle Aramaic period, spanning from 300 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
Eastern Middle Aramaic
The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient Assyria, Babylon, and the Achaemenid Empire as written languages using various Aramaic scripts. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises Classical Mandaic, Hatran, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic dialects, and Classical Syriac
Syriac Aramaic
Estrangela manuscript of John Chrysostom's Homily on the Gospel of John]]
Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical, and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated in the first century in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eighth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of Eastern Christianity and missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India, and China.
Jewish Babylonian Aramaic
<!-- This section is linked, this language was taken from the Aramaic language of the Byzantines from Halakha -->
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.Mandaic Aramaic
Classical Mandaic, used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.Western Middle AramaicThe dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Nabataean, Jewish Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the Old Hebrew script), and Christian Palestinian (in Syriac Estrangela script). Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.<!--So how do we know the other two if they weren't written? Also, at least Samaritan Aramaic certainly was written and lots of texts survive.-->Samaritan Aramaic
The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
]]
In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.
Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
Christian Palestinian Aramaic
This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of Jewish descent, in Palestine, Transjordan and Sinai from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac". The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac īšū‘, is written īsūs, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.
Modern Aramaic
in the Near East]]
As the Western Aramaic dialects of the Levant have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are Eastern Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Central Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret, and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the Qalamoun Mountains, Assyrians, Mandaeans and Mizrahi Jews, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.Modern Eastern Aramaic
]]
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups.
The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the Assyrians in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the diaspora. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain Akkadian influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian, which was Classical Syriac.
The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh Plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation.
Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of Tur Abdin. A related Neo-Aramaic language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct.
Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.Modern Western Aramaic
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. Bakh'a was completely destroyed during the Syrian civil war and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon. All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Other Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.
Sample texts
Matthew 2, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English (KJV):
|[1] Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
[2] Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.
[3] When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.
[4] And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.
|-
!Classical Syriac (Eastern accent):
|[1] Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.
[2] W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.
[3] Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.
[4] W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.
|-
!Christian Palestinian Aramaic:
|[1] Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.
[2] Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.
[3] W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.
[4] W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ.
|-
! Suret (Swadaya):
| [1] Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.
[2] W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.
[3] Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.
[4] W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.
|}
Matthew 28, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English (KJV):
|[16] Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them.
|-
! Classical Syriac (Eastern accent)
| [16] Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ.
|-
! Western Neo-Aramaic:
| [16] Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Ġalila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ.
|-
! Turoyo:
| [16] Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešū.
|-
! Suret (Swadaya):
| [16] Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.
|}
Phonology
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian, and Turkish.
Vowels
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|-
!
! Front
! Back
|-
! Close
|
|
|-
! Close-mid
|
|
|-
! Open-mid
|
| ()
|-
! Open
|
| ()
|}
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
* Open a-vowels
* Close front i-vowels
* Close back u-vowels
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", ). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" a, like the a in "father", , or even tending to the vowel in "caught", ), and a front counterpart ("short" e, like the vowel in "head", ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a glottal stop) or ה "he" (like the English h).
The close front vowel is the "long" i (like the vowel in "need", ). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" e, as in the final vowel of "café" (). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis.
The close back vowel is the "long" u (like the vowel in "school", ). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" o, like the vowel in "show" (). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality.
Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively.
The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
Consonants
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan"2" colspan"2" |
! rowspan="2" | Labial
! rowspan="2" | Dental
! colspan="2" | Alveolar
! rowspan="2" | Post-alv. / <br /> Palatal
! rowspan="2" | Velar
! rowspan="2" | Uvular / <br /> Pharyngeal
! rowspan="2" | Glottal
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>emp.</small>
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | Stop
! <small>voiceless</small>
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! <small>voiceless</small>
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
| || || || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | Trill
| || || || || || || ||
|}
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
* Labial set: פּ\פ p/f and בּ\ב b/v,
* Dental set: תּ\ת t/θ and דּ\ד d/ð,
* Velar set: כּ\כ k/x and גּ\ג ɡ/ɣ.
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones.
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
* ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, ,
* ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, ,
* ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), or ,
* צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, ,
* ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, .
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h").
Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six):
* ס, שׂ (as in English "sea"),
* ז (as in English "zero"),
* שׁ (as in English "ship"),
* צ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).
In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w.
Historical sound changes
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
* Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
* Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost , using instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost and and replaced them with and , as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, and are realized as after a vowel.
* Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics.
* Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow).
* Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
* New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are (as the first consonant in "azure"), (as in "jam"), and (as in "church"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
Grammar
As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
* כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book.
* כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures.
* כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe.
* כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote.
* אכתב 'eḵtûḇ, I shall write.
Nouns and adjectives
Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state.
Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â.
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages:
# The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.
# The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat malkṯâ, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, "son of man") begins to disappear.
# The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.
Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition "to") if it is definite.
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâking[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇking[emph.] good[abs.].
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! "good"
! masc. sg.
! fem. sg.
! masc. pl.
! fem. pl.
|-
! abs.
| rowspan="2" | טב ṭāḇ
| טבה ṭāḇâ
| טבין ṭāḇîn
| טבן ṭāḇān
|-
! const.
| טבת ṭāḇaṯ
| טבי ṭāḇê
| טבת ṭāḇāṯ
|-
! det./emph.
| טבא ṭāḇâ
| טבתא ṭāḇtâ
| טביא ṭāḇayyâ
| טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ
|}
The final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai.
Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.
For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are:
# כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)
# כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship
# כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen").
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.
Verbs
The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and voice (active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.
Aspectual tense
Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Person & gender
! colspan="2" | Perfect
! colspan="2" | Imperfect
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 3rd m.
| כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
| כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn
| יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
| יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn
|-
! 3rd f.
| כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ
| כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên
| תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
| יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān
|-
! 2nd m.
| כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt
| כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton
| תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ
| תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn
|-
! 2nd f.
| (כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y)
| כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên
| תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn
| תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān
|-
! 1st m./f.
| כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ
| כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn
| אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ
| נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
|}
Conjugations or verbal stems
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
A preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a-, or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means "he went astray", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph.
These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Stem
! Perfect active
! Imperfect active
! Perfect passive
! Imperfect passive
|-
! פעל Pə‘al (G-stem)
| כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
| יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
| כתיב kəṯîḇ
|
|-
! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem)
| התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ
| יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ
|
|
|-
! פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem)
| כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ
| יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ
| כֻתּב kuttaḇ
|
|-
! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem)
| התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ
| יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ
|
|
|-
! הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem)
| הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ
| יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ
| הֻכתב huḵtaḇ
|
|-
! התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem)
| התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ
| יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
|
|
|}
In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
See also
References
Notes
Sources
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External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013182203/http://www.v-a.com/bible/ancient_aramaic_audio_files.html Ancient Aramaic Audio Files]: Contains audio recordings of scripture.
* [http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]
* [http://cal.huc.edu/index.html Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon] (including editions of Targums) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
* [http://www.tyndalearchive.com/tabs/jastrow/ Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic]
* [http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic]
Category:Languages attested from the 10th century BC | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.522394 |
2304 | Saint Titus | <br />Roman Catholic Church<br />Lutheranism<br />Anglican Communion
|canonized_date = Pre-Congregation
|major_shrine = Heraklion, Crete
|feast_day = August 25 (Orthodoxy)<br />January 26 (Catholicism)<br />Thursday after fifth Sunday after feast of the Holy Cross (Armenian Apostolic Church)
|patronage = Crete
}}
Titus ( ; , Títos) was an early Christian missionary and church leader, a companion and disciple of Paul the Apostle, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles including the Epistle to Titus. He is believed to be a Gentile converted to Christianity by Paul and, according to tradition, he was consecrated as Bishop of the Island of Crete.
Titus brought a fundraising letter from Paul to Corinth, to collect for the poor in Jerusalem. According to Jerome, Titus was the amanuensis of this epistle (2 Corinthians). Later, on Crete, Titus appointed presbyters (elders) in every city and remained there into his old age, dying in Gortyna. He seems to have been converted by Paul, whereupon he served as Paul's secretary and interpreter. In the year 48 or 49 CE, Titus accompanied Paul to the council held at Jerusalem, on the subject of the Mosaic rites.
In the fall of 55 or 56 CE, Paul, as he himself departed from Asia, sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy the fallout precipitated by Timothy's delivery of 1 Corinthians and Paul's "Painful Visit", particularly a significant personal offense and challenge to Paul's authority by one unnamed individual. During this journey, Titus served as the courier for what is commonly known as the "Severe Letter", a Pauline missive that has been lost but is referred to in .
After success on this mission, Titus journeyed north and met Paul in Macedonia. There the apostle, overjoyed by Titus' success, wrote 2 Corinthians. Titus then returned to Corinth with a larger entourage, carrying 2 Corinthians with him. Paul joined Titus in Corinth later. From Corinth, Paul then sent Titus to organize the collections of alms for the Christians at Jerusalem. Titus was therefore a troubleshooter, peacemaker, ecclesiastical administrator, and missionary.
Early church tradition holds that Paul, after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome, stopped at the island of Crete to preach. Due to the needs of other churches, requiring his presence elsewhere, he ordained his disciple Titus as bishop of that island, and left him to finish the work he had started. John Chrysostom says that this is an indication of the esteem Paul held for Titus. Later, Titus traveled to Dalmatia. The New Testament does not record his death.Identification with Timothy
It has been argued that the name "Titus" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians was an informal name used by Timothy, a view circumstantially supported by the fact that both are said to be long-term close companions of Paul, even though they never appear together in these books. The theory proposes that a number of passages (1 Corinthians 4:17, 16.10; 2 Corinthians 2:13, 7:6, 13–14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22) refer to the same journey of a single individual, variously called Titus and Timothy.
This theory is complicated by various details from the Pauline epistles. In , Paul tells Timothy that Titus has departed to Dalmatia.
Additionally, Timothy is circumcised in , but states that Paul did not compel Titus to be circumcised. This would indicate that they are different men, although some scholars interpret as indicating that Paul did in fact circumcise Titus, drawing on the fourth-century commentaries of Gaius Marius Victorinus.
Veneration
He was venerated as a saint earlier than 261 CE. The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February. In 1969, the Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date while he is honored on the calendars of the Church of England and Episcopal Church (with Timothy) on 26 January.
The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Titus on 25 August and on 4 January. His relics, now consisting of only his skull, are venerated in the Church of St. Titus, Heraklion, Crete, to which it was returned in 1966 after being removed to Venice during the period of Ottoman Crete (1667–1898).
Titus is the patron saint of the United States Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps has established the Order of Titus Award, described by the Department of Defense:
See also
*Epistle of Pseudo-Titus
References
Category:1st-century births
Category:107 deaths
Category:1st-century bishops in the Roman Empire
Category:1st-century Greek people
Category:Seventy disciples
Category:People in the Pauline epistles
Category:Christian saints from the New Testament
Category:Saints of Roman Crete
Category:Anglican saints
Category:Amanuenses
Category:Private secretaries
Category:Interpreters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Titus | 2025-04-05T18:25:59.528927 |
2308 | Actinide | The actinide () or actinoid () series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. Number 103, lawrencium, is also generally included despite being part of the 6d transition series. The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide.
The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed.
Actinium through nobelium are f-block elements, while lawrencium is a d-block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position.
All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors.
Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium.
In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ElementYearMethod Neptunium 1940 Bombarding 238U with neutrons Plutonium 1941 Bombarding 238U with deuterons Americium 1944 Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons Curium 1944 Bombarding 239Pu with α-particles Berkelium 1949 Bombarding 241Am with α-particles Californium 1950 Bombarding 242Cm with α-particles Einsteinium 1952 As a product of nuclear explosion Fermium 1952 As a product of nuclear explosion Mendelevium 1955 Bombarding 253Es with α-particles Nobelium 1965 Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne Lawrencium 1961–1971 Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O
Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium.
The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th-period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s.
At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron-deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation.
In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half-lives of α-decay. This non-observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.
From actinium to uranium
thumb|left|Enrico Fermi suggested the existence of transuranium elements in 1934.
Uranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore. He named it after the planet Uranus, Sixty years later, the French scientist Eugène-Melchior Péligot identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with metallic potassium. The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120, but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman.
Thorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral thorianite, which was found in Norway (1827). Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail in 1828. By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor. The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium. and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000, arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named emanium that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the , meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products. Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937.
Protactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes. It was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short-lived isotope 234mPa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the 238U decay chain. They named the new element brevium (from Latin brevis meaning brief); the name was changed to protoactinium (from Greek πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning "first beam element") in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Arnold Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived 231Pa. The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when Alfred Maddock and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore.
Neptunium and above
Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley, California. They produced the 239Np isotope (half-life 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons.
thumb|Glenn T. Seaborg and his group at the University of California at Berkeley synthesized Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and element 106, which was later named seaborgium in his honor while he was still living. They also synthesized more than a hundred actinide isotopes.
Transuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, uranium-238 partially converts to plutonium-239:
\ce{{^{238}_{92}U} + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U ->[\beta^-] [23.5\ \ce{min}] {}^{239}_{93}Np ->[\beta^-] [2.3\ \ce{days}] {}^{239}_{94}Pu} \left( \ce{->[\alpha] [2.4\cdot 10^4\ \ce{years}]} \right) \ce{{^{235}_{92}U}}
This synthesis reaction was used by Fermi and his collaborators in their design of the reactors located at the Hanford Site, which produced significant amounts of plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons of the Manhattan Project and the United States' post-war nuclear arsenal.
Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with ions of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a particle accelerator. Thus nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with neon-22 as
_{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n.
The first isotopes of transplutonium elements, americium-241 and curium-242, were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso. Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles:
_{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n.
The americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity.
Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf in 1950, and a similar procedure yielded berkelium-243 from americium-241 in 1949. The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden.
In 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely americium hydroxide. Over the few years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium and californium. Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced in 1958, and the first californium compound (0.3 μg of CfOCl) was obtained in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann.
Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952–1953 in the fallout from the "Ivy Mike" nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, which underwent a series of beta decays to nuclides such as einsteinium-253 and fermium-255. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the US military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions. Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on those elements. The "Ivy Mike" studies were declassified and published in 1955.
The first isotope of mendelevium, 256Md (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley Gerald Thompson when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles in the 60-inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time.
There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of 256No by the Russian group of Georgy Flyorov in 1965, as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22. Isotope Half-life Probability of spontaneousfission in % Emission energy(MeV) (yield in %) Specific activity (Bq/kg) of α γ α, β-particles fission241Am 432.2(7) y 4.3(18) 5.485 (84.8) 5.442 (13.1)5.388 (1.66) 0.059 (35.9)0.026 (2.27) 1.27 546.1243Am 7.37(4) y 3.7(2) 5.275 (87.1)5.233 (11.2)5.181 (1.36) 0.074 (67.2) 0.043 (5.9) 7.39 273.3242Cm 162.8(2) d 6.2(3) 6.069 (25.92)6.112 (74.08) 0.044 (0.04)0.102 (4) 1.23 7.6244Cm 18.10(2) y 1.37(3) 5.762 (23.6)5.804 (76.4) 0.043 (0.02)0.100 (1.5) 2.96 4.1245Cm 8.5(1) y 6.1(9) 5.529 (0.58)5.488 (0.83)5.361 (93.2) 0.175 (9.88)0.133 (2.83) 6.35 3.9246Cm 4.76(4) y 0.02615(7) 5.343 (17.8)5.386 (82.2) 0.045 (19) 1.13 2.95247Cm 1.56(5) y — 5.267 (13.8)5.212 (5.7)5.147 (1.2) 0.402 (72)0.278 (3.4) 3.43 —248Cm 3.48(6) y 8.39(16) 5.034 (16.52)5.078 (75) — 1.40 1.29249Bk 330(4) d 4.7(2) 5.406 (1)5.378 (2.6) 0.32 (5.8) 5.88 2.76249Cf 351(2) y 5.0(4) 6.193 (2.46)6.139 (1.33)5.946 (3.33) 0.388 (66)0.333 (14.6) 1.51 7.57250Cf 13.08(9) y 0.077(3) 5.988 (14.99)6.030 (84.6) 0.043 4.04 3.11251Cf 900(40) y ? 6.078 (2.6)5.567 (0.9)5.569 (0.9) 0.177 (17.3)0.227 (6.8) 5.86 —252Cf 2.645(8) y 3.092(8) 6.075 (15.2)6.118 (81.6) 0.042 (1.4)0.100 (1.3) 1.92 6.14254Cf 60.5(2) d ≈100 5.834 (0.26)5.792 (5.3) — 9.75 3.13253Es 20.47(3) d 8.7(3) 6.540 (0.85)6.552 (0.71)6.590 (6.6) 0.387 (0.05)0.429 (8) 9.33 8.12254Es 275.7(5) d 6.358 (2.6)6.415 (1.8) 0.042 (100)0.034 (30) 6.9 —255Es 39.8(12) d 0.0041(2) 6.267 (0.78)6.401 (7) — 4.38(β)3.81(α) 1.95255Fm 20.07(7) h 2.4(10) 7.022 (93.4)6.963 (5.04)6.892 (0.62) 0.00057 (19.1)0.081 (1) 2.27 5.44256Fm 157.6(13) min 91.9(3) 6.872 (1.2)6.917 (6.9) —1.58 1.4257Fm 100.5(2) d 0.210(4) 6.752 (0.58)6.695 (3.39)6.622 (0.6) 0.241 (11)0.179 (8.7) 1.87 3.93256Md 77(2) min — 7.142 (1.84)7.206 (5.9) —3.53 —257Md 5.52(5) h — 7.074 (14) 0.371 (11.7)0.325 (2.5) 8.17—258Md 51.5(3) d — 6.73—3.64 —255No 3.1(2) min — 8.312 (1.16)8.266 (2.6)8.121 (27.8) 0.187 (3.4) 8.78 —259No 58(5) min — 7.455 (9.8)7.500 (29.3)7.533 (17.3) —4.63—256Lr 27(3) s 8.390 (16)8.430 (33) — 5.96 —257Lr 646(25) ms — 8.796 (18)8.861 (82) —1.54—
thumb|upright=1.5|Actinides have 89–103 protons and usually 117–159 neutrons.
Thirty-four isotopes of actinium and eight excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides are known, ranging in mass number from 203 to 236. Three isotopes, 225Ac, 227Ac and 228Ac, were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications. Actinium-225 is a member of the radioactive neptunium series; it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of uranium-233 and it is an α-emitter with a half-life of 10 days. Actinium-225 is less available than actinium-228, but is more promising in radiotracer applications.
There are 25 isotopes of neptunium with mass numbers 219–244 (except 221);
Among 19 isotopes of curium, ranging in mass number from 233 to 251,
+ Properties of some transplutonium isotope pairs Parent isotope t1/2 Daughter isotope t1/2 Time to establish radioactive equilibrium 243Am 7370 years 239Np 2.35 days 47.3 days 245Cm 8265 years 241Pu 14 years 129 years 247Cm 1.64 years 243Pu 4.95 hours 7.2 days 254Es 270 days 250Bk 3.2 hours 35.2 hours 255Es 39.8 days 255Fm 22 hours 5 days 257Fm 79 days 253Cf 17.6 days 49 days
Among the 18 known isotopes of einsteinium with mass numbers from 240 to 257, the most affordable is 253Es. It is an α-emitter with a half-life of 20.47 days, a relatively weak γ-emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium. Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long-lived isotope 254Es (t1/2 = 275.5 days).
Among the 17 known isotopes of mendelevium (mass numbers from 244 to 260),
Formation in nuclear reactors
thumb|upright=1.5|Table of nuclides: Buildup of actinides in a nuclear reactor, including radioactive decay
The figure buildup of actinides is a table of nuclides with the number of neutrons on the horizontal axis (isotopes) and the number of protons on the vertical axis (elements). The red dot divides the nuclides in two groups, so the figure is more compact. Each nuclide is represented by a square with the mass number of the element and its half-life. Naturally existing actinide isotopes (Th, U) are marked with a bold border, alpha emitters have a yellow colour, and beta emitters have a blue colour. Pink indicates electron capture (236Np), whereas white stands for a long-lasting metastable state (242Am).
The formation of actinide nuclides is primarily characterised by:
Neutron capture reactions (n,γ), which are represented in the figure by a short right arrow.
The (n,2n) reactions and the less frequently occurring (γ,n) reactions are also taken into account, both of which are marked by a short left arrow.
Even more rarely and only triggered by fast neutrons, the (n,3n) reaction occurs, which is represented in the figure with one example, marked by a long left arrow.
In addition to these neutron- or gamma-induced nuclear reactions, the radioactive conversion of actinide nuclides also affects the nuclide inventory in a reactor. These decay types are marked in the figure by diagonal arrows. The beta-minus decay, marked with an arrow pointing up-left, plays a major role for the balance of the particle densities of the nuclides. Nuclides decaying by positron emission (beta-plus decay) or electron capture (ϵ) do not occur in a nuclear reactor except as products of knockout reactions; their decays are marked with arrows pointing down-right. Due to the long half-lives of the given nuclides, alpha decay plays almost no role in the formation and decay of the actinides in a power reactor, as the residence time of the nuclear fuel in the reactor core is rather short (a few years). Exceptions are the two relatively short-lived nuclides 242Cm (T1/2 163 d) and 236Pu (T1/2 2.9 y). Only for these two cases, the α decay is marked on the nuclide map by a long arrow pointing down-left. A few long-lived actinide isotopes, such as 244Pu and 250Cm, cannot be produced in reactors because neutron capture does not happen quickly enough to bypass the short-lived beta-decaying nuclides 243Pu and 249Cm; they can however be generated in nuclear explosions, which have much higher neutron fluxes.
Distribution in nature
thumb|left|Unprocessed uranium ore
Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm. Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the mineral uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U (relative abundance 99.2742%), 235U (0.7204%) and 234U (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51 years.
+ Content of plutonium in uranium and thorium ores
The abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5%.
\begin{array}{l}{}\\
\ce{2AmF3{} + 3Ba ->[\ce{1150-1350^\circ C}] 3BaF2{} + 2Am}\\
\ce{PuF4{} + 2Ba ->[\ce{1200^\circ C}] 2BaF2{} + Pu}\\
\ce{UF4{} + 2Mg ->[\ce{> 500^\circ C}] U{} + 2MgF2}\\{}
\end{array}
Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP2O7) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate. Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution.
Th(OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → Th(NO3)4 + 4 H2O
Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:
Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO2(NO3)2(TBP)2. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH4)2U2O7 or with hydrogen peroxide as UO4·2H2O. so actinium is the first element to use the 5f shell in compounds. The f-shells complete their filling together, at ytterbium and nobelium. The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940. As in lanthanides (see lanthanide contraction), the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also actinoid contraction).
The shift of electron configurations in the gas phase does not always match the chemical behaviour. For example, the early-transition-metal-like prominence of the highest oxidation state, corresponding to removal of all valence electrons, extends up to uranium even though the 5f shells begin filling before that. On the other hand, electron configurations resembling the lanthanide congeners already begin at plutonium, even though lanthanide-like behaviour does not become dominant until the second half of the series begins at curium. The elements between uranium and curium form a transition between these two kinds of behaviour, where higher oxidation states continue to exist, but lose stability with respect to the +3 state.Element Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No LrCore charge 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103Atomic mass [227] 232.0377(4) 231.03588(2) 238.02891(3) [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [266]Number of natural isotopes 3 8 3 8 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Natural isotopes 225, 227, 228 227–234 231, 233, 234 233–240 237, 239, 240 238–240, 244 — — — — — — — — —Natural quantity isotopes — 230, 232 231 234, 235, 238 — — — — — — — — — — —Longest-lived isotope 227 232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 266Half-life of the longest-lived isotope Most common isotope 227 232 231 238 237 239 241 244 249 252 253 255 256 255 260Half-life of the most common isotopeElectronic configuration inthe ground state (gas phase) 6d17s2 6d27s2 5f26d17s2 5f36d17s2 5f46d17s2 5f67s2 5f77s2 5f76d17s2 5f97s2 5f107s2 5f117s2 5f127s2 5f137s2 5f147s2 5f147s27p1Oxidation states 2, 3 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 4, 6 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 2, 3 2, 3 2, 3 3Metallic radius (nm) 0.203 0.180 0.162 0.153 0.150 0.162 0.173 0.174 0.170 0.186 0.186 ? 0.198 ? 0.194 ? 0.197 ? 0.171 An4+ An3+ — 0.126 0.114 — 0.104 0.118 0.103 0.118 0.101 0.116 0.100 0.115 0.099 0.114 0.099 0.112 0.097 0.110 0.096 0.109 0.085 0.098 0.084 0.091 0.084 0.090 0.084 0.095 0.083 0.088Temperature (°C):melting boiling 10503198 18424788 1568? 4027 1132.24131 639? 4174 639.43228 1176? 2607 13403110 9862627 900? 1470 860? 996 1530— 830— 830— 1630—Density, g/cm310.07 11.78 15.37 19.0620.4519.8411.713.5114.7815.18.84? 9.7? 10.3? 9.9? 14.4Standard electrode potential (V):E° (An4+/An0)E° (An3+/An0) — −2.13 −1.83 — −1.47 — −1.38 −1.66 −1.30 −1.79 −1.25 −2.00 −0.90 −2.07 −0.75 −2.06 −0.55 −1.96 −0.59 −1.97 −0.36 −1.98 −0.29 −1.96 — −1.74 — −1.20 — −2.10 Color: [M(H2O)n]4+ [M(H2O)n]3+ — Colorless Colorless Blue Yellow Dark blue Green Purple Purple Brown Violet Red Rose Yellow Colorless Beige Green Green — Pink — — — — — — — —
+ Approximate colors of actinide ions in aqueous solutionColors for the actinides 100–103 are unknown as sufficient quantities have not yet been synthesized. The colour of was likewise not recorded.
Actinide (Z) 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Oxidation state +2 Fm2+ Md2+ No2+ +3 Ac3+ Th3+ Pa3+ U3+ Np3+ Pu3+ Am3+ Cm3+ Bk3+ Cf3+ Es3+ Fm3+ Md3+ No3+ Lr3+ +4 Th4+ Pa4+ U4+ Np4+ Pu4+ Am4+ Cm4+ Bk4+ Cf4+ +5 +6 +7
Physical properties
400px 400pxMajor crystal structures of some actinides vs. temperatureMetallic and ionic radii of actinides relatively high density and plasticity. Some of them can be cut with a knife. Their electrical resistivity varies between 15 and 150 μΩ·cm. The melting point of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of f-electrons. The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium (~640 °C) is explained by hybridization of 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals. Lanthanides Ln3+, Å Actinides An3+, Å An4+, Å Lanthanum 1.061 Actinium 1.11– Cerium 1.034 Thorium 1.08 0.99 Praseodymium 1.013 Protactinium 1.05 0.93 Neodymium 0.995 Uranium 1.03 0.93 Promethium 0.979 Neptunium 1.01 0.92 Samarium 0.964 Plutonium 1.00 0.90 Europium 0.950 Americium 0.99 0.89 Gadolinium 0.938 Curium 0.98 0.88 Terbium 0.923 Berkelium –– Dysprosium 0.908 Californium –– Holmium 0.894 Einsteinium –– Erbium 0.881 Fermium –– Thulium 0.869 Mendelevium –– Ytterbium 0.858 Nobelium –– Lutetium 0.848 Lawrencium ––
Chemical properties
Like the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5f-electrons, are prone to hybridization. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f, 7s and 6d shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides.
Actinium is chemically similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structures. Like lanthanum, actinium almost always has an oxidation state of +3 in compounds, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac3+ is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions.
Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds.
The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (acetonitrile). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (dioxide, fluoride and hydroxide) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in aqueous solution and 3 or 4 in solid compounds.
Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (fluoride, dioxide). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide. The stability of Bk4+ in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce4+. Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids. - - Cubic, Mn2O2 Hexagonal, LaCl3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 11.01 3.80 14.28 - - 3.65 - 6 8.9 11.7 – CmO2 Black Cubic, CaF2 5.37 ---- Bk2O3 Light brown Cubic, Mn2O3 10.886---- BkO2 Red-brown Cubic, CaF2 5.33 ---- Cf2O3 Colorless Yellowish - Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3 10.79 14.12 3.72 - 3.59 - - 8.80 5.96 -- CfO2 Black Cubic 5.31 ---- Es2O3- Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic Hexagonal, La2O3 10.07 14.1 3.7 - 3.59 - - 8.80 6 --
+Approximate colors of actinide oxides(most stable are bolded) Oxidation state 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 +3Ac2O3 Pu2O3 Am2O3 Cm2O3 Bk2O3 Cf2O3 Es2O3 +4 ThO2 PaO2 UO2 NpO2 PuO2 AmO2 CmO2 BkO2 CfO2 +5 Pa2O5 U2O5 Np2O5 +5,+6 U3O8 +6 UO3
+ Dioxides of some actinidesChemical formula ThO2 PaO2 UO2 NpO2 PuO2 AmO2 CmO2 BkO2 CfO2CAS Number 1314-20-1 12036-03-2 1344-57-6 12035-79-9 12059-95-9 12005-67-3 12016-67-0 12010-84-3 12015–10–0Molar mass 264.04 263.035 270.03 269.047 276.063 275.06 270–284** 279.069 283.078Melting point 3390 °C2865 °C2547 °C2400 °C2175 °C Crystal structure250pxAn4+: __ / O2−: __Space groupFmmCoordination numberAn[8], O[4]
An – actinide **Depending on the isotopes
Some actinides can exist in several oxide forms such as An2O3, AnO2, An2O5 and AnO3. For all actinides, oxides AnO3 are amphoteric and An2O3, AnO2 and An2O5 are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases: Bk(OH)3 and Cf(OH)3 are also known, as are tetravalent hydroxides for Np, Pu and Am and pentavalent for Np and Am.Chemical formula AcCl3 UCl3 NpCl3 PuCl3 AmCl3 CmCl3 BkCl3 CfCl3CAS-number 22986-54-5 10025-93-1 20737-06-8 13569-62-5 13464-46-5 13537-20-7 13536-46-4 13536–90–8Molar mass 333.386 344.387 343.406 350.32 349.42 344–358** 353.428 357.438Melting point 837 °C800 °C767 °C715 °C695 °C603 °C545 °CBoiling point 1657 °C1767 °C850 °C Crystal structure250px|The crystal structure of uranium trichlorideAn3+: __ / Cl−: __Space groupP63/mCoordination numberAn*[9], Cl [3]Lattice constants a 762 pm c 455 pm a 745.2 pm c 432.8 pm a 739.4 pm c 424.3 pm a 738.2 pm c 421.4 pm a 726 pm c 414 pm a 738.2 pm c 412.7 pm a 738 pm c 409 pm
*An – actinide **Depending on the isotopes
+ Actinide fluoridesCompoundColorCrystal symmetry, typeLattice constants, ÅDensity, g/cm3abc AcF3 White Hexagonal, LaF3 4.27 - 7.53 7.88 PaF4 Dark brown Monoclinic 12.7 10.7 8.42 – PaF5 Black Tetragonal, β-UF5 11.53 - 5.19 – ThF4 Colorless Monoclinic 13 10.99 8.58 5.71 UF3 Reddish-purple Hexagonal 7.18 - 7.34 8.54 UF4 Green Monoclinic 11.27 10.75 8.40 6.72 α-UF5 Bluish Tetragonal 6.52 - 4.47 5.81 β-UF5 Bluish Tetragonal 11.47 - 5.20 6.45 UF6 Yellowish Orthorhombic 9.92 8.95 5.19 5.06 NpF3 Black or purple Hexagonal 7.129 - 7.288 9.12 NpF4 Light green Monoclinic 12.67 10.62 8.41 6.8 NpF6 Orange Orthorhombic 9.91 8.97 5.21 5 PuF3 Violet-blue Trigonal 7.09 - 7.25 9.32 PuF4 Pale brown Monoclinic 12.59 10.57 8.28 6.96 PuF6 Red-brown Orthorhombic 9.95 9.02 3.26 4.86 AmF3 Pink or light beige hexagonal, LaF3 7.04- 7.255 9.53 AmF4 Orange-red Monoclinic 12.53 10.51 8.20 – CmF3 From brown to white Hexagonal 4.041 - 7.179 9.7 CmF4 Yellow Monoclinic, UF4 12.51 10.51 8.20 – BkF3 Yellow-green Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3 6.97 6.7 - 7.09 7.14 4.41 10.15 9.7 BkF4- Monoclinic, UF4 12.47 10.58 8.17 – CfF3 - - Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3 6. 94 6.65 - 7.04 7.10 4.39 – CfF4 - - Monoclinic, UF4 Monoclinic, UF4 1.242 1.233 1.047 1.040 8.126 8.113 –
thumb|left|Einsteinium triiodide glowing in the dark
Actinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX3 and MX4 (X = halogen). So the first berkelium compound, BkCl3, was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms. Like the halogens of rare earth elements, actinide chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water-soluble, and fluorides are insoluble. Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride, which sublimates at a temperature of 56.5 °C; because of its volatility, it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with gas centrifuge or gaseous diffusion. Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to anhydrides. They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO2F2. The pentachloride and black hexachloride of uranium were synthesized, but they are both unstable. and gas mantles (thorium), they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear reactors. upon reaching the critical mass, enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction. Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2–3 neutrons, for example:
+ ⟶ + + 3
Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium-232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233.
Nuclear reactor The core of most Generation II nuclear reactors contains a set of hollow metal rods, usually made of zirconium alloys, filled with solid nuclear fuel pellets – mostly oxide, carbide, nitride or monosulfide of uranium, plutonium or thorium, or their mixture (the so-called MOX fuel). The most common fuel is oxide of uranium-235.
border|150px|left|Nuclear reactor scheme
Fast neutrons are slowed by moderators, which contain water, carbon, deuterium, or beryllium, as thermal neutrons to increase the efficiency of their interaction with uranium-235. The rate of nuclear reaction is controlled by introducing additional rods made of boron or cadmium or a liquid absorbent, usually boric acid. Reactors for plutonium production are called breeder reactor or breeders; they have a different design and use fast neutrons.
Emission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction, but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides. Uranium-239 converts via β-decay into plutonium-239, which, like uranium-235, is capable of spontaneous fission. The world's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy, but for producing plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons.
About half of produced thorium is used as the light-emitting material of gas mantles.
The major application of plutonium has been in nuclear weapons, where the isotope plutonium-239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium-based designs allow reducing the critical mass to about a third of that for uranium-235. The "Fat Man"-type plutonium bombs produced during the Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. (See also Nuclear weapon design.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.
Plutonium-238 is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors, since it has smaller critical mass than uranium-235, but it continues to release much thermal energy (0.56 W/g) by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods. Its application is limited by its high price (about US$1000/g). This isotope has been used in thermopiles and water distillation systems of some space satellites and stations. The Galileo and Apollo spacecraft (e.g. Apollo 14) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium-238 oxide; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles. The decay of plutonium-238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by gamma rays. Therefore, this isotope (~160 mg) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries.
Toxicity
thumb|Schematic illustration of penetration of radiation through sheets of paper, aluminium and lead brick
Radioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by β-activity and γ-radiation. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α-activity. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the liver. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller (~0.05%) for actinium than radium.
Using actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment. Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases.
See also
Actinides in the environment
Lanthanides
Major actinides
Minor actinides
Transuranics
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first time
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Actinide Research Quarterly
Category:Periodic table | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.211717 |
2310 | Arthur Miller | | caption = Miller in 1966
| birth_name = Arthur Asher Miller
| birth_place = <!-- No boroughs -->New York City, U.S.<!--Per WP:OVERLINK "The names of subjects with which most readers will be at least somewhat familiar", including locations with NYC as an example, do not typically need to be linked)-->
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| death_place = Roxbury, Connecticut, U.S.
| occupation =
| education = University of Michigan (BA)
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| spouse =
*
* }}
| partner = (from 2002)
| children = 4, including Rebecca Miller
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}}
Arthur Asher Miller (October 17, 1915 – February 10, 2005) was an American playwright, essayist and screenwriter in the 20th-century American theater. Among his most popular plays are All My Sons (1947), Death of a Salesman (1949), The Crucible (1953), and A View from the Bridge (1955). He wrote several screenplays, including The Misfits (1961). The drama Death of a Salesman is considered one of the best American plays of the 20th century.
Miller was often in the public eye, particularly during the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, he received a Pulitzer Prize for Drama, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, and married Marilyn Monroe. In 1980, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. He received the Praemium Imperiale prize in 2001, the Prince of Asturias Award in 2002, and the Jerusalem Prize in 2003, and the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize in 1999. Early life and education Miller was born in the Harlem area of Manhattan Island, the second of three children of Augusta (Barnett) and Isidore Miller. He was born into a Jewish family of Polish-Jewish descent. His father was born in Radomyśl Wielki, Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary, now Poland), and his mother was a native of New York whose parents also arrived from that town. Isidore owned a women's clothing manufacturing business employing 400 people. He became a well respected man in the community. The family, including Miller's younger sister Joan Copeland, lived on West 110th Street in Manhattan, owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens, and employed a chauffeur. In the Wall Street crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to Gravesend, Brooklyn. According to Peter Applebome, they moved to Midwood.
As a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to help the family. After graduation (), he worked as a psychiatric aide and copywriter before accepting faculty posts at New York University and University of New Hampshire. On May 1, 1935, he joined the League of American Writers (1935–1943), whose members included Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers, Franklin Folsom, Louis Untermeyer, I. F. Stone, Myra Page, Millen Brand, Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett. Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers.
At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and wrote for the student newspaper, The Michigan Daily, and the satirical Gargoyle Humor Magazine. It was during this time that he wrote his first play, No Villain. He switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain. The award led him to consider that he could have a career as a playwright. He enrolled in a playwriting seminar with the influential Professor Kenneth Rowe, who emphasized how a play was built to achieve its intended effect, or what Miller called "the dynamics of play construction". Rowe gave Miller realistic feedback and much-needed encouragement, and became a lifelong friend. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater through the rest of his life, establishing the university's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and the Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in 2000. In 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood Award. The couple had two children, Jane (born September 7, 1944) and Robert (May 31, 1947 – March 6, 2022). Miller was exempted from military service during World War II because of a high school football injury to his left kneecap. The play closed after four performances with disastrous reviews.
In 1947, Miller's play All My Sons, the writing of which had commenced in 1941, was a success on Broadway (earning him his first Tony Award, for Best Author) and his reputation as a playwright was established. Years later, in a 1994 interview with Ron Rifkin, Miller said that most contemporary critics regarded All My Sons as "a very depressing play in a time of great optimism" and that positive reviews from Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times had saved it from failure.
In 1948, Miller built a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut. There, in less than a day, he wrote Act I of Death of a Salesman. Within six weeks, he completed the rest of the play, Death of a Salesman premiered on Broadway on February 10, 1949, at the Morosco Theatre, directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony Award for Best Author, the New York Drama Circle Critics' Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The play was performed 742 times.
1950–1963: Critical years and HUAC controversy
In 1952, Elia Kazan appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Kazan named eight members of the Group Theatre, including Clifford Odets, Paula Strasberg, Lillian Hellman, J. Edward Bromberg, and John Garfield, who in recent years had been fellow members of the Communist Party. Miller and Kazan were close friends throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, but after Kazan's testimony to the HUAC, the pair's friendship ended. Miller would retaliate against Kazan's work by writing A View from the Bridge, a play where a longshoreman outs his co-workers motivated only by jealousy and greed. He sent a copy of the initial script to Kazan and when the director asked in jest to direct the movie, Miller replied "I only sent you the script to let you know what I think of stool-pigeons."
In The Crucible, which was first performed at the Martin Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953, Miller likened the situation with the House Un-American Activities Committee to the witch hunt in Salem in 1692. A French-Italian co-production Vu du pont, based on the play, was released in 1962.
of House Un-American Activities Committee reads and proofs his letter replying to Pres. Roosevelt's attack on the committee, October 26, 1938]]
The HUAC took an interest in Miller himself not long after The Crucible opened, engineering the US State Department's denying him a passport to attend the play's London opening in 1954. When Miller attended the hearing, to which Monroe accompanied him, risking her own career, Reneging on the chairman's promise, the committee demanded the names of friends and colleagues who had participated in similar activities. In August 1958, his conviction was overturned by the court of appeals, which ruled that Miller had been misled by the chairman of the HUAC. Barthel documented the case in her book A Death in Canaan, which was made as a television film of the same name and broadcast in 1978. City Confidential, an A&E Network series, produced an episode about the murder, postulating that part of the reason Miller took such an active interest (including supporting Reilly's defense and using his own celebrity to bring attention to Reilly's plight) was because he had felt similarly persecuted in his run-ins with the HUAC. He sympathized with Reilly, whom he firmly believed to be innocent and to have been railroaded by the Connecticut State Police and the Attorney General who had initially prosecuted the case.
Miller began work on writing the screenplay for The Misfits in 1960, directed by John Huston and starring Monroe. It was during the filming that Miller's and Monroe's relationship hit difficulties, and he later said that the filming was one of the lowest points in his life. Monroe was taking drugs to help her sleep and other drugs to help her wake up, arriving on the set late, and having trouble remembering her lines. Huston was unaware that Miller and Monroe were having problems in their private life. He recalled later, "I was impertinent enough to say to Arthur that to allow her to take drugs of any kind was criminal and utterly irresponsible. Shortly after that I realized that she wouldn't listen to Arthur at all; he had no say over her actions."
Shortly before the film's premiere in 1961, Miller and Monroe divorced after five years of marriage. Huston, who had also directed her in her first major role in The Asphalt Jungle in 1950, and who had seen her rise to stardom, put the blame for her death on her doctors as opposed to the stresses of being a star: "The girl was an addict of sleeping pills and she was made so by the God-damn doctors. It had nothing to do with the Hollywood set-up." 1964–2004: Later career In 1964, After the Fall was produced, and is said to be a deeply personal view of Miller's experiences during his marriage to Monroe. It reunited Miller with his former friend Kazan; they collaborated on the script and direction. It opened on January 23, 1964, at the ANTA Theatre in Washington Square Park amid a flurry of publicity and outrage at putting a Monroe-like character, Maggie, on stage. That year, Miller produced Incident at Vichy. In 1965, he was elected the first American president of PEN International, a position which he held for four years. A year later, he organized the 1966 PEN congress in New York City. He also wrote the penetrating family drama The Price, produced in 1968.
In 1968, Miller attended the Democratic National Convention as a delegate for Eugene McCarthy. In 1969, Miller's works were banned in the Soviet Union after he campaigned for the freedom of dissident writers.
Miller was an unusually articulate commentator on his own work. In 1978, he published a collection of his Theater Essays, edited by Robert A. Martin and with a foreword by Miller. Highlights of the collection included Miller's introduction to his Collected Plays, his reflections on the theory of tragedy, comments on the McCarthy Era, and pieces arguing for a publicly supported theater. Reviewing this collection in the Chicago Tribune, Studs Terkel remarked, "In reading [the Theater Essays] ... you are exhilaratingly aware of a social critic, as well as a playwright, who knows what he's talking about."
Congress]]
In 1983, Miller traveled to China to produce and direct Death of a Salesman at the People's Art Theatre in Beijing. It was a success in China In late 1987, Miller's autobiographical work, Timebends, was published. Before it was published, it was well known that Miller would not talk about Monroe in interviews; however, in the book, he wrote extensively in detail about his experiences with Monroe.
In 1993, Miller received the National Medal of Arts. He was honored with the PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award for a Master American Dramatist in 1998. In 2001, the National Endowment for the Humanities selected him for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. His lecture, "On Politics and the Art of Acting", analyzed political events (including the U.S. presidential election of 2000)
in terms of the "arts of performance". It drew attacks from some conservatives such as Jay Nordlinger, who called it "a disgrace"; and George Will, who argued that Miller was not a legitimate "scholar".
In October 1999, Miller received The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life". Additionally in 1999, San Jose State University honored Miller with the John Steinbeck "In the Souls of the People" Award, which is given to those who capture "Steinbeck's empathy, commitment to democratic values, and belief in the dignity of people who by circumstance are pushed to the fringes." In 2001, he received the National Book Foundation's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters. On May 1, 2002, he received Spain's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as "the undisputed master of modern drama". Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of lymphatic cancer at the age of 78. The following year, Miller won the Jerusalem Prize.
Miller's final play, Finishing the Picture, opened at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago, in the fall of 2004, with one character said to be based on Barley. It was reportedly based on his experience during the filming of The Misfits, though Miller insisted the play was a work of fiction with independent characters that were no more than composite shadows of history. Personal life Marriages and family
tie the knot in Westchester County, New York, June 1956]]
In June 1956, Miller left his first wife, Mary Slattery, whom he had married in 1940, and wed film star Marilyn Monroe.
Monroe began to reconsider her career and the fact that trying to manage it made her feel helpless. She admitted to Miller, "I hate Hollywood. I don't want it any more. I want to live quietly in the country and just be there when you need me. I can't fight for myself any more." In her personal notes, she wrote about her worries during this period:
During the filming of the 1961 film The Misfits, which Miller wrote the script for, Miller and Monroe's marriage dissolved.
In February 1962, Miller married photographer Inge Morath, who had worked as a photographer documenting the production of The Misfits. The first of their two children, Rebecca, was born September 15, 1962. Their son Daniel was born with Down syndrome in November 1966. Against his wife's wishes, Miller had him institutionalized, first at a home for infants in New York City, then at the Southbury Training School in Connecticut. Though Morath visited Daniel often, Miller never visited him at the school and rarely spoke of him; Daniel left Southbury at the age of 17 and gradually went from living in a group home to living in an apartment with occasional visits by a social worker. Miller and Inge remained together until her death in 2002. Miller's son-in-law, actor Daniel Day-Lewis, is said to have visited Daniel frequently and to have persuaded Miller to meet with him. At one point, Miller answered a question about his son by stating, "Well, he knows I’m a person, and he knows my name, but he doesn’t understand what it means to be a son.” When Inge died, Miller stated that they had only had one child together; Daniel did not attend her funeral. When Miller died, Daniel was named as an heir along with his three other children.
Death
Miller died on the evening of February 10, 2005 (the 56th anniversary of the Broadway debut of Death of a Salesman) at age 89 of bladder cancer and heart failure, at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. He had been in hospice care at his sister's apartment in New York since his release from hospital the previous month. He was surrounded by his companion (the painter Agnes Barley), family, and friends. His body was interred at Roxbury Center Cemetery in Roxbury. Within hours of her father's death, Rebecca Miller, who had been consistently opposed to the relationship with Barley, ordered her to vacate the home she shared with Arthur. Legacy Miller's writing career spanned over seven decades, and at the time of his death, he was considered one of the 20th century's greatest dramatists. some calling him the last great practitioner of the American stage, and Broadway theatres darkened their lights in a show of respect.
Miller's alma mater, the University of Michigan, opened the Arthur Miller Theatre in March 2007. Per his express wish, it is the only theater in the world that bears his name.
Miller's letters, notes, drafts and other papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Miller is also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame. He was inducted in 1979. In 1993, he received the Four Freedoms Award for Freedom of Speech. In 2017, his daughter, Rebecca Miller, a writer and filmmaker, completed a documentary about her father's life, Arthur Miller: Writer. Minor planet 3769 Arthurmiller is named after him. In the 2022 Netflix film Blonde, Miller was portrayed by Adrien Brody.
Foundation
The Arthur Miller Foundation was founded to honor the legacy of Miller and the New York City Public School education. Its mission is "Promoting increased access and equity to theater arts education in our schools and increasing the number of students receiving theater arts education as an integral part of their academic curriculum." Its other initiatives include certification of new theater teachers and their placement in public schools, increasing the number of theater teachers in the system from the current estimate of 180 teachers in 1800 schools, supporting professional development of all certified theater teachers, and providing teaching artists, cultural partners, physical spaces, and theater ticket allocations for students. The foundation's primary purpose is to provide arts education in the New York City school system. Its current chancellor is Carmen Farina, a prominent proponent of the Common Core State Standards Initiative. The Master Arts Council includes Alec Baldwin, Ellen Barkin, Bradley Cooper, Dustin Hoffman, Scarlett Johansson, Tony Kushner, Julianne Moore, Michael Moore, Liam Neeson, David O. Russell, and Liev Schreiber. Miller's son-in-law, Daniel Day-Lewis, has served on the current board of directors since 2016.
The foundation celebrated Miller's 100th birthday with a one-night performance of his seminal works in November 2015. The Arthur Miller Foundation currently supports a pilot program in theater and film at the public school Quest to Learn, in partnership with the Institute of Play. The model is being used as an in-school elective theater class and lab. Its objective is to create a sustainable theater education model to disseminate to teachers at professional development workshops. Archive Miller donated thirteen boxes of his earliest manuscripts to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 1961 and 1962. This collection included the original handwritten notebooks and early typed drafts for Death of a Salesman, The Crucible, All My Sons, and other works. In January 2018, the Ransom Center announced the acquisition of the remainder of the Miller archive, totaling over 200 boxes. The full archive opened in November 2019. Literary and public criticism Christopher Bigsby wrote Arthur Miller: The Definitive Biography based on boxes of papers Miller made available to him before his death in 2005. The book was published in November 2008, and is reported to reveal unpublished works in which Miller "bitterly attack[ed] the injustices of American racism long before it was taken up by the civil rights movement".
In 1999, the writer Christopher Hitchens attacked Miller for comparing the Monica Lewinsky investigation to the Salem witch hunt. Miller had asserted a parallel between the examination of physical evidence on Lewinsky's dress and the examinations of women's bodies for signs of the "Devil's Marks" in Salem. Hitchens scathingly disputed the parallel. In his memoir, Hitch-22, Hitchens bitterly noted that Miller, despite his prominence as a left-wing intellectual, had failed to support author Salman Rushdie during the Iranian fatwa involving The Satanic Verses.
Works
Stage plays
* No Villain (1936)
* They Too Arise (1937, based on No Villain)
* Honors at Dawn (1938, based on They Too Arise)
* The Grass Still Grows (1938, based on They Too Arise)
* The Great Disobedience (1938)
* Listen My Children (1939, with Norman Rosten)
* The Golden Years (1940)
* The Half-Bridge (1943)
* The Man Who Had All the Luck (1944)<ref name=Times/>
* All My Sons (1947)
* Death of a Salesman (1949)
* An Enemy of the People (1950, adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's play An Enemy of the People)
* The Crucible (1953)
* A View from the Bridge (1955)
* A Memory of Two Mondays (1955)
* After the Fall (1964)
* Incident at Vichy (1964)
* The Price (1968)
* The Reason Why (1970)
* Fame (one-act, 1970; revised for television 1978)
* The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972)
* Up from Paradise (1974)
* ''The Archbishop's Ceiling (1977)
* The American Clock (1980)
* Playing for Time (television play, 1980)
* Elegy for a Lady (short play, 1982, first part of Two Way Mirror)
* Some Kind of Love Story (short play, 1982, second part of Two Way Mirror)
* I Think About You a Great Deal (1986)
* Playing for Time (stage version, 1985)
* I Can't Remember Anything (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!)
* Clara (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!)
* The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991)
* The Last Yankee (1993)
* Broken Glass (1994)
* Mr. Peters' Connections (1998)
* Resurrection Blues (2002)
* Finishing the Picture (2004)
Radio plays
* The Pussycat and the Expert Plumber Who Was a Man (1940)
* Joel Chandler Harris (1941)
* The Battle of the Ovens (1942)
* Thunder from the Mountains (1942)
* I Was Married in Bataan (1942)
* That They May Win (1943)
* Listen for the Sound of Wings (1943)
* Bernardine (1944)
* I Love You (1944)
* Grandpa and the Statue (1944)
* The Philippines Never Surrendered (1944)
* The Guardsman'' (1944, based on Ferenc Molnár's play)
* The Story of Gus (1947)
Screenplays
* The Hook (1947)
* All My Sons (1948)
* ''Let's Make Love (1960)
* The Misfits (1961)
* Death of a Salesman (1985)
* Everybody Wins (1990)
* The Crucible (1996)
Assorted fiction
* Focus (novel, 1945)
* "The Misfits" (short story, published in Esquire, October 1957)
* I Don't Need You Anymore (short stories, 1967)
* "Homely Girl: A Life" (short story, 1992, published in UK as "Plain Girl: A Life" 1995)
* Presence: Stories (2007) (short stories include "The Bare Manuscript", "Beavers", "The Performance", and "Bulldog")
Non-fiction
* Situation Normal (1944) is based on his experiences researching the war correspondence of Ernie Pyle.
* In Russia'' (1969), the first of three books created with his photographer wife Inge Morath, offers Miller's impressions of Russia and Russian society.
* In the Country (1977), with photographs by Morath and text by Miller, provides insight into how Miller spent his time in Roxbury, Connecticut, and profiles of his various neighbors.
* Chinese Encounters (1979) is a travel journal with photographs by Morath. It depicts the Chinese society in the state of flux which followed the end of the Cultural Revolution. Miller discusses the hardships of many writers, professors, and artists during Mao Zedong's regime.
* Salesman in Beijing (1984) details Miller's experiences with the 1983 Beijing People's Theatre production of Death of a Salesman. He describes directing a Chinese cast in an American play.
* Timebends: A Life, Methuen London (1987) . Miller's autobiography.
* On Politics and the Art of Acting, Viking 2001 {ISBN 0-670-030-422} an 85-page essay about the thespian skills in American politics, comparing FDR, JFK, Reagan, Clinton.
Collections
* Abbotson, Susan C. W. (ed.), Arthur Miller: Collected Essays, Penguin 2016
* Kushner, Tony, ed. Arthur Miller, Collected Plays 1944–1961 (Library of America, 2006) .
* Martin, Robert A. (ed.), "The theater essays of Arthur Miller", foreword by Arthur Miller. NY: Viking Press, 1978
References
Bibliography
* Bigsby, Christopher (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller, Cambridge 1997
* Gottfried, Martin, Arthur Miller, A Life, Da Capo Press (US)/Faber and Faber (UK), 2003
* Koorey, Stefani, ''Arthur Miller's Life and Literature, Scarecrow, 2000
* Moss, Leonard. Arthur Miller, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980.
Further reading
* Critical Companion to Arthur Miller, Susan Greenwood (2007)
* Student Companion to Arthur Miller, Susan C. W. Abbotson, Facts on File (2000)
* File on Miller, Christopher Bigsby (1988)
* Arthur Miller & Company, Christopher Bigsby, editor (1990)
* Arthur Miller: A Critical Study, Christopher Bigsby (2005)
* Remembering Arthur Miller, Christopher Bigsby, editor (2005)
* Arthur Miller 1915–1962, Christopher Bigsby (2008, U.K.; 2009, U.S.)
* The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller (Cambridge Companions to Literature), Christopher Bigsby, editor (1998, updated and republished 2010)
* Arthur Miller 1962–2005, Christopher Bigsby (2011)
*
* Arthur Miller: Critical Insights, Brenda Murphy, editor, Salem (2011)
* Understanding Death of a Salesman, Brenda Murphy and Susan C. W. Abbotson, Greenwood (1999)
*
Critical articles
* Arthur Miller Journal'', published biannually by Penn State UP. Vol. 1.1 (2006)
* Radavich, David. "Arthur Miller's Sojourn in the Heartland". American Drama 16:2 (Summer 2007): 28–45.
External links
Organizations
* [http://www.arthurmiller.org/ Arthur Miller official website]
* [http://arthurmillersociety.net Arthur Miller Society]
* [http://arthurmillerfoundation.org/ The Arthur Miller Foundation]
Archive
* [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00786 Arthur Miller Papers] at the Harry Ransom Center
* [http://sites.utexas.edu/ransomcentermagazine/2018/01/09/playwright-arthur-millers-archive-comes-to-the-harry-ransom-center/ "Playwright Arthur Miller's archive comes to the Harry Ransom Center"]
* [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079107 Finding aid to Arthur Miller papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.]
Databases
*
*
*
Websites
*
*
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040112/miller/ A Visit With Castro] – Miller's article in The Nation, January 12, 2004
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110504062331/http://www.usfca.edu/jco/arthurmiller/ Joyce Carol Oates on Arthur Miller]
* [http://www.biography.com/people/arthur-miller-9408335 Arthur Miller Biography]
*[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/arthur-miller/mccarthyism/484/ Arthur Miller and Mccarthyism]
Interviews
*
*
* [http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/miller/interview.html Miller interview], Humanities, March–April 2001
Obituaries
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/theater/newsandfeatures/11cnd-miller.html The New York Times Obituary]
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4495305 NPR obituary]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/books/02/11/obit.miller/ CNN obituary]
}}
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Category:American opera librettists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.249904 |
2313 | Anton Diabelli | 210px|thumb|Anton Diabelli, lithograph by Josef Kriehuber
Anton (or Antonio) Diabelli (5 September 17818 April 1858) was an Austrian music publisher, editor and composer. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the waltz on which Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his set of thirty-three Diabelli Variations.
Early life
Diabelli was born in Mattsee in Austria, then in the Archbishopric of Salzburg. A musical child, he sang in the boys' choir at Salzburg Cathedral where he is believed to have taken music lessons with Michael Haydn. By the age of 19 Diabelli had already composed several important compositions including six masses.
Diabelli was trained to enter the priesthood and in 1800 joined the monastery at Raitenhaslach, Bavaria. and published much music by Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss. In 1872 the firm was taken over by Friedrich Schreiber and in 1876 it merged with the firm of August Cranz who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name.
Diabelli died in Vienna at the age of 76.
Compositions
Diabelli composed a number of well-known Classical works, including an operetta called Adam in der Klemme, several masses, songs and numerous piano and classical guitar pieces. Numerically his guitar pieces form the largest part of his works. His pieces for piano four hands are popular.
Diabelli's composition Pleasures of Youth: Six Sonatinas is a collection of six sonatinas depicting a struggle between unknown opposing forces. This is suggested by the sharp and frequent change in dynamics from forte to piano. When forte is indicated the pianist is meant to evoke a sense of wickedness, thus depicting the antagonist. In contrast the markings of piano represent the protagonist.
Diabelli Variations
The composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of an adventuring story. In 1819, as a promotional idea, he decided to try to publish a volume of variations on a "patriotic" waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. The combined contributions would be published in an anthology called Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Fifty-one composers responded with pieces, including Beethoven, Schubert, Archduke Rudolph of Austria, Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart (jun.), Moritz, Prince of Dietrichstein, Heinrich Eduard Josef Baron von Lannoy, Ignaz Franz Baron von Mosel, Carl Czerny, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, Simon Sechter, and the eight-year-old Franz Liszt (although it seems Liszt was not invited personally, but his teacher Czerny arranged for him to be involved). Czerny was also enlisted to write a coda. Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided 33, and his formed Part I of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the Diabelli Variations, Op. 120. The other 50 variations were published as Part II of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein.
See also
Romantic guitar
References
Published music and further reading
Anton Diabelli's guitar works – a thematic catalogue with an introduction; Doctoral Thesis by Jukka Savijoki (Sibelius Academy; 1996)
Anton Diabelli's Guitar Works: A Thematic Catalogue by Jukka Savijoki (Editions Orphée)
Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark
Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden
www.karadar.com/Dictionary/diabelli.html
Free scores at the Mutopia Project
External links
Category:1781 births
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Category:People from Salzburg-Umgebung District
Category:People from the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Diabelli | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.255888 |
2314 | Anita Hill | | birth_place = Lone Tree, Oklahoma, U.S.
| death_date | death_place
| education = Oklahoma State University (BS)<br />Yale University (JD)
| employer = Brandeis University
}}
Anita Faye Hill (born July 30, 1956) is an American lawyer, educator and author. She is a professor of social policy, law, and women's studies at Brandeis University and a faculty member of the university's Heller School for Social Policy and Management. Hill received her bachelor's degree in psychology in 1977 from Oklahoma State University. In 1980, she earned her Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in New Haven, Connecticut.
Early career
Hill was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1980 and began her law career as an associate with the Washington, D.C. firm of Wald, Harkrader & Ross. In 1981, she became an attorney-adviser to Clarence Thomas, who was then the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1982, Hill served as his assistant, leaving the job in 1983.
Hill then became an assistant professor at the Evangelical Christian O. W. Coburn School of Law at Oral Roberts University where she taught from 1983 to 1986. Allegations of sexual harassment against Clarence Thomas
In 1991, President George H. W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a federal circuit judge, to succeed retiring Associate Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Senate hearings on his confirmation were initially completed When questioned on why she followed Thomas to the second job after he had already allegedly harassed her, she said working in a reputable position within the civil rights field had been her ambition. The position was appealing enough to keep her from going back into private practice with her previous firm. She said that she realized only later in her life that the choice had represented poor judgment on her part, but that "at that time, it appeared that the sexual overtures... had ended."
Four female witnesses waited in the wings to support Hill's credibility, but they were not called,
Hill agreed to take a polygraph test. While senators and other authorities observed that polygraph results cannot be relied upon and are inadmissible in courts, Hill's results did support her statements. After interviewing a number of women who alleged that Thomas had frequently subjected them to sexually explicit remarks, The Wall Street Journal reporters Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson wrote, Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas, a book that concluded that Thomas had lied during his confirmation process.
The manner in which the Senate Judiciary Committee challenged and dismissed Hill's accusations of sexual harassment angered female politicians and lawyers. On June 13, 2019, Hill clarified that she did not consider Biden's actions disqualifying, and would be open to voting for him. In May 2020, Hill argued that sexual assault allegations made against Donald Trump as well as the sexual assault allegation against Biden should be investigated and their results "made available to the public."
On September 5, 2020, it was reported that Hill had vowed to vote for Biden and to work with him on gender issues. Continued work and advocacy Hill continued to teach at the University of Oklahoma, though she spent two years as a visiting professor in California. She resigned her post in October 1996 and finished her final semester of teaching there. In her final semester, she taught a law school seminar on civil rights. An endowed chair was created in her name, but was later defunded without ever having been filled. In 2011, Hill published her second book, Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home, which focuses on the sub-prime lending crisis that resulted in the foreclosure of many homes owned by African-Americans.
On December 16, 2017, the Commission on Sexual Harassment and Advancing Equality in the Workplace was formed, selecting Hill to lead its charge against sexual harassment in the entertainment industry. The new initiative was spearheaded by co-chair of the Nike Foundation Maria Eitel, venture capitalist Freada Kapor Klein, Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and talent attorney Nina Shaw. The report found not only a saddening prevalence of continued bias but also stark differences in how varying demographics perceived discrimination and harassment.
In September 2018, Hill wrote an op-ed in The New York Times regarding sexual assault allegations made by Christine Blasey Ford during the Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination. On November 8, 2018, Anita Hill spoke at the USC Dornsife's event, "From Social Movement to Social Impact: Putting an End to Sexual Harassment in the Workplace". Writings
In 1994, Hill wrote a tribute to Thurgood Marshall, the first African American Supreme Court Justice who preceded Clarence Thomas, titled "A Tribute to Thurgood Marshall: A Man Who Broke with Tradition on Issues of Race and Gender". She outlined Marshall's contributions to the principles of equality as a judge and how his work has affected the lives of African Americans, specifically African American women.
On October 20, 1998, Hill published the book Speaking Truth to Power. Throughout much of the book she gives details on her side of the sexual harassment controversy, and her professional relationship with Clarence Thomas. Aside from that, she also provides a glimpse of what her personal life was like all the way from her childhood days growing up in Oklahoma to her position as a law professor. She wrote about women judges and why, in her opinion, they play such a large role in balancing the judicial system. She argues that since women and men have different life experiences, ways of thinking, and histories, both are needed for a balanced court system. She writes that in order for the best law system to be created in the United States, all people need the ability to be represented.
In 2011, Hill's second book, Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home was published. She discusses the relationship between the home and the American Dream. She also exposes the inequalities within gender and race and home ownership. She argues that inclusive democracy is more important than debates about legal rights. She uses her own history and history of other African American women such as Nannie Helen Burroughs, in order to strengthen her argument for reimagining equality altogether.
On September 28, 2021, Hill published the book Believing: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence. Awards and recognition Hill received the American Bar Association's Commission on Women in the Profession's "Women of Achievement" award in 1992. In 2005, Hill was selected as a Fletcher Foundation Fellow. In 2008 she was awarded the Louis P. and Evelyn Smith First Amendment Award On January 7, 2017, Hill was inducted as an honorary member of Zeta Phi Beta sorority at their National Executive Board Meeting in Dallas, Texas. The Wing's Washington, D.C. location has a phone booth dedicated to Hill.
Minor planet 6486 Anitahill, discovered by Eleanor Helin, is named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019 ().
Honorary doctorates
* 2001: Simmons University
* 2001: Dillard University
* 2019: Lesley University The following season in the episode "The Odyssey", the characters imagined what would happen if new president Bill Clinton nominated Anita Hill to the Supreme Court to sit next to Clarence Thomas.
* Hill is referenced in the 1992 Sonic Youth song "Youth Against Fascism."
* Her case also inspired the 1994 Law & Order episode "Virtue", about a young lawyer who feels pressured to sleep with her supervisor at her law firm.
* In the 1996 television film, Hostile Advances: The Kerry Ellison Story, Anita Hill's testimony is being watched at the bar by main character Kerry Ellison. The film is a true story about a landmark sexual harassment case.
* Anita Hill is mentioned in The X-Files episode "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man", which aired November 17, 1996.
* In the 1996 film Jerry Maguire, after Tom Cruise's character makes a pass at his employee (played by Renee Zellweger), he apologizes with, "I feel like Clarence Thomas."
* In 1999, Ernest Dickerson directed Strange Justice, a film based on the Anita Hill–Clarence Thomas controversy.
* Anita Hill is interviewed – unrelated to the Clarence Thomas case – about the film The Tin Drum in the documentary Banned in Oklahoma'' (2004), included in The Criterion Collection DVD of the film (2004).
* Hill's testimony is briefly shown in the 2005 film North Country about the first class action lawsuit surrounding sexual harassment.
* Hill was the subject of the 2013 documentary film Anita by director Freida Lee Mock, which chronicles her experience during the Clarence Thomas scandal.
* The actor Kerry Washington portrayed Hill in the 2016 HBO film Confirmation.
* In 2018, entertainer John Oliver interviewed Hill on his television program Last Week Tonight during which Hill answered various questions and concerns about workplace sexual harassment in the present day.
* Hill has been interviewed by Stephen Colbert on The Late Show twice, once in 2018 and again in 2021. See also
* Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination
* Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination
* Christine Blasey Ford
References
External links
* [http://www.heller.brandeis.edu/faculty/guide.php?emplid=e69d2f368b67d963832f9d1d8a5b8a07c6e976d5 Faculty profile at Brandeis University]
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112090036/http://forum-network.org/lecture/anita-hill-reimagining-gender-race-and-finding-home Audio lecture: Anita Hill discusses Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home] on October 4, 2011, on Forum Network.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181208175629/http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/hillframe.htm An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy] at Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media
* [https://library.search.tulane.edu/discovery/fulldisplay?docidalma9911697913806326&contextL&vid01TUL_INST:Tulane&langen&search_scopeMyInst_and_CI&adaptorLocal%20Search%20Engine&tabEverything&queryany,contains,anita%20hill&offset=0 African American women speak out on Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas]
* The complete transcripts of the Clarence Thomas--Anita Hill hearings : October 11,12,13, 1991
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Category:20th-century African-American lawyers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Hill | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.282314 |
2315 | August 10 | Events
Pre-1600
* 654 – Pope Eugene I elected to succeed Martinus I.
* 955 – Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor defeats the Magyars, ending 50 years of Magyar invasion of the West.
* 991 – Battle of Maldon: The English, led by Byrhtnoth, Ealdorman of Essex, are defeated by a band of inland-raiding Vikings near Maldon, Essex.
*1030 – The Battle of Azaz ends with a humiliating retreat of the Byzantine emperor, Romanos III Argyros, against the Mirdasid rulers of Aleppo. The retreat degenerates into a rout, in which Romanos himself barely escapes capture.
*1270 – Yekuno Amlak takes the imperial throne of Ethiopia, restoring the Solomonic dynasty to power after a 100-year Zagwe interregnum.
*1316 – The Second Battle of Athenry takes place near Athenry during the Bruce campaign in Ireland.
*1346 – Jaume Ferrer sets out from Majorca for the "River of Gold", the Senegal River.
*1512 – The naval Battle of Saint-Mathieu, during the War of the League of Cambrai, sees the simultaneous destruction of the Breton ship La Cordelière and the English ship The Regent.
*1519 – Ferdinand Magellan's five ships set sail from Seville to circumnavigate the globe. The Basque second-in-command Juan Sebastián Elcano will complete the expedition after Magellan's death in the Philippines.
*1557 – Battle of St. Quentin: Spanish victory over the French in the Italian War of 1551–59.
*1585 – The Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels.
1601–1900
*1628 – The Swedish warship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage off Stockholm.
*1641 – The Treaty of London between England and Scotland, ending the Bishops' Wars, is signed.
*1680 – The Pueblo Revolt begins in New Mexico.
*1741 – King Marthanda Varma of Travancore defeats the Dutch East India Company at the Battle of Colachel, effectively bringing about the end of the Dutch colonial rule in India. <!--The first "major" defeat of a European colonial military power in India-->
*1755 – Under the direction of Charles Lawrence, the British begin to forcibly deport the Acadians from Nova Scotia to the Thirteen Colonies and France.
*1792 – French Revolution: Storming of the Tuileries Palace: Louis XVI is arrested and taken into custody as his Swiss Guards are massacred by the Parisian mob.
*1808 – Finnish War: Swedish forces led by General von Döbeln defeat Russian forces led by General Šepelev in the Battle of Kauhajoki.
*1835 – P. T. Barnum begins his career as a showman and circus entrepreneur by exhibiting Joice Heth, an octogenerian African slave whom he claims was George Washington's nursemaid.
*1856 – The Last Island hurricane strikes Louisiana, resulting in over 200 deaths.
*1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Wilson's Creek: A mixed force of Confederate, Missouri State Guard, and Arkansas State troops defeat outnumbered attacking Union forces in the southwestern part of the state.
*1864 – After Uruguay's governing Blanco Party refuses Brazil's demands, José Antônio Saraiva announces that the Brazilian military will begin reprisals, beginning the Uruguayan War.
1901–present
*1901 – The U.S. Steel recognition strike by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers begins.
*1904 – Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of the Yellow Sea between the Russian and Japanese battleship fleets takes place.
*1905 – Russo-Japanese War: Peace negotiations begin in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
*1913 – Second Balkan War: Delegates from Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece sign the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the war.
*1920 – World War I: Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI's representatives sign the Treaty of Sèvres that divides up the Ottoman Empire between the Allies.
*1937 – Spanish Civil War: The Regional Defence Council of Aragon is dissolved by the Second Spanish Republic.
*1944 – World War II: The Battle of Guam comes to an effective end.
* 1944 – World War II: The Battle of Narva ends with a defensive German victory.
*1945 – The Japanese government announced that a message had been sent to the Allies accepting the terms of the Potsdam Declaration provided that it "does not comprise any demand that prejudices the prerogatives of the Emperor as sovereign ruler."
*1948 – Candid Camera makes its television debut after being on radio for a year as The Candid Microphone.
*1949 – An amendment to the National Security Act of 1947 enhances the authority of the United States Secretary of Defense over the Army, Navy and Air Force, and replaces the National Military Establishment with the Department of Defense.
*1953 – First Indochina War: The French Union withdraws its forces from Operation Camargue against the Viet Minh in central Vietnam.
*1954 – At Massena, New York, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Saint Lawrence Seaway is held.
*1961 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Army begins Operation Ranch Hand, spraying an estimated of defoliants and herbicides over rural areas of South Vietnam in an attempt to deprive the Viet Cong of food and vegetation cover.
*1966 – The Heron Road Bridge collapses while being built, killing nine workers in the deadliest construction accident in both Ottawa and Ontario.
*1969 – A day after murdering Sharon Tate and four others, members of Charles Manson's cult kill Leno and Rosemary LaBianca.
*1971 – The Society for American Baseball Research is founded in Cooperstown, New York.
*1977 – In Yonkers, New York, 24-year-old postal employee David Berkowitz ("Son of Sam") is arrested for a series of killings in the New York City area over the period of one year.
*1978 – Three members of the Ulrich family are killed in an accident. This leads to the Ford Pinto litigation.
*1981 – Murder of Adam Walsh: The head of John Walsh's son is found. This inspires the creation of the television series ''America's Most Wanted and the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.
*1988 – Japanese American internment: U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, providing $20,000 payments to Japanese Americans who were either interned in or relocated by the United States during World War II.
*1990 – The Magellan space probe reaches Venus.
*1993 – Two earthquakes affect New Zealand. A 7.0 shock (intensity VI (Strong)) in the South Island was followed nine hours later by a 6.4 event (intensity VII (Very strong)) in the North Island.
*1995 – Oklahoma City bombing: Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols are indicted for the bombing. Michael Fortier pleads guilty in a plea-bargain for his testimony.
*1997 – Sixteen people are killed when Formosa Airlines Flight 7601 crashes near Beigan Airport in the Matsu Islands of Taiwan.
*1998 – HRH Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah is proclaimed the crown prince of Brunei with a Royal Proclamation.
*1999 – Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting.
*2001 – The 2001 Angola train attack occurred, causing 252 deaths.
* 2001 – Space Shuttle program: The Space Shuttle Discovery'' is launched on STS-105 to the International Space Station, carrying the astronauts of Expedition 3 to replace the crew of Expedition 2.
*2003 – The Okinawa Urban Monorail is opened in Naha, Okinawa.
*2009 – Twenty people are killed in Handlová, Trenčín Region, in the deadliest mining disaster in Slovakia's history.
*2012 – The Marikana massacre begins near Rustenburg, South Africa, resulting in the deaths of 47 people.
*2014 – Forty people are killed when Sepahan Airlines Flight 5915 crashes at Tehran's Mehrabad International Airport.
*2018 – Horizon Air employee Richard Russell hijacks and performs an unauthorized takeoff on a Horizon Air Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 plane at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in Washington, flying it for more than an hour before crashing the plane and killing himself on Ketron Island in Puget Sound.
* 2018 – An anti-government rally turns into a riot when members of the Romanian Gendarmerie attack the 100,000 people protesting in front of the Victoria Palace, leading to 452 recorded injuries. The authorities alleged that the crowd was infiltrated by hooligans who began attacking law enforcement agents.
*2019 – Thirty-two are killed and one million are evacuated as Typhoon Lekima makes landfall in Zhejiang, China. Earlier it had caused flooding in the Philippines.
*2019 – Philip Manshaus shoots his stepsister and attacks a mosque in the Bærum mosque shooting.
*2020 – Derecho in Iowa becomes the most costly thunderstorm disaster in U.S. history.
*2024 – Israel strikes Al-Tabaeen school in eastern Gaza City, killing at least 80 Palestinians.
Births
Pre-1600
* 941 – Lê Hoàn, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1005)
*1267 – James II of Aragon (d. 1327)
*1296 – John of Bohemia (d. 1346)
*1360 – Francesco Zabarella, Italian cardinal (d. 1417)
*1397 – Albert II of Germany (d. 1439)
*1439 – Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Duchess of York (d. 1476)
*1449 – Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1503)
*1466 – Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (d. 1519)
*1489 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German lawyer and politician (d. 1553)
*1520 – Madeleine of Valois (d. 1537)
*1528 – Eric II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1584)
*1547 – Francis II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1619)
*1560 – Hieronymus Praetorius, German organist and composer (d. 1629)1601–1900
*1602 – Gilles de Roberval, French mathematician and academic (d. 1675)
*1645 – Eusebio Kino, Italian priest and missionary (d. 1711)
*1734 – Naungdawgyi, Burmese king (d. 1763)
*1737 – Anton Losenko, Russian painter and academic (d. 1773)
*1740 – Samuel Arnold, English organist and composer (d. 1802)
*1744 – Alexandrine Le Normant d'Étiolles, daughter of Madame de Pompadour (d. 1754)
*1755 – Narayan Rao, fifth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire (d. 1773)
*1782 – Vicente Guerrero, Mexican insurgent leader and President of Mexico (d. 1831)
*1805 – Ferenc Toldy, German-Hungarian historian and critic (d. 1875)
*1809 – John Kirk Townsend, American ornithologist and explorer (d. 1851)
*1810 – Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Italian soldier and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1861)
*1814 – Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (d. 1890)
* 1814 – John C. Pemberton, United States soldier and Confederate general (d. 1881)
*1821 – Jay Cooke, American financier, founded Jay Cooke & Company (d. 1905)
*1823 – Hugh Stowell Brown, English minister and reformer (d. 1886)
*1825 – István Türr, Hungarian soldier, architect, and engineer, co-designed the Corinth Canal (d. 1908)
*1827 – Lovro Toman, Slovenian lawyer and politician (d. 1870)
*1839 – Aleksandr Stoletov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1896)
*1845 – Abai Qunanbaiuli, Kazakh poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1904)
*1848 – William Harnett, Irish-American painter and educator (d. 1892)
*1856 – William Willett, English inventor, founded British Summer Time (d. 1915)
*1860 – Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Indian singer and musicologist (d. 1936)
*1865 – Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1936)
*1868 – Hugo Eckener, German pilot and businessman (d. 1954)
*1869 – Laurence Binyon, English poet, playwright, and scholar (d. 1943)
*1870 – Trần Tế Xương, Vietnamese poet and satirist (d. 1907)
*1872 – William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (d. 1972)
*1874 – Herbert Hoover, American engineer and politician, 31st President of the United States (d. 1964)
*1874 – Antanas Smetona, Lithuanian jurist and politician, President of Lithuania (d. 1944)
*1877 – Frank Marshall, American chess player and author (d. 1944)
*1878 – Alfred Döblin, Polish-German physician and author (d. 1957)
*1880 – Robert L. Thornton, American businessman and politician, Mayor of Dallas (d. 1964)
*1884 – Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (d. 1935)
*1888 – Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark (d. 1940)
*1889 – Charles Darrow, American game designer, created Monopoly (d. 1967)
* 1889 – Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, Polish writer and member of the WW II Polish Resistance (d. 1968)
*1890 – Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1954)
*1894 – V. V. Giri, Indian lawyer and politician, 4th President of India (d. 1980)
*1895 – Hammy Love, Australian cricketer (d. 1969)
*1897 – John W. Galbreath, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Darby Dan Farm (d. 1988)
* 1897 – Jack Haley, American actor and singer (d. 1979)
*1900 – Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt, New Zealand physician and politician, 11th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1994)
1901–present
*1902 – Norma Shearer, Canadian-American actress (d. 1983)
* 1902 – Curt Siodmak, German-English author and screenwriter (d. 2000)
* 1902 – Arne Tiselius, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
*1903 – Ward Moore, American author (d. 1978)
*1905 – Era Bell Thompson, American journalist and author (d. 1986)
*1907 – Su Yu, Chinese general and politician (d. 1984)
*1908 – Rica Erickson, Australian botanist, historian, and author (d. 2009)
* 1908 – Billy Gonsalves, American soccer player (d. 1977)
*1909 – Leo Fender, American businessman, founded Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (d. 1991)
* 1909 – Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (d. 1992)
*1910 – Guy Mairesse, French racing driver (d. 1954)
*1911 – Leonidas Andrianopoulos, Greek footballer (d. 2011)
* 1911 – A. N. Sherwin-White, English historian and author (d. 1993)
*1912 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (d. 2001)
*1913 – Noah Beery Jr., American actor (d. 1994)
* 1913 – Kalevi Kotkas, Estonian-Finnish high jumper and discus thrower (d. 1983)
* 1913 – Wolfgang Paul, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)
*1914 – Jeff Corey, American actor and director (d. 2002)
* 1914 – Carlos Menditeguy, Argentinian racing driver and polo player (d. 1973)
* 1914 – Ray Smith, English cricketer (d. 1996)
*1918 – Eugene P. Wilkinson, American admiral (d. 2013)
*1920 – Red Holzman, American basketball player and coach (d. 1998)
*1922 – Al Alberts, American pop singer and composer (d. 2009)
*1923 – Bill Doolittle, American football player and coach (d. 2014)
* 1923 – Rhonda Fleming, American actress (d. 2020)
* 1923 – Fred Ridgway, English cricketer and footballer (d. 2015)
* 1923 – SM Sultan, Bangladeshi painter and illustrator (d. 1994)
*1924 – Nancy Buckingham, English author (d. 2022)
* 1924 – Martha Hyer, American actress (d. 2014)
* 1924 – Jean-François Lyotard, French philosopher, sociologist, and literary theorist (d. 1998)
*1925 – George Cooper, English general (d. 2020)
*1926 – Marie-Claire Alain, French organist and educator (d. 2013)
* 1926 – Carol Ruth Vander Velde, American mathematician (d. 1972)
*1927 – Jimmy Martin, American singer and guitarist (d. 2005)
* 1927 – Vernon Washington, American actor (d. 1988)
*1928 – Jimmy Dean, American singer, actor, and businessman, founded the Jimmy Dean Food Company (d. 2010)
* 1928 – Eddie Fisher, American singer and actor (d. 2010)
* 1928 – Gerino Gerini, Italian racing driver (d. 2013)
* 1928 – Gus Mercurio, American-Australian actor (d. 2010)
*1930 – Barry Unsworth, English-Italian author and academic (d. 2012)
*1931 – Dolores Alexander, American journalist and activist (d. 2008)
* 1931 – Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
*1932 – Alexander Goehr, English composer and academic
* 1932 – Gaudencio Rosales, Filipino cardinal
*1933 – Doyle Brunson, American poker player (d. 2023)
* 1933 – Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss, English lawyer and judge
* 1933 – Rocky Colavito, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2024)
* 1933 – Keith Duckworth, English engineer, founded Cosworth (d. 2005)
*1934 – Tevfik Kış, Turkish wrestler and trainer (d. 2019)
*1935 – Ian Stewart, Baron Stewartby, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces (d. 2018)
* 1935 – Ad van Luyn, Dutch bishop
*1936 – Malene Schwartz, Danish actress
*1937 – Anatoly Sobchak, Russian scholar and politician, Mayor of Saint Petersburg (d. 2000)
*1938 – Tony Ross, English author and illustrator
*1939 – Kate O'Mara, English actress (d. 2014)
* 1939 – Charlie Rose, American lawyer and politician (d. 2012)
*1940 – Bobby Hatfield, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)
* 1940 – Sid Waddell, English sportscaster (d. 2012)
*1941 – Anita Lonsbrough, English swimmer and journalist
* 1941 – Susan Dorothea White, Australian painter and sculptor
*1942 – Speedy Duncan, American football player (d. 2021)
* 1942 – Betsey Johnson, American fashion designer
* 1942 – Michael Pepper, English physicist and engineer
*1943 – Louise Forestier, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress
* 1943 – Jimmy Griffin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)
* 1943 – Michael Mantler, American trumpet player and composer
* 1943 – Shafqat Rana, Indian-Pakistani cricketer
* 1943 – Ronnie Spector, American singer-songwriter (d. 2022)
*1947 – Ian Anderson, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1947 – Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysian academic and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Malaysia
* 1947 – John Spencer, English rugby player and manager
* 1947 – Alan Ward, English cricketer
*1948 – Nick Stringer, English actor
*1950 – Patti Austin, American singer-songwriter
*1951 – Juan Manuel Santos, Colombian businessman and politician, 59th President of Colombia
*1952 – Daniel Hugh Kelly, American actor
* 1952 – Diane Venora, American actress
*1954 – Peter Endrulat, German footballer
* 1954 – Rick Overton, American screenwriter, actor and comedian
*1955 – Thomas Kidd, American illustrator
* 1955 – Jim Mees, American set designer (d. 2013)
* 1955 – Mel Tiangco, Filipino journalist and talk show host
* 1955 – Rainer Wimmer, Austrian politician
*1956 – Dianne Fromholtz, Australian tennis player
* 1956 – José Luis Montes, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2013)
* 1956 – Fred Ottman, American wrestler
* 1956 – Charlie Peacock, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer
* 1956 – Perween Warsi, Indian-English businesswoman
*1957 – Fred Ho, American saxophonist, composer, and playwright (d. 2014)
* 1957 – Andres Põime, Estonian architect
* 1957 – Aqeel Abbas Jafari, Pakistani writer, poet, architect and chief editor Urdu Dictionary Board
*1958 – Michael Dokes, American boxer (d. 2012)
* 1958 – Jack Richards, English cricketer, coach, and manager
* 1958 – Rosie Winterton, English nurse and politician, Shadow Leader of the House of Commons
*1959 – Rosanna Arquette, American actress, director, and producer
* 1959 – Albert Owen, Welsh sailor and politician
* 1959 – Mark Price, English drummer
* 1959 – Florent Vollant, Canadian singer-songwriter
*1960 – Antonio Banderas, Spanish actor and producer
* 1960 – Annely Ojastu, Estonian sprinter and long jumper
* 1960 – Kenny Perry, American golfer
*1961 – Jon Farriss, Australian drummer, songwriter, and producer
*1962 – Suzanne Collins, American author and screenwriter
* 1962 – Julia Fordham, English singer-songwriter
*1963 – Phoolan Devi, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 2001)
* 1963 – Anton Janssen, Dutch footballer and coach
* 1963 – Andrew Sullivan, English-American journalist and author
* 1963 – Henrik Fisker, Danish automotive designer and businessman
*1964 – Aaron Hall, American singer-songwriter
* 1964 – Kåre Kolve, Norwegian saxophonist and composer
* 1964 – Hiro Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)
*1965 – Claudia Christian, American actress, singer, writer, and director
* 1965 – Pat Pitney, American university leader and sport shooter
* 1965 – Mike E. Smith, American jockey and sportscaster
* 1965 – John Starks, American basketball player and coach
*1966 – Charlie Dimmock, English gardener and television host
* 1966 – Hansi Kürsch, German singer-songwriter and bass player
* 1966 – Hossam Hassan, Egyptian footballer and manager
*1967 – Philippe Albert, Belgian footballer and sportscaster
* 1967 – Riddick Bowe, American boxer
* 1967 – Todd Nichols, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1967 – Reinout Scholte, Dutch cricketer
*1968 – Michael Bivins, American singer and producer
* 1968 – Greg Hawgood, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1969 – Emily Symons, Australian actress
* 1969 – Brian Drummond, Canadian voice actor
*1970 – Doug Flach, American tennis player
* 1970 – Bret Hedican, American ice hockey player and sportscaster
* 1970 – Brendon Julian, New Zealand-Australian cricketer and journalist
* 1970 – Steve Mautone, Australian footballer and coach
*1971 – Sal Fasano, American baseball player and coach
* 1971 – Stephan Groth, Danish singer-songwriter
* 1971 – Roy Keane, Irish footballer and manager
* 1971 – Mario Kindelán, Cuban boxer
* 1971 – Paul Newlove, English rugby player
* 1971 – Kevin Randleman, American mixed martial artist and wrestler (d. 2016)
* 1971 – Justin Theroux, American actor
*1972 – Dilana, South African singer-songwriter and actress
* 1972 – Lawrence Dallaglio, English rugby player and sportscaster
* 1972 – Angie Harmon, American model and actress
* 1972 – Christofer Johnsson, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1973 – Lisa Raymond, American tennis player
* 1973 – Javier Zanetti, Argentinian footballer
*1974 – Haifaa al-Mansour, Saudi Arabian director and producer
* 1974 – Luis Marín, Costa Rican footballer and manager
* 1974 – Rachel Simmons, American scholar and author
* 1974 – David Sommeil, French footballer
*1975 – İlhan Mansız, Turkish footballer and figure skater
*1976 – Roadkill, American wrestler
* 1976 – Ian Murray, Scottish businessman and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland
*1977 – Danny Griffin, Irish footballer
* 1977 – Matt Morgan, English comedian, actor, and radio host
*1978 – Danny Allsopp, Australian footballer
* 1978 – Marcus Fizer, American basketball player
* 1978 – Chris Read, English cricketer
*1979 – Dinusha Fernando, Sri Lankan cricketer
* 1979 – JoAnna Garcia Swisher, American actress
*1983 – Kyle Brown, American soccer player
* 1983 – C. B. Dollaway, American mixed martial artist
* 1983 – Héctor Faubel, Spanish motorcycle racer
* 1983 – Alexander Perezhogin, Russian ice hockey player
* 1983 – Mathieu Roy, Canadian ice hockey player
*1984 – Ryan Eggold, American actor and composer
* 1984 – Mokomichi Hayami, Japanese model and actor
* 1984 – Jigar Naik, English cricketer
* 1984 – Matt Prater, American football player
*1985 – Enrico Cortese, Italian footballer
* 1985 – Roy O'Donovan, Irish footballer
* 1985 – Kakuryū Rikisaburō, Mongolian sumo wrestler
* 1985 – Julia Skripnik, Estonian tennis player
*1986 – Andrea Hlaváčková, Czech tennis player
*1987 – Jim Bakkum, Dutch singer and actor
* 1987 – Ari Boyland, New Zealand actor and singer
*1989 – Sam Gagner, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1989 – Ben Sahar, Israeli footballer
* 1989 – Brenton Thwaites, Australian actor
*1990 – Cruze Ah-Nau, Australian rugby player
* 1990 – Lee Sung-kyung, South Korean model, actress, and singer
* 1990 – Lucas Till, American actor
*1992 – Michelle Khare, American YouTuber and television host
* 1992 – Oliver Rowland, English racing driver
*1993 – Andre Drummond, American basketball player
*1994 – Bernardo Silva, Portuguese footballer
*1995 – Dalvin Cook, American football player
*1996 – Lauren Tait, Scottish netball player
*1997 – Kylie Jenner, American television personality and businesswoman
*1997 – Luca Marini, Italian motorcycle rider
*1999 – Ja Morant, American basketball player
* 1999 – Ritomo Miyata, Japanese racing driver
* 1999 – Nick Suzuki, Canadian ice hockey player
*2000 – Sophia Smith, American soccer player
*2000 – Jüri Vips, Estonian racing driver
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 258 – Lawrence of Rome, Spanish-Italian deacon and saint (b. 225)
* 794 – Fastrada, Frankish noblewoman (b. 765)
* 796 – Eanbald, archbishop of York
* 847 – Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (b. 816)
* 955 – Conrad ('the Red'), duke of Lorraine
*1241 – Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany (b. 1184)
*1250 – Eric IV of Denmark (b. 1216)
*1284 – Tekuder, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate
*1316 – Felim mac Aedh Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht
*1322 – John of La Verna, Italian ascetic (b. 1259)
*1410 – Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1337)
*1535 – Ippolito de' Medici, Italian cardinal (b. 1509)
*1536 – Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Dauphin of France, Brother of Henry II (b. 1518)
1601–1900
*1653 – Maarten Tromp, Dutch admiral (b. 1598)
*1655 – Alfonso de la Cueva, 1st Marquis of Bedmar, Spanish cardinal and diplomat (b. 1572)
*1660 – Esmé Stewart, 2nd Duke of Richmond (b. 1649)
*1723 – Guillaume Dubois, French cardinal and politician, French Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1656)
*1759 – Ferdinand VI of Spain (b. 1713)
*1784 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish-English painter (b. 1713)
*1796 – Ignaz Anton von Indermauer, Austrian nobleman and government official (b. 1759)
*1802 – Franz Aepinus, German-Russian philosopher and academic (b. 1724)
*1806 – Michael Haydn, Austrian composer and educator (b. 1737)
*1839 – Sir John St Aubyn, 5th Baronet, English lawyer and politician (b. 1758)
*1862 – Hon'inbō Shūsaku, Japanese Go player (b. 1829)
*1875 – Karl Andree, German geographer and journalist (b. 1808)
*1889 – Arthur Böttcher, German pathologist and anatomist (b. 1831)
*1890 – John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish-born poet, journalist and fiction writer (b. 1844)
*1896 – Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (b. 1848)
1901–present
*1904 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (b. 1846)
*1913 – Johannes Linnankoski, Finnish author (b. 1869)
*1915 – Henry Moseley, English physicist and engineer (b. 1887)
*1916 – John J. Loud, American inventor (b. 1844)
*1918 – Erich Löwenhardt, German lieutenant and pilot (b. 1897)
*1920 – Ádám Politzer, Hungarian-Austrian physician and academic (b. 1835)
*1922 – Reginald Dunne, Irish Republican, executed for the killing of Sir Henry Wilson
*1922 – Joseph O'Sullivan, Irish Republican, executed for the killing of Sir Henry Wilson
*1929 – Pierre Fatou, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1878)
* 1929 – Aletta Jacobs, Dutch physician (b. 1854)
*1932 – Rin Tin Tin, American acting dog (b. 1918)
*1933 – Alf Morgans, Welsh-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1850)
*1945 – Robert H. Goddard, American physicist and engineer (b. 1882)
*1948 – Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese-American historian, author, and academic (b. 1873)
* 1948 – Andrew Brown, Scottish footballer and coach (b. 1870)
* 1948 – Montague Summers, English clergyman and author (b. 1880)
*1949 – Homer Burton Adkins, American chemist (b. 1892)
*1954 – Robert Adair, American-born British actor (b. 1900)
*1958 – Frank Demaree, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910)
*1960 – Hamide Ayşe Sultan, Ottoman princess (b. 1887)
*1961 – Julia Peterkin, American author (b. 1880)
*1963 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (b. 1903)
* 1963 – Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and jurist (b. 1877)
*1969 – János Kodolányi, Hungarian author (b. 1899)
*1976 – Bert Oldfield, Australian cricketer (b. 1894)
*1979 – Dick Foran, American actor and singer (b. 1910)
* 1979 – Walter Gerlach, German physicist and academic (b. 1889)
*1980 – Yahya Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 3rd President of Pakistan (b. 1917)
*1982 – Anderson Bigode Herzer, Brazilian author and poet (b. 1962)
*1985 – Nate Barragar, American football player and sergeant (b. 1906)
*1987 – Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas, Greek lawyer and politician, 163rd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1893)
*1991 – Lưu Trọng Lư, Vietnamese poet and playwright (b. 1912)
*1993 – Euronymous, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer (b. 1968)
*1997 – Jean-Claude Lauzon, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1953)
* 1997 – Conlon Nancarrow, American-Mexican pianist and composer (b. 1912)
*1999 – Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television presenter (b. 1928)
* 1999 – Baldev Upadhyaya, Indian historian, scholar, and critic (b. 1899)
*2000 – Gilbert Parkhouse, Welsh cricketer and rugby player (b. 1925)
*2001 – Lou Boudreau, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
*2002 – Michael Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1962)
* 2002 – Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and politician (b. 1926)
*2007 – Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1925)
* 2007 – James E. Faust, American lawyer and religious leader (b. 1920)
* 2007 – Jean Rédélé, French race car driver and pilot, founded Alpine (b. 1922)
* 2007 – Tony Wilson, English journalist, producer, and manager, co-founded Factory Records (b. 1950)
*2008 – Isaac Hayes, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor (b. 1942)
*2010 – Markus Liebherr, German-Swiss businessman (b. 1948)
* 2010 – Adam Stansfield, English footballer (b. 1978)
* 2010 – David L. Wolper, American director and producer (b. 1928)
*2011 – Billy Grammer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1925)
*2012 – Philippe Bugalski, French race car driver (b. 1963)
* 2012 – Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (b. 1916)
* 2012 – Irving Fein, American producer and manager (b. 1911)
* 2012 – William W. Momyer, American general and pilot (b. 1916)
* 2012 – Carlo Rambaldi, Italian special effects artist (b. 1925)
*2013 – William P. Clark Jr., American judge and politician, 12th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1931)
* 2013 – Jonathan Dawson, Australian historian and academic (b. 1941)
* 2013 – Eydie Gormé, American singer and actress (b. 1928)
* 2013 – David C. Jones, American general (b. 1921)
* 2013 – Jody Payne, American singer and guitarist (b. 1936)
* 2013 – Amy Wallace, American author (b. 1955)
*2014 – Jim Command, American baseball player and scout (b. 1928)
* 2014 – Dotty Lynch, American journalist and academic (b. 1945)
* 2014 – Kathleen Ollerenshaw, English mathematician, astronomer, and politician, Lord Mayor of Manchester (b. 1912)
* 2014 – Bob Wiesler, American baseball player (b. 1930)
*2015 – Buddy Baker, American race car driver and sportscaster (b. 1941)
* 2015 – Endre Czeizel, Hungarian physician, geneticist, and academic (b. 1935)
* 2015 – Knut Osnes, Norwegian footballer and coach (b. 1922)
* 2015 – Eriek Verpale, Belgian author and poet (b. 1952)
*2017 – Ruth Pfau, German-Pakistani doctor and nun (b. 1929)
*2019 – Jeffrey Epstein, American financier (b. 1953)
*2021 – Tony Esposito, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1943)
*2022 – Vesa-Matti Loiri, Finnish actor, musician and comedian (b. 1945)
*2024 – Rachael Lillis, American voice actress and scriptwriter (b. 1978)
*2024 – Peggy Moffitt, American model and actress (b. 1937)
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina)
* Christian feast day:
** Bessus
** Blane (Roman Catholic Church)
** Geraint of Dumnonia
** Lawrence of Rome
** Nicola Saggio
** Nuestra Señora del Buen Suceso de Parañaque, Patroness of Parañaque, Philippines
** August 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Declaration of Independence of Quito, proclaimed independence from Spain on August 10, 1809. Independence was finally attained on May 24, 1822, at the Battle of Pichincha. (Ecuador)
* International Biodiesel Day
* National Veterans Day (Indonesia)
* World Lion DayReferencesExternal links
*
*
*
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_10 | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.343661 |
2316 | Audio file format | thumb|Audio file icons of various formats
An audio file format is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system. The bit layout of the audio data (excluding metadata) is called the audio coding format and can be uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size, often using lossy compression. The data can be a raw bitstream in an audio coding format, but it is usually embedded in a container format or an audio data format with defined storage layer.
Format types
It is important to distinguish between the audio coding format, the container containing the raw audio data, and an audio codec. A codec performs the encoding and decoding of the raw audio data while this encoded data is (usually) stored in a container file. Although most audio file formats support only one type of audio coding data (created with an audio coder), a multimedia container format (as Matroska or AVI) may support multiple types of audio and video data.
There are three major groups of audio file formats:
Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF, AU or raw header-less PCM; Note wav can alternatively use compression.
Formats with lossless compression, such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio (filename extension .ape), WavPack (filename extension .wv), TTA, ATRAC Advanced Lossless, ALAC, MPEG-4 SLS, MPEG-4 ALS, MPEG-4 DST, Windows Media Audio Lossless (WMA Lossless), and Shorten (SHN).
Formats with lossy compression, such as Opus, MP3, Vorbis, Musepack, AAC, ATRAC and Windows Media Audio Lossy (WMA lossy).
Uncompressed audio format
One major uncompressed audio format, LPCM, is the same variety of PCM as used in Compact Disc Digital Audio and is the format most commonly accepted by low level audio APIs and D/A converter hardware. Although LPCM can be stored on a computer as a raw audio format, it is usually stored in a .wav file on Windows or in a .aiff file on macOS. The Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) format is based on the Interchange File Format (IFF), and the WAV format is based on the similar Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF). WAV and AIFF are designed to store a wide variety of audio formats, lossless and lossy; they just add a small, metadata-containing header before the audio data to declare the format of the audio data, such as LPCM with a particular sample rate, bit depth, endianness and number of channels. Since WAV and AIFF are widely supported and can store LPCM, they are suitable file formats for storing and archiving an original recording.
BWF (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the European Broadcasting Union as a successor to WAV. Among other enhancements, BWF allows more robust metadata to be stored in the file. See European Broadcasting Union: Specification of the Broadcast Wave Format (EBU Technical document 3285, July 1997). This is the primary recording format used in many professional audio workstations in the television and film industry. BWF files include a standardized timestamp reference which allows for easy synchronization with a separate picture element. Stand-alone, file based, multi-track recorders from AETA, Sound Devices, Zaxcom, HHB Communications Ltd, Fostex, Nagra, Aaton, and TASCAM all use BWF as their preferred format.
Lossless compressed audio format
A lossless compressed audio format stores data in less space without losing any information. The original, uncompressed data can be recreated from the compressed version.
Uncompressed audio formats encode both sound and silence with the same number of bits per unit of time. Encoding an uncompressed minute of absolute silence produces a file of the same size as encoding an uncompressed minute of music. In a lossless compressed format, however, the music would occupy a smaller file than an uncompressed format and the silence would take up almost no space at all.
Lossless compression formats include FLAC, WavPack, Monkey's Audio, ALAC (Apple Lossless). They provide a compression ratio of about 2:1 (i.e. their files take up half the space of PCM). Development in lossless compression formats aims to reduce processing time while maintaining a good compression ratio.
Lossy compressed audio format
Lossy audio format enables even greater reductions in file size by removing some of the audio information and simplifying the data. This, of course, results in a reduction in audio quality, but a variety of techniques are used, mainly by exploiting psychoacoustics, to remove the parts of the sound that have the least effect on perceived quality, and to minimize the amount of audible noise added during the process. The popular MP3 format is probably the best-known example, but the AAC format found on the iTunes Music Store is also common. Most formats offer a range of degrees of compression, generally measured in bit rate. The lower the rate, the smaller the file and the more significant the quality loss.
List of formats
File Extension Creation Company Description .3gp Multimedia container format can contain proprietary formats as AMR, AMR-WB or AMR-WB+, but also some open formats .aa Audible (Amazon) A low-bitrate audiobook container format with DRM, containing audio encoded as either MP3 or the ACELP speech codec. .aac The Advanced Audio Coding format is based on the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 standards. AAC files are usually ADTS or ADIF containers. .aax Audible (Amazon) An Audiobook format, which is a variable-bitrate (allowing high quality) M4B file encrypted with DRM. MPB contains AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. (More details below.) .act ACT is a lossy ADPCM 8 kbit/s compressed audio format recorded by most Chinese MP3 and MP4 players with a recording function, and voice recorders .aiff Apple A standard uncompressed CD-quality, audio file format used by Apple. Established 3 years prior to Microsoft's uncompressed version wav. .alac Apple An audio coding format developed by Apple Inc. for lossless data compression of digital music. .amr AMR-NB audio, used primarily for speech. .ape Matthew T. Ashland Monkey's Audio lossless audio compression format. .au Sun Microsystems The standard audio file format used by Sun, Unix and Java. The audio in au files can be PCM or compressed with the μ-law, a-law or G.729 codecs. .awb AMR-WB audio, used primarily for speech, same as the ITU-T's G.722.2 specification. .dss Olympus DSS files are an Olympus proprietary format. DSS files use a high compression rate, which reduces the file size and allows files to be copied and transferred quickly. It allows additional data to be held in the file header. .dvf Sony A Sony proprietary format for compressed voice files; commonly used by Sony dictation recorders. .flac A file format for the Free Lossless Audio Codec, an open-source lossless compression codec. .gsm Designed for telephony use in Europe, GSM is used to store telephone voice messages and conversations. With a bitrate of 13 kbit/s, GSM files can compress and encode audio at telephone quality. Note that WAV files can also be encoded with the GSM codec. .iklax iKlax An iKlax Media proprietary format, the iKlax format is a multi-track digital audio format allowing various actions on musical data, for instance on mixing and volumes arrangements. .ivs 3D Solar UK Ltd A proprietary version with DRM developed by 3D Solar UK Ltd for use in music downloaded from their Tronme Music Store and interactive music and video player. .m4a An audio-only MPEG-4 file, used by Apple for unprotected music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store. Audio within the m4a file is typically encoded with AAC, although lossless ALAC may also be used. .m4b An Audiobook / podcast extension with AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. Both M4A and M4B formats can contain metadata including chapter markers, images, and hyperlinks, but M4B allows "bookmarks" (remembering the last listening spot), whereas M4A does not. .m4p Apple A version of AAC with proprietary DRM developed by Apple for use in music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store and their music streaming service known as Apple Music. .mmf Yamaha, Samsung A Samsung audio format that is used in ringtones. Developed by Yamaha (SMAF stands for "Synthetic music Mobile Application Format", and is a multimedia data format invented by the Yamaha Corporation, .mmf file format). .movpkg Apple An Apple audio format primarily used for Lossless and Hi-Res audio files through Apple Music. Also used for storing Apple TV videos. .mp3 MPEG Layer III Audio .mpc Musepack or MPC (formerly known as MPEGplus, MPEG+ or MP+) is an open source lossy audio codec, specifically optimized for transparent compression of stereo audio at bitrates of 160–180 kbit/s. .msv Sony A Sony proprietary format for Memory Stick compressed voice files. .nmfNICENICE Media Player audio file .ogg, .oga, .mogg Xiph.Org Foundation A free, open source container format supporting a variety of formats, the most popular of which is the audio format Vorbis. Vorbis offers compression similar to MP3 but is less popular. Mogg, the "Multi-Track-Single-Logical-Stream Ogg-Vorbis", is the multi-channel or multi-track Ogg file format. .opus Internet Engineering Task Force A lossy audio compression format developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and made especially suitable for interactive real-time applications over the Internet. As an open format standardised through RFC 6716, a reference implementation is provided under the 3-clause BSD license. .ra, .rm RealNetworks A RealAudio format designed for streaming audio over the Internet. The .ra format allows files to be stored in a self-contained fashion on a computer, with all of the audio data contained inside the file itself. .raw A raw file can contain audio in any format but is usually used with PCM audio data. It is rarely used except for technical tests. .rf64 One successor to the Wav format, overcoming the 4GiB size limitation. .sln Signed Linear PCM format used by Asterisk. Prior to v.10 the standard formats were 16-bit Signed Linear PCM sampled at 8 kHz and at 16 kHz. With v.10 many more sampling rates were added. .tta The True Audio, real-time lossless audio codec. .voc Creative Technology The file format consists of a 26-byte header and a series of subsequent data blocks containing the audio information .vox The vox format most commonly uses the Dialogic ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) codec. Similar to other ADPCM formats, it compresses to 4-bits. Vox format files are similar to wave files except that the vox files contain no information about the file itself so the codec sample rate and number of channels must first be specified in order to play a vox file. .wav IBM and Microsoft Standard audio file container format used mainly in Windows PCs. Commonly used for storing uncompressed (PCM), CD-quality sound files, which means that they can be large in size—around 10 MB per minute. Wave files can also contain data encoded with a variety of (lossy) codecs to reduce the file size (for example the GSM or MP3 formats). Wav files use a RIFF structure. .wma Microsoft Windows Media Audio format, created by Microsoft. Designed with DRM abilities for copy protection. .wv Format for wavpack files. .webm Royalty-free format created for HTML video. .8svx Electronic Arts The IFF-8SVX format for 8-bit sound samples, created by Electronic Arts in 1984 at the birth of the Amiga. .cda Format for cda files for Radio.
See also
Video file format
Audio compression (data)
Comparison of audio coding formats
Comparison of video container formats
Comparison of video codecs
List of open-source audio codecs
Timeline of audio formats
References
Category:Digital container formats | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_file_format | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.360887 |
2321 | Area 51 | | gridref | image_map
| image_mapsize | image_map_alt
| image_map_caption | pushpin_map USA
| pushpin_mapsize | pushpin_map_alt
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in the United States
| pushpin_relief | pushpin_image
| pushpin_label = Homey Airport
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_mark | pushpin_marksize
| ownership = Department of Defense
| operator = United States Air Force
| controlledby = Air Force Materiel Command
| open_to_public = <!-- for out of use sites/sites with museums etc -->
| site_other_label = <!-- for renaming "other facilities" in infobox -->
| site_other = <!-- for other sorts of facilities radar types etc -->
| site_area = <!-- area of site m2, km2 square mile etc -->
| code = <!--facility/installation code, applies to US -->
| built = (as Paradise Ranch)
| used = 1955–present<!-- -->
| builder | materials
| height = <!-- height of tallest part, not above sea level -->
| length = <!-- for border fences or other DMZs -->
| fate = <!--changed from demolished parameter-->
| condition = Operational
| battles | events Storm Area 51 (2019)
| current_commander = <!-- current commander -->
| past_commanders = <!-- past notable commander(s) -->
| garrison = Air Force Test Center (Detachment 3)
| occupants = <!-- squadrons only -->
| designations | website
<!-- begin airfield information -->
| IATA | ICAO KXTA
| FAA = XTA
| elevation =
| r1-number 14L/32R
| r1-length =
| r1-surface = asphalt
| r2-number 12/30
| r2-length =
| r2-surface = paved
| r3-number = 09L/27R
| r3-length =
| r3-surface = dry lake
| r4-number = 09R/27L
| r4-length =
| r4-surface = dry lake
| r5-number = 03L/21R
| r5-length =
| r5-surface = dry lake
| r6-number = 03R/21L
| r6-length =
| r6-surface = dry lake
| h1-number | h1-length <!-- -->
| h1-surface | airfield_other_label <!-- for renaming "other facilities" in infobox -->
| airfield_other = <!-- for other sorts of airfield facilities -->
<!-- end airfield information -->
| footnotes Sources: Jeppesen and it is commonly thought to support the development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems.
The intense secrecy surrounding the base has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component of unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore.
Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site, the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS. The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is southwest of Groom Lake.
Groom Lake
Groom Lake is a salt flat in Nevada used for runways of the Nellis Bombing Range Test Site airport (XTA/KXTA) on the north of the Area 51 USAF military installation. The lake at elevation is approximately from north to south and from east to west at its widest point. Located within the namesake Groom Lake Valley portion of the Tonopah Basin, the lake is south of Rachel, Nevada.HistoryThe origin of the name "Area 51" is unclear. It is believed to be from an Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) numbering grid, although Area 51 is not part of this system; it is adjacent to Area 15. Another explanation is that 51 was used because it was unlikely that the AEC would use the number. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the correct names for the facility are Homey Airport (XTA/KXTA) and Groom Lake, though the name "Area 51" was used in a CIA document from the Vietnam War. The facility has also been referred to as "Dreamland" and "Paradise Ranch", among other nicknames, with the former also being the approach control call sign for the surrounding area. The USAF public relations has referred to the facility as "an operating location near Groom Dry Lake". The special use airspace around the field is referred to as Restricted Area 4808 North (R-4808N).
Lead and silver were discovered in the southern part of the Groom Range in 1864, and the English company Groome Lead Mines Limited financed the Conception Mines in the 1870s, giving the district its name (nearby mines included Maria, Willow, and White Lake). J. B. Osborne and partners acquired the controlling interest in Groom in 1876, and Osborne's son acquired it in the 1890s. and consisted of two unpaved 5,000-foot (1,524 m) runways.U-2 program
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) established the Groom Lake test facility in April 1955 for Project AQUATONE: the development of the Lockheed U-2 strategic reconnaissance aircraft. Project director Richard M. Bissell Jr. understood that the flight test and pilot training programs could not be conducted at Edwards Air Force Base or Lockheed's Palmdale facility, given the extreme secrecy surrounding the project. He conducted a search for a suitable testing site for the U-2 under the same extreme security as the rest of the project. He notified Lockheed, who sent an inspection team out to Groom Lake. According to Lockheed's U-2 designer Kelly Johnson: The CIA asked the AEC to acquire the land, designated "Area 51" on the map, and to add it to the Nevada Test Site.
Johnson named the area "Paradise Ranch" to encourage workers to move to "the new facility in the middle of nowhere", as the CIA later described it, and the name became shortened to "the Ranch". This included testing at Groom Lake, which had inadequate facilities consisting of buildings for only 150 people, a asphalt runway, and limited fuel, hangar, and shop space. when A-12 test facility construction began in September 1960, including a new runway to replace the existing runway.
Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo) began construction of "Project 51" on 1October 1960 with double-shift construction schedules. The contractor upgraded base facilities and built a new runway (14/32) diagonally across the southwest corner of the lakebed. They marked an Archimedean spiral on the dry lake approximately across so that an A-12 pilot approaching the end of the overrun could abort instead of plunging into the sagebrush. Area 51 pilots called it "The Hook". For crosswind landings, they marked two unpaved airstrips (runways 9/27 and 03/21) on the dry lakebed.
By August 1961, construction of the essential facilities was complete; three surplus Navy hangars were erected on the base's north side while hangar7 was new construction. The original U-2 hangars were converted to maintenance and machine shops. Facilities in the main cantonment area included workshops and buildings for storage and administration, a commissary, a control tower, a fire station, and housing. The Navy also contributed more than 130 surplus Babbitt duplex housing units for long-term occupancy facilities. Older buildings were repaired, and additional facilities were constructed as necessary. A reservoir pond surrounded by trees served as a recreational area north of the base. Other recreational facilities included a gymnasium, a movie theater, and a baseball diamond.D-21 Tagboard
Following the loss of Gary Powers' U-2 over the Soviet Union, there were several discussions about using the A-12 OXCART as an unpiloted drone aircraft. Although Kelly Johnson had come to support the idea of drone reconnaissance, he opposed the development of an A-12 drone, contending that the aircraft was too large and complex for such a conversion. However, the Air Force agreed to fund the study of a high-speed, high-altitude drone aircraft in October 1962. The Air Force interest seems to have moved the CIA to take action, the project designated "Q-12". By October 1963, the drone's design had been finalized. At the same time, the Q-12 underwent a name change. To separate it from the other A-12-based projects, it was renamed the "D-21". (The "12" was reversed to "21"). "Tagboard" was the project's code name.
, a MiG-21F-13 flown by United States Navy and Air Force Systems Command during its 1968 exploitation]]
Munir Redfas defection with a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 from Iraq for Israel's Mossad in Operation Diamond led to the HAVE DOUGHNUT, HAVE DRILL and HAVE FERRY programs. The first MiGs flown in the United States were used to evaluate the aircraft in performance, technical, and operational capabilities, pitting the types against U.S. fighters.
This was not a new mission, as testing of foreign technology by the USAF began during World War II. After the war, testing of acquired foreign technology was performed by the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC, which became very influential during the Korean War), under the direct command of the Air Materiel Control Department. In 1961, ATIC became the Foreign Technology Division (FTD) and was reassigned to Air Force Systems Command. ATIC personnel were sent anywhere where foreign aircraft could be found.
The focus of Air Force Systems Command limited the use of the fighter as a tool with which to train the front line tactical fighter pilots. In 1968, the US Air Force and Navy jointly formed a project known as HAVE DOUGHNUT in which Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and the U.S. Navy's Air Test and Evaluation Squadron Four (VX-4) flew this acquired Soviet-made aircraft in simulated air combat training.
Have Blue/F-117 program
The Lockheed Have Blue prototype stealth fighter (a smaller proof-of-concept model of the F-117 Nighthawk) first flew at Groom in December 1977.
In 1978, the Air Force awarded a full-scale development contract for the F-117 to Lockheed Corporation's Advanced Development Projects. On 17 January 1981 the Lockheed test team at Area 51 accepted delivery of the first full-scale development (FSD) prototype 79–780, designated YF-117A. At 6:05 am on 18 June 1981 Lockheed Skunk Works test pilot Hal Farley lifted the nose of YF-117A 79–780 off the runway of Area 51.
Meanwhile, Tactical Air Command (TAC) decided to set up a group-level organization to guide the F-117A to an initial operating capability. That organization became the 4450th Tactical Group (Initially designated "A Unit"), which officially activated on 15 October 1979 at Nellis AFB, Nevada, although the group was physically located at Area 51. The 4450th TG also operated the A-7D Corsair II as a surrogate trainer for the F-117A, and these operations continued until 15 October 1982 under the guise of an avionics test mission. Tonopah Test Range Airport was selected for operations of the first USAF F-117 unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG). From October 1979, the Tonopah Airport base was reconstructed and expanded. The 6,000-foot runway was lengthened to 10,000 feet. Taxiways, a concrete apron, a large maintenance hangar, and a propane storage tank were added.
By early 1982, four more YF-117As were operating at the base.
On 17 May 1982, the move of the 4450th TG from Groom Lake to Tonopah was initiated, with the final components of the move completed in early 1983. Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG at Tonopah. In 1995, the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base, prohibiting access to of land formerly administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Even military pilots training in the NAFR risk disciplinary action if they stray into the exclusionary "box" surrounding Groom's airspace. Area 51 is a common destination for Janet, a small fleet of passenger aircraft operated on behalf of the Air Force to transport military personnel, primarily from Harry Reid International Airport.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine, but USGS aerial photographs of the site in 1959 and 1968 were publicly available. A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, defined as part of the Nellis restricted airspace. The National Atlas shows the area as lying within the Nellis Air Force Base. There are higher resolution and newer images available from other satellite imagery providers, including Russian providers and the IKONOS. On 25 June 2013, the CIA released an official history of the U-2 and OXCART projects which acknowledged that the U-2 was tested at Area 51, in response to a Freedom of Information Act request submitted in 2005 by Jeffrey T. Richelson of George Washington University's National Security Archive. It contains numerous references to Area 51 and Groom Lake, along with a map of the area.
The government invoked the State Secrets Privilege and petitioned U.S. District Judge Philip Pro to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, claiming that this would expose classified information and threaten national security. Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, so President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination exempting what it called "the Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Jonathan Turley, the attorney who was handling the lawsuit, appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief which stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case.
The President annually issues a determination continuing the Groom exception which is the only formal recognition that the government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex. An unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force web site in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information, which the government had claimed was classified. The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it.
Civil aviation identification
In December 2007, pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as "Homey Airport". The probably inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases. Signage around the base perimeter advises that deadly force is authorized against trespassers.
Technology is also heavily used to maintain the border of the base; this includes surveillance cameras and motion detectors. Some of these motion detectors are placed some distance away from the base on public land to notify guards of people approaching.1974 Skylab photographyDwayne A. Day published "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident" in The Space Review in January 2006. It was based on a memo written in 1974 to CIA director William Colby by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board Skylab had inadvertently photographed a certain location: The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should and NASA and the State Department arguing that it should not be classified. The memo itself questions the legality of retroactively classifying unclassified images. apparently by Director of Central Intelligence Colby:
The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The debate proved moot, as the photograph appeared in the Federal Government's Archive of Satellite Imagery along with the remaining Skylab photographs.2019 shooting incidentOn 28 January 2019, an unidentified man drove through a security checkpoint near Mercury, Nevada, in an apparent attempt to enter the base. After an vehicle pursuit by base security, the man exited his vehicle carrying a "cylindrical object" and was shot dead by NNSS security officers and sheriff's deputies after refusing to obey requests to halt. There were no other injuries reported.
UFO and other conspiracy theories
, protestors and UFO conspiracy theorists gathered at the back gate of Area 51.]]
Area 51 has become a focus of modern conspiracy theories due to its secretive nature and connection to classified aircraft research. Theories include:
* The storage, examination, and reverse engineering of crashed alien spacecraft, including material supposedly recovered at Roswell, the study of their occupants, and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology
* Meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials
* The development of exotic energy weapons for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or other weapons programs
* The development of weather control
* The development of time travel and teleportation technology
* The development of exotic propulsion systems related to the Aurora Program
* Activities related to the conspiracy theory of a one-world government
Many of the hypotheses concern underground facilities at Groom or at Papoose Lake (also known as "S-4 location"), south, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip nicknamed the "Cheshire Airstrip", after Lewis Carroll's Cheshire cat, which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its camouflaged asphalt, and engineering based on alien technology.
In the mid-1950s, civilian aircraft flew under 20,000 feet while military aircraft flew up to 40,000 feet. The U-2 began flying above 60,000 feet and there was an increasing number of UFO sighting reports. Sightings occurred most often during early evening hours, when airline pilots flying west saw the U-2's silver wings reflect the setting sun, giving the aircraft a "fiery" appearance. Many sighting reports came to the Air Force's Project Blue Book, which investigated UFO sightings, through air-traffic controllers and letters to the government. The project checked U-2 and later OXCART flight records to eliminate the majority of UFO reports that it received during the late 1950s and 1960s, although it could not reveal to the letter writers the truth behind what they saw.}}
They believe that the rumors helped maintain secrecy over Area 51's actual operations. It featured the first public mention of Nevada's Area 51 as a site associated with aliens.
Bob Lazar claimed in 1989 that he had worked at Area 51's "Sector Four (S-4)", said to be located underground inside the Papoose Range near Papoose Lake. He claimed that he was contracted to work with alien spacecraft that the government had in its possession. Similarly, the 1996 documentary Dreamland directed by Bruce Burgess included an interview with a 71-year-old mechanical engineer who claimed to be a former employee at Area 51 during the 1950s. His claims included that he had worked on a "flying disc simulator" which had been based on a disc originating from a crashed extraterrestrial craft and was used to train pilots. He also claimed to have worked with an extraterrestrial being named "J-Rod" and described as a "telepathic translator". In 2004, Dan Burisch (pseudonym of Dan Crain) claimed to have worked on cloning alien viruses at Area 51, also alongside the alien named "J-Rod". Burisch's scholarly credentials are the subject of much debate, as he was apparently working as a Las Vegas parole officer in 1989 while also earning a PhD at State University of New York (SUNY).
In July 2019, more than 2,000,000 people responded to a joke proposal to storm Area 51 which appeared in an anonymous Facebook post. The event, scheduled for 20 September 2019, was billed as "Storm Area 51, They Can't Stop All of Us", an attempt to "see them aliens". Air Force spokeswoman Laura McAndrews said the government "would discourage anyone from trying to come into the area where we train American armed forces". Seven people were reportedly arrested at the event.
See also
* Area 52
* Black operation
* Black project
* Black site
* List of United States Air Force installations
* Special access program
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
* Darlington, David (1998). Area 51: The Dreamland Chronicles. New York: Henry Holt.
*
* Patton, Phil (1998). Dreamland: Travels Inside the Secret World of Roswell and Area 51. New York: Villard/Random House
*
* Stahl, Lesley "Area 51 / Catch 22" 60 Minutes CBS Television 17 March 1996, a US TV news magazine's segment about the environmental lawsuit.
External links
*
* [https://skyvector.com/?ll37.27599241681214,-115.80154026998743&chart17&zoom=5 Las Vegas sectional aeronautical chart, centered on Groom Lake] (Federal Aviation Administration – SkyVector.com)
Category:1942 establishments in Nevada
Category:Buildings and structures in Lincoln County, Nevada
Category:Installations of the Central Intelligence Agency
Category:Military installations in Nevada
Category:Military UFO conspiracy theories in the United States
Category:Research installations of the United States Air Force
Category:Secret places in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_51 | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.395259 |
2322 | Audio signal processing | Audio signal processing is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves—longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The energy contained in audio signals or sound power level is typically measured in decibels. As audio signals may be represented in either digital or analog format, processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on its digital representation.
History
The motivation for audio signal processing began at the beginning of the 20th century with inventions like the telephone, phonograph, and radio that allowed for the transmission and storage of audio signals. Audio processing was necessary for early radio broadcasting, as there were many problems with studio-to-transmitter links. The theory of signal processing and its application to audio was largely developed at Bell Labs in the mid 20th century. Claude Shannon and Harry Nyquist's early work on communication theory, sampling theory and pulse-code modulation (PCM) laid the foundations for the field. In 1957, Max Mathews became the first person to synthesize audio from a computer, giving birth to computer music.
Major developments in digital audio coding and audio data compression include differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) by C. Chapin Cutler at Bell Labs in 1950, linear predictive coding (LPC) by Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966, adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan at Bell Labs in 1973, discrete cosine transform (DCT) coding by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, and modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) coding by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987. LPC is the basis for perceptual coding and is widely used in speech coding, while MDCT coding is widely used in modern audio coding formats such as MP3 and Advanced Audio Coding (AAC).
Types
Analog
An analog audio signal is a continuous signal represented by an electrical voltage or current that is analogous to the sound waves in the air. Analog signal processing then involves physically altering the continuous signal by changing the voltage or current or charge via electrical circuits.
Historically, before the advent of widespread digital technology, analog was the only method by which to manipulate a signal. Since that time, as computers and software have become more capable and affordable, digital signal processing has become the method of choice. However, in music applications, analog technology is often still desirable as it often produces nonlinear responses that are difficult to replicate with digital filters.
Digital
A digital representation expresses the audio waveform as a sequence of symbols, usually binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as digital signal processors, microprocessors and general-purpose computers. Most modern audio systems use a digital approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and efficient than analog domain signal processing.
Applications
Processing methods and application areas include storage, data compression, music information retrieval, speech processing, localization, acoustic detection, transmission, noise cancellation, acoustic fingerprinting, sound recognition, synthesis, and enhancement (e.g. equalization, filtering, level compression, echo and reverb removal or addition, etc.).
Audio broadcasting
Audio signal processing is used when broadcasting audio signals in order to enhance their fidelity or optimize for bandwidth or latency. In this domain, the most important audio processing takes place just before the transmitter. The audio processor here must prevent or minimize overmodulation, compensate for non-linear transmitters (a potential issue with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting), and adjust overall loudness to the desired level.
Active noise control
Active noise control is a technique designed to reduce unwanted sound. By creating a signal that is identical to the unwanted noise but with the opposite polarity, the two signals cancel out due to destructive interference.
Audio synthesis
Audio synthesis is the electronic generation of audio signals. A musical instrument that accomplishes this is called a synthesizer. Synthesizers can either imitate sounds or generate new ones. Audio synthesis is also used to generate human speech using speech synthesis.
Audio effects
Audio effects alter the sound of a musical instrument or other audio source. Common effects include distortion, often used with electric guitar in electric blues and rock music; dynamic effects such as volume pedals and compressors, which affect loudness; filters such as wah-wah pedals and graphic equalizers, which modify frequency ranges; modulation effects, such as chorus, flangers and phasers; pitch effects such as pitch shifters; and time effects, such as reverb and delay, which create echoing sounds and emulate the sound of different spaces.
Musicians, audio engineers and record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, bass guitar, electronic keyboard or electric piano. While effects are most frequently used with electric or electronic instruments, they can be used with any audio source, such as acoustic instruments, drums, and vocals.
Computer audition
Computer audition (CA) or machine listening is the general field of study of algorithms and systems for audio interpretation by machines. Since the notion of what it means for a machine to "hear" is very broad and somewhat vague, computer audition attempts to bring together several disciplines that originally dealt with specific problems or had a concrete application in mind. The engineer Paris Smaragdis, interviewed in Technology Review, talks about these systems "software that uses sound to locate people moving through rooms, monitor machinery for impending breakdowns, or activate traffic cameras to record accidents."
Inspired by models of human audition, CA deals with questions of representation, transduction, grouping, use of musical knowledge and general sound semantics for the purpose of performing intelligent operations on audio and music signals by the computer. Technically this requires a combination of methods from the fields of signal processing, auditory modelling, music perception and cognition, pattern recognition, and machine learning, as well as more traditional methods of artificial intelligence for musical knowledge representation.
See also
Sound card
Sound effect
References
Further reading
Category:Audio electronics
Category:Signal processing | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal_processing | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.407045 |
2323 | Amdahl's law | thumb|400px|Amdahl's Law demonstrates the theoretical maximum speedup of an overall system and the concept of diminishing returns. Plotted here is logarithmic parallelization vs linear speedup. If exactly 50% of the work can be parallelized, the best possible speedup is 2 times. If 95% of the work can be parallelized, the best possible speedup is 20 times. According to the law, even with an infinite number of processors, the speedup is constrained by the unparallelizable portion.
In computer architecture, Amdahl's law (or Amdahl's argument) is a formula that shows how much faster a task can be completed when more resources are added to the system.
The law can be stated as:
"the overall performance improvement gained by optimizing a single part of a system is limited by the fraction of time that the improved part is actually used".
It is named after computer scientist Gene Amdahl, and was presented at the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) Spring Joint Computer Conference in 1967.
Amdahl's law is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical speedup when using multiple processors.
Definition
In the context of Amdahl's law, speedup can be defined as:
\text{Speedup}_\text{overall} = \frac{1}{(1 - \text{time}_{\text{optimized}}) + \frac{\text{time}_{\text{optimized}}}{\text{speedup}_{\text{optimized}}}}
where
\text{Speedup}_\text{overall} represents the total speedup of a program
\text{Time}_{\text{optimized}} represents the proportion of time spent on the portion of the code where improvements are made
\text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}} represents the extent of the improvement
The \text{Speedup}_\text{overall}
is frequently much lower than one might expect. For instance, if a programmer enhances a part of the code that represents 10% of the total execution time (i.e. \text{Time}_{\text{optimized}}
of 0.10) and achieves a \text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}}
of 10,000, then \text{Speedup}_\text{overall}
becomes 1.11 which means only 11% improvement in total speedup of the program. So, despite a massive improvement in one section, the overall benefit is quite small. In another example, if the programmer optimizes a section that accounts for 99% of the execution time (i.e. \text{Time}_{\text{optimized}} of 0.99) with a speedup factor of 100 (i.e. \text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}}of 100), the \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} only reaches 50. This indicates that half of the potential performance gain (\text{Speedup}_\text{overall} will reach 100 if 100% of the execution time is covered) is lost due to the remaining 1% of execution time that was not improved.
Diminishing Returns: Adding more processors gives diminishing returns. Beyond a certain point, adding more processors doesn't significantly increase speedup.
Limited Speedup: Even with many processors, there's a limit to how much faster a task can be completed due to parts of the task that cannot be parallelized.
Limitations
Followings are limitations of Amdahl's law:
Assumption of Fixed Workload: Amdahl's Law assumes that the workload remains constant. It doesn't account for dynamic or increasing workloads, which can impact the effectiveness of parallel processing.
Overhead Ignored: Amdahl's Law neglects overheads associated with concurrency, including coordination, synchronization, inter-process communication, and concurrency control. Notably, merging data from multiple threads or processes incurs significant overhead due to conflict resolution, data consistency, versioning, and synchronization.
Neglecting extrinsic factors: Amdahl's Law addresses computational parallelism, neglecting extrinsic factors such as data persistence, I/O operations, and memory access overheads, and assumes idealized conditions.
Scalability Issues: While it highlights the limits of parallel speedup, it doesn't address practical scalability issues, such as the cost and complexity of adding more processors.
Non-Parallelizable Work: Amdahl's Law emphasizes the non-parallelizable portion of the task as a bottleneck but doesn’t provide solutions for reducing or optimizing this portion.
Assumes Homogeneous Processors: It assumes that all processors are identical and contribute equally to speedup, which may not be the case in heterogeneous computing environments.
Amdahl's law applies only to the cases where the problem size is fixed. In practice, as more computing resources become available, they tend to get used on larger problems (larger datasets), and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work. In this case, Gustafson's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of the parallel performance.
Universal Scalability Law (USL), developed by Neil J. Gunther, extends the Amdahl's law and accounts for the additional overhead due to inter-process communication. USL quantifies scalability based on parameters such as contention and coherency.
Derivation
A task executed by a system whose resources are improved compared to an initial similar system can be split up into two parts:
a part that does not benefit from the improvement of the resources of the system;
a part that benefits from the improvement of the resources of the system.
An example is a computer program that processes files. A part of that program may scan the directory of the disk and create a list of files internally in memory. After that, another part of the program passes each file to a separate thread for processing. The part that scans the directory and creates the file list cannot be sped up on a parallel computer, but the part that processes the files can.
The execution time of the whole task before the improvement of the resources of the system is denoted as T . It includes the execution time of the part that would not benefit from the improvement of the resources and the execution time of the one that would benefit from it. The fraction of the execution time of the task that would benefit from the improvement of the resources is denoted by p . The one concerning the part that would not benefit from it is therefore . Then:
T = (1 - p)T + pT.
It is the execution of the part that benefits from the improvement of the resources that is accelerated by the factor s after the improvement of the resources. Consequently, the execution time of the part that does not benefit from it remains the same, while the part that benefits from it becomes:
\frac{p}{s}T.
The theoretical execution time T (s) of the whole task after the improvement of the resources is then:
T(s) = (1 - p)T + \frac p s T.
Amdahl's law gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task at fixed workload W , which yields
S_\text{latency}(s) \frac{TW}{T(s)W} \frac{T}{T(s)} = \frac 1 {1 - p + \frac p s}.
Parallel programs
If 30% of the execution time may be the subject of a speedup, p will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the affected part twice as fast, s will be 2. Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be:
S_\text{latency} \frac{1}{1 - p + \frac{p}{s}} \frac 1 {1 - 0.3 + \frac {0.3} 2} = 1.18.
For example, assume that we are given a serial task which is split into four consecutive parts, whose percentages of execution time are , , , and respectively. Then we are told that the 1st part is not sped up, so , while the 2nd part is sped up 5 times, so , the 3rd part is sped up 20 times, so , and the 4th part is sped up 1.6 times, so . By using Amdahl's law, the overall speedup is
S_\text{latency} \frac{1}{\frac{p1}{s1} + \frac{p2}{s2} + \frac{p3}{s3} + \frac{p4}{s4}} \frac{1}{\frac{0.11}{1} + \frac{0.18}{5} + \frac{0.23}{20} + \frac{0.48}{1.6}} = 2.19.
Notice how the 5 times and 20 times speedup on the 2nd and 3rd parts respectively don't have much effect on the overall speedup when the 4th part (48% of the execution time) is accelerated by only 1.6 times.
Serial programs
For example, with a serial program in two parts A and B for which and ,
if part B is made to run 5 times faster, that is and , then S_\text{latency} \frac 1 {1 - 0.25 + \frac{0.25}{5}} 1.25;
if part A is made to run 2 times faster, that is and , then S_\text{latency} \frac 1 {1 - 0.75 + \frac{0.75}{2}} 1.60.
Therefore, making part A to run 2 times faster is better than making part B to run 5 times faster. The percentage improvement in speed can be calculated as
\text{percentage improvement} = 100 \left(1 - \frac 1 {S_\text{latency}}\right).
Improving part A by a factor of 2 will increase overall program speed by a factor of 1.60, which makes it 37.5% faster than the original computation.
However, improving part B by a factor of 5, which presumably requires more effort, will achieve an overall speedup factor of 1.25 only, which makes it 20% faster.
Optimizing the sequential part of parallel programs
If the non-parallelizable part is optimized by a factor of , then
T(O,s) = (1 - p)\frac{T}{O} + \frac{p}{s} T.
It follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by
S_\text{latency}(O,s) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac {(1 - p)\frac{1}{O} + {p} } {\frac{1 - p}{O} + \frac p s}.
When s1, we have S_\text{latency}(O,s)1, meaning that the speedup is
measured with respect to the execution time after the non-parallelizable part is optimized.
When s=\infty,
S_\text{latency}(O,\infty) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac {(1 - p)\frac{1}{O} + {p} } {\frac{1 - p}{O} + \frac p s}= 1 + \frac{p}{1-p}O.
If 1-p0.4, O2 and s=5, then:
S_\text{latency}(O,s) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac{ {0.4} \frac{1}{2} + 0.6} {\frac{0.4}{2} + \frac{0.6}{5} } = 2.5.
Transforming sequential parts of parallel programs into parallelizable
Next, we consider the case wherein the non-parallelizable part is reduced by a factor of , and the parallelizable part is correspondingly increased. Then
T'(O',s) = \frac{1 - p}{O'} T + \left(1-\frac{1-p}{O'}\right) \frac{T}{s}.
It follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by
S'_\text{latency}(O',s) \frac{T'(O')}{T'(O',s)} \frac { 1 } { \frac{1 - p}{O'} + \left(1-\frac{1-p}{O'}\right) \frac{1}{s}}.
Relation to the law of diminishing returns
Amdahl's law is often conflated with the law of diminishing returns, whereas only a special case of applying Amdahl's law demonstrates law of diminishing returns. If one picks optimally (in terms of the achieved speedup) what is to be improved, then one will see monotonically decreasing improvements as one improves. If, however, one picks non-optimally, after improving a sub-optimal component and moving on to improve a more optimal component, one can see an increase in the return. Note that it is often rational to improve a system in an order that is "non-optimal" in this sense, given that some improvements are more difficult or require larger development time than others.
Amdahl's law does represent the law of diminishing returns if one is considering what sort of return one gets by adding more processors to a machine, if one is running a fixed-size computation that will use all available processors to their capacity. Each new processor added to the system will add less usable power than the previous one. Each time one doubles the number of processors the speedup ratio will diminish, as the total throughput heads toward the limit of 1/(1 − p'').
This analysis neglects other potential bottlenecks such as memory bandwidth and I/O bandwidth. If these resources do not scale with the number of processors, then merely adding processors provides even lower returns.
An implication of Amdahl's law is that to speed up real applications which have both serial and parallel portions, heterogeneous computing techniques are required. There are novel speedup and energy consumption models based on a more general representation of heterogeneity, referred to as the normal form heterogeneity, that support a wide range of heterogeneous many-core architectures. These modelling methods aim to predict system power efficiency and performance ranges, and facilitates research and development at the hardware and system software levels.
See also
Gustafson's law
Universal Law of Computational Scalability
Analysis of parallel algorithms
Critical path method
Moore's law
References
Further reading
External links
. Amdahl discusses his graduate work at the University of Wisconsin and his design of WISC. Discusses his role in the design of several computers for IBM including the STRETCH, IBM 701, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process. Mentions work with Ramo-Wooldridge, Aeronutronic, and Computer Sciences Corporation
"Amdahl's Law" by Joel F. Klein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project (2007)
Amdahl's Law in the Multicore Era (July 2008)
Category:Analysis of parallel algorithms
Category:Computer architecture statements | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl's_law | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.424024 |
2326 | April 27 | Events
Pre-1600
* 247 – Philip the Arab marks the millennium of Rome with a celebration of the ludi saeculares.
* 395 – Emperor Arcadius marries Aelia Eudoxia, daughter of the Frankish general Flavius Bauto. She becomes one of the more powerful Roman empresses of Late Antiquity.
*711 – Islamic conquest of Hispania: Moorish troops led by Tariq ibn Ziyad land at Gibraltar to begin their invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus).
*1296 – First War of Scottish Independence: John Balliol's Scottish army is defeated by an English army commanded by John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey at the Battle of Dunbar.
*1509 – Pope Julius II places the Italian state of Venice under interdict.
*1521 – Battle of Mactan: Explorer Ferdinand Magellan is killed by natives in the Philippines led by chief Lapulapu.
*1539 – Official founding of the city of Bogotá, New Granada (nowadays Colombia), by Nikolaus Federmann and Sebastián de Belalcázar.
*1565 – Cebu is established becoming the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines.
*1595 – The relics of Saint Sava are incinerated in Belgrade on the Vračar plateau by Ottoman Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha; the site of the incineration is now the location of the Church of Saint Sava, one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world
1601–1900
*1650 – The Battle of Carbisdale: A Royalist army from Orkney invades mainland Scotland but is defeated by a Covenanter army.
*1667 – Blind and impoverished, John Milton sells Paradise Lost to a printer for £10, so that it could be entered into the Stationers' Register.
*1805 – First Barbary War: United States Marines and Berbers attack the Tripolitan city of Derna (The "shores of Tripoli" part of the Marines' Hymn).
*1813 – War of 1812: American troops capture York, the capital of Upper Canada, in the Battle of York.
*1861 – American President Abraham Lincoln suspends the writ of habeas corpus.
1901–present
*1906 – The State Duma of the Russian Empire meets for the first time.
*1909 – Sultan of Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II is overthrown, and is succeeded by his brother, Mehmed V.
*1911 – The Second Canton Uprising took place in Guangzhou, Qing China but was suppressed.
*1927 – Carabineros de Chile (Chilean national police force and gendarmerie) are created.
*1936 – The United Auto Workers (UAW) gains autonomy from the American Federation of Labor.
*1941 – World War II: German troops enter Athens.
*1945 – World War II: The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland, comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken.
* 1945 – World War II: Benito Mussolini is arrested by Italian partisans in Dongo, while attempting escape disguised as a German soldier.
*1953 – Operation Moolah offers $50,000 to any pilot who defects with a fully mission-capable Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 to South Korea. The first pilot was to receive $100,000.
*1967 – Expo 67 officially opens in Montreal, Quebec, Canada with a large opening ceremony broadcast around the world. It opens to the public the next day.
*1974 – 109 people are killed in a plane crash near Pulkovo Airport.
*1976 – Thirty-seven people are killed when American Airlines Flight 625 crashes at Cyril E. King Airport in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands.
*1978 – John Ehrlichman, a former aide to U.S. President Richard Nixon, is released from the Federal Correctional Institution, Safford, Arizona, after serving 18 months for Watergate-related crimes.
* 1978 – The Saur Revolution begins in Afghanistan, ending the following morning with the murder of Afghan President Mohammed Daoud Khan and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.
* 1978 – Willow Island disaster: In the deadliest construction accident in United States history, 51 construction workers are killed when a cooling tower under construction collapses at the Pleasants Power Station in Willow Island, West Virginia.
*1986 – The city of Pripyat and surrounding areas are evacuated due to the Chernobyl disaster.
*1987 – The U.S. Department of Justice bars Austrian President Kurt Waldheim (and his wife, Elisabeth, who had also been a Nazi) from entering the US, charging that he had aided in the deportations and executions of thousands of Jews and others as a German Army officer during World War II.
*1989 – The April 27 demonstrations, student-led protests responding to the April 26 Editorial, during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
*1992 – The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, comprising Serbia and Montenegro, is proclaimed.
* 1992 – Betty Boothroyd becomes the first woman to be elected Speaker of the British House of Commons in its 700-year history.
* 1992 – The Russian Federation and 12 other former Soviet republics become members of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
*1993 – Most of the Zambia national football team lose their lives in a plane crash off Libreville, Gabon en route to Dakar, Senegal to play a 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Senegal.
*1994 – South African general election: The first democratic general election in South Africa, in which black citizens could vote. The Interim Constitution comes into force.
*2005 – Airbus A380 aircraft has its maiden test flight.
*2006 – Construction begins on the Freedom Tower (later renamed One World Trade Center) in New York City.
*2007 – Estonian authorities remove the Bronze Soldier, a Soviet Red Army war memorial in Tallinn, amid political controversy with Russia.
* 2007 – Israeli archaeologists discover the tomb of Herod the Great south of Jerusalem.
*2011 – The 2011 Super Outbreak devastates parts of the Southeastern United States, especially the states of Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Tennessee. Two hundred five tornadoes touched down on April 27 alone, killing more than 300 and injuring hundreds more.
*2012 – At least four explosions hit the Ukrainian city of Dnipropetrovsk with at least 27 people injured.
*2018 – The Panmunjom Declaration is signed between North and South Korea, officially declaring their intentions to end the Korean conflict.
*2024 – The worst day of the tornado outbreak sequence of April 25–28, 2024, with 42 tornadoes, including one confirmed EF4 tornado, and two confirmed EF3 tornadoes, which killed 4 people in total.
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*85 BC – Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, Roman politician and general (d. 43 BC)
*1468 – Frederick Jagiellon, Primate of Poland (d. 1503)
*1564 – Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland (d. 1632)
*1556 – François Béroalde de Verville, French writer (d. 1626)
*1593 – Mumtaz Mahal, Mughal empress buried at the Taj Mahal (d. 1631)
1601–1900
*1650 – Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel, Queen Consort of Denmark (1670–1699) (d. 1714)
*1654 – Charles Blount, English deist and philosopher (d. 1693)
*1701 – Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (d. 1773)
*1718 – Thomas Lewis, Irish-born American surveyor and lawyer (d. 1790)
*1748 – Adamantios Korais, Greek-French philosopher and scholar (d. 1833)
*1755 – Marc-Antoine Parseval, French mathematician and theorist (d. 1836)
*1759 – Mary Wollstonecraft, English philosopher, historian, and novelist (d. 1797)
*1788 – Charles Robert Cockerell, English architect, archaeologist, and writer (d. 1863)
*1791 – Samuel Morse, American painter and inventor, co-invented the Morse code (d. 1872)
*1812 – William W. Snow, American lawyer and politician (d. 1886)
* 1812 – Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (d. 1883)
*1820 – Herbert Spencer, English biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1903)
*1822 – Ulysses S. Grant, American general and politician, 18th President of the United States (d. 1885)
*1840 – Edward Whymper, English-French mountaineer, explorer, author, and illustrator (d. 1911)
*1848 – Otto, King of Bavaria (d. 1916)
*1850 – Hans Hartwig von Beseler, German general and politician (d. 1921)
*1853 – Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (d. 1914)
*1857 – Theodor Kittelsen, Norwegian painter and illustrator (d. 1914)
*1861 – William Arms Fisher, American composer and music historian (d. 1948)
*1866 – Maurice Raoul-Duval, French polo player (d. 1916)
*1875 – Frederick Fane, Irish-born, English cricketer (d. 1960)
*1880 – Mihkel Lüdig, Estonian organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1958)
*1882 – Jessie Redmon Fauset, American author and poet (d. 1961)
*1887 – Warren Wood, American golfer (d. 1926)
*1888 – Florence La Badie, Canadian actress (d. 1917)
*1891 – Sergei Prokofiev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1953)
*1893 – Draža Mihailović, Serbian general (d. 1946)
* 1893 – Allen Sothoron, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1939)
*1894 – George Petty, American painter and illustrator (d. 1975)
* 1894 – Nicolas Slonimsky, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1995)
*1896 – Rogers Hornsby, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1963)
* 1896 – William Hudson, New Zealand-Australian engineer (d. 1978)
* 1896 – Wallace Carothers, American chemist and inventor of nylon (d. 1937)
*1898 – Ludwig Bemelmans, Italian-American author and illustrator (d. 1962)
*1899 – Walter Lantz, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and actor (d. 1994)
*1900 – August Koern, Estonian politician and diplomat, Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs in exile (d. 1989)
1901–present
*1902 – Tiemoko Garan Kouyaté, Malian educator and activist (d. 1942)
*1904 – Cecil Day-Lewis, Anglo-Irish poet and author (d. 1972)
* 1904 – Nikos Zachariadis, Greek politician (d. 1973)
*1905 – John Kuck, American javelin thrower and shot putter (d. 1986)
*1906 – Yiorgos Theotokas, Greek author and playwright (d. 1966)
*1909 – Lim Bo Seng, Chinese businessman, resistance fighter of Force 136 and war hero of Singapore (d. 1944)
*1910 – Chiang Ching-kuo, Chinese politician, 3rd President of the Republic of China (d. 1988)
*1911 – Bruno Beger, German anthropologist and ethnologist (d. 2009)
* 1911 – Chris Berger, Dutch sprinter and footballer (d. 1965)
*1912 – Jacques de Bourbon-Busset, French author and politician (d. 2001)
* 1912 – Zohra Sehgal, Indian actress, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2014)
*1913 – Philip Abelson, American physicist and author (d. 2004)
* 1913 – Irving Adler, American mathematician, author, and academic (d. 2012)
* 1913 – Luz Long, German long jumper and soldier (d. 1943)
*1916 – Robert Hugh McWilliams, Jr., American sergeant, lawyer, and judge (d. 2013)
* 1916 – Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (d. 2002)
*1917 – Roman Matsov, Estonian violinist, pianist, and conductor (d. 2001)
*1918 – Sten Rudholm, Swedish lawyer and jurist (d. 2008)
*1920 – Guido Cantelli, Italian conductor (d. 1956)
* 1920 – Mark Krasnosel'skii, Ukrainian mathematician and academic (d. 1997)
* 1920 – James Robert Mann, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (d. 2010)
* 1920 – Edwin Morgan, Scottish poet and translator (d. 2010)
*1921 – Robert Dhéry, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2004)
*1922 – Jack Klugman, American actor (d. 2012)
* 1922 – Sheila Scott, English nurse and pilot (d. 1988)
*1923 – Betty Mae Tiger Jumper, Seminole chief (d. 2011)
*1924 – Vernon B. Romney, American lawyer and politician, 14th Attorney General of Utah (d. 2013)
*1925 – Derek Chinnery, English broadcaster (d. 2015)
*1926 – Tim LaHaye, American minister, activist, and author (d. 2016)
* 1926 – Basil A. Paterson, American lawyer and politician, 59th Secretary of State of New York (d. 2014)
* 1926 – Alan Reynolds, English painter and educator (d. 2014)
*1927 – Coretta Scott King, African-American activist and author (d. 2006)
* 1927 – Joe Moakley, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2001)
*1929 – Nina Ponomaryova, Russian discus thrower and coach (d. 2016)
*1931 – Igor Oistrakh, Ukrainian violinist and educator (d. 2021)
*1932 – Anouk Aimée, French actress
* 1932 – Pik Botha, South African lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 8th South African Ambassador to the United States (d. 2018)
* 1932 – Casey Kasem, American disc jockey, radio celebrity, and voice actor; co-created American Top 40 (d. 2014)
* 1932 – Chuck Knox, American football coach (d. 2018)
* 1932 – Derek Minter, English motorcycle racer (d. 2015)
* 1932 – Gian-Carlo Rota, Italian-American mathematician and philosopher (d. 1999)
*1933 – Peter Imbert, Baron Imbert, English police officer and politician, Lord Lieutenant for Greater London (d. 2017)
*1935 – Theodoros Angelopoulos, Greek director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)
* 1935 – Ron Morris, American pole vaulter and coach (d. 2024)
*1936 – Geoffrey Shovelton, English singer and illustrator (d. 2016)
*1937 – Sandy Dennis, American actress (d. 1992)
* 1937 – Robin Eames, Irish Anglican archbishop
* 1937 – Richard Perham, English biologist and academic (d. 2015)
*1938 – Earl Anthony, American bowler and sportscaster (d. 2001)
* 1938 – Alain Caron, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1986)
*1939 – Judy Carne, English actress and comedian (d. 2015)
* 1939 – Stanisław Dziwisz, Polish cardinal
*1941 – Fethullah Gülen, Turkish preacher and theologian (d. 2024)
* 1941 – Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti, Indian archaeologist
* 1941 – Lee Roy Jordan, American football player
*1942 – Ruth Glick, American author
* 1942 – Jim Keltner, American drummer
*1943 – Helmut Marko, Austrian race car driver and manager
*1944 – Michael Fish, English meteorologist and journalist
* 1944 – Cuba Gooding Sr., American singer (d. 2017)
* 1944 – Herb Pedersen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1945 – Martin Chivers, English footballer and manager
* 1945 – Terry Willesee, Australian journalist and television host
* 1945 – August Wilson, American author and playwright (d. 2005)
*1946 – Franz Roth, German footballer
*1947 – G. K. Butterfield, African-American soldier, lawyer, and politician
* 1947 – Nick Greiner, Hungarian-Australian politician, 37th Premier of New South Wales
* 1947 – Pete Ham, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)
* 1947 – Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003)
* 1947 – Ann Peebles, American soul singer-songwriter
*1948 – Frank Abagnale Jr., American security consultant and criminal
* 1948 – Josef Hickersberger, Austrian footballer, coach, and manager
* 1948 – Kate Pierson, American singer-songwriter and bass player
*1950 – Jaime Fresnedi, Filipino politician
* 1950 – David W. Duclon, American television writer and producer (d. 2025)
*1951 – Ace Frehley, American guitarist and songwriter
*1952 – Larry Elder, American lawyer and talk show host
* 1952 – George Gervin, American basketball player
* 1952 – Ari Vatanen, Finnish race car driver and politician
*1953 – Arielle Dombasle, French-American actress and model
*1954 – Frank Bainimarama, Fijian commander and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Fiji
* 1954 – Herman Edwards, American football player, coach, and sportscaster
* 1954 – Mark Holden, Australian singer, actor, and lawyer
*1955 – Eric Schmidt, American engineer and businessman
*1956 – Bryan Harvey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006)
*1957 – Dietmar Keck, Austrian politician
* 1957 – Willie Upshaw, American baseball player and manager
*1959 – Sheena Easton, Scottish-American singer-songwriter, actress, and producer
* 1959 – Marco Pirroni, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1960 – Mike Krushelnyski, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1961 – Andrew Schlafly, American lawyer and activist, founded Conservapedia
*1962 – Ángel Comizzo, Argentinian footballer and manager
* 1962 – Seppo Räty, Finnish javelin thrower and coach
* 1962 – Im Sang-soo, South Korean director and screenwriter
* 1962 – Andrew Selous, English soldier and politician
*1963 – Russell T Davies, Welsh screenwriter and producer
*1965 – Anna Chancellor, English actress
*1966 – Peter McIntyre, Australian cricketer
* 1966 – Yoshihiro Togashi, Japanese illustrator
*1967 – Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands
* 1984 – Patrick Stump, American musician, singer, and songwriter
*1985 – Meselech Melkamu, Ethiopian runner
*1986 – Jenna Coleman, English actress
*1987 – Taylor Chorney, American ice hockey player
* 1987 – William Moseley, English actor
* 1987 – Wang Feifei, Chinese singer and actress
*1988 – Lizzo, American singer and rapper
* 1988 – Semyon Varlamov, Russian ice hockey player
*1989 – Lars Bender, German footballer
* 1989 – Sven Bender, German footballer
*1990 – Austin Dillon, American race car driver
*1991 – Lara Gut, Swiss skier
*1992 – Keenan Allen, American football player
*1994 – Corey Seager, American baseball player
*1995 – Nick Kyrgios, Australian tennis player
*1997 – Jesse Ramien, Australian rugby league player
*1998 – Cristian Romero, Argentine footballer
*1999 – Peter Hola, Australian rugby league player
*2003 – Xavier Worthy, American football player
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Deaths
Pre-1600
* 630 – Ardashir III of Persia (b. 621)
*1160 – Rudolf I, Count of Bregenz (b. 1081)
*1272 – Zita, Italian saint (b. 1212)
*1321 – Nicolò Albertini, Italian cardinal statesman (b. c. 1250)
*1353 – Simeon of Moscow, Grand Prince of Moscow and Vladimir
*1403 – Maria of Bosnia, Countess of Helfenstein (b. 1335)
*1404 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1342)
*1463 – Isidore of Kiev (b. 1385)
*1521 – Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese sailor and explorer (b. 1480)
*1599 – Maeda Toshiie, Japanese general (b. 1538)
1601–1900
*1605 – Pope Leo XI (b. 1535)
*1607 – Edward Cromwell, 3rd Baron Cromwell, Governor of Lecale (b. 1560)
*1613 – Robert Abercromby, Scottish priest and missionary (b. 1532)
*1656 – Jan van Goyen, Dutch painter and illustrator (b. 1596)
*1694 – John George IV, Elector of Saxony (b. 1668)
*1695 – John Trenchard, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1640)
*1702 – Jean Bart, French admiral (b. 1651)
*1782 – William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician, Lord Steward of the Household (b. 1710)
*1813 – Zebulon Pike, American general and explorer (b. 1779)
*1873 – William Macready, English actor and manager (b. 1793)
*1882 – Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet and philosopher (b. 1803)
*1893 – John Ballance, Irish-born New Zealand journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1839)
*1896 – Henry Parkes, English-Australian businessman and politician, 7th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1815)
1901–present
*1915 – John Labatt, Canadian businessman (b. 1838)
* 1915 – Alexander Scriabin, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1872)
*1932 – Hart Crane, American poet (b. 1899)
*1936 – Karl Pearson, English mathematician and academic (b. 1857)
*1937 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian sociologist, linguist, and politician (b. 1891)
*1938 – Edmund Husserl, Czech mathematician and philosopher (b. 1859)
*1949 – Benjamin Faunce, American druggist and businessman (b. 1873)
*1952 – Guido Castelnuovo, Italian mathematician and statistician (b. 1865)
*1961 – Roy Del Ruth, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1893)
*1962 – A. K. Fazlul Huq, Bangladeshi-Pakistani lawyer and politician, Pakistani Minister of the Interior (b. 1873)
*1965 – Edward R. Murrow, American journalist (b. 1908)
*1967 – William Douglas Cook, New Zealand farmer, founded the Eastwoodhill Arboretum (b. 1884)
*1969 – René Barrientos, Bolivian soldier, pilot, and politician, 55th President of Bolivia (b. 1919)
*1970 – Arthur Shields, Irish rebel and actor (b. 1896)
*1972 – Kwame Nkrumah, Ghanaian politician, 1st President of Ghana (b. 1909)
*1973 – Carlos Menditeguy, Argentinian race car driver and polo player (b. 1914)
*1977 – Stanley Adams, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1915)
*1988 – Fred Bear, American hunter and author (b. 1902)
*1989 – Konosuke Matsushita, Japanese businessman, founded Panasonic (b. 1894)
*1992 – Olivier Messiaen, French organist and composer (b. 1908)
* 1992 – Gerard K. O'Neill, American physicist and astronomer (b. 1927)
*1995 – Katherine DeMille, Canadian-American actress (b. 1911)
* 1995 – Willem Frederik Hermans, Dutch author, poet, and playwright (b. 1921)
*1996 – William Colby, American diplomat, 10th Director of Central Intelligence (b. 1920)
* 1996 – Gilles Grangier, French director and screenwriter (b. 1911)
*1998 – John W. H. Bassett, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1915)
* 1998 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (b. 1925)
* 1998 – Anne Desclos, French journalist and author (b. 1907)
* 1998 – Browning Ross, American runner and soldier (b. 1924)
*1999 – Al Hirt, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1922)
* 1999 – Dale C. Thomson, Canadian historian, author, and academic (b. 1923)
* 1999 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (b. 1914)
*2002 – George Alec Effinger, American author (b. 1947)
* 2002 – Ruth Handler, American inventor and businesswoman, created the Barbie doll (b. 1916)
*2005 – Red Horner, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1909)
*2006 – Julia Thorne, American author (b. 1944)
*2007 – Mstislav Rostropovich, Russian cellist and conductor (b. 1927)
*2009 – Frankie Manning, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1914)
* 2009 – Woo Seung-yeon, South Korean model and actress (b. 1983)
*2009 – Feroz Khan (actor), Indian Actor, Film Director & Producer (b. 1939)
*2011 – Marian Mercer, American actress and singer (b. 1935)
*2012 – Daniel E. Boatwright, American soldier and politician (b. 1930)
* 2012 – Bill Skowron, American baseball player (b. 1930)
*2013 – Aída Bortnik, Argentinian screenwriter (b. 1938)
* 2013 – Lorraine Copeland, Scottish archaeologist (b. 1921)
* 2013 – Antonio Díaz Jurado, Spanish footballer (b. 1969)
* 2013 – Jérôme Louis Heldring, Dutch journalist and author (b. 1917)
* 2013 – Aloysius Jin Luxian, Chinese bishop (b. 1916)
* 2013 – Mutula Kilonzo, Kenyan lawyer and politician, Kenyan Minister of Justice (b. 1948)
*2014 – Yigal Arnon, Israeli lawyer (b. 1929)
* 2014 – Vujadin Boškov, Serbian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1931)
* 2014 – Daniel Colchico, American football player and coach (b. 1935)
* 2014 – Harry Firth, Australian race car driver and manager (b. 1918)
*2015 – Gene Fullmer, American boxer (b. 1931)
* 2015 – Verne Gagne, American football player, wrestler, and trainer (b. 1926)
* 2015 – Alexander Rich, American biologist, biophysicist, and academic (b. 1924)
*2017 – Vinod Khanna, Indian actor, producer and politician (b. 1946)
* 2017 – Sadanoyama Shinmatsu, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1938)
*2021 – Manoj Das, Indian writer (b. 1934)
*2022 – Liao Guoxun, Chinese politician (b. 1963)
*2023 – Jerry Springer, American politician and actor (b. 1944)
*2024 – C. J. Sansom, British author (b. 1952)
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast days:
**Anthimus of Nicomedia
**Assicus
**Floribert of Liège
**John of Constantinople
**Liberalis of Treviso
**Pollio
**Virgin of Montserrat
**Zita
**Origen Adamantius
**April 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia)
*Day of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia)
*Flag Day (Moldova)
*Freedom Day (South Africa)
*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Sierra Leone from United Kingdom in 1961.
*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Togo from France in 1960.
*King's Day (Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten) (celebrated on April 26 if April 27 falls on a Sunday)
*National Veterans' Day (Finland)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/27 Historical Events on April 27]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_27 | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.469640 |
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Ayahuasca is a South American psychoactive beverage, traditionally used by Indigenous cultures and folk healers in the Amazon and Orinoco basins for spiritual ceremonies, divination, and healing a variety of psychosomatic complaints.
Originally restricted to areas of Peru, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador, in the middle of the 20th century it became widespread in Brazil in the context of the appearance of syncretic religions that use ayahuasca as a sacrament, like Santo Daime, União do Vegetal and Barquinha, which blend elements of Amazonian Shamanism, Christianity, Kardecist Spiritism, and African-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda, Candomblé and Tambor de Mina, later expanding to several countries across all continents, notably the United States and Western Europe, and, more incipiently, in Eastern Europe, South Africa, Australia, and Japan.
More recently, new phenomena regarding ayahuasca use have evolved and moved to urban centers in North America and Europe, with the emergence of neoshamanic hybrid rituals and spiritual and recreational drug tourism. Also, anecdotal evidence, studies conducted among ayahuasca consumers and clinical trials suggest that ayahuasca has therapeutic potential, especially for the treatment of substance dependence, anxiety, and mood disorders. Thus, currently, despite continuing to be used in a traditional way, ayahuasca is also consumed recreationally worldwide, and is considered as a potential future treatment in modern medicine. Ayahuasca often causes nausea and vomiting and has a number of rarer more serious possible side effects including breathing difficulties and seizure; it may cause psychosis in those predisposed to the condition. P. viridis contains N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a highly psychedelic substance. Although orally inactive, B. caapi is rich with harmala alkaloids, such as harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), which can act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI). This halts the liver and gastrointestinal metabolism of DMT, allowing it to reach the systemic circulation and the brain, where it activates 5-HT<sub>1A/2A/2C</sub> receptors in frontal and paralimbic areas.EtymologyAyahuasca is the hispanicized spelling (i.e., spelled according to Spanish orthography) of a word that originates from the Quechuan languages, which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. Speakers of Quechuan languages who use modern Quechuan orthography spell it ayawaska. The word refers both to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi, and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means "spirit, soul", or "corpse, dead body", and waska means "rope" or "woody vine", "liana". The word ayahuasca has been variously translated as "liana of the soul", "liana of the dead", and "spirit liana". In the cosmovision of its users, the ayahuasca is the vine that allows the spirit to wander detached from the body, entering the spiritual world, otherwise forbidden for the alive.
Common names
Although ayahuasca is the most widely used term in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Brazil, the brew is known by many names throughout northern South America:
* hoasca or oasca in Brazil
* (or , from the Cofán language or iagê in Portuguese). Relatively widespread use in Andean and Amazonian regions throughout the border areas of Colombia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil. The Cofán people also use the word .
* (or / in Tupi–Guarani language or in proto-Arawak language), used to address both the brew and the B. caapi itself. Meaning "weed" or "thin leaf", it was the word utilized by Spruce for naming the liana.
* (or /), used by the Colorado people
* (or ), from the Chicham languages
* , (or ) and , from the Yaminawa language
* , from the Shipibo language
* , , , and , from the Kashinawa language
* , and , used by the Tucano people
* (or ) and , from the Arawakan languages
* , from Bora-Muinane languages
* , used by Ese'Ejja people
* , from Guahibo language
* (or /), used by Tsáchila people
* , from Kamëntšá language
* ("") or , in Portuguese language, used by União do Vegetal church members
* Daime or Santo Daime, meaning "give me" in Portuguese, the term was coined by Santo Daime's founder Mestre Irineu in the 1940s, from a prayer dai-me alegria, dai-me resistência ("give me happiness, give me strength"). Daime members also uses the words Luz ("light") or Santa Luz ("holy light")
* Some nomenclature are created by the cultural and symbolic signification of ayahuasca, with names like planta professora ("plant teacher"), professor dos professores ("teacher of the teachers"), sagrada medicina ("holy medicine") or la purga ("the purge").
Other names in the Western world
In the last decades, two new important terminologies emerged. Both are commonly used in the Western world in neoshamanic, recreative or pharmaceutical contexts to address ayahuasca-like substances created without the traditional botanical species, due to it being expensive and/or hard to find in these countries. These concepts are surrounded by some controversies involving ethnobotany, patents, commodification and biopiracy:
* Anahuasca (ayahuasca analogues). A term usually used to refer to the ayahuasca produced with other plant species as sources of DMT (e.g., Mimosa hostilis) or β-carbolines (e.g., Peganum harmala).
* Pharmahuasca (pharmaceutical ayahuasca). This indicates the pills produced from freebase DMT, synthetic harmaline, MAOI medications (such as moclobemide) and other isolated or purified compounds or extracts. History Origins Archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive plants in northeastern Amazon dates back to 1500–2000 BCE. Anthropomorphic figurines, snuffing trays and pottery vessels, often adorned with mythological figures and sacred animals, offer a glimpse of the pre-Columbian culture regarding use of the sacred plants, their preparation and ritual consumption [citar naranjo 86]. Although several botanical specimens (like tobacco, coca and Anadenanthera spp.) were identified among these objects, there is no unequivocal evidence of this date referring directly to ayahuasca. Banisteriopsis caapi use is suggested from a pouch containing carved snuffing trays, bone spatulas and other paraphernalia with traces of harmine and DMT, discovered in a cave in southwestern Bolivia in 2008, and chemical traces of harmine in the hair of two mummies found in northern Chile. Both cases are linked to Tiwanaku people, circa 900 CE. There are several reports of oral and nasal use of Anadenanthera spp. (rich in bufotenin) ritualistically and therapeutically during labor and infancy, and researchers suggest that addition of Banisteriopsis spp. to catalyze its psychoactivity emerged later, due to contact between different groups of Amazon and Altiplano.
Despite claims by numerous anthropologists and ethnologists, such as Plutarco Naranjo, regarding the millennial usage of ayahuasca, compelling evidence substantiating its pre-Columbian consumption is yet to be firmly established. As articulated by Dennis McKenna: Jose Chantre y Herrera still in the seventeenth century, provided the first detailed description of a "devilish potion" cooked from bitter herbs and lianas (called ayaguasca) and its rituals: <blockquote>"[...] In other nations, they set aside an entire night for divination. For this purpose, they select the most capable house in the vicinity because many people are expected to attend the event. The diviner hangs his bed in the middle and places an infernal potion, known as ayahuasca, by his side, which is particularly effective at altering one's senses. They prepare a brew from bitter vines or herbs, which, when boiled sufficiently, must become quite potent. Since it's so strong at altering one's judgment in small quantities, the precaution is not excessive, and it fits into two small pots. The witch doctor drinks a very small amount each time and knows well how many times he can sample the brew without losing his senses to properly conduct the ritual and lead the choir". </blockquote>Another report produced in 1737 by the missionary Pablo Maroni, describes the use of a psychoactive liana called ayahuasca for divination in the Napo River, Ecuador: <blockquote>"For divination, they use a beverage, some of white datura flowers, which they also call Campana due to its shape, and others from a vine commonly known as Ayahuasca, both highly effective at numbing the senses and even at taking one's life if taken in excess. They also occasionally use these substances for the treatment of common illnesses, especially headaches. So, the person who wants to divine drinks the chosen substance with certain rituals, and while deprived of their senses from the mouth downwards, to prevent the strength of the plant from harming them, they remain in this state for many hours and sometimes even two or three days until the effects run their course, and the intoxication subsides. After this, they reflect on what their imagination revealed, which occasionally remains with them for delirium. This is what they consider accomplished and propagate as an oracle." </blockquote>Latter reports were produced by Juan Magnin in 1740, describing ayahuasca use as a medicinal plant by the Jivaroan peoples (called ayahuessa) and by Franz Xaver Veigl in 1768, that reports about several "dangerous plants", including a bitter liana used for precognition and sorcery. All these reports were written in context of Jesuit missions in South America, specially the Mainas missions, in Latin and sent only to Rome, so their audience wasn't very large and they were promptly lost in the archives. For this reason, ayahuasca didn't receive interest for the entire subsequent century.
Early academic research
In academic discourse, the initial mention of ayahuasca dates back to Manuel Villavicencio's 1858 book, "Geografía de la República del Ecuador." This work vividly delineates the employment and rituals involving ayahuasca by the Jivaro people. Concurrently, Richard Spruce embarked on an Amazonian expedition in 1852 to collect and classify previously unidentified botanical specimens. During this journey, Spruce encountered and documented Banisteriopsis caapi (at time named Banisteria caapi) and observed an ayahuasca ceremony among the Tucano community situated along the Vaupés River. Subsequently, Spruce uncovered the usage and cultivation of B. caapi among various indigenous groups dispersed across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, like the Guahibo and Sápara. These multifarious encounters, together with Spruce's personal accounts of subjective ayahuasca experiences, were collated in his work, "Notes of a Botanist On The Amazon and Andes.". By the end of the century, other explorers and anthropologists contributed more extensive documentation concerning ayahuasca, notably the Theodor Koch-Grünberg's documents about Tucano and Arecuna's rituals and ceremonies, Stradelli's first-hand reports of ayahuasca rituals and mythology along the Jurupari and Vaupés and Alfred Simson's first description of admixture of several ingredients in the making of ayahuasca in Putumayo region, published in 1886.
In 1905, Rafael Zerda Bayón named the active extract of ayahuasca as telepathine, a name latter used by the Colombian chemist Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas when he isolated the substance in 1932. Contemporaneously, Lewin and Gunn were independently studying the properties of the banisterine, extracted of the B. caapi, and its effects on animal models. Further clinical trials were being conducted, exploring the effects of banisterine on Parkinson's disease. Later it was found that both telepathine and banisterine are the same substance, identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and given the name Harmine. Shamanism, mestizos and vegetalistas Researchers like Peter Gow and Brabec de Mori argue that ayahuasca use indeed developed alongside the Jesuit missions after the 17th century. By examining the ícaros (ayahuasca-related healing chants), they found that the chants are always sung in Quechua (a lingua franca along the Jesuit and Franciscan missions in the region), no matter the linguistic background of the group, with similar language structures between different ícaros that are markedly different from other indigenous songs. Moreover, often the cosmology of ayahuasca often mirrors the Catholicism, with particular similarities in the belief that ayahuasca is thought to be the body of ayahuascamama that is imbibed as part of the ritual, like wine and bread are taken as being the body and blood of Jesus Christ during Christian Eucharist. Brabec de Mori called this “Christian camouflage” and suggested that rather than being a way for disguising the ayahuasca ritual, it suggests that practice evolved entirely within these contexts. According to Peter Gow, the ayahuasca shamanism (the use of ayahuasca by a trained shaman to diagnose and cure illnesses) was developed by these mestizos in the processes of colonial transformation.
So the vegetalist movement was a heterogeneous mixture of Western Amazon (mestizo shamanic practices and cauchero culture) and Andean elements (shaped by other migratory movements, like those originated from Cuzco through Urubamba Valley and from western Ecuador), influenced by Christian aspects derived from the Jesuit missions, as reflected by the mythology, rituals and moral codes related to vegetalista ayahuasca use. In this context, the use of ayahuasca will take form of urban, organized non-indigenous religions in outskirts of main cities of northwest of Brazil, (along the basins of Madeira, Juruá and Purus River) within the cauchero/seringueiro cultural complex, resignifying and adapting both the vegetalista and mestizo shamanism to new urban formations, unifying essential elements to building a cosmology for the new emerging cult/faith, merging with elements of folk Catholicism, African-Brazilian religions and Kardecist spiritism. These new cults arise from charismatic leaderships, often messianic and prophetic, who came from rural areas after migration movements, sometimes called ayahuasqueiros, in semi-urban communities across the borders of Brazil, Bolívia and Peru (a region that will later form the state of Acre). or campo ayahuasqueiro brasileiro ("brazilian ayahuasqueiro field") by Labate, emerging as three main structured religions, the Santo Daime and Barquinha, in Rio Branco and the União do Vegetal (UDV) in Porto Velho, three denominations that, notwithstanding shared characteristics besides ayahuasca utilization, have several particularities regarding its practices, conceptions and processes building social legitimacy and relationships with Brazilian government, media, science and other society stances. Since the latter half of twentieth century, the ayahuasca religious expanded to other parts of Brazil and several countries in the world, notably in the West.
Modern use
Beat writer William S. Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations. Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis.
Richard Evans Schultes allowed Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study ayahuasca with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of the beverage and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids.
In recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis (One River), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda, Chilean novelist Isabel Allende, writer Kira Salak, author Jeremy Narby (The Cosmic Serpent), author Jay Griffiths (Wild: An Elemental Journey), American novelist Steven Peck, radio personality Robin Quivers,, writer Paul Theroux (Figures in a Landscape: People and Places), and NFL quarterback Aaron Rodgers.
Preparation
region of Ecuador]]
Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis (chacruna), Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga and chacropanga), and Mimosa tenuiflora, among other ingredients which can vary greatly from one shaman to the next. The resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug dimethyltryptamine and monoamine oxidase inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active by allowing it (DMT) to be processed by the liver. The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a ritual process that requires the user to pick the lower Chacruna leaf at sunrise, then say a prayer. The vine must be "cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons" and pounded "with wooden mallets until it's fibre."
The actual preparation of the brew takes several hours, often taking place over the course of more than one day. After adding the plant material, each separately at this stage, to a large pot of water, it is boiled until the water is reduced by half in volume. The individual brews are then added together and brewed until reduced significantly. This combined brew is what is taken by participants in ayahuasca ceremonies.
Traditional use
region of Peru]]
]]
The uses of ayahuasca in traditional societies in South America vary greatly. Some cultures do use it for shamanic purposes, but in other cases, it is consumed socially among friends, in order to learn more about the natural environment, and even in order to visit friends and family who are far away. although these seem to be specific to the culture around Iquitos, Peru, a major center of ayahuasca tourism.
In the rainforest, these taboos tend towards the purification of one's self—abstaining from spicy and heavily seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis; however, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal, suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived and probably non-existent.
In some areas, there are purported brujos (Spanish for "witches") who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of the purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile. in a rite that typically takes place over the entire night. During the ceremony, the effect of the drink lasts for hours. Prior to the ceremony, participants are instructed to abstain from spicy foods, red meat and sex. The ceremony is usually accompanied with purging which include vomiting and diarrhea, which is believed to release built-up emotions and negative energy. Shipibo-Konibo and their relation to Ayahuasca It is believed that the Shipibo-Konibo are among the earliest practitioners of Ayahuasca ceremonies, with their connection to the brew and ceremonies surrounding it dating back centuries, perhaps a millennium.
Some members of the Shipibo community have taken to the media to express their views on Ayahuasca entering the mainstream, with some calling it "the commercialization of ayahuasca." Some of them have even expressed their worry regarding the increased popularity, saying "the contemporary 'ayahuasca ceremony' may be understood as a substitute for former cosmogonical rituals that are nowadays not performed anymore." Icaros The Shipibo have their own language, called Shipibo, a Panoan language spoken by approximately 26,000 people in Peru and Brazil. This language is commonly sung by the shaman in the form of a chant, called an Icaro, during the Ayahuasca ritual as a way to establish a "balance of energy" during the ritual to help protect and guide the user during their experience.
Traditional brew
]]
Traditional ayahuasca brews are usually made with Banisteriopsis caapi as an MAOI, while dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi, often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses.
DMT admixtures:
* Psychotria viridis (Chacruna) – leaves
* Psychotria carthagenensis (Amyruca)
* Brugmansia sp. (Toé)
* Epiphyllum sp. The first ayahuasca churches, affiliated with the Brazilian Santo Daime, were established in the Netherlands. A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of the Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a controlled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order such that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9. The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different "styles" have been developed, including non-religious approaches. Ayahuasca analogs
seeds can be used to provide an MAOI.]]
In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogs are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as a substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chacruna. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia.
The name "ayahuasca" specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains Banisteriopsis caapi. A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca, is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. In contrast, traditionally among Amazonian tribes, the B. Caapi vine is considered to be the "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper, and guide to the otherworldly realms.
Brews similar to ayahuasca may be prepared using several plants not traditionally used in South America:
DMT admixtures:
* Acacia maidenii (Maiden's wattle) – bark *not all plants are "active strains", meaning some plants will have very little DMT and others larger amounts
* Acacia phlebophylla, and other Acacias, most commonly employed in Australia – bark
* Anadenanthera peregrina, A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa
* Desmanthus illinoensis (Illinois bundleflower) – root bark is mixed with a native source of beta-Carbolines (e.g., passion flower in North America) to produce a hallucinogenic drink called prairiehuasca.
MAOI admixtures:
* Harmal (Peganum harmala, Syrian rue) – seeds
* Passion flower
* synthetic MAOIs, especially RIMAs (due to the dangers presented by irreversible MAOIs)
Effects
DMT effects}}
Adverse effects
In the short term, ingesting Ayahuasca can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. These three effects, known as purging, are traditionally recognized to be a part of the spiritual experience of ayahuasca. Physiologically, vomiting is a result of increased serotonin circulating in the gut, which directly stimulates the vagus nerve. Other short-term side effects include increased blood pressure and tachycardia. Additionally, increased secretion of hormones like prolactin, cortisone, and growth hormone has been correlated with ayahuasca consumption. Rarer side effects include dyspnea, seizures and serotonin syndrome. Ayahuasca is suspected of triggering psychosis in people with a predisposition to the condition, and there is a lack of safety information for Ayahuasca's possible effects on pregnancy and breastfeeding. Psychological effects People who have consumed ayahuasca report having mystical experiences and spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe, and deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can. Many people also report therapeutic effects, especially around depression and personal traumas.
This is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what is often described as a near-death experience or rebirth.
The experiences that people have while under the influence of ayahuasca are also culturally influenced. Potential therapeutic effects There are potential antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca has also been studied for the treatment of addictions and shown to be effective, with lower Addiction Severity Index scores seen in users of ayahuasca compared to controls. Pharmacology Harmala alkaloids
]]
]]
]]
Harmala alkaloids are MAO-inhibiting beta-carbolines. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the B. caapi vine are harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are selective and reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while tetrahydroharmine is a weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI).
Individual polymorphisms of the cytochrome P450-2D6 enzyme, and more over the isolated indocine metabolite from the inhabitation of CPY134a, with a varied rate of gustation due to physiological factors affect the ability of individuals to metabolize harmine.
Interactions
Legal status
Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:
A fax from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) to the Netherlands Ministry of Public Health sent in 2001 goes on to state that "Consequently, preparations (e.g. decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca, are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention."
Despite the INCB's 2001 affirmation that ayahuasca is not subject to drug control by international convention, in its 2010 Annual Report the Board recommended that governments consider controlling (i.e. criminalizing) ayahuasca at the national level. This recommendation by the INCB has been criticized as an attempt by the Board to overstep its legitimate mandate and as establishing a reason for governments to violate the human rights (i.e., religious freedom) of ceremonial ayahuasca drinkers.
Under American federal law, DMT is a Schedule I drug that is illegal to possess or consume; however, certain religious groups have been legally permitted to consume ayahuasca. A court case allowing the União do Vegetal to import and use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies pursuant to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In a similar case in Ashland, Oregon-based Santo Daime church sued for their right to import and consume ayahuasca tea. In March 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Panner ruled in favor of the Santo Daime, acknowledging its protection from prosecution under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.
In 2017 the Santo Daime Church Céu do Montréal in Canada received religious exemption to use ayahuasca as a sacrament in their rituals.
Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses.
In France, Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled. Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared stupéfiants, or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess.
In June 2019, Oakland, California, decriminalized natural entheogens. The City Council passed the resolution in a unanimous vote, ending the investigation and imposition of criminal penalties for use and possession of entheogens derived from plants or fungi. The resolution states: "Practices with Entheogenic Plants have long existed and have been considered to be sacred to human cultures and human interrelationships with nature for thousands of years, and continue to be enhanced and improved to this day by religious and spiritual leaders, practicing professionals, mentors, and healers throughout the world, many of whom have been forced underground."
In January 2020, Santa Cruz, California, and in September 2020, Ann Arbor, Michigan, decriminalized natural entheogens.
<!-- NPR reported in August 2010 that it was legal, is that wrong?
In Peru, the government is undergoing the legislation process of legalizing and regulating ayahuasca usage and monitoring ayahuasca centers. Currently (April 2010) the use of ayahuasca is not technically legal but since it is an accepted practice of Indigenous cultures in Peru, the Peruvian government is going through of the process maintaining the continuity of these cultures whilst avoiding international issues.
-->
Intellectual property issues
Ayahuasca has stirred debate regarding intellectual property protection of traditional knowledge. In 1986 the US Patent and Trademarks Office (PTO) allowed the granting of a patent on the ayahuasca vine B. caapi''. It allowed this patent based on the assumption that ayahuasca's properties had not been previously described in writing. Several public interest groups, including the Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA) and the Coalition for Amazonian Peoples and Their Environment (Amazon Coalition) objected. In 1999 they brought a legal challenge to this patent which had granted a private US citizen "ownership" of the knowledge of a plant that is well-known and sacred to many Indigenous peoples of the Amazon, and used by them in religious and healing ceremonies.
Later that year the PTO issued a decision rejecting the patent, on the basis that the petitioners' arguments that the plant was not "distinctive or novel" were valid; however, the decision did not acknowledge the argument that the plant's religious or cultural values prohibited a patent. In 2001, after an appeal by the patent holder, the US Patent Office reinstated the patent, albeit to only a specific plant and its asexually reproduced offspring. The law at the time did not allow a third party such as COICA to participate in that part of the reexamination process. The patent, held by US entrepreneur Loren Miller, expired in 2003. See also
*Changa
*Icaro
*Kambo (drug)
*Ibogaine
*Yachay
* Dimethyltryptamine/harmine
Notes
<references group"note" /> References Further reading
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* Burroughs, William S. and Allen Ginsberg. The Yage Letters. San Francisco: City Lights, 1963.
* Langdon, E. Jean Matteson & Gerhard Baer, eds. Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992.
* Shannon, Benny. The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
* Taussig, Michael. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
* [https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Ayahuasca Ayahuasca - PsychonautWiki]
* [https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Ayahuasca - Erowid]
* [https://tripsitter.com/ayahuasca/ What is Ayahuasca? - Tripsitter]
* [https://doubleblindmag.com/ayahuasca-experience/ The Ayahuasca Experience: A Pilgrimage to the Spirit - Double Blind Magazine]
Category:Biopiracy
Category:Entheogens
Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens
Category:Indigenous culture of the Amazon
Category:Mixed drinks
Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Category:Polysubstance drinks | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.884037 |
2329 | Alfonso Leng | thumb|Alfonso Leng
Alfonso Leng Haygus (11 February 1884 – 11 November 1974) was a post-romantic composer of classical music. He was born in Santiago, Chile. He wrote the first important symphonic work in Chilean tradition, "La Muerte de Alcino", a symphonic poem inspired by the novel of Pedro Prado. He composed many art songs in different languages and important piano pieces, like the five "Doloras" (1914), which he later orchestrated and are normally played in concerts in Chile and Latin America. He won the National Art Prize in 1957.
Leng was also an accomplished dentist in Santiago. As a dentist, he was the main founder of the dentistry faculty of the University of Chile, and he was eventually elected as the first dean.
Leng was the nephew of composer Carmela Mackenna.
References
Category:1884 births
Category:1974 deaths
Category:Chilean male composers
Category:Chilean dentists
Category:Musicians from Santiago, Chile
Category:Academic staff of the University of Chile
Category:Chilean people of Chinese descent
Category:20th-century Chilean musicians
Category:20th-century Chilean classical composers
Category:20th-century male composers
Category:Chilean male classical composers
Category:20th-century dentists
Category:20th-century Chilean male artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Leng | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.913195 |
2330 | Abbe number | In optics and lens design, the Abbe number, also known as the Vd-number or constringence of a transparent material, is an approximate measure of the material's dispersion (change of refractive index versus wavelength), with high values of Vd indicating low dispersion. It is named after Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), the German physicist who defined it. The term Vd-number should not be confused with the normalized frequency in fibers.
right|thumb|300px|Refractive index variation for SF11 flint glass, BK7 borosilicate crown glass, and fused quartz, and calculation for two Abbe numbers for SF11.
The Abbe number, V_\mathsf d\ , of a material is defined as
V_\mathsf d \equiv \frac{ n_\mathsf d - 1 }{\ n_\mathsf F - n_\mathsf C\ },
where n_\mathsf C, n_\mathsf d, and n_\mathsf F are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the Fraunhofer's C, d, and F spectral lines (656.3 nm, 587.56 nm, and 486.1 nm respectively). This formulation only applies to the human vision. Outside this range requires the use of different spectral lines. For non-visible spectral lines the term "V-number" is more commonly used. The more general formulation defined as,
V \equiv \frac{ n_\mathsf{center} - 1 }{ n_\mathsf{short} - n_\mathsf{long} },
where n_\mathsf{short}, n_\mathsf{center}, and n_\mathsf{long}, are the refractive indices of the material at three different wavelengths. The shortest wavelength's index is n_\mathsf{short}, and the longest's is n_\mathsf{long}.
Abbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optical materials in terms of their chromaticity. For example, the higher dispersion flint glasses have relatively small Abbe numbers V whereas the lower dispersion crown glasses have larger Abbe numbers. Values of V_\mathsf d range from below 25 for very dense flint glasses, around 34 for polycarbonate plastics, up to 65 for common crown glasses, and 75 to 85 for some fluorite and phosphate crown glasses.
thumb|Most of the human eye's wavelength sensitivity curve, shown here, is bracketed by the Abbe number reference wavelengths of 486.1 nm (blue) and 656.3 nm (red)
Abbe numbers are used in the design of achromatic lenses, as their reciprocal is proportional to dispersion (slope of refractive index versus wavelength) in the wavelength region where the human eye is most sensitive (see graph). For different wavelength regions, or for higher precision in characterizing a system's chromaticity (such as in the design of apochromats), the full dispersion relation (refractive index as a function of wavelength) is used.
Abbe diagram
right|thumb|380px|An Abbe diagram, also known as 'the glass veil', plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram.
250px|thumb|Influences of selected glass component additions on the Abbe number of a specific base glass.
An Abbe diagram, also called 'the glass veil', is produced by plotting the Abbe number V_\mathsf d of a material versus its refractive index n_\mathsf d . Glasses can then be categorised and selected according to their positions on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the Schott Glass catalogue, or a 6 digit glass code.
Glasses' Abbe numbers, along with their mean refractive indices, are used in the calculation of the required refractive powers of the elements of achromatic lenses in order to cancel chromatic aberration to first order. These two parameters which enter into the equations for design of achromatic doublets are exactly what is plotted on an Abbe diagram.
Due to the difficulty and inconvenience in producing sodium and hydrogen lines, alternate definitions of the Abbe number are often substituted (ISO 7944). For example, rather than the standard definition given above, that uses the refractive index variation between the F and C hydrogen lines, one alternative measure using the subscript "e" for mercury's e line compared to cadmium's and lines is
V_\mathsf e = \frac{ n_\mathsf e - 1 }{\ n_\mathsf{F'} - n_\mathsf{C'}\ } ~.
This alternate takes the difference between cadmium's blue () and red () refractive indices at wavelengths 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm, relative to \ n_\mathsf e\ for mercury's e line at 546.073 nm, all of which are close by, and somewhat easier to produce than the C, F, and e lines. Other definitions can similarly be employed; the following table lists standard wavelengths at which \ n\ is commonly determined, including the standard subscripts used.
(nm) Fraunhofer'ssymbol Lightsource Color 365.01 i Hg UV-A 404.66 h Hg violet 435.84 g Hg blue 479.99 Cd blue 486.13 F H blue 546.07 e Hg green 587.56 d He yellow 589.3 D Na yellow 643.85 Cd red 656.27 C H red 706.52 r He red 768.2 K IR-A 852.11 s Cs IR-A 1013.98 t Hg IR-A
Derivation
Starting from the Lensmaker's equation we obtain the thin lens equation by dropping a small term that accounts for lens thickness, \ d\ :
P \frac{ 1 }{\ f ~} (n - 1) \Biggl[ \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } + \frac{\ (n-1)\ d ~}{\ n\ R_1 R_2\ } \Biggr] \approx (n - 1) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\ ,
when d \ll \sqrt{\ R_1 R_2\ } ~.
The change of refractive power \ P\ between the two wavelengths \ \lambda_\mathsf{short}\ and \ \lambda_\mathsf{long}\ is given by
\Delta P P_\mathsf{short} - P_\mathsf{\ \!long} (n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf \ell) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\ ,
where \ n_\mathsf s\ and \ n_\mathsf \ell\ are the short and long wavelengths' refractive indexes, respectively, and \ n_\mathsf c\ , below, is for the center.
The power difference can be expressed relative to the power at the center wavelength (\ \lambda_\mathsf{center}\ )
\ P_\mathsf c\ = (n_\mathsf c - 1) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\, ;
by multiplying and dividing by \ n_\mathsf c - 1\ and regrouping, get
\Delta P \left( n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf\ell \right) \left( \frac{\ n_\mathsf c - 1\ }{ n_\mathsf c - 1 } \right) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right) \left( \frac{\ \ n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf\ell\ }{ n_\mathsf c - 1 } \right) P_\mathsf c = \frac{\ P_\mathsf c\ }{ V_\mathsf c } ~.
The relative change is inversely proportional to \ V_\mathsf c\ :
\frac{\ \Delta P\ }{ P_\mathsf c } = \frac{ 1 }{\ V_\mathsf c\ } ~.
See also
Abbe prism
Abbe refractometer
Calculation of glass properties, including Abbe number
Glass code
Sellmeier equation, more comprehensive and physically based modeling of dispersion
References
External links
Abbe graph and data for 356 glasses from Ohara, Hoya, and Schott
Category:Dimensionless numbers of physics
Category:Optical quantities
Category:Glass physics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.947426 |
2331 | ACN | ACN may refer to:
Aviation
ACN, the IATA airport code for Ciudad Acuña International Airport, Coahuila, Mexico
Aircraft Classification Number, pavement load of an aircraft
Chemistry
Acetonitrile, CH3CN
Acrylonitrile, CH2CHCN
Corporate names and media
Accenture, professional services company, listed on the NYSE as ACN
ACN Inc., multi-level marketing company providing telecommunications and other services
Agencia Carabobeña de Noticias, news agency, Valencia, Venezuela
Agència Catalana de Notícies, news agency, Barcelona, Spain
American Collectibles Network, former name for Jewelry Television, US
Atlantis Cable News, fictional news channel on The Newsroom (American TV series)
Australian Company Number, unique identifier for companies registered in Australia
Sport
Africa Cup of Nations, biennial football tournament
Hockey Africa Cup of Nations, biennial field hockey tournament:
Men's Hockey Africa Cup of Nations
Women's Hockey Africa Cup of Nations
Other uses
Achang language, a Tibeto-Burman language of China
Achnasheen railway station, UK, National Rail code
Acineta, a genus of orchid
Action Congress of Nigeria, political party of Nigeria
Agenzia per la Cybersicurezza Nazionale, Italian government cybersecurity agency, Italy
Aid to the Church in Need, international Catholic charity based in Königstein im Taunus, Germany
Algebraic notation (chess), the standard notation for recording chess games (Algebraic chess notation)
Andean Community of Nations, free trade area
Anglican Communion Network, network of Anglican and Episcopalian dioceses and parishes
ante Christum natum, seldom-used Latin equivalent of BC
Architecture for Control Networks, network protocol for theatrical control | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACN | 2025-04-05T18:26:00.972692 |
2332 | AD (disambiguation) | AD (Anno Domini) is a designation used to label years following 1 BC in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.
Ad (advertisement) is a form of marketing communication.
AD, A.D. or Ad may also refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media
Film and television
A.D. (film), a 2010 animated zombie horror film
A.D. (miniseries), a 1985 television miniseries set in ancient Rome
A.D. The Bible Continues, a 2015 biblical drama television miniseries
Arrested Development, an American television sitcom
Attarintiki Daredi, 2013 Indian film by Trivikram Srinivas
Audio description, a service for visually impaired audience on some TV programs
Music
AD (band), a Christian rock band
A.D. (album), by Solace
Publications
AD (poem), by Kenneth Fearing
A.D.: New Orleans After the Deluge, a nonfiction graphic novel about Hurricane Katrina
Algemeen Dagblad, a Dutch newspaper
Architectural Digest, an interior design and landscaping magazine
Other art, entertainment, and media
Audio description track, a narration track for visually impaired consumers of visual media
Brands and enterprises
Alexander Dennis, a British bus manufacturer
Akcionersko društvo (aкционерско друштво), a Macedonian name for a type of company
Aktsionerno drujestvo (акционерно дружество), a Bulgarian name for a type of company
akcionarsko društvo (aкционарско друштво), a Serbian name for a type of company
Analog Devices, a semiconductor company
Educational qualifications
Artist diploma, a music performance certificate conferred by higher education institutions.
Military
Accidental discharge, a mechanical failure of a firearm causing it to fire
Active duty, a status of full duty or service, usually in the armed forces
Air defense, an anti-aircraft weaponry and systems
Air Department, part of the British Admiralty
A US Navy hull classification symbol: Destroyer tender (AD)
AD Skyraider, former name of the Douglas A-1 Skyraider, a Navy attack aircraft
Organizations
Action Directe, a French far-left militant group
Democratic Action (Venezuela) (), a social democratic and center-left political party
Democratic Alliance (Portugal, 1979) (), a former centre-right political alliance
Democratic Alternative (Malta) (), a green political party
People
Ad (name), a given name, and a list of people with the name
‘Ad, great-grandson of Shem, son of Noah
Anthony Davis (born 1993), American basketball player
A. D. Loganathan (1888–1949), officer of the Indian National Army
A. D. Whitfield (born 1943), American football player
A. D. Winans (born 1936), American poet, essayist, short story writer and publisher
A.D., nickname of Adrian Peterson (born 1985), American football player
Places
AD, ISO 3166-1 country for Andorra
Abu Dhabi, capital of the United Arab Emirates
AD, herbarium code for the State Herbarium of South Australia
Andhra Pradesh, a state in southern India (HASC code)
Professions
Art director, for a magazine or newspaper
Assistant director, a film or television crew member
Athletic director, the administrator of an athletics program
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
Addison's disease, an endocrine disorder
Adenovirus, viruses of the family Adenoviridae
Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative disease
Anaerobic digestion, processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material
Anti-diarrheal, medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhea
Aortic dissection, which occurs when an injury to the innermost layer of the aorta allows blood to flow between the layers of the aortic wall, forcing the layers apart
Approximate digestibility, an index measure of the digestibility of animal feed
Atopic dermatitis, form of skin inflammation
Atypical depression, a type of depression
Autosomal dominant, a classification of genetic traits
Autonomic dysreflexia, a potential medical emergency
Chemistry
Adamantyl, abbreviated "Ad" in organic chemistry
Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, a type of organic chemical reaction
Computing
.ad, the top level domain for Andorra
Administrative distance, a metric in routing
Active Directory, software for the management of Microsoft Windows domains
Administrative domain, a computer networking facility
Analog-to-digital converter, a type of electronic circuit
Automatic differentiation, a set of computer programming techniques to speedily compute derivatives
AD16, the hexadecimal number equal to decimal number 173
Mathematics
Adjoint representation of a Lie group, abbreviated "Ad" in mathematics
Axiom of determinacy, a set theory axiom
Physics
Antiproton Decelerator, a device at the CERN physics laboratory
Autodynamics, a physics theory
Other uses in science and technology
Active disassembly, a technology supporting the cost-effective deconstruction of complex materials
Transportation
AD, IATA code for:
Air Paradise, a defunct Indonesian airline
Azul Brazilian Airlines
Airworthiness Directive, an aircraft maintenance requirement notice
Other uses
ʿĀd, an ancient Arab tribe, mentioned in the Quran
Aggregate demand, in macroeconomics
Anno Diocletiani, an alternative year numbering system
United States Academic Decathlon, a high school academic competition
See also
Anno Domini (disambiguation)
BC (disambiguation)
Domino (disambiguation)
Dominus (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.003246 |
2333 | Ablative case | thumb|upright=1.3|Introduction to the ablative case from a 1903 Latin textbook
In grammar, the ablative case (pronounced ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical case for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the grammars of various languages. It is used to indicate motion away from something, make comparisons, and serve various other purposes. The word "ablative" derives from the Latin , the (suppletive) perfect, passive participle of auferre "to carry away".
The ablative case is found in several language families, such as Indo-European (e.g. Sanskrit, Latin, Albanian, Armenian, Punjabi), Turkic (e.g. Turkish, Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar), Tungusic (e.g. Manchu, Evenki), Uralic (e.g. Hungarian), and the Dravidian languages. There is no ablative case in modern Germanic languages such as German and English. There was an ablative case in the early stages of Ancient Greek, but it quickly fell into disuse by the classical period.
Indo-European languages
Latin
The ablative case in Latin () appears in various grammatical constructions, including following various prepositions, in an ablative absolute clause, and adverbially. The Latin ablative case was derived from three Proto-Indo-European cases: ablative (from), instrumental (with), and locative (in/at).
Greek
In Ancient Greek, there was an ablative case ( ) which was used in the Homeric, pre-Mycenaean, and Mycenean periods. It fell into disuse during the classical period and thereafter with some of its functions taken by the genitive and others by the dative. The genitive case with the prepositions and is an example.
German
German does not have an ablative case but, exceptionally, Latin ablative case-forms were used from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century after some prepositions, for example after in : ablative of the Latin loanword . Grammarians at that time, Justus Georg Schottel, Kaspar von Stieler, Johann Balthasar von Antesperg and Johann Christoph Gottsched, listed an ablative case (as the sixth case after nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative) for German words. They arbitrarily considered the dative case after some prepositions to be an ablative, as in and , while they considered the dative case after other prepositions or without a preposition, as in , to be a dative.
Albanian
The ablative case is found in Albanian; it is the fifth case, .
Sanskrit
In Sanskrit, the ablative case is the fifth case () and has a similar function to that in Latin. Sanskrit nouns in the ablative often refer to a subject "out of" which or "from" whom something (an action, an object) has arisen or occurred: . It is also used for nouns in several other senses, as for actions occurring "because of" or "without" a certain noun, indicating distance or direction. When it appears with a comparative adjective, ( ), the ablative is used to refer to what the adjective is comparing: .
Armenian
The modern Armenian ablative has different markers for each main dialect, both originating from Classical Armenian. The Western Armenian affix (definite ) derives from the classical singular; the Eastern Armenian affix (both indefinite and definite) derives from the classical plural. For both dialects, those affixes are singular, with the corresponding plurals being and .
Western Eastern Gloss from (a) man from the man from a house/from home from the house
The ablative case has several uses. Its principal function is to show "motion away" from a location, point in space or time:
Western Eastern Gloss I came from the city I used to live far from here
It also shows the agent when it is used with the passive voice of the verb:
Western Eastern Gloss You were always loved by me. We were freed by the liberators.
It is also used for comparative statements in colloquial Armenian (including infinitives and participles):
Western Eastern Gloss "What is sweeter than honey?" (proverb) Mary is younger (lit. smaller) than her brother Figs are better to taste than to see
Finally, it governs certain postpositions:
Western Eastern Gloss below me above you after them before us
Uralic languages
Finnish
In Finnish, the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning "from, off, of": pöytä – pöydältä "table – off from the table". It is an outer locative case, used like the adessive and allative cases, to denote both being on top of something and "being around the place" (as opposed to the inner locative case, the elative, which means "from out of" or "from the inside of"). With the locative, the receding object was near the other place or object, not inside it.
The Finnish ablative is also used in time expressions to indicate times of something happening (kymmeneltä "at ten") as well as with verbs expressing feelings or emotions.
The Finnish ablative has the ending -lta or -ltä, depending on vowel harmony.
Usage
away from a place
katolta: off the roof
pöydältä: off the table
rannalta: from the beach
maalta: from the land
mereltä: from the sea
from a person, object or other entity
häneltä: from him/her/them
with the verb lähteä (stop)
lähteä tupakalta: stop smoking (in the sense of putting out the cigarette one is smoking now, lit. 'leave from the tobacco')
lähteä hippasilta: stop playing tag (hippatag, olla hippasillaplaying tag)
to smell/taste/feel/look/sound like something
haisee pahalta: smells bad
maistuu hyvältä: tastes good
tuntuu kamalalta: feels awful
näyttää tyhmältä: looks stupid
kuulostaa mukavalta: sounds nice
Estonian
The ablative case in Estonian is the ninth case and has a similar function to that in Hungarian.
Hungarian
The ablative case in Hungarian is used to describe movement away from, as well as a concept, object, act or event originating from an object, person, location or entity. For example, one walking away from a friend who gave him a gift could say the following:
a barátomtól jövök (I am coming (away) from my friend).
a barátomtól kaptam egy ajándékot (I got a gift from my friend).
When used to describe movement away from a location, the case may only refer to movement from the general vicinity of the location and not from inside of it. Thus, a postától jövök would mean one had been standing next to the post office before, not inside the building.
When the case is used to refer to the origin of a possible act or event, the act/event may be implied while not explicitly stated, such as : I will defend you from the robber.
The application of vowel harmony gives two different suffixes: -tól and -től. These are applied to back-vowel and front-vowel words, respectively.
Hungarian has a narrower delative case, similar to ablative, but more specific: movement off/from a surface of something, with suffixes -ról and -ről.
Turkic languages
Azerbaijani
The ablative in Azerbaijani () is expressed through the suffixes or :
Tatar
The ablative in Tatar () is expressed through the suffixes ,, , , , or :
Turkish
The ablative in Turkish ( or ) is expressed through the suffix (which changes to , , or to accommodate the vowel and voicing harmony):
In some situations simple ablative can have a "because of" meaning; in these situations, ablative can be optionally followed by the postposition .
Tungusic
Manchu
The ablative in Manchu is expressed through the suffix and can also be used to express comparisons. It is usually not directly attached to its parent word.
Evenki
The ablative in Evenki is expressed with the suffix .
See also
Allative case
Delative case
Locative case
Further reading
References
Category:Grammatical cases | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablative_case | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.069234 |
2335 | Adamic language | . In some interpretations, he uses the “Adamic language” to do so.]]
The Adamic language, according to Jewish tradition (as recorded in the midrashim) and some Christians, is the language spoken by Adam (and possibly Eve) in the Garden of Eden. It is variously interpreted as either the language used by God to address Adam (the divine language), or the language invented by Adam with which he named all things (including Eve), as in the second Genesis creation narrative ().
In the Middle Ages, various Jewish commentators held that Adam spoke Hebrew, a view also addressed in various ways by the late medieval Italian poet Dante Alighieri. In the early modern period, some authors continued to discuss the possibility of an Adamic language, some continuing to hold to the idea that it was Hebrew, while others such as John Locke were more skeptical. According to Ethiopian and Eritrean traditions, the ancient Semitic language of Geʽez is the language of Adam, the first and original language. More recently, a variety of Mormon authors have expressed various opinions about the nature of the Adamic language.
Patristic period
Augustine addresses the issue in The City of God. While not explicit, the implication of there being but one human language prior to the Tower of Babel's collapse is that the language, which was preserved by Heber and his son Peleg, and which is recognized as the language passed down to Abraham and his descendants, is the language that would have been used by Adam.
Middle Ages
Traditional Jewish exegesis such as Midrash says that Adam spoke the Hebrew language because the names he gives Eve – Isha and Chava – only make sense in Hebrew. By contrast, Kabbalah assumed an "eternal Torah" which was not identical to the Torah written in Hebrew. Thus, Abraham Abulafia in the 13th century assumed that the language spoken in Paradise had been different from Hebrew, and rejected the claim then-current also among Christian authors, that a child left unexposed to linguistic stimulus would automatically begin to speak in Hebrew. Both Muslim and Christian Arabs, such as Sulayman al-Ghazzi, considered Syriac the language spoken by Adam and Eve.
Umberto Eco (1993) notes that Genesis is ambiguous on whether the language of Adam was preserved by Adam's descendants until the confusion of tongues, or if it began to evolve naturally even before Babel.
Dante Alighieri addresses the topic in his De vulgari eloquentia (1302–1305). He argues that the Adamic language is of divine origin and therefore unchangeable. He also notes that according to Genesis, the first speech act is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam.
In his Divine Comedy (c. 1308–1320), however, Dante changes his view to another that treats the Adamic language as the product of Adam. This had the consequence that it could no longer be regarded as immutable, and hence Hebrew could not be regarded as identical with the language of Paradise. Dante concludes (Paradiso XXVI) that Hebrew is a derivative of the language of Adam. In particular, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition, El, must be derived of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante gives as I.
Early modern period
Proponents
Elizabethan scholar John Dee makes references to a language he called "Angelical", which he recorded in his private journals and those of scryer Edward Kelley. Dee's journals did not describe the language as "Enochian", instead preferring "Angelical", the "Celestial Speech", the "Language of Angels", the "First Language of God-Christ", the "Holy Language", or "Adamical" because, according to Dee's Angels, it was used by Adam in Paradise to name all things. The language was later dubbed Enochian, due to Dee's assertion that the Biblical Patriarch Enoch had been the last human (before Dee and Kelley) to know the language.
Dutch physician, linguist, and humanist Johannes Goropius Becanus (1519–1572) theorized in Origines Antwerpianae (1569) that Antwerpian Babrantic, spoken in the region between the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers, was the original language spoken in Paradise. Goropius believed that the most ancient language on Earth would be the simplest language, and that the simplest language would contain mostly short words. Since Brabantic has a higher number of short words than do Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, Goropius reasoned that it was the older language. His work influenced that of Simon Stevin (1548–1620), who espoused similar ideas in "Uytspraeck van de weerdicheyt der Duytse tael", a chapter in De Beghinselen Der Weeghconst (1586). Opponents By the 17th century, the existence and nature of the alleged Adamic language was commonly discussed amongst European Jewish and Christian mystics and primitive linguists. Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was skeptical that Hebrew was the language best capable of describing the nature of things, stating:
<blockquote>I could never find, that the Hebrew names of animals, mentioned in the beginning of Genesis, argued a (much) clearer insight into their natures, than did the names of the same or some other animals in Greek, or other languages (1665:45). Some Mormons believe it to be the language of God. Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues, was commonplace in the early years of the movement, and it was commonly believed that the incomprehensible language spoken during these incidents was the language of Adam. However, this belief seems to have never been formally or officially adopted.
Some other early Latter Day Saint leaders, including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Elizabeth Ann Whitney, claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language by revelation. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language is the "pure language" spoken of by Zephaniah and that it will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.
Apostle Orson Pratt declared that "Ahman", part of the name of the settlement "Adam-ondi-Ahman" in Daviess County, Missouri, was the name of God in the Adamic language.
The Latter Day Saint endowment prayer circle once included use of the words "Pay Lay Ale". These untranslated words are no longer used in temple ordinances and have been replaced by an English version, "O God, hear the words of my mouth". Some believe that the "Pay Lay Ale" sentence is derived from the Hebrew phrase "pe le-El" (), "mouth to God".
Other words thought by some Latter Day Saints to derive from the Adamic language include deseret ("honey bee") and Ahman ("God").
The Book of Moses refers to "a book of remembrance" written in the language of Adam.Goidelic languagesNicholas Wolf writes that 19th-century Irish language speakers and publications claim that Irish (or some Goidelic language) is a language of Biblical primacy comparable to Hebrew, with some claiming it was the language of Adam.
In popular culture
In the videogame Indiana Jones and the Great Circle, the language Adamic is discovered by the protagonist as an early human language spoken by giants, which was adapted into Egyptian and Sumerian in ancient times. It is also represented on stone tablets, resembling logographic writing systems of the early Bronze age.
See also
* History of linguistics
* Mythical origins of language
* Origin of language
* Proto-Human language
* Universal language
* Enochian
* Sacred language
References
Bibliography
* Allison P. Coudert (ed.), The Language of Adam = Die Sprache Adams, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999.
* Angelo Mazzocco, Linguistic Theories in Dante and the Humanists, (chapter 9: "Dante's Reappraisal of the Adamic language", 159–181).
* Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language (1993).
Category:Dante Alighieri
Category:Hebrew language
Category:Kabbalah
Category:Language and mysticism
Category:Latter Day Saint temple practices
Category:Midrashim
Category:Obsolete scientific theories
Category:Religious language
Category:Spurious languages
Category:Adam and Eve | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamic_language | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.116991 |
2338 | Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny | | type = Political-satirical opera
| composer =
| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2005-0119, Kurt Weill.jpg
| caption = Weill in 1932
| image_upright = 1.2
| translated_name = Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny
| librettist = Bertolt Brecht
| language = German
| based_on | premiere_date
| premiere_location , Leipzig
}}
Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny () is a political-satirical opera composed by Kurt Weill to a German libretto by Bertolt Brecht. It was first performed on 9 March 1930 at the in Leipzig.
Some interpreters have viewed the play as a critique of American society. Others have perceived it as a critique of the chaotic and immoral Weimar Republic, particularly Berlin of the 1920s with its rampant prostitution, unstable government, political corruption, and economic crises. Composition history Weill was asked by the 1927 Baden-Baden music festival committee to write a one-act chamber opera for the festival. He ended up writing Mahagonny-Songspiel, sometimes known as Das kleine Mahagonny, a concert work commissioned for voices and a small orchestra. The work was written in May 1927, and performed in June. It consisted of eleven numbers, including "Alabama Song" and "Benares Song".
Weill then continued to rework the material into a full opera while Brecht worked on the libretto. The opera had its premiere in Leipzig on 9 March 1930 and played in Berlin in December of the following year. The opera was banned by the Nazis in 1933 and did not have a significant production until the 1960s.
Weill's score uses a number of styles, including ragtime, jazz and formal counterpoint. The "Alabama Song" has been interpreted by a range of artists, notably Ute Lemper, The Doors and David Bowie. Language
The lyrics for the "Alabama Song" and another song, the "Benares Song", are in English (albeit specifically idiosyncratic English) and are performed in that language even when the opera is performed in its original (German) language.
A few lines of the briefly interpolated song, "Asleep in the Deep" (1897), lyrics by Arthur J. Lamb, music by H. W. Petrie, referred to in the opera by its opening words, "Stürmisch die Nacht " or "Stormy the Deep", are sung in the German version of the song, composed on verses of Martell, under the title "Des Seemanns Los" (The Sailor's Fate), when the opera is sung in the original German.
Although the name of the city itself sounds like the English word mahogany and its German-language equivalent, Mahagoni, the character Leokadja Begbick states that it means "City of Nets" while Brecht stated that it was a made-up word.
Performance history
The opera has played in opera houses around the world. Never achieving the popularity of Weill and Brecht's The Threepenny Opera, Mahagonny is still considered a work of stature with a haunting score. Herbert Lindenberger in his book Opera in History, for example, views Mahagonny alongside Schoenberg's Moses und Aron as indicative of the two poles of modernist opera.
Following the Leipzig premiere, the opera was presented in Berlin in December 1931 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm conducted by Alexander von Zemlinsky with Lotte Lenya as Jenny, Trude Hesterberg as Begbick, and Harald Paulsen as Jimmy. Another production was presented in January 1934 in Copenhagen at the Det Ny Teater. Other productions within Europe waited until the end of the Second World War, some notable ones being in January 1963 in London at Sadler's Wells Opera conducted by Colin Davis and in Berlin in September 1977 by the Komische Oper.
It was not presented in the United States until 1970, when a short-lived April production at the Phyllis Anderson Theatre off Broadway starred Barbara Harris as Jenny, Frank Porretta as Jimmy, and Estelle Parsons as Begbick. It was then presented in Boston in 1973 under the direction of Sarah Caldwell.
The first university production in the US was in 1973 at UC Berkeley, directed by Jean-Bernard Bucky and Michael Senturia.
A full version was presented at the Yale Repertory Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1974, with Gilbert Price as Jimmy and Stephanie Cotsirilos as Jenny. Kurt Kasznar played Moses. The libretto was performed in an original translation by Michael Feingold; the production was directed by Alvin Epstein. In October 1978, Yale presented a "chamber version" adapted and directed by Keith Hack, with John Glover as Jimmy and June Gable as Begbick. Mark Linn-Baker played Fatty; Michael Gross was Trinity Moses. In November 1979, Mahagonny debuted at the Metropolitan Opera in a John Dexter production conducted by James Levine. The cast included Teresa Stratas as Jenny, Astrid Varnay as Begbick, Richard Cassilly as Jimmy, Cornell MacNeil as Moses, Ragnar Ulfung as Fatty and Paul Plishka as Joe. The production was televised in 1979 and was released on DVD in 2010. This production was streamed through the Met Opera on Demand platform on 12 December 2020 and 3-4 July 2021.
The Los Angeles Opera presented the opera in September 1989 under conductor Kent Nagano and with a Jonathan Miller production. Other notable productions in Europe from the 1980s included the March 1986 presentation by the Scottish Opera in Glasgow; a June 1990 production in Florence by the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino. In October 1995 and 1997, the Paris Opera staged by Graham Vick, under the baton of Jeffrey Tate starring Marie McLaughlin as Jenny, Felicity Palmer (1995) and Kathryn Harries (1997) as Begbick, and Kim Begley (1995)/Peter Straka (1997) as Jimmy.
The July 1998 Salzburg Festival production featured Catherine Malfitano as Jenny, Gwyneth Jones as Begbick, and Jerry Hadley as Jimmy. The Vienna State Opera added it to its repertoire in January 2012 in a production by Jérôme Deschamps conducted by Ingo Metzmacher starring Christopher Ventris as Jimmy and Angelika Kirchschlager as Jenny, notably casting young mezzo-soprano Elisabeth Kulman as Begbick, breaking the tradition of having a veteran soprano (like Varnay or Jones) or musical theater singer (like Patti LuPone) perform the role.
Productions within the US have included those in November 1998 by the Lyric Opera of Chicago directed by David Alden. Catherine Malfitano repeated her role as Jenny, while Felicity Palmer sang Begbick, and Kim Begley sang the role of Jimmy. The Los Angeles Opera's February 2007 production directed by John Doyle and conducted by James Conlon included Audra McDonald as Jenny, Patti LuPone as Begbick, and Anthony Dean Griffey as Jimmy. This production was recorded on DVD, and subsequently won the 2009 Grammy Awards for "Best Classical Album" and "Best Opera Recording."
In 2014 it was performed using an alternate libretto as a "wrestling opera" at the Oakland Metro by the performers of Hoodslam.
A major new production had its world premiere in July 2019 at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in France conducted by Esa-Pekka Salonen with stage direction by Ivo van Hove. It is a co-production of Dutch National Opera, Metropolitan Opera, Opera Ballet Vlaanderen, and Les Theatres De La Ville De Luxembourg.
Roles
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Role
!Voice type
!Premiere cast, 9 March 1930<br />Conductor: Gustav Brecher
|-
|Leokadja Begbick, a fugitive
|mezzo-soprano
|Marga Dannenberg
|-
|Dreieinigkeitsmoses (Trinity Moses), another fugitive
|baritone
|Walther Zimmer
|-
|Fatty der Prokurist (Fatty the Bookkeeper), a third fugitive
|tenor
|Hanns Fleischer
|-
|Jimmy Mahoney (Jimmy MacIntyre), an Alaskan lumberjack
|tenor
|Paul Beinert
|-
|Sparbüchsenbilly (Bank-Account Billy), ''Jimmy's friend''
|baritone
|Theodor Horand
|-
|Jacob Schmidt (Jack O'Brien), ''Jimmy's friend
|tenor
|Hanns Hauschild
|-
|Joe, called Alaskawolfjoe, Jimmy's friend
|bass
|Ernst Osterkamp
|-
|Jenny Smith, a whore
|soprano
|Mali Trummer
|-
|Toby Higgins
|tenor
|Alfred Holländer
|-
|An announcer
|
|
|}
Synopsis
Act 1
Scene 1: A desolate no-man's land
A truck breaks down. Three fugitives from justice get out and find themselves in the city of Mahagonny: Fatty the Bookkeeper, Trinity Moses, and Leocadia Begbick. Because the federal agents pursuing them will not search this far north, and they are in a good location to attract ships coming south from the Alaskan gold fields, Begbick decides that they can profit by staying where they are and founding a pleasure city, where men can have fun, because there is nothing else in the world to rely on.
Scene 2
The news of Mahagonny spreads quickly, and sharks from all over flock to the bait, including the whore Jenny Smith, who is seen, with six other girls, singing the "Alabama Song", in which she waves goodbye to her home and sets out in pursuit of whiskey, dollars and pretty boys.
Scene 3
In the big cities, where men lead boring, purposeless lives, Fatty and Moses spread the gospel of Mahagonny, city of gold, among the disillusioned.
Scene 4
Four Alaskan Lumberjacks who have shared hard times together in the timberlands and made their fortunes set off together for Mahagonny. Jimmy Mahoney and his three friends – Jacob Schmidt, Bank Account Billy, and Alaska Wolf Joe – sing of the pleasures awaiting them in "Off to Mahagonny", and look forward to the peace and pleasure they will find there.
Scene 5''
The four friends arrive in Mahagonny, only to find other disappointed travelers already leaving. Begbick, well-informed about their personal tastes, marks down her prices, but for the penurious Billy, they still seem too high. Jimmy impatiently calls for the girls of Mahagonny to show themselves, so he can make a choice. Begbick suggests Jenny as the right girl for Jack, who finds her rates too high. She pleads with Jack to reconsider ("Havana Song"), which arouses Jim's interest, and he chooses her. Jenny and the girls sing a tribute to "the Jimmys from Alaska."
Scene 6
Jimmy and Jenny get to know one another as she asks him to define the terms of their contact: Does he wish her to wear her hair up or down, to wear fancy underwear or none at all? "What is your wish?" asks Jim, but Jenny evades answering.
Scene 7
Begbick, Fatty, and Moses meet to discuss the pleasure city's financial crisis: People are leaving in droves, and the price of whiskey is sinking rapidly. Begbick suggests going back to civilization, but Fatty reminds her that the federal agents have been inquiring for her in nearby Pensacola. Money would solve everything, declares Begbick, and she decides to soak the four new arrivals for all they've got.
Scene 8
Jimmy, restless, attempts to leave Mahagonny because he misses the wife he left in Alaska.
Scene 9
In front of the Rich Man's Hotel, Jimmy and the others sit lazily as a pianist plays Tekla Bądarzewska's "A Maiden's Prayer". With growing anger, Jimmy sings of how his hard work and suffering in Alaska have led only to this. Drawing a knife, he shouts for Begbick, while his friends try to disarm him and the other men call to have him thrown out. Calm again, he tells Begbick that Mahagonny can never make people happy: it has too much peace and quiet.
Scene 10
As if in answer to Jimmy's complaint, the city is threatened by a hurricane. Everyone sings in horror of the destruction awaiting them.
Scene 11
Tensely, people watch for the hurricane's arrival. The men sing a hymn-like admonition not to be afraid. Jim meditatively compares Nature's savagery to the far greater destructiveness of Man. Why do we build, he asks, if not for the pleasure of destroying? Since Man can outdo any hurricane, fear makes no sense. For the sake of human satisfaction, nothing should be forbidden: If you want another man's money, his house or his wife, knock him down and take it; do what you please. As Begbick and the men ponder Jimmy's philosophy, Fatty and Moses rush in with news: The hurricane has unexpectedly struck Pensacola, destroying Begbick's enemies, the federal agents. Begbick and her cohorts take it as a sign that Jimmy is right; they join him, Jenny, and his three friends in singing a new, defiant song: If someone walks over someone else, then it's me, and if someone gets walked on, then it's you. In the background, the men continue to chant their hymn as the hurricane draws nearer.
Act 2
Scene 12
Magically, the hurricane bypasses Mahagonny, and the people sing in awe of their miraculous rescue. This confirms Begbick's belief in the philosophy of "Do what you want," and she proceeds to put it into effect.
Scene 13 at the renovated "Do It" tavern.
The men sing of the four pleasures of life: Eating, Lovemaking, Fighting, and Drinking. First comes eating: To kitschy cafe music, Jimmy's friend Jacob gorges until he keels over and dies. The men sing a chorale over his body, saluting "a man without fear".
Scene 14: Loving.
While Begbick collects money and issues tips on behavior, Moses placates the impatient men queuing to make love to Jenny and the other whores. The men sing the "Mandalay Song", warning that love does not last forever, and urging those ahead of them to make it snappy.
Scene 15: Fighting.
The men flock to see a boxing match between Trinity Moses and Jim's friend Alaska Wolf Joe. While most of the men, including the ever-cautious Billy, bet on the burly Moses, Jim, out of friendship, bets heavily on Joe. The match is manifestly unfair; Moses not only wins but kills Joe in knocking him out.
Scene 16: Drinking.
In an effort to shake off the gloom of Joe's death, Jimmy invites everyone to have a drink on him. The men sing "Life in Mahagonny", describing how one could live in the city for only five dollars a day, but those who wanted to have fun always needed more. Jim, increasingly drunk, dreams of sailing back to Alaska. He takes down a curtain rod for a mast and climbs on the pool table, pretending it is a ship; Jenny and Billy play along. Jimmy is abruptly sobered up when Begbick demands payment for the whiskey as well as for the damage to her property. Totally broke, he turns in a panic to Jenny, who explains her refusal to help him out in the song "Make your own bed" – an adaptation of the ideas he proclaimed at the end of act 1. Jim is led off in chains as the chorus, singing another stanza of "Life in Mahagonny", returns to its pastimes. Trinity Moses assures the crowd that Jimmy will pay for his crimes with his life.
Scene 17
At night, Jim alone and chained to a lamppost sings a plea for the sun not to rise on the day of his impending trial.
Act 3
Scene 18: In the courtroom
Moses, like a carnival barker, sells tickets to the trials. He serves as prosecutor, Fatty as defense attorney, Begbick as judge. First comes the case of Toby Higgins, accused of premeditated murder for the purpose of testing an old revolver. Fatty invites the injured party to rise, but no one does so, since the dead do not speak. Toby bribes all three, and as a result, Begbick dismisses the case. Next Jimmy's case is called. Chained, he is led in by Billy, from whom he tries to borrow money; Billy of course refuses, despite Jim's plea to remember their time together in Alaska. In virtually the same speech he used to attack Higgins, Moses excoriates him for not paying his bills, for seducing Jenny (who presents herself as a plaintiff) to commit a "carnal act" with him for money, and for inciting the crowd with "an illegal joyous song" on the night of the typhoon. Billy, with the chorus's support, counters that, in committing the latter act, Jimmy discovered the laws by which Mahagonny lives. Moses argues that Jim hastened his friend Joe's death in a prizefight by betting on him, and Billy counters by asking who actually killed Joe. Moses does not reply. But there is no answer for the main count against him. Jim gets short sentences for his lesser crimes, but for having no money, he is sentenced to death. Begbick, Fatty, and Moses, rising to identify themselves as the injured parties, proclaim "in the whole human race / there is no greater criminal / than a man without money". As Jim is led off to await execution, everyone sings the "Benares Song", in which they long for that exotic city "where the sun is shining." But Benares has been destroyed by an earthquake. "Where shall we go?" they ask.
Scene 19: At the gallows
Jim says a tender goodbye to Jenny, who, dressed in white, declares herself his widow. He surrenders her to Billy, his last remaining companion from Alaska. When he tries to delay the execution by reminding the people of Mahagonny that God exists, they play out for him, under Moses' direction, the story of "God in Mahagonny", in which the Almighty condemns the town and is overthrown by its citizens, who declare that they can not be sent to Hell because they are already in Hell. Jim, chastened, asks only for a glass of water, but is refused even this as Moses gives the signal for the trap to be sprung.
Scene 20
A caption advises that, after Jim's death, increasing hostility among the city's various factions has caused the destruction of Mahagonny. To a potpourri of themes from earlier in the opera, groups of protesters are seen on the march, in conflict with one another, while the city burns in the background. Jenny and the whores carry Jim's clothing and accessories like sacred relics; Billy and several men carry his coffin. In a new theme, they and the others declare, "Nothing you can do will help a dead man". Begbick, Fatty, and Moses appear with placards of their own, joining the entire company in its march and declaring "Nothing will help him or us or you now," as the opera ends in chaos.
Musical numbers
Act 1
* Scene 1: Gesucht werden Leokadja Begbick ("The Desired Progress of Leocadia Begbick")
* Scene 1: Sie soll sein wie ein Netz ("It Should Be Made Like a Net")
* Scene 2: Rasch wuchs ("Growing Up Quickly" ) / Moon of Alabama ("Oh, Show Us The Way...")
* Scene 3: Die Nachricht ("The News")
* Scene 4: In den nächsten Tagen ("In the Next Few Days")
* Scene 5: Damals kam unter Anderen ("Among the Crowd There Came")
* Scene 5: Heraus, ihr Schönen von Mahagonny ("Come Out, You Beauties of Mahagonny")
* Scene 5: Ach, bedenken Sie ("Oh Worries")
* Scene 6: Ich habe gelernt ("I Have Learned")
* Scene 7: Alle großen Unternehmungen ("All Great Things")
* Scene 7: Auch ich bin einmal ("Also I Was Once")
* Scene 8: Alle wahrhaft Suchenden ("All Seekers of the Truth")
* Scene 8: Aber etwas fehlt ("But Something is Missing")
* Scene 9: Das ist die ewige Kunst ("That is the Eternal Art")
* Scene 9: Sieben Jahre ("Seven Years!")
* Scene 10: Ein Taifun! ("A Typhoon!")
* Scene 11: In dieser Nacht des Entsetzens ("In This Night of Terror")
* Scene 11: Nein, jetzt sage ich ("No, I Say Do It Now")
* Scene 11: So tuet nur, was euch beliebt ("So, Just Do What You Like")
Act 2
* Scene 12: Hurrikan bewegt ("The Eventful Hurricane")
* Scene 12: O wunderbare Lösung! ("O Wonderful Result!")
* Scene 13: Von nun an war der Leitspruch ("From Then On The Motto Was...")
* Scene 13: Jetzt hab ich gegessen zwei Kälber ("Now I Have Eaten Two Calves")
* Scene 14: Zweitens kommt die Liebe dran! ("Secondly Comes Being in Love")
* Scene 14: Sieh jene Kraniche ("Look at Those Cranes") / The Duet of the Cranes
* Scene 14: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating")
* Scene 15: Wir, meine Herren ("We, My Dear Sirs...")
* Scene 15: Dreimal hoch, Dreieinigkeitsmoses! ("Three Cheers for Trinity Moses!")
* Scene 16: Freunde, kommt, ich lade euch ein ("Friends, Come, I Summon You")
* Scene 16: Meine Herren, meine Mutter prägte ("My Dear Sirs, My Mother Impressed [Upon Me]")
* Scene 17: Wenn der Himmel hell wird ("When the Sky is Bright")
Act 3
* Scene 18: Haben all Zuschauer Billete? ("Do All The Gawkers Have Tickets?")
* Scene 18: Zweitens der Fall des Jimmy Mahoney ("Secondly, the Case of Jimmy Mahoney")
* Scene 19: In dieser Zeit gab es in Mahagonny ("In This Time It Was In Mahagonny")
* Scene 20: Hinrichtung und Tod des Jimmy Mahoney ("The Execution and Death of Jimmy Mahoney")
* Scene 20: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating")
* Scene 21: Wollt ihr mich denn wirklich hinrichten? ("Do You Really Want Me to Be Executed After All?")
* Scene 21: In diesen Tagen fanden in Mahagonny ("To This Day Found In Mahagonny")
In other media
The opera influenced Harry Everett Smith in his 1970-1980 film Mahagonny, which features Allen Ginsberg and Patti Smith.
The 2005 movie Manderlay, directed by Lars von Trier, contains several references to the plot of Mahagonny. The most notable of these is the threat of a hurricane approaching the city during the first act. Von Trier's earlier movie Dogville, to which Manderlay is a sequel, was in large part based on a song from Brecht's Threepenny Opera ("Pirate Jenny"). In the brothel scene in act 2 of Mahagonny, the choir sings a "Song von Mandelay". The play Happy End (1929) by Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht and Weill, also contains a song called "Der Song von Mandelay", which uses the same refrain as in the brothel scene of Mahagonny. Brecht's use of the name Mandelay/Mandalay was inspired by Rudyard Kipling's poem "Mandalay".Recordings
*1956: Lotte Lenya, Wilhelm Brückner-Rüggeberg (Sony 1990; originally recorded 1956)
*1979: DVD, James Levine; John Dexter, stage director; Teresa Stratas, Astrid Varnay, Richard Cassilly; Metropolitan Opera
*1985: Anja Silja, Jan Latham-Koenig (Capriccio 1988; recorded in 1985)
*1997: DVD 1997, Salzburg Festival
*2007: DVD Los Angeles Opera, starring Audra McDonald, Patti LuPone, and Anthony Dean Griffey. This recording won two 2009 Grammy Awards for Best Opera Recording and Best Classical Album. It was screened on TV as part of PBS' Great Performances
*2010: Teatro Real (Madrid), starring Measha Brueggergosman, Jane Henschel, Michael König and Willard White, conducted by Pablo Heras-Casado and staged by La Fura dels Baus. (DVD and Blu-ray Bel Air Classiques 2011; filmed in 2010)
Cover versions of songs
"Alabama Song" has been covered by many artists, notably Ute Lemper, The Doors and David Bowie.
References
Informational notes
Citations
External links
*
*[https://www.kwf.org/works/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny/ Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny)], Kurt Weill Foundation for Music
*[http://www.dicoseunpo.it/W_files/Mahagonny.pdf Libretto (Italian/German], dicoseunpo.it
*[https://www.opera-arias.com/weill/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny/ "Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny"], work details, opera-arias.com
* [https://www.universaledition.com/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny-weill-kurt-ue35318 Work details (incl. instrumentation)], Universal Edition
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hp4lwTMiN78 Introduction to the Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (The Royal Opera)]
Category:Operas by Kurt Weill
Category:German-language operas
Category:Operas
Category:Satirical operas
Category:Plays by Bertolt Brecht
Category:1930 operas | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_and_Fall_of_the_City_of_Mahagonny | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.153622 |
2339 | Avery Hopwood | | birth_place = Cleveland, Ohio, United States
| death_date =
| death_place = Juan-les-Pins, Antibes, France
| pseudonym | occupation Playwright
| nationality = American
| genre = Theatre
| years_active | known_for
| notable_works | education University of Michigan
}}
James Avery Hopwood (May 28, 1882 – July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920, namely "The Gold Diggers," "The Bat" and "Spanish Love" and "Ladies' Night (In a Turkish Bath)".
Early life
Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland's West High School in 1900. In 1901, he began attending the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his second year he transferred to Adelbert College. He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905.CareerHopwood started out as a journalist for the Cleveland Leader as its New York correspondent, but within a year had his first play, Clothes (1906), produced on Broadway, with the aid of playwright Channing Pollock. Hopwood eventually became known as "The Playboy Playwright" and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, The Demi-Virgin in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, "Stripping Cupid". The case was dismissed.
His many plays included ''Nobody's Widow (1910), starring Blanche Bates; Fair and Warmer (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); The Gold Diggers (1919), starring Ina Claire in New York and Tallulah Bankhead in London; (filmed in 1923 as The Gold Diggers, in 1928 as Gold Diggers of Broadway and also as Gold Diggers of 1933); Ladies' Night, 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928); the famous mystery play The Bat (with Mary Roberts Rinehart), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as The Bat, in 1930 as The Bat Whispers, and in 1959 as The Bat); Getting Gertie's Garter (with Wilson Collison), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); The Demi-Virgin, 1921, also starring Dawn; The Alarm Clock, 1923, translated from the French; The Best People (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as Fast and Loose in 1930 with Clara Bow); the song-farce Naughty Cinderella, 1925, starring Irène Bordoni and The Garden of Eden in 1927, with Tallulah Bankhead in London and Miriam Hopkins in New York; (filmed in 1928 as The Garden of Eden).
Personal life
, 1924]]
In 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten. The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners. In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd. Although Hopwood announced to the press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda, Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias.
On the evening of July 1, 1928, at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood suffered a fatal heart attack while swimming. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland. His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited a large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son.
Legacy
Hopwood's plays were very successful commercially, but they did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve.Hopwood AwardThe terms of Hopwood's will left a substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan, for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards. The bequest stipulated: "It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged." Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden, Marge Piercy, Arthur Miller, Betty Smith, Lawrence Kasdan, John Ciardi, Mary Gaitskill, Edmund White, Nancy Willard, Frank O'Hara, and Steve Hamilton.The Great BordelloThroughout his life, Hopwood worked on a novel that he hoped would "expose" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays. The novel was published in July 2011 by Mondial Books (New York) as The Great Bordello, a Story of the Theatre, edited and with an Afterword by Sharrar.Works
poster for Hopwood's 1922 play Why Men Leave Home]]
* Clothes (1906) with Channing Pollock
* This Woman and This Man (1909)
* Seven Days (1909) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
* Judy Forgot (1910)
* ''Nobody's Widow (1910)
* Somewhere Else (1913)
* Fair and Warmer (1915) Remains popular in Germany (Der Mustergatte) and Scandinavia (Gröna hissen )
* Sadie Love (1915)
* Our Little Wife (1916)
* Double Exposure (1918)
* Tumble In (1919, musical version of Seven Days)
* The Gold Diggers (1919)
* The Girl in the Limousine (1919) with Wilson Collison
* Ladies' Night (1920) with Charlton Andrews
* Spanish Love (1920, Adaptation of María del Carmen by Josep Feliu i Codina) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
* The Bat (1920) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
* Getting Gertie's Garter (1921) with Wilson Collison
* The Demi-Virgin (1921)
* Why Men Leave Home (1922)
* Little Miss Bluebeard (1923, Adaptation of Kisasszony férje by Gábor Drégely)
* The Alarm Clock (1923, Adaptation of La Sonnette d'alarme by Maurice Hennequin and Romain Coolus)
* The Best People (1924) with David Gray
* The Harem (1924) with Ernest Vajda
* Naughty Cinderella (1925, Adaptation of Pouche by René Peter and Henri Falk)
* The Garden of Eden (1927, Adaptation of Der Garten Eden by Rudolf Bernauer and Rudolf Österreicher)
Filmography
* Clothes (1914, based on Clothes) <!--March 10, 1914-->
* Judy Forgot (1915, based on Judy Forgot) <!--August 9, 1915-->
* Our Little Wife (1918, based on Our Little Wife) <!--February 10, 1918-->
* Sadie Love (1919, based on Sadie Love) <!--October 19, 1919-->
* Fair and Warmer (1919, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--November 1, 1919-->
* Guilty of Love (1920, based on This Woman and This Man) <!--August 22, 1920-->
* Clothes (1920, based on Clothes) <!--September 19, 1920-->
* The Little Clown (1921, based on The Little Clown) <!--March 1921-->
* The Gold Diggers (1923, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--September 22, 1923-->
* Why Men Leave Home (1924, based on Why Men Leave Home) <!--March 3, 1924-->
* The Girl in the Limousine (1924, based on The Girl in the Limousine) <!--July 20, 1924-->
* Miss Bluebeard (1925, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--January 26, 1925-->
* The Best People (1925, based on The Best People) <!--December 28, 1925-->
* The Bat (1926, based on The Bat) <!--March 14, 1926-->
* Good and Naughty (1926, based on Naughty Cinderella) <!--June 7, 1926-->
* Nobody's Widow (1927, based on Nobody's Widow) <!--January 12, 1927-->
* Getting Gertie's Garter (1927, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--February 28, 1927-->
* The Garden of Eden (1928, based on The Garden of Eden) <!--February 4, 1928-->
* Ladies' Night in a Turkish Bath (1928, based on Ladies' Night) <!--April 1, 1928-->
* Gold Diggers of Broadway (1929, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--August 29, 1929 (NYC) - October 5, 1929 (US)-->
* Her Wedding Night (1930, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--September 18, 1930-->
** Let's Get Married (France, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--March 6, 1931-->
** Su noche de bodas (Spain, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--April 4, 1931-->
** Ich heirate meinen Mann (Germany, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--April 18, 1931-->
** A Minha Noite de Núpcias (Portugal, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--May 4, 1931-->
* Fast and Loose (1930, based on The Best People) <!--November 8, 1930-->
* The Bat Whispers (1930, based on The Bat) <!--November 13, 1930-->
* This Is the Night (1932, based on Naughty Cinderella) <!--April 8, 1932-->
* Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--May 27, 1933-->
* Night of the Garter (UK, 1933, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--1933-->
* The Model Husband (Germany, 1937, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--October 13, 1937-->
* Unsere kleine Frau (Germany, 1938, based on Our Little Wife) <!--November 23, 1938-->
** Mia moglie si diverte (Italy, 1938, based on Our Little Wife) <!--December 22, 1938-->
* Gröna hissen (Sweden, 1944, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--July 31, 1944-->
* Getting Gertie's Garter (1945, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--November 30, 1945-->
* Painting the Clouds with Sunshine (1951, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--October 10, 1951-->
* The Green Lift (1952 film) (Sweden, 1952, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--December 26, 1952-->
* The Model Husband (West Germany, 1956, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--September 18, 1956-->
* The Bat (1959, based on The Bat) <!--August 9, 1959-->
* The Model Husband (Switzerland, 1959, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--August 27, 1959-->
* (Denmark, 1961, based on Fair and Warmer) <!-- August 21, 1961-->
* Den grønne heisen (Norway, 1981, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--23.10.1981-->
References
Works cited
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*Broadway, by Brooks Atkinson. NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1974.
*Matinee Tomorrow, by Ward Morehouse. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948.
*Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls, and Other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s, by Angela Latham. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 2000.
*The Splendid Drunken Twenties: Carl Van Vechten Selections from the Daybooks, 1922–1930''. Edited by Bruce Kellner. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/f/findaid/findaid-idx?cascead;typesimple;q11958.03;rgnEntire%20Finding%20Aid;size25;viewreslist;subviewstandard;ccascead;sortoccur;start1;didno=US-PPiU-sc195803 Mary Roberts Rinehart at University of Pittsburgh digital library] – includes material on her collaboration with Hopwood
Category:1882 births
Category:1928 deaths
Category:American gay writers
Category:American LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights
Category:LGBTQ people from Ohio
Category:University of Michigan alumni
Category:American male dramatists and playwrights
Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:Writers from Cleveland
Category:20th-century American male writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery_Hopwood | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.189481 |
2340 | Antipope Felix II | Antipope Felix II, an archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.
Biography
In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.
This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a "distortion of the true facts" and suggested that it arose because the "Liber Pontificalis", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried. However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.
The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that "the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July." At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology have instead:
The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July. occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century.
As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition, does not appear in the 1962 typical edition. To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral "II" and the word "Papae", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope "himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on [29 July]".<ref nameCoulombe/>See also* Papal selection before 1059ReferencesExternal links
*[http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/avellana-1-english The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix] (a primary source)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06030a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II]
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/203964/Felix-II Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix (II)]
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Felix_II 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix II]
}}
Felix II
Felix II
Category:4th-century antipopes
Category:4th-century Christian clergy
Felix II
Category:Ancient Christians involved in controversies
Felix II
Category:Date of birth unknown
Category:Date of death unknown
Category:Place of birth unknown
Category:Place of death unknown | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Felix_II | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.222806 |
2341 | Alkaloid | thumb|250px|The first individual alkaloid, morphine, was isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).
Alkaloids are a broad class of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction, or solvent extractions followed by silica-gel column chromatography. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine), cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine), antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. berberine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste.
The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. Most alkaloids are basic, although some have neutral and even weakly acidic properties. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen or sulfur. Rarer still, they may contain elements such as phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids. Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines.
Naming
thumb|160px|The article that introduced the concept of "alkaloid".
The name "alkaloids" () was introduced in 1819 by German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meissner, and is derived from late Latin root and the Greek-language suffix -('like'). However, the term came into wide use only after the publication of a review article, by Oscar Jacobsen in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.
There is no unique method for naming alkaloids. Many individual names are formed by adding the suffix "ine" to the species or genus name. For example, atropine is isolated from the plant Atropa belladonna; strychnine is obtained from the seed of the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.). these are called vinca alkaloids.
History
thumb|left|Friedrich Sertürner, the German chemist who first isolated morphine from opium.
Alkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in Mesopotamia from about 2000 BC. The Odyssey of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug. A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st–3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of ephedra and opium poppies. Also, coca leaves have been used by Indigenous South Americans since ancient times.
Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows. The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had been identified.
The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium.
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|160px|Bufotenin, an alkaloid from some toads, contains an indole core, and is produced in living organisms from the amino acid tryptophan.
Classifications
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|160px|The nicotine molecule contains both pyridine (left) and pyrrolidine rings (right).
Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are characterized by a great structural diversity. There is no uniform classification. Initially, when knowledge of chemical structures was lacking, botanical classification of the source plants was relied on. This classification is now considered obsolete.
More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (e.g., indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biochemical precursor (ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.). and therefore can be assigned to both classes.
Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:
"True alkaloids" contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids. Their characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides the nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (e.g., evonine) or peptide fragments (e.g. ergotamine). The piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine may be regarded as true alkaloids (rather than pseudoalkaloids: see below) although they do not originate from amino acids.
"Protoalkaloids", which contain nitrogen (but not the nitrogen heterocycle) and also originate from amino acids.
Pseudoalkaloids – alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids. This group includes terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids, as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, theacrine and theophylline. Some authors classify ephedrine and cathinone as pseudoalkaloids. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination.
Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galanthamine and homoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids.
Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:
ClassMajor groupsMain synthesis stepsExamplesAlkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids) Pyrrolidine derivatives
50px|center Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrineTropane derivatives
100px|center Atropine groupSubstitution in positions 3, 6 or 7 Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline Cocaine group Substitution in positions 2 and 3 Cocaine, ecgoninePyrrolizidine derivatives
80px|center Non-estersIn plants: ornithine or arginine → putrescine → homospermidine → retronecine Complex esters of monocarboxylic acids Indicine, lindelophin, sarracineLoline, N-formylloline, N-acetyllolinePiperidine derivatives
50px|center Lysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperine Octanoic acid → coniceine → coniine
80px|center Lupinine groupLysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine Lupinine, nupharidin Ormosanine group Ormosanine, piptantine Indolizidine derivatives
80px|center Lysine → δ-semialdehyde of α-aminoadipic acid → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinone Swainsonine, castanosperminePyridine derivatives
50px|center Simple derivatives of pyridineNicotinic acid → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridine Trigonelline, ricinine, arecoline Polycyclic noncondensing pyridine derivatives Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives Nicotinic acid, isoleucine
90px|center Simple derivatives of isoquinolineTyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids Amarillis) Salsoline, lophocerine N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinoline Ancistrocladine Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine Cularine group Cularine, yagonine Argemonine, amurensine Cryptaustoline Phthalidisoquinolines Spirobenzylisoquinolines Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside Aporphines Proaporphines Kreysiginine, multifloramine Morphine, codeine, thebaine, sinomenine, heroin Homomorphines Kreysiginine, androcymbine Amaryllis alkaloids Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanine Erythrina alkaloids
80px|center Tyrosine → tyramine Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamine Isoxazole derivatives
80px|centerIbotenic acid → MuscimolIbotenic acid, Muscimol Thiazole derivatives
80px|center 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine Nostocyclamide, thiostreptoneQuinazoline derivatives
90px|center 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivativesAnthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithine Febrifugine 1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine Rutacridone, acronicineQuinoline derivatives
90px|center Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2–quinolones and 4-quinoloneAnthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinoline Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpine Tricyclic terpenoids Flindersine Furanoquinoline derivatives Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianine Quinines Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninonTryptophan → tryptamine or 5-Hydroxytryptophan Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenin Simple derivatives of β-carboline Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmineMonoterpenoid indole alkaloids Corynanthe type alkaloids group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicine) Iboga-type alkaloids Imidazole derivatives Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine
90px|center Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methylxanthine → theobromine → caffeineAlkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids) β-Phenylethylamine derivatives Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine) Colchicine alkaloids
120px|center Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicine Colchicine, colchamine
100px|center Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid) Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine
90px|center Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucine Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylaminePolyamines alkaloids Putrescine derivatives
90px|centerornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine Paucine Nummularine C typeFrom different amino acids Aconitine, delphinine Steroidal alkaloids
100px|center Cholesterol, arginine Solanidine, cyclopamine, batrachotoxin
Properties
Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine or coniine, Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange). Many alkaloids dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether, chloroform or 1,2-dichloroethane. Caffeine, cocaine, codeine and nicotine are slightly soluble in water (with a solubility of ≥1g/L), whereas others, including morphine and yohimbine are very slightly water-soluble (0.1–1 g/L). Alkaloids and acids form salts of various strengths. These salts are usually freely soluble in water and ethanol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents, and the water-soluble quinine sulfate. Some alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume but cannot detoxify the alkaloids. One example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, produced in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% of lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily had serious facial deformations. These ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia. After decades of research, in the 1980s, the compound responsible for these deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, later renamed to cyclopamine.
Distribution in nature
thumb|Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich in strychnine and brucine.
Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants – about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids. Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with plants.
The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (for example, black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauvolfia serpentina) or bark (cinchona). Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids.
Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungus, such as psilocybin in the fruiting bodies of the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads Many marine organisms also contain alkaloids. Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called alkaloids.
Extraction
thumb|Crystals of piperine extracted from black pepper.
Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single method of their extraction from natural raw materials. Most methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic solvents Plants are thoroughly ground before extraction. Most alkaloids are present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids.
Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation.
A number of alkaloids are identified from insects, among which the fire ant venom alkaloids known as solenopsins have received greater attention from researchers. These insect alkaloids can be efficiently extracted by solvent immersion of live fire ants followed by silica-gel chromatography purification. Tracking and dosing the extracted solenopsin ant alkaloids has been described as possible based on their absorbance peak around 232 nanometers.
Biosynthesis
Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid. Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. These reactions are a common method of producing C=N bonds.
class=skin-invert-image|center
In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule,
class=skin-invert-image|center
Dimer alkaloids
In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:
Mannich reaction, resulting in, e.g., voacamine
Michael reaction (villalstonine)
Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine)
Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine)
Lactonization (carpaine).
File:Voacamine chemical structure.png|Voacamine
File:Villalstonine.svg|Villalstonine
File:Toxiferine I.png|Toxiferine
File:Dauricine.svg|Dauricine
File:Tubocurarine.svg|Tubocurarine
File:Carpaine.png|Carpaine
There are also dimeric alkaloids formed from two distinct monomers, such as the vinca alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are formed from the coupling of catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, starting either from leurosine or the monomers themselves. An early hypothesis, that alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea and uric acid are in mammals, was refuted by the finding that their concentration fluctuates rather than steadily increasing. Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth. One example of an organism that uses alkaloids for protection is the Utetheisa ornatrix, more commonly known as the ornate moth. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids render these larvae and adult moths unpalatable to many of their natural enemies like coccinelid beetles, green lacewings, insectivorous hemiptera and insectivorous bats. Another example of alkaloids being utilized occurs in the poison hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemeriana). This moth feeds on its highly toxic and alkaloid-rich host plant poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) during its larval stage. A. alstroemeriana may benefit twofold from the toxicity of the naturally-occurring alkaloids, both through the unpalatability of the species to predators and through the ability of A. alstroemeriana to recognize Conium maculatum as the correct location for oviposition. A fire ant venom alkaloid known as solenopsin has been demonstrated to protect queens of invasive fire ants during the foundation of new nests, thus playing a central role in the spread of this pest ant species around the world.
Applications
In medicine
Medical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the 19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice. Many alkaloids are still used in medicine, usually in the form of salts widely used including the following:
Alkaloid Action Ajmaline Antiarrhythmic Emetine Antiprotozoal agent, emesis Ergot alkaloids Vasoconstriction, hallucinogenic, Uterotonic Glaucine Antitussive Morphine Analgesic Nicotine Stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist Physostigmine Inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase Quinidine Antiarrhythmic Quinine Antipyretic, antimalarial Reserpine Antihypertensive Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant Vinblastine, vincristine Antitumor Vincamine Vasodilating, antihypertensive Yohimbine Stimulant, aphrodisiacBerberineAntihyperglycaemic For example, naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium.
File:Thebaine skeletal.svg|Thebaine
File:Naloxone.svg|Naloxone
In agriculture
Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans.
Use as psychoactive drugs
Preparations of plants and fungi containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used as psychoactive substances. Cocaine, caffeine, and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system. Mescaline and many indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect. Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.
There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and methamphetamine. Thebaine is used in the synthesis of many painkillers such as oxycodone.
See also
Amine
Base (chemistry)
List of poisonous plants
Mayer's reagent
Natural products
Palau'amine
Secondary metabolite
Explanatory notes
Citations
General and cited references
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.482385 |
2343 | Adventism | Adventism is a branch of Protestant Christianity that believes in the imminent Second Coming (or the "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. It originated in the 1830s in the United States during the Second Great Awakening when Baptist preacher William Miller first publicly shared his belief that the Second Coming would occur at some point between 1843 and 1844. His followers became known as Millerites. After Miller's prophecies failed, the Millerite movement split up and was continued by a number of groups that held different doctrines from one another. These groups, stemming from a common Millerite ancestor, collectively became known as the Adventist movement.
Although the Adventist churches hold much in common with mainline Christianity, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state of the dead is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—had more than 21 million members in 2020.History
Adventism began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people in the United States supported Miller's predictions of Christ's return. After the "Great Disappointment" of October 22, 1844, many people in the movement gave up on Adventism. Of those remaining Adventist, the majority gave up believing in any prophetic (biblical) significance for the October 22 date, yet they remained expectant of the near Advent (second coming of Jesus).
Of those who retained the October 22 date, many maintained that Jesus had come not literally but "spiritually", and consequently were known as "spiritualizers". A small minority held that something concrete had indeed happened on October 22, but that this event had been misinterpreted. This belief later emerged and crystallized with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the largest remaining body today. of which Sylvester Bliss was the editor until his death in 1863. It was later called the ''Messiah's Herald.
The Life and Advent Union was founded by George Storrs in 1863. He had established The Bible Examiner in 1842. It merged with the Adventist Christian Church in 1964.
The Advent Christian Church officially formed in 1861 and grew rapidly at first. It declined a little during the 20th century. The Advent Christians publish the four magazines The Advent Christian Witness, Advent Christian News, Advent Christian Missions and Maranatha. They also operate a liberal arts college at Aurora, Illinois; and a one-year Bible College in Lenox, Massachusetts, called Berkshire Institute for Christian Studies. The Primitive Advent Christian Church later separated from a few congregations in West Virginia.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed in 1863. It believes in the sanctity of the seventh-day Sabbath as a holy day for worship. It publishes the Adventist Review, which evolved from several early church publications. Youth publications include KidsView, Guide and Insight. It has grown to a large worldwide denomination and has a significant network of medical and educational institutions.
Miller did not join any of the movements, and he spent the last few years of his life working for unity, before dying in 1849.
Denominations
, Oulu, Finland]]
The Handbook of Denominations in the United States'', 12th ed., describes the following churches as "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches":
Christadelphians
The Christadelphians were founded in 1844 by John Thomas and had an estimated 25,000 members in 170 ecclesias, or churches, in 2000 in America.
Advent Christian Church
The Advent Christian Church was founded in 1860 and had 25,277 members in 302 churches in 2002 in America. It is a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians founded on the teachings of William Miller. It adopted the "conditional immortality" doctrine of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs, who formed the "Advent Christian Association" in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1860.
Primitive Advent Christian Church
The Primitive Advent Christian Church is a small group which separated from the Advent Christian Church. It differs from the parent body mainly on two points. Its members observe foot washing as a rite of the church, and they teach that reclaimed backsliders should be baptized (even though they had formerly been baptized). This is sometimes referred to as rebaptism.
Seventh-day Adventist Church
The Seventh-day Adventist Church, founded in 1863, had over 19,500,000 baptized members (not counting children of members) worldwide as of June 2016. It is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath and is the appropriate day for worship. However, the second coming of Jesus Christ, along with Judgment Day based on the three angels' message in Revelation 14:6–13, remain core beliefs of Seventh-day Adventists.Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement
The Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members from the Seventh-day Adventist Church caused by disagreement over military service on the Sabbath day during World War I.
Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association
The Davidians (originally named '''Shepherd's Rod''') is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members made up primarily of voluntarily disfellowshipped members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They were originally known as the Shepherd's Rod and are still sometimes referred to as such. The group derives its name from two books on Bible doctrine written by its founder, Victor Houteff, in 1929.
;Branch Davidians
The Branch Davidians were a split ("branch") from the Davidians.
A group that gathered around David Koresh (the so-called Koreshians) abandoned Davidian teachings and turned into a religious cult. Many of them were killed during the infamous Waco Siege of April 1993.
Church of God (Seventh Day)
The Church of God (Seventh-Day) was founded in 1863 and it had an estimated 11,000 members in 185 churches in 1999 in America. Its founding members separated in 1858 from those Adventists associated with Ellen G. White who later organized themselves as Seventh-day Adventists in 1863. The Church of God (Seventh Day) split in 1933, creating two bodies: one headquartered in Salem, West Virginia, and known as the Church of God (7th day) – Salem Conference and the other one headquartered in Denver, Colorado and known as the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day). <!-- However, I think some CoG church members claim otherwise. Need to check --> The Worldwide Church of God splintered from this.<!-- Also need to check this one for variant POVs -->Church of God General Conference
Many denominations known as "Church of God" have Adventist origins.
The Church of God General Conference was founded in 1921 and had 7,634 members in 162 churches in 2004 in America. It is a nontrinitarian first-day Adventist Christian body which is also known as the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith and the Church of God General Conference (Morrow, GA).
Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church
The Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church is a small group that broke off from the Seventh-Day Adventists in 1988, and organized itself as a church in 1991.
United Seventh-Day Brethren
The United Seventh-Day Brethren is a small Sabbatarian Adventist body.
In 1947, several individuals and two independent congregations within the Church of God Adventist movement formed the United Seventh-Day Brethren, seeking to increase fellowship and to combine their efforts in evangelism, publications, and other .
Other minor Adventist groups
* True and Free Adventists, a Soviet Union offshoot
* At least two denominations and numerous individual churches with a charismatic or Pentecostal-type bent have been influenced by or were offshoots – see charismatic Adventism generally
* Church of the Blessed Hope, a first-day Adventist church
* United Sabbath-Day Adventist Church, an African-American offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in New York City
* Celestia, a Christian communal town near Laporte in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, founded by Millerite Peter E. Armstrong. It disintegrated before the end of the 19th century
Other relationships
Early in its development, the Bible Student movement founded by Charles Taze Russell had close connections with the Millerite movement and stalwarts of the Adventist faith, including George Storrs and Joseph Seiss. Although both Jehovah's Witnesses and the Bible Students do not identify as part of the Millerite Adventist movement (or other denominations, in general), some theologians categorize these groups and related sects as Millerite Adventist because of their teachings regarding an imminent Second Coming and their use of specific dates. The various independent Bible Student groups currently have a cumulative membership of about 20,000 worldwide. According to the Watch Tower Society, there were about Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide as of .See also
* Advent Christian Church
* Adventist and related churches
* List of Christian denominations#Millerites and comparable groups
* Seventh-day Adventist Church
* Other movements in Adventism
** Great Disappointment
** William Miller (preacher)
** Millennialism
** Millerites
** Second Great Awakening
General:
* Christian revival
* Christianity in the 19th century
References
Bibliography
* |url |url-statuslive |archive-date2020-07-24 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC}}
* Butler, Jonathan. "From Millerism to Seventh-Day Adventism: Boundlessness to Consolidation", Church History, Vol. 55, 1986
* Jordan, Anne Devereaux. The Seventh-Day Adventists: A History (1988)
* Land, Gary. Adventism in America: A History (1998)
* Land, Gary. Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists (2005).
*
* Morgan, Douglas. Adventism and the American Republic: The Public Involvement of a Major Apocalyptic Movement (University of Tennessee Press, 2001)
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141019224444/http://washington.netadvent.org/history.html History of the Millerite Movement], a reprint from the Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia 10:892–898, 1976.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130617184112/http://www.wcg.org/lit/aboutus/roots.htm Graphical timeline of major Millerite groups] from the Worldwide Church of God official website
Category:History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
Category:Christian eschatology
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States
Category:Christian denominations established in the 19th century | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventism | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.516452 |
2345 | Archbishop of Canterbury | <!-- -- Information -- -->
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| cathedral = Canterbury Cathedral
| first_incumbent = Augustine of Canterbury
| diocese = Canterbury
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| flag | country
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The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the bishop of the diocese of Canterbury. The first archbishop was Augustine of Canterbury, the "Apostle to the English", who was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great and arrived in 597. The position is currently vacant following the resignation of Justin Welby, the 105th archbishop, effective 7 January 2025. During the vacancy the official functions of the office have been delegated primarily to the archbishop of York, Stephen Cottrell, with some also undertaken by the bishop of London, Sarah Mullally, and the bishop of Dover, Rose Hudson-Wilkin.
From Augustine until William Warham, the archbishops of Canterbury were in full communion with the Catholic Church and usually received the pallium from the pope. During the English Reformation, King Henry VIII broke communion with Rome and proclaimed himself the head of the Church of England. Thomas Cranmer, appointed in 1533, was the first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury and would become one of the most important figures in the development of Anglicanism.
The archbishop is appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the prime minister of the United Kingdom and formally elected by the college of canons of Canterbury Cathedral. In practice, however, candidates are chosen by the Crown Nominations Commission, a Church of England body which advises the prime minister. The Archbishops' Secretary for Appointments wrote to General Synod members regarding appointment of a successor to Justin Welby in January 2025; meetings up to September 2025 were expected, to shortlist candidates. Present roles and status Currently the archbishop fills four main roles:
# bishop of the diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church.
# metropolitan archbishop of the province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England.
# the senior primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England (the British sovereign is the supreme governor of the church). Along with their colleague the archbishop of York they chair the General Synod and sits on or chairs many of the church's important boards and committees; power in the church is not highly centralised, however, so the two archbishops can often lead only through persuasion. The archbishop of Canterbury plays a central part in national ceremonies such as coronations; due to their high public profile, their opinions are often in demand by the news media.
# spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion. The archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as ("first among equals") of all Anglican primates worldwide. Since 1867 the archbishop has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences.
In the last two of these functions, they have an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England and worldwide.
The archbishop's main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. They also have lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, where the Chair of St Augustine sits.
As holder of one of the "five great sees" (the others being York, London, Durham and Winchester), the archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. They are one of the highest-ranking people in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdom's order of precedence.
Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (British since the Act of Union in 1707) monarch. Since the 20th century, the appointment of archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals.
The most recent archbishop, Justin Welby was the 105th holder of the office; he was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signed himself as + Justin Cantuar. On 12 November 2024, he announced his decision to resign; he did so effective 7 January 2025.
* Chancellor of Canterbury Christ Church University
* Visitor for the following academic institutions:
** All Souls College, Oxford
** Selwyn College, Cambridge
** Merton College, Oxford
** Keble College, Oxford
** Ridley Hall, Cambridge
** The University of Kent (main campus located in Canterbury)
** King's College London
** University of King's College
** Sutton Valence School
** Benenden School
** Cranbrook School
** Haileybury and Imperial Service College
** Harrow School
** King's College School, Wimbledon
** The King's School, Canterbury
** St John's School, Leatherhead
** Marlborough College
** Dauntsey's School
** Wycliffe Hall, Oxford (also Patron)
* Governor of Charterhouse School
* Governor of Wellington College
* Visitor, The Dulwich Charities
* Visitor, Whitgift Foundation
* Visitor, Hospital of the Blessed Trinity, Guildford<!-- DO NOT LINK, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance --> (Abbot's Fund)
* Trustee, Bromley College
* Trustee, Allchurches Trust
* President, Corporation of Church House, Westminster
* Director, Canterbury Diocesan Board of Finance
* Patron, St Edmund's School Canterbury
* Patron, The Worshipful Company of Parish Clerks
* Patron, Prisoners Abroad
* Patron, The Kent Savers Credit Union
* Patron, Sanctuary Mental Health Ministries
Ecumenical and interfaith
The archbishop is also a president of Churches Together in England (an ecumenical organisation). Geoffrey Fisher, 99th archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960. In 2005, Rowan Williams became the first archbishop of Canterbury to attend a papal funeral since the Reformation. He also attended the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI. The 101st archbishop, Donald Coggan, was the first to attend a papal inauguration, that of Pope John Paul II in 1978.
Since 2002, the archbishop has co-sponsored the Alexandria Middle East Peace process with the Grand Mufti of Egypt. In July 2008, the archbishop attended a conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims convened by the king of Saudi Arabia at which the notion of the "clash of civilizations" was rejected. Delegates agreed "on international guidelines for dialogue among the followers of religions and cultures." Delegates said that "the deepening of moral values and ethical principles, which are common denominators among such followers, would help strengthen stability and achieve prosperity for all humans."
Origins
of Canterbury. Nearly 500 years after the Reformation, the arms still depict the pallium, a symbol of the authority of the Pope and metropolitan archbishops.]]
It has been suggested that the Roman province of Britannia had four archbishops, seated at Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) and Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester). However, in the 5th and 6th centuries Britannia began to be overrun by pagan, Germanic peoples who came to be known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they created, Kent arguably had the closest links with European politics, trade and culture, because it was conveniently situated for communication with continental Europe. In the late 6th century, King Æthelberht of Kent married a Christian Frankish princess named Bertha, possibly before becoming king, and certainly a number of years before the arrival of the first Christian mission to England. He permitted the preaching of Christianity.
The first archbishop of Canterbury was Saint Augustine of Canterbury (not to be confused with Saint Augustine of Hippo), who arrived in Kent in 597 AD, having been sent by Pope Gregory I on a mission to the English. He was accepted by King Æthelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. It seems that Pope Gregory, ignorant of recent developments in the former Roman province, including the spread of the Pelagian heresy, had intended the new archiepiscopal sees for England to be established in London and York. In the event, Canterbury was chosen instead of London, owing to political circumstances. Since then the archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St. Augustine.
A gospel book believed to be directly associated with St Augustine's mission survives in the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge<!-- DO NOT LINK, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance -->, England. Catalogued as Cambridge Manuscript 286, it has been positively dated to 6th-century Italy and this bound book, the St Augustine Gospels, is still used during the swearing-in ceremony of new archbishops of Canterbury.
Before the break with papal authority in the 16th century, the Church of England was an integral part of the Western European church. Since the break the Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition (although this is not accepted by the Roman Catholic Church which regards Anglicanism as schismatic and does not accept Anglican holy orders as valid) as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion.
The Report of the Commissioners appointed by his Majesty to inquire into the Ecclesiastical Revenues of England and Wales (1835) noted the net annual revenue for the Canterbury see was £19,182.
Province and Diocese of Canterbury
from the north west ]]
The archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-two dioceses of the Church of England, with the rest falling within the Province of York. The four Welsh dioceses were also under the province of Canterbury until 1920 when they were transferred from the established church of England to the disestablished Church in Wales.
The archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial curia, or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of their province. The bishop of London — the most senior cleric of the church with the exception of the two archbishops — serves as Canterbury's provincial dean, the bishop of Winchester as chancellor, the bishop of Lincoln as vice-chancellor, the bishop of Salisbury as precentor, the bishop of Worcester as chaplain and the bishop of Rochester as cross-bearer.
Along with primacy over the archbishop of York, the archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other bishops of the Anglican Communion. They are recognised as primus inter pares, or first amongst equals. They do not, however, exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England, except in certain minor roles dictated by Canon in those provinces (for example, they are the judge in the event of an ecclesiastical prosecution against the archbishop of Wales). They do hold metropolitical authority over several extra-provincial Anglican churches, and they serve as ex officio bishop of the Falkland Islands.
the archbishop has four suffragan bishops:
* The bishop of Dover is given the additional title of "bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if the bishop of Dover were the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, since the archbishop is so frequently away fulfilling national and international duties.
* Two further suffragans, the bishop of Ebbsfleet and the bishop of Richborough, are provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the archbishop as "flying bishops" to provide oversight throughout the province to parishes which for conscience' sake cannot accept that women can be ordained in the Sacrament of Ordination in the Church of England.
* The bishop of Maidstone provides alternative episcopal oversight for the province of Canterbury for particular members who take a conservative evangelical view of male headship. On 23 September 2015, Rod Thomas was consecrated bishop of Maidstone. Previously the bishop of Maidstone was an actual suffragan bishop working in the diocese, until it was decided at the diocesan synod of November 2010 that a new bishop would not be appointed. Styles and privileges
The archbishops of Canterbury and York are both styled as "The Most Reverend"; retired archbishops are styled as "The Right Reverend". The archbishop is, by convention, appointed to the Privy Council and may, therefore, also use the style of "The Right Honourable" for life, unless later removed from the council. In formal documents, the archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend <!-- Father in God, is now omitted -->Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. They may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" or, more informally, as "Archbishop".
The surname of the archbishop of Canterbury is not always used in formal documents; often only the first name and see are mentioned. The archbishop is legally entitled to sign their name as "Cantuar" (the Latin for Canterbury). The right to use a title as a legal signature is only permitted to bishops, peers of the Realm and peers by courtesy. Justin Welby as archbishop of Canterbury usually signed as "+Justin Cantuar:".
In the English and Welsh order of precedence, the archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the sovereign and members of the royal family. Immediately below them is the lord chancellor and then the archbishop of York.
The archbishop of Canterbury awards academic degrees, commonly called "Lambeth degrees".
Residences
, photographed looking east across the River Thames]]
The archbishop of Canterbury's official residence and office in London is Lambeth Palace. They also have an apartment within the Old Palace, next to Canterbury Cathedral which incorporates some 13th-century fabric of the medieval Archbishop's Palace.
Former seats of the archbishops include:
* Croydon Palace: the summer residence of the archbishops from the 15th to the 18th centuries.
* Addington Palace: purchased as a replacement for Croydon Palace in 1807; sold in 1897.
* Archbishop's Palace, Maidstone: constructed in the 1390s, the palace was seized by the Crown at the time of the Reformation.
* Otford Palace: a medieval palace, rebuilt by Archbishop Warham and forfeited to the Crown by Thomas Cranmer in 1537.
* Archbishop's Palace, Charing: a palace existed from at least the 13th century; seized by the Crown after the Dissolution. Remnants survive as a farmhouse.
* Knole House: built by Archbishop Bourchier in the second half of the 15th century, it was forfeited to the Crown by Archbishop Cranmer in 1538.
List of recent archbishops
Since 1900, the following have served as archbishop of Canterbury:
* 1896–1902: Frederick Temple
* 1903–1928: Randall Davidson
* 1928–1942: Cosmo Gordon Lang
* 1942–1944: William Temple
* 1945–1961: Geoffrey Fisher
* 1961–1974: Michael Ramsey
* 1974–1980: Donald Coggan
* 1980–1991: Robert Runcie
* 1991–2002: George Carey
* 2002–2012: Rowan Williams
* 2013–2025: Justin Welby
Archbishops who became peers
From 1660 to 1902, all the archbishops of Canterbury died in office. In 1928, two years before his death, Randall Davidson became the first <!-- at least since 1640, probably ever --> to voluntarily resign his office. All his successors except William Temple (who died in office in 1944) have also resigned their office before death.
All those who retired have been given peerages: initially hereditary baronies (although both recipients of such titles died without male heirs and so their titles became extinct on their deaths), and life peerages after the enactment of the Life Peerages Act 1958. Such titles have allowed retired archbishops to retain the seats in the House of Lords which they held ex officio before their retirement.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Archbishop !! Title !! Notes
|-
| Randall Davidson
| Baron Davidson of Lambeth in 1928
| Extinct in 1930
|-
| Cosmo Gordon Lang
| Baron Lang of Lambeth in 1942
| Extinct in 1945
|-
| Geoffrey Fisher
| Baron Fisher of Lambeth for life in 1961
| Extinct in 1972
|-
| Michael Ramsey
| Baron Ramsey of Canterbury for life in 1974
| Extinct in 1988
|-
| Donald Coggan
| Baron Coggan for life in 1980
| Extinct in 2000
|-
| Robert Runcie
| Baron Runcie for life in 1991
| Extinct in 2000
|-
| George Carey
| Baron Carey of Clifton for life in 2002
| Extant
|-
| Rowan Williams
| Baron Williams of Oystermouth for life in 2013
| Extant (retired from the House in 2020)
|-
|}
See also
* Accord of Winchester
* Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
* Religion in the United Kingdom
References
External links
*
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=uOsAAAAAMAAJ The Archbishopric of Canterbury, from Its Foundation to the Norman Conquest], by John William Lamb, published 1971, Faith Press, from Google Book Search
Category:597 establishments
Category:6th-century establishments in England
Category:Anglican Communion
Category:Anglican episcopal offices
Category:Christianity in Kent
Category:Church of England
Category:Culture in Canterbury
Category:Ecclesiastical titles
Category:People associated with Canterbury Christ Church University
Category:People associated with King's College London
Category:People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind
Category:People associated with the University of Kent
Canterbury
Category:Religious leadership roles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.555017 |
2346 | Albion, Michigan | |postal_code_type = ZIP code
|postal_code = 49224
|area_code = 517
|blank_name = FIPS code
|blank_info 26-00980
|blank1_name = GNIS feature ID
|blank1_info 0619906
|website |footnotes
|pop_est_footnotes =
}}
Albion is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,700 at the 2020 census. Albion is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area.
The earliest English-speaking settlers also called this area The Forks, because it is at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. In the early 20th century, immigrants came to Albion from various eastern European nations, including the current Lithuania and Russia. More recently, Latino immigrants have come from Mexico and Central America. The Festival of the Forks has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion's diverse ethnic heritage.
Since the 19th century, several major manufacturers were established in Albion, which became known as a factory town. This changed after several manufacturers closed. In the 21st century, Albion's culture is changing to that of a college town whose residents have a strong interest in technology and sustainability. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,250. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France.
History
The first European-American settler, Tenney Peabody, arrived in 1833 along with his brother-in-law, Charles Blanchard, and another young man, Clark Dowling. Peabody's family followed soon after. In 1835, the Albion Company, a land development company formed by Jesse Crowell, platted a village. Peabody's wife was asked to name the settlement. She considered the name "Peabodyville", but selected "Albion" instead, after the former residence of Jesse Crowell. Crowell was appointed in 1838 as the first US postmaster there.
Many early settlers migrated to Albion from western New York and New England, part of a movement after the construction of the Erie Canal and the opening of new lands in Michigan and other Great Lakes territories. They first developed agriculture and it became a rural trading village. Settlers were strong supporters of education and in 1835, Methodists established Albion College affiliated with their church. Its first classes were held in 1843. The college was known by a few other names before 1861. At that time it was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women.
Albion incorporated as a village in 1855, following construction of the railroad here in 1852, which stimulated development. It became a city in 1885.
Mills were constructed to operate on the water power of the forks of the Kalamazoo River. They were the first industry in the town, used to process lumber, grain, and other products to build the village. Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. The river that powered industry also flooded the town.
In the Great Flood of 1908, there was severe property damage. In February, several feet of snow fell across the region. Heavy rains and warmer conditions in early March created water saturation in the ground and risk of flooding because of the rivers' high flow. After the Homer Dam broke around 3 p.m. on March 7, the Kalamazoo River flooded Albion. By midnight, the bridges surrounding town were underwater. Six buildings in Albion collapsed, resulting in more than $125,000 in damage (1908 dollars). The town struggled to recover.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous Lithuanian and other Eastern European immigrants settled there, most working for the Albion Malleable Iron Company, and some in the coal mine north of town. The iron company initially made agricultural implements, but around World War I shifted to making automotive parts. The Malleable merged in 1969 with the Hayes Corporation, becoming the Hayes-Albion Corporation. Now known as a division of Harvard Industries, the company continues to produce automotive castings in Albion. Molder Statue Park downtown is dedicated to the many molders who dealt with molten iron.
There were soon enough Lithuanians in town to establish Holy Ascension Orthodox Church, which they built in 1916. It is part of the Orthodox Church in America. Today its services are in English.
Albion's population peaked in 1960. In 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated the award on May 15, 1974, when Michigan Governor William Milliken and many other dignitaries came to town. In 1975 the closure of a major factory began a difficult period of industrial restructuring and decline in jobs and population.
Since that time citizens have mobilized, founding the Albion Community Foundation in 1968. They formed the Albion Volunteer Service Organization in the 1980s, with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.
Key to the City Honor Bestowed:
*1964: Aunt Jemima visited Albion on January 25.
*1960s: Columnist Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys. The city levies an income tax of 1% on residents and 0.5% on nonresidents.GeographyAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water. Albion is 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian. Climate <div style"width:75%">
</div>
Demographics
2010 population by gender/age
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Male || 4,013 || 46.6%
|-
| Female || 4,603 || 53.4%
|-
| Under 18 || 1,872 || 21.7%
|-
| 18 and over || 6,744 || 78.3%
|-
| 20-24 || 1,364 || 15.8%
|-
| 25-34 || 842 || 9.8%
|-
| 35-49 || 1,251 || 14.5%
|-
| 50-64 || 1,368 || 15.9%
|-
| 65+ || 1,124 || 13.0%
|}
2010 population by ethnicity
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Hispanic or Latino || 500 || 5.8%
|-
| Non Hispanic or Latino || 8,116 || 94.2%
|}
2010 population by race
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| White || 5,477 || 63.6%
|-
| African American || 2,579 || 29.9%
|-
| Asian || 91 || 1.1%
|-
| American Indian and Alaska Native || 29 || 0.3%
|-
| Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander || 17 || 0.2%
|-
| Other || 90 || 1.0%
|-
| Identified by two or more || 333 || 3.9%
|}
Transportation
Major highways
*
*
*
*RailAmtrak provides daily service to Albion, operating its Wolverine both directions between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit.BusGreyhound Lines provides daily intercity city bus service to Albion between Chicago and Detroit. Notable people
<!-- Note:
· Only people who already have a Wikipedia article may appear here. This establishes notability.
· The article must mention how they are associated with Albion, whether born, raised, or residing.
· The fact of their association should have a reliable source cited.
· Alphabetical by last name please.
· All others will be deleted.
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* Kim Cascone, musician, composer, owner of Silent Records; born in Albion
* M. F. K. Fisher, food writer, born in Albion
* Ada Iddings Gale, author, lived and buried in Albion
* Helen Rose Hull, author and university professor, was born in Albion. Her 1932 book Heat Lightning concerns a family that owns agricultural implement and automotive parts factories in a small town during the 1930s.
* Frank Joranko, football player and coach for Albion College
* LaVall Jordan, head men's basketball coach for Butler University, born in Albion
* Martin Wells Knapp, American Methodist evangelist who founded the Pilgrim Holiness Church and God's Bible School and College, born in Albion.
* Bill Laswell, jazz bassist, record producer and record label owner; raised in Albion
* Jerome D. Mack, banker, director of Las Vegas hotels Riviera and Dunes, founder of University of Nevada, Las Vegas; born in Albion
* Deacon McGuire, professional baseball player for 26 seasons, lived in Albion
* Gary Lee Nelson, composer, pioneer in electronic and computer music; grew up in Albion
* John Sinclair, poet and political activist, attended Albion College
* Jon Scieszka, children's author, attended Albion College
* Brian Tyler, racing driver, born in Albion
* Jack Vaughn, Assistant Secretary of State, Ambassador to Panama and Colombia, and Director of the Peace Corps (1966–1969); grew up in Albion
* The War and Treaty, musical duo
See also
* Holy Ascension Orthodox Church
References
External links
* [https://cityofalbionmi.gov/ City of Albion official website]
* [http://ci.albion.mi.us/ Albion City Information Page]
* [http://www.albionlibrary.org/ Albion District Library]
* [http://www.albionmich.com/ Albion Michigan Home Page]
* [http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/TOCsubj.htm Historical Albion Michigan]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928074424/http://www.festivaloftheforks.com/ Festival of the Forks – Albion's annual music and food festival by the forks of the Kalamazoo River]
* [http://www.greateralbionchamber.org/ The Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.albionfoundation.org/ Albion Michigan Community Foundation – For Good. For Ever.]
Category:Cities in Calhoun County, Michigan
Category:Populated places established in 1835
Category:1835 establishments in Michigan Territory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion,_Michigan | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.590405 |
2348 | Anointing of the sick | (1445) by Rogier van der Weyden showing the sacrament of Extreme Unction or Anointing of the Sick]]
Anointing of the sick, known also by other names such as unction, is a form of religious anointing or "unction" (an older term with the same meaning) for the benefit of a sick person. It is practiced by many Christian churches and denominations.
Anointing of the sick was a customary practice in many civilizations, including among the ancient Greeks and early Jewish communities. The use of oil for healing purposes is referred to in the writings of Hippocrates.
Anointing of the sick should be distinguished from other religious anointings that occur in relation to other sacraments, in particular baptism, confirmation and ordination, and also in the coronation of a monarch.NamesSince 1972, the Roman Catholic Church has used the name "Anointing of the Sick" both in the English translations issued by the Holy See of its official documents in Latin and in the English official documents of Episcopal conferences. It does not, of course, forbid the use of other names, for example the more archaic term "Unction of the Sick" or the term "Extreme Unction". Cardinal Walter Kasper used the latter term in his intervention at the 2005 Assembly of the Synod of Bishops. However, the Church declared that "'Extreme unction' ... may also and more fittingly be called 'anointing of the sick'", and has itself adopted the latter term, while not outlawing the former. This is to emphasize that the sacrament is available, and recommended, to all those suffering from any serious illness, and to dispel the common misconception that it is exclusively for those at or very near the point of death.
Extreme Unction was the usual name for the sacrament in the West from the late twelfth century until 1972, and was thus used at the Council of Trent and in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term,
The term "last rites" refers to administration to a dying person not only of this sacrament but also of Penance and Holy Communion, the last of which, when administered in such circumstances, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for the journey". The normal order of administration is: first Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given); next, Anointing; finally, Viaticum (if the person can receive it).
Biblical texts
The chief biblical text concerning the rite is the Epistle of James (): "Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven" (RSV).
, and are also quoted in this context.
Sacramental beliefs
The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Coptic and Old Catholic Churches consider this anointing to be a sacrament. Other Christians too, in particular, Lutherans, Anglicans and some Protestant and other Christian communities use a rite of anointing the sick, without necessarily classifying it as a sacrament.
In the Churches mentioned here by name, the oil used (called "oil of the sick" in both West and East) is blessed specifically for this purpose.
Roman Catholic Church
An extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in Catechism of the Catholic Church.
Anointing of the Sick is one of the seven Sacraments recognized by the Catholic Church, and is associated with not only bodily healing but also forgiveness of sins. Only ordained priests can administer it, and "any priest may carry the holy oil with him, so that in a case of necessity he can administer the sacrament of anointing of the sick."
Sacramental graces
<!--Will move to Catholic Specific Article-->
The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament a gift of the Holy Spirit is given, that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation.
The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects:
*the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church;
*the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure, in a Christian manner, the sufferings of illness or old age;
*the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance;
*the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul;
*the preparation for passing over to eternal life."
Sacramental oil
The duly blessed oil used in the sacrament is, as laid down in the Apostolic Constitution, Sacram unctionem infirmorum, pressed from olives or from other plants. It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. If oil blessed by the bishop is not available, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil, but only within the framework of the celebration.
Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite (1972)
The Roman Rite Anointing of the Sick, as revised in 1972, puts greater stress than in the immediately preceding centuries on the sacrament's aspect of healing, primarily spiritual but also physical, and points to the place sickness holds in the normal life of Christians and its part in the redemptive work of the Church. unless the person in question obstinately persists in a manifestly grave sin. "If there is any doubt as to whether the sick person has reached the use of reason, or is dangerously ill, or is dead, this sacrament is to be administered". There is an obligation to administer it to the sick who, when they were in possession of their faculties, at least implicitly asked for it. A new illness or a renewal or worsening of the first illness enables a person to receive the sacrament a further time.
The ritual book on pastoral care of the sick provides three rites: anointing outside Mass, anointing within Mass, and anointing in a hospital or institution. The rite of anointing outside Mass begins with a greeting by the priest, followed by sprinkling of all present with holy water, if deemed desirable, and a short instruction. There follows a penitential act, as at the beginning of Mass. If the sick person wishes to receive the sacrament of penance, it is preferable that the priest make himself available for this during a previous visit; but if the sick person must confess during the celebration of the sacrament of anointing, this confession replaces the penitential rite A passage of Scripture is read, and the priest may give a brief explanation of the reading, a short litany is said, and the priest lays his hands on the head of the sick person and then says a prayer of thanksgiving over the already blessed oil or, if necessary, blesses the oil himself.
The actual anointing of the sick person is done on the forehead, with the prayer: "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit", and on the hands, with the prayer "May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up". To each prayer the sick person, if able, responds: "Amen."
It is permitted, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the condition of the sick person, to anoint other parts of the body in addition, such as the area of pain or injury, but without repeating the sacramental form.Extraordinary Form of the Roman RiteFrom the early Middle Ages until after the Second Vatican Council the sacrament was administered, within the Latin Church, only when death was approaching and, in practice, bodily recovery was not ordinarily looked for,
In the case of necessity when only a single anointing on the forehead is possible, it suffices for valid administration of the sacrament to use the shortened form:
}}
When it becomes opportune, all the anointings are to be supplied together with their respective forms for the integrity of the sacrament. If the sacrament is conferred conditionally, for example, if a person is unconscious, ("if you are capable") is added to the beginning of the form, not ("if you are disposed"). In doubt if the soul has left the body through death, the priest adds, ("if you are alive").
Other Western historical forms
Liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, both Western and Eastern, other than the Roman, have a variety of other forms for celebrating the sacrament. For example, according to Giovanni Diclich who cites De Rubeis, &c. cap. 28 p. 381, the Aquileian Rite, also called , had twelve anointings, namely, of the head, forehead, eyes, ears, nose, lips, throat, chest, heart, shoulders, hands, and feet. The form used to anoint is the first person plural indicative, except for the anointing on the head which could be either in the first person singular or plural.
For example, the form is given as:
}}
The other anointings all mention an anointing with oil and are all made "through Christ our Lord", and "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit", except the anointing of the heart which, as in the second option for anointing of the head, is "in the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity". The Latin forms are as follows:
}}
Eastern Orthodox Church
.]]
The teaching of the Eastern Orthodox Church on the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of Unction is similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church. However, the reception of the Mystery is not limited to those who are enduring physical illness. The Mystery is given for healing (both physical and spiritual) and for the forgiveness of sin. For this reason, it is normally required that one go to confession before receiving Unction. Because it is a Sacred Mystery of the Church, only Orthodox Christians may receive it.
The solemn form of Eastern Christian anointing requires the ministry of seven priests. A table is prepared, upon which is set a vessel containing wheat. Into the wheat has been placed an empty shrine-lamp, seven candles, and seven anointing brushes. Candles are distributed for all to hold during the service. The rite begins with reading Psalm 50 (the great penitential psalm), followed by the chanting of a special canon. After this, the senior priest (or bishop) pours pure olive oil and a small amount of wine into the shrine lamp, and says the "Prayer of the Oil", which calls upon God to "...sanctify this Oil, that it may be effectual for those who shall be anointed therewith, unto healing, and unto relief from every passion, every malady of the flesh and of the spirit, and every ill..." Then follow seven series of epistles, gospels, long prayers, Ektenias (litanies) and anointings. Each series is served by one of the seven priests in turn. The afflicted one is anointed with the sign of the cross on seven places: the forehead, the nostrils, the cheeks, the lips, the breast, the palms of both hands, and the back of the hands. After the last anointing, the Gospel Book is opened and placed with the writing down upon the head of the one who was anointed, and the senior priest reads the "Prayer of the Gospel". At the end, the anointed kisses the Gospel, the Cross and the right hands of the priests, receiving their blessing.
Anointing is considered to be a public rather than a private sacrament, and so as many of the faithful who are able are encouraged to attend. It should be celebrated in the church when possible, but if this is impossible, it may be served in the home or hospital room of the afflicted.
Unction in the Greek Orthodox Church and Churches of Hellenic custom (Antiochian Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, etc.) is usually given with a minimum of ceremony.
Anointing may also be given during Forgiveness Vespers and Great Week, on Great and Holy Wednesday, to all who are prepared. Those who receive Unction on Holy Wednesday should go to Holy Communion on Great Thursday. The significance of receiving Unction on Holy Wednesday is shored up by the hymns in the Triodion for that day, which speak of the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Christ. Just as her sins were forgiven because of her penitence, so the faithful are exhorted to repent of their sins. In the same narrative, Jesus says, "in that she hath poured this ointment on my body, she did it for my burial" (Id., v. 12), linking the unction with Christ's death and resurrection.
In some dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church it is customary for the bishop to visit each parish or region of the diocese some time during Great Lent and give Anointing for the faithful, together with the local clergy.
Oriental Orthodox Church
The Oriental Orthodox Church regards anointing of the sick as one of the seven sacraments. Armenian Orthodox Church From the 4th to the 15th centuries, the Armenian Church administered the sacrament of the unction of the sick. This is recorded in the Church Canons and commentary works. However, beginning in the 15th century, the Armenian Church did not refuse, but abstained from conducting the sacrament in order to resist the influence of the Catholic Church, over time, being left out of liturgical life, deeming sufficient the laying on of hands and the administration of the Sacraments of Penance and Holy Communion. Archbishop Malachia explains:<blockquote>That which is called extreme unction is not in use; the various attempts that have been made to introduce it into the Church have hardly been successful. The wish expressed, to substitute for the unction the prayers used for the dying, cannot sufficiently satisfy the essential conditions which are required for sacraments. It is seen, therefore, that the doctrine of the seven sacraments cannot be accepted by the Armenians. Excepting extreme unction, all the others are administered in the Armenian Church. </blockquote>Hussite ChurchThe Hussite Church regards anointing of the sick as one of the seven sacraments.Anabaptist ChurchesAnabaptists observe the ordinance of anointing of the sick in obedience to , with it being counted among the seven ordinances by Conservative Mennonite Anabaptists. In a compendium of Anabaptist doctrine, theologian Daniel Kauffman stated:}}Lutheran churchesAnointing of the sick has been retained in Lutheran churches since the Reformation. Although it is not considered a sacrament like baptism, confession and the Eucharist, it is known as a ritual in the same respect as confirmation, holy orders, and matrimony.LiturgyAfter the penitent has received absolution following confession, the presiding minister recites James 5:14-16. He goes on to recite the following:
<blockquote>
[Name], you have confessed your sins and received Holy Absolution. In remembrance of the grace of God given by the Holy Spirit in the waters of Holy Baptism, I will anoint you with oil. Confident in our Lord and in love for you, we also pray for you that you will not lose faith. Knowing that in Godly patience the Church endures with you and supports you during this affliction. We firmly believe that this illness is for the glory of God and that the Lord will both hear our prayer and work according to His good and gracious will.
</blockquote>
He anoints the person on the forehead and says this blessing:
<blockquote>
Almighty God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has given you the new birth of water and the Spirit and has forgiven you all your sins, strengthen you with His grace to life everlasting. Amen.
</blockquote>
Anglican churches
The 1552 and later editions of the Book of Common Prayer omitted the form of anointing given in the original (1549) version in its Order for the Visitation of the Sick, but most twentieth-century Anglican prayer books do have anointing of the sick. The rite of anointing is included in the Episcopal Church's "Ministration to the Sick".
Article 25 of the Thirty-Nine Articles, which are one of the historical formularies of the Church of England (and as such, the Anglican Communion), speaking of the sacraments, says: "Those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures; but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God."
In 1915 members of the Anglican Communion founded the Guild of St Raphael, an organisation dedicated to promoting, supporting and practising Christ's ministry of healing.Other Protestant communitiesProtestants provide anointing in a wide variety of formats. Protestant communities generally vary widely on the sacramental character of anointing. Most Mainline Protestants recognize only two sacraments, the eucharist and baptism, deeming anointing only a humanly-instituted rite. Non-traditional Protestant communities generally use the term ordinance rather than sacrament.
Mainline beliefs
Liturgical or Mainline Protestant communities (e.g. Presbyterian, Congregationalist/United Church of Christ, Methodist, etc.) all have official yet often optional liturgical rites for the anointing of the sick partly on the model of Western pre-Reformation rites. Anointing need not be associated with grave illness or imminent danger of death.
Charismatic and Pentecostal beliefs
In Charismatic and Pentecostal communities, anointing of the sick is a frequent practice and has been an important ritual in these communities since the respective movements were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These communities use extemporaneous forms of administration at the discretion of the minister, who need not be a pastor. There is minimal ceremony attached to its administration. Usually, several people physically touch (laying on of hands) the recipient during the anointing. It may be part of a worship service with the full assembly of the congregation present, but may also be done in more private settings, such as homes or hospital rooms. Some Pentecostals believe that physical healing is within the anointing and so there is often great expectation or at least great hope that a miraculous cure or improvement will occur when someone is being prayed over for healing.
Evangelical and fundamentalist beliefs
anointing oil]] In Evangelical and Fundamentalist communities, anointing of the sick is performed with varying degrees of frequency, although laying on of hands may be more common than anointing. The rite would be similar to that of Pentecostals in its simplicity, but would usually not have the same emotionalism attached to it. Unlike some Pentecostals, Evangelicals and Fundamentalists generally do not believe that physical healing is within the anointing. Therefore, God may or may not grant physical healing to the sick. The healing conferred by anointing is thus a spiritual event that may not result in physical recovery.
The Church of the Brethren practices Anointing with Oil as an ordinance along with Baptism, Communion, Laying on of Hands, and the Love Feast.
Evangelical Protestants who use anointing differ about whether the person doing the anointing must be an ordained member of the clergy, whether the oil must necessarily be olive oil and have been previously specially consecrated, and about other details. Several Evangelical groups reject the practice so as not to be identified with charismatic and Pentecostal groups, which practice it widely.
Latter Day Saint movement
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Latter-day Saints, who consider themselves restorationists, also practice ritual anointing of the sick, as well as other forms of anointing. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) consider anointing to be an ordinance.
Members of the LDS Church who hold the Melchizedek priesthood may use consecrated olive oil in performing the ordinance of blessing of the "sick or afflicted", though oil is not required if it is unavailable. The priesthood holder anoints the recipient's head with a drop of oil, then lays hands upon that head and declare their act of anointing. Then another priesthood holder joins in, if available, and pronounces a "sealing" of the anointing and other words of blessing, as he feels inspired. Melchizedek priesthood holders are also authorized to consecrate any pure olive oil and often carry a personal supply in case they have need to perform an anointing. Oil is not used in other blessings, such as for people seeking comfort or counsel.
In addition to the James 5:14-15 reference, the Doctrine and Covenants contains numerous references to the anointing and healing of the sick by those with authority to do so.
Community of Christ
Administration to the sick is one of the eight sacraments of the Community of Christ, in which it has also been used for people seeking spiritual, emotional or mental healing.
See also
* Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church
* Faith healing
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101005034327/http://www.churchfathers.org/category/sacraments/anointing-of-the-sick/ Church Fathers on the Anointing of the Sick]
Western
* [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2art5.shtml The Anointing of the Sick]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050403012404/http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Anointing.asp Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05716a.htm "Extreme Unction" in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)]
* [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_p-vi_apc_19721130_sacram-unctionem_en.html Apostolic Constitution "Sacram unctionem infirmorum"]
Eastern
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321195446/http://orthodoxy.org.au/eng/index.php?p=78 Holy Anointing of the Sick] article from the Moscow Patriarchate
* [http://www.rocor.org.au/?p=155 Unction of the Sick] article from the Sydney, Australia diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927123949/http://stjohndc.org/Russian/what/e_Unction.htm The Mystery of Unction] Russian Orthodox Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Washington, DC
* [http://ukmidcopts.org/images/gallery/2006/bhm_bright_saturday/Apocalypse%20&%20easter%20liturgey%20064_resize_jpg.jpg Coptic Unction on Holy Saturday] (Photo)
Category:Christian terminology
Category:New Testament words and phrases
Category:Supernatural healing
Category:Sacramentals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.630624 |
2349 | Abstract data type | }}
In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types, defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This mathematical model contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data, and are the point of view of an implementer, not a user. For example, a stack has push/pop operations that follow a Last-In-First-Out rule, and can be concretely implemented using either a list or an array. Another example is a set which stores values, without any particular order, and no repeated values. Values themselves are not retrieved from sets; rather, one tests a value for membership to obtain a Boolean "in" or "not in".
ADTs are a theoretical concept, used in formal semantics and program verification and, less strictly, in the design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and software systems. Most mainstream computer languages do not directly support formally specifying ADTs. However, various language features correspond to certain aspects of implementing ADTs, and are easily confused with ADTs proper; these include abstract types, opaque data types, protocols, and design by contract. For example, in modular programming, the module declares procedures that correspond to the ADT operations, often with comments that describe the constraints. This information hiding strategy allows the implementation of the module to be changed without disturbing the client programs, but the module only informally defines an ADT. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object-oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software engineering. History ADTs were first proposed by Barbara Liskov and Stephen N. Zilles in 1974, as part of the development of the CLU language. Algebraic specification was an important subject of research in CS around 1980 and almost a synonym for abstract data types at that time. It has a mathematical foundation in universal algebra. Definition Formally, an ADT is analogous to an algebraic structure in mathematics, consisting of a domain, a collection of operations, and a set of constraints the operations must satisfy. The domain is often defined implicitly, for example the free object over the set of ADT operations. The interface of the ADT typically refers only to the domain and operations, and perhaps some of the constraints on the operations, such as pre-conditions and post-conditions; but not to other constraints, such as relations between the operations, which are considered behavior. There are two main styles of formal specifications for behavior, axiomatic semantics and operational semantics.
Despite not being part of the interface, the constraints are still important to the definition of the ADT; for example a stack and a queue have similar add element/remove element interfaces, but it is the constraints that distinguish last-in-first-out from first-in-first-out behavior. The constraints do not consist only of equations such as but also logical formulas.
Axiomatic semantics
In the spirit of functional programming, each state of an abstract data structure is a separate entity or value. In this view, each operation is modelled as a mathematical function with no side effects. Operations that modify the ADT are modeled as functions that take the old state as an argument and returns the new state as part of the result. The order in which operations are evaluated is immaterial, and the same operation applied to the same arguments (including the same input states) will always return the same results (and output states). The constraints are specified as axioms or algebraic laws that the operations must satisfy.
Operational semantics
In the spirit of imperative programming, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is mutable—meaning that there is a notion of time and the ADT may be in different states at different times. Operations then change the state of the ADT over time; therefore, the order in which operations are evaluated is important, and the same operation on the same entities may have different effects if executed at different times. This is analogous to the instructions of a computer or the commands and procedures of an imperative language. To underscore this view, it is customary to say that the operations are executed or applied, rather than evaluated, similar to the imperative style often used when describing abstract algorithms. The constraints are typically specified in prose.
Auxiliary operations
Presentations of ADTs are often limited in scope to only key operations. More thorough presentations often specify auxiliary operations on ADTs, such as:
* (), that yields a new instance of the ADT;
* (s, t), that tests whether two instances' states are equivalent in some sense;
* (s), that computes some standard hash function from the instance's state;
* (s) or (s), that produces a human-readable representation of the instance's state.
These names are illustrative and may vary between authors. In imperative-style ADT definitions, one often finds also:
* (s), that prepares a newly created instance s for further operations, or resets it to some "initial state";
* (s, t), that puts instance s in a state equivalent to that of t;
* (t), that performs s ← (), (s, t), and returns s;
* (s) or (s), that reclaims the memory and other resources used by s.
The operation is not normally relevant or meaningful, since ADTs are theoretical entities that do not "use memory". However, it may be necessary when one needs to analyze the storage used by an algorithm that uses the ADT. In that case, one needs additional axioms that specify how much memory each ADT instance uses, as a function of its state, and how much of it is returned to the pool by .
Restricted types
The definition of an ADT often restricts the stored value(s) for its instances, to members of a specific set X called the range of those variables. For example, an abstract variable may be constrained to only store integers. As in programming languages, such restrictions may simplify the description and analysis of algorithms, and improve its readability.
Aliasing
In the operational style, it is often unclear how multiple instances are handled and if modifying one instance may affect others. A common style of defining ADTs writes the operations as if only one instance exists during the execution of the algorithm, and all operations are applied to that instance. For example, a stack may have operations (x) and (), that operate on the only existing stack. ADT definitions in this style can be easily rewritten to admit multiple coexisting instances of the ADT, by adding an explicit instance parameter (like S in the stack example below) to every operation that uses or modifies the implicit instance. Some ADTs cannot be meaningfully defined without allowing multiple instances, for example when a single operation takes two distinct instances of the ADT as parameters, such as a operation on sets or a operation on lists.
The multiple instance style is sometimes combined with an aliasing axiom, namely that the result of () is distinct from any instance already in use by the algorithm. Implementations of ADTs may still reuse memory and allow implementations of () to yield a previously created instance; however, defining that such an instance even is "reused" is difficult in the ADT formalism.
More generally, this axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances, so that composite ADTs (such as trees or records) and reference-style ADTs (such as pointers) may be assumed to be completely disjoint. For example, when extending the definition of an abstract variable to include abstract records, operations upon a field F of a record variable R, clearly involve F, which is distinct from, but also a part of, R. A partial aliasing axiom would state that changing a field of one record variable does not affect any other records.
Complexity analysis
Some authors also include the computational complexity ("cost") of each operation, both in terms of time (for computing operations) and space (for representing values), to aid in analysis of algorithms. For example, one may specify that each operation takes the same time and each value takes the same space regardless of the state of the ADT, or that there is a "size" of the ADT and the operations are linear, quadratic, etc. in the size of the ADT. Alexander Stepanov, designer of the C++ Standard Template Library, included complexity guarantees in the STL specification, arguing:
Other authors disagree, arguing that a stack ADT is the same whether it is implemented with a linked list or an array, despite the difference in operation costs, and that an ADT specification should be independent of implementation.
Examples
Abstract variable
An abstract variable may be regarded as the simplest non-trivial ADT, with the semantics of an imperative variable. It admits two operations, and . Operational definitions are often written in terms of abstract variables. In the axiomatic semantics, letting <math>V</math> be the type of the abstract variable and <math>X</math> be the type of its contents, is a function <math>V \to X</math> and is a function of type <math>V \to X \to V</math>. The main constraint is that always returns the value x used in the most recent operation on the same variable V, i.e. . We may also require that overwrites the value fully, .
In the operational semantics, (V) is a procedure that returns the current value in the location V, and (V, x) is a procedure with return type that stores the value x in the location V. The constraints are described informally as that reads are consistent with writes. As in many programming languages, the operation (V, x) is often written V ← x (or some similar notation), and (V) is implied whenever a variable V is used in a context where a value is required. Thus, for example, V ← V + 1 is commonly understood to be a shorthand for (V,(V) + 1).
In this definition, it is implicitly assumed that names are always distinct: storing a value into a variable U has no effect on the state of a distinct variable V. To make this assumption explicit, one could add the constraint that:
* if U and V are distinct variables, the sequence { (U, x); (V, y) } is equivalent to { (V, y); (U, x) }.
This definition does not say anything about the result of evaluating (V) when V is un-initialized, that is, before performing any operation on V. Fetching before storing can be disallowed, defined to have a certain result, or left unspecified. There are some algorithms whose efficiency depends on the assumption that such a is legal, and returns some arbitrary value in the variable's range.
Abstract stack
An abstract stack is a last-in-first-out structure, It is generally defined by three key operations: , that inserts a data item onto the stack; , that removes a data item from it; and or , that accesses a data item on top of the stack without removal. A complete abstract stack definition includes also a Boolean-valued function (S) and a () operation that returns an initial stack instance.
In the axiomatic semantics, letting <math>S</math> be the type of stack states and <math>X</math> be the type of values contained in the stack, these could have the types <math>push : S \to X \to S</math>, <math>pop : S \to (S,X)</math>, <math>top : S \to X</math>, <math>create : S</math>, and <math>empty : S \to \mathbb{B}</math>. In the axiomatic semantics, creating the initial stack is a "trivial" operation, and always returns the same distinguished state. Therefore, it is often designated by a special symbol like Λ or "()". The operation predicate can then be written simply as <math>s = \Lambda</math> or <math>s \neq \Lambda</math>.
The constraints are then , , () T (a newly created stack is empty), ((S, x)) F (pushing something into a stack makes it non-empty). These axioms do not define the effect of (s) or (s), unless s is a stack state returned by a . Since leaves the stack non-empty, those two operations can be defined to be invalid when s Λ. From these axioms (and the lack of side effects), it can be deduced that (Λ, x) ≠ Λ. Also, (s, x) (t, y) if and only if x y and s = t.
As in some other branches of mathematics, it is customary to assume also that the stack states are only those whose existence can be proved from the axioms in a finite number of steps. In this case, it means that every stack is a finite sequence of values, that becomes the empty stack (Λ) after a finite number of s. By themselves, the axioms above do not exclude the existence of infinite stacks (that can be ped forever, each time yielding a different state) or circular stacks (that return to the same state after a finite number of s). In particular, they do not exclude states s such that (s) s or (s, x) s for some x. However, since one cannot obtain such stack states from the initial stack state with the given operations, they are assumed "not to exist".
In the operational definition of an abstract stack, (S, x) returns nothing and (S) yields the value as the result but not the new state of the stack. There is then the constraint that, for any value x and any abstract variable V, the sequence of operations { (S, x); V ← (S) } is equivalent to V ← x. Since the assignment V ← x, by definition, cannot change the state of S, this condition implies that V ← (S) restores S to the state it had before the (S, x). From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence:
: { (S, x); (S, y); U ← (S); (S, z); V ← (S); W ← (S) }
where x, y, and z are any values, and U, V, W are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to:
: { U ← y; V ← z; W ← x }
Unlike the axiomatic semantics, the operational semantics can suffer from aliasing. Here it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is:
* For any values x, y, and any distinct stacks S and T, the sequence { (S, x); (T, y) } is equivalent to { (T, y); (S, x) }.
Boom hierarchy
A more involved example is the Boom hierarchy of the binary tree, list, bag and set abstract data types. All these data types can be declared by three operations: null, which constructs the empty container, single, which constructs a container from a single element and append, which combines two containers of the same type. The complete specification for the four data types can then be given by successively adding the following rules over these operations:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| null is the left and right neutral for a tree|| append(null,A) A, append(A,null) A.
|-
| lists add that append is associative || append(append(A,B),C) = append(A,append(B,C)).
|-
| bags add commutativit || append(B,A) = append(A,B).
|-
| finally, sets are also idempotent || append(A,A) = A.
|}
Access to the data can be specified by pattern-matching over the three operations, e.g. a member function for these containers by:
:{|
|-
| member(X,single(Y)) = eq(X,Y)
|-
| member(X,null) = false
|-
| member(X,append(A,B)) = or(member(X,A), member(X,B))
|}
Care must be taken to ensure that the function is invariant under the relevant rules for the data type. Within each of the equivalence classes implied by the chosen subset of equations, it has to yield the same result for all of its members.
Common ADTs
Some common ADTs, which have proved useful in a great variety of applications, are
* Collection
* Container
* List
* String
* Set
* Multiset
* Map
* Multimap
* Graph
* Tree
* Stack
* Queue
* Priority queue
* Double-ended queue
* Double-ended priority queue
Each of these ADTs may be defined in many ways and variants, not necessarily equivalent. For example, an abstract stack may or may not have a operation that tells how many items have been pushed and not yet popped. This choice makes a difference not only for its clients but also for the implementation.
; Abstract graphical data type
An extension of ADT for computer graphics was proposed in 1979: an abstract graphical data type (AGDT). It was introduced by Nadia Magnenat Thalmann, and Daniel Thalmann. AGDTs provide the advantages of ADTs with facilities to build graphical objects in a structured way.Implementation
Abstract data types are theoretical entities, used (among other things) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages. However, an ADT may be implemented. This means each ADT instance or state is represented by some concrete data type or data structure, and for each abstract operation there is a corresponding procedure or function, and these implemented procedures satisfy the ADT's specifications and axioms up to some standard. In practice, the implementation is not perfect, and users must be aware of issues due to limitations of the representation and implemented procedures.
For example, integers may be specified as an ADT, defined by the distinguished values 0 and 1, the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division (with care for division by zero), comparison, etc., behaving according to the familiar mathematical axioms in abstract algebra such as associativity, commutativity, and so on. However, in a computer, integers are most commonly represented as fixed-width 32-bit or 64-bit binary numbers. Users must be aware of issues with this representation, such as arithmetic overflow, where the ADT specifies a valid result but the representation is unable to accommodate this value. Nonetheless, for many purposes, the user can ignore these infidelities and simply use the implementation as if it were the abstract data type.
Usually, there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array. Different implementations of the ADT, having all the same properties and abilities, can be considered semantically equivalent and may be used somewhat interchangeably in code that uses the ADT. This provides a form of abstraction or encapsulation, and gives a great deal of flexibility when using ADT objects in different situations. For example, different implementations of the ADT may be more efficient in different situations; it is possible to use each in the situation where they are preferable, thus increasing overall efficiency. Code that uses an ADT implementation according to its interface will continue working even if the implementation of the ADT is changed.
In order to prevent clients from depending on the implementation, an ADT is often packaged as an opaque data type or handle of some sort, in one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module—namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used—can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. If the implementation is exposed, it is known instead as a transparent data type.
Modern object-oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model, an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is usually an object of that class. The module's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. Many modern programming languages, such as C++ and Java, come with standard libraries that implement numerous ADTs in this style. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object-oriented programs. In a pure object-oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviours, not representations.
The specification of some programming languages is intentionally vague about the representation of certain built-in data types, defining only the operations that can be done on them. Therefore, those types can be viewed as "built-in ADTs". Examples are the arrays in many scripting languages, such as Awk, Lua, and Perl, which can be regarded as an implementation of the abstract list.
In a formal specification language, ADTs may be defined axiomatically, and the language then allows manipulating values of these ADTs, thus providing a straightforward and immediate implementation. The OBJ family of programming languages for instance allows defining equations for specification and rewriting to run them. Such automatic implementations are usually not as efficient as dedicated implementations, however.
Example: implementation of the abstract stack
As an example, here is an implementation of the abstract stack above in the C programming language.
Imperative-style interface
An imperative-style interface might be:
<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">
typedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack instance representation (opaque record)
typedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack instance (opaque pointer)
typedef void* stack_Item; // type: value stored in stack instance (arbitrary address)
stack_T stack_create(void); // creates a new empty stack instance
void stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack
stack_Item stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack and returns it
bool stack_empty(stack_T s); // checks whether stack is empty
</syntaxhighlight>
This interface could be used in the following manner:
<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">
#include <stack.h> // includes the stack interface
stack_T s = stack_create(); // creates a new empty stack instance
int x = 17;
stack_push(s, &x); // adds the address of x at the top of the stack
void* y = stack_pop(s); // removes the address of x from the stack and returns it
if (stack_empty(s)) { } // does something if stack is empty
</syntaxhighlight>
This interface can be implemented in many ways. The implementation may be arbitrarily inefficient, since the formal definition of the ADT, above, does not specify how much space the stack may use, nor how long each operation should take. It also does not specify whether the stack state s continues to exist after a call x ← (s).
In practice the formal definition should specify that the space is proportional to the number of items pushed and not yet popped; and that every one of the operations above must finish in a constant amount of time, independently of that number. To comply with these additional specifications, the implementation could use a linked list, or an array (with dynamic resizing) together with two integers (an item count and the array size).
Functional-style interface
Functional-style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice versa. However, one can provide a functional-style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example:
<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">
typedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack state representation (opaque record)
typedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack state (opaque pointer)
typedef void* stack_Item; // type: value of a stack state (arbitrary address)
stack_T stack_empty(void); // returns the empty stack state
stack_T stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack state and returns the resulting stack state
stack_T stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack state and returns the resulting stack state
stack_Item stack_top(stack_T s); // returns the top item of the stack state
</syntaxhighlight>
See also
* Concept (generic programming)
* Formal methods
* Functional specification
* Generalized algebraic data type
* Initial algebra
* Liskov substitution principle
* Type theory
* Walls and Mirrors
Notes
Citations
References
*
*
Further reading
*
External links
*
*[https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/abstractDataType.html Abstract data type] in NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures
Category:Data types
Category:Type theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_data_type | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.668957 |
2357 | American Football League | | inaugural = 1960
| last_season = 1969 American Football League season
| folded = , merged with NFL as (AFC)
| country = United States
| champion = Kansas City Chiefs
| most_champs = Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs (3)
| teams = 8 (1960–1965),<br />9 (1966–1967),<br />10 (1968–1970)
}}
The American Football League (AFL) was a major professional American football league that operated for ten seasons from 1960 until 1970, when it merged with the older National Football League (NFL), and became the American Football Conference. The upstart AFL operated in direct competition with the more established NFL throughout its existence. It was more successful than earlier rivals to the NFL, including not only the organizations founded in 1926, 1936, and 1940, respectively, under the AFL name, but also the later All-America Football Conference, which existed between 1944 and 1950, but conducted operations only between 1946 and 1949.
This fourth version of the AFL was the most successful, created by a number of owners who had been refused NFL expansion franchises or had minor shares of NFL franchises. The AFL's original lineup consisted of an Eastern division of the Titans of New York, Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, and the Houston Oilers, and a Western division of the Los Angeles Chargers, Denver Broncos, Oakland Raiders, and Dallas Texans. The league first gained attention by signing 75% of the NFL's first-round draft choices in 1960, including Houston's successful signing of college star and Heisman Trophy winner Billy Cannon.
While the first years of the AFL saw uneven competition and low attendance, the league was buttressed by a generous television contract with the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), followed by a contract with the competing National Broadcasting Company (NBC) for games starting with the 1965 season, that broadcast the more offense-oriented football league nationwide. Continuing to attract top talent from colleges and the NFL by the mid-1960s, as well as successful franchise shifts of the Chargers from L.A. south to San Diego and the Texans north to Kansas City (becoming the Kansas City Chiefs), the AFL established a dedicated following. The transformation of the struggling Titans into the New York Jets under new ownership, including the signing of University of Alabama star quarterback Joe Namath, further solidified the league's reputation among the major media.
As fierce competition made player salaries skyrocket in both leagues, especially after a series of "raids", the leagues agreed to a merger in 1966. Among the conditions were a common draft and a championship game played between the two league champions, first played in early 1967, which would eventually become known as the Super Bowl.
The AFL and NFL operated as separate leagues until 1970, with separate regular season and playoff schedules except for the championship game. NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle also became chief executive of the AFL from July 26, 1966, through the completion of the merger. During this time the AFL expanded, adding the Miami Dolphins and Cincinnati Bengals. After losses by the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders in the first two AFL-NFL World Championship Games to the Green Bay Packers (1966–67), the New York Jets and Chiefs won Super Bowls III and IV (1968–69) respectively, cementing the league's claim to being an equal to the NFL.
In 1970, the AFL was absorbed into the NFL. The ten AFL franchises joined three existing NFL teams—the Baltimore Colts, the Cleveland Browns, and the Pittsburgh Steelers—to form the merged league's American Football Conference.
History
During the 1950s, the National Football League had grown to rival Major League Baseball as one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the United States. One franchise that did not share in this newfound success of the league was the Chicago Cardinals – owned by the Bidwill family – who had become overshadowed by the more popular Chicago Bears. The Bidwills hoped to move their franchise, preferably to St. Louis, but could not come to terms with the league, which demanded money before it would approve the move. Needing cash, the Bidwills began entertaining offers from would-be investors, and one of the men who approached the Bidwills was Lamar Hunt, son and heir of millionaire oilman H. L. Hunt. Hunt offered to buy the Cardinals and move them to Dallas, where he had grown up. However, these negotiations came to nothing, since the Bidwills insisted on retaining a controlling interest in the franchise and were unwilling to move their team to a city where a previous NFL franchise had failed in . While Hunt negotiated with the Bidwills, similar offers were made by Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, and Max Winter.
When Hunt, Adams, and Howsam were unable to secure a controlling interest in the Cardinals, they approached NFL commissioner Bert Bell and proposed the addition of expansion teams. Bell, wary of expanding the 12-team league and risking its newfound success, rejected the offer. On his return flight to Dallas, Hunt conceived the idea of an entirely new league and decided to contact the others who had shown interest in purchasing the Cardinals. In addition to Adams, Howsam, and Winter, Hunt reached out to Bill Boyer, Winter's business partner, to gauge their interest in starting a new league. Hunt's first meeting with Adams was held in March 1959. Hunt, who felt a regional rivalry would be critical for the success of the new league, convinced Adams to join and found his team in Houston. Hunt next secured an agreement from Howsam to bring a team to Denver.
After Winter and Boyer agreed to start a team in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, the new league had its first four teams. Hunt then approached Willard Rhodes, who hoped to bring pro football to Seattle. However, not wanting to undermine its own brand, the University of Washington was unwilling to let the fledgling league use Husky Stadium, and Rhodes' effort came to nothing (Seattle would later get a pro football team of its own in 1974 some time after the AFL-NFL merger during the construction of the Kingdome and began play in 1976). Hunt also sought franchises in Los Angeles, Buffalo and New York City. During the summer of 1959, he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a potentially costly rivalry. Within weeks of the July 1959 announcement of the league's formation, Hunt received commitments from Barron Hilton and Harry Wismer to bring teams to Los Angeles and New York, respectively. His initial efforts for Buffalo, however, were rebuffed, when Hunt's first choice of owner, Pat McGroder, declined to take part; McGroder had hoped that the threat of the AFL would be enough to prompt the NFL to expand to Buffalo.
On August 14, 1959, the first league meeting was held in Chicago, and charter memberships were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis-Saint Paul. On August 22, the league officially was named the American Football League at a meeting in Dallas. The NFL's initial reaction was not as openly hostile as it had been with the earlier All-America Football Conference (AAFC), as Bell had even given his public approval; and individual NFL owners soon began a campaign to undermine the new league. AFL owners were approached with promises of new NFL franchises or ownership stakes in existing ones. Only the party from Minneapolis-Saint Paul accepted, and with the addition of Ole Haugsrud and Bernie Ridder the Minnesota group joined the NFL in 1961 as the Minnesota Vikings. The older league also announced on August 29 that it had conveniently reversed its position against expansion, and planned to bring new NFL teams to Houston and Dallas, to start play in 1961. (The NFL did not expand to Houston at that time; the promised Dallas team – the Dallas Cowboys – actually started play in 1960, and the Vikings began play in 1961.) Finally, the NFL quickly came to terms with the Bidwills and allowed them to relocate the struggling Cardinals to St. Louis, eliminating that city as a potential AFL market.
Ralph Wilson, who owned a minority interest in the NFL's Detroit Lions at the time, initially announced he was placing a team in Miami, but like the Seattle situation, was also rebuffed by local ownership (like Seattle, Miami would later get a pro football team of its own as well); given five other choices, Wilson negotiated with McGroder and brought the team that became the Bills to Buffalo. Buffalo was officially awarded its franchise on October 28. During a league meeting on November 22, a 10-man ownership group from Boston (led by Billy Sullivan) was awarded the AFL's eighth team. On November 30, 1959, Joe Foss, a World War II Marine fighter ace and former governor of South Dakota, was named the AFL's first commissioner. Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo. Hunt was elected President of the AFL on January 26, 1960.
The AFL draft
The AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded its franchise, and lasted 33 rounds. The league held a second draft on December 2, which lasted for 20 rounds. Because the Oakland Raiders joined after the initial AFL drafts, they inherited Minnesota's selections. A special allocation draft was held in January 1960, to allow the Raiders to stock their team, as some of the other AFL teams had already signed some of Minneapolis' original draft choices.
Crisis and success (1960–61)
In November 1959, Minneapolis-Saint Paul owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL to accept a franchise offer from the NFL. In 1961, his team began play in the NFL as the Minnesota Vikings. Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton demanded that a replacement for Minnesota be placed in California, to reduce his team's operating costs and to create a rivalry. After a brief search, Oakland was chosen and an ownership group led by F. Wayne Valley and local real estate developer Chet Soda was formed. After initially being called the Oakland Señors, the rechristened Oakland Raiders officially joined the AFL on January 30, 1960.
The AFL's first major success came when the Houston Oilers signed Billy Cannon, the All-American and 1959 Heisman Trophy winner from LSU. Cannon signed a $100,000 contract to play for the Oilers, despite having already signed a $50,000 contract with the NFL's Los Angeles Rams. The Oilers filed suit and claimed that Rams general manager Pete Rozelle had unduly manipulated Cannon. The court upheld the Houston contract, and with Cannon the Oilers appeared in the AFL's first three championship games (winning two).
On June 9, 1960, the league signed a five-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately $2.125 million per year for the entire league. On June 17, the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL, which was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial.
The Oilers became the first-ever league champions by defeating the Chargers, 24–16, in the AFL Championship on January 1, 1961. Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL. In 1960, the NFL averaged attendance of more than 40,000 fans per game and more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures in excess of 50,000 per game, while Canadian Football League (CFL) attendances averaged approximately 20,000 per game. By comparison, AFL attendance averaged about 16,500 per game and generally hovered between 10,000 and 20,000 per game. Professional football was still primarily a gate-driven business in 1960, so low attendance meant financial losses. The Raiders, with a league-worst average attendance of just 9,612, lost $500,000 in their first year and only survived after receiving a $400,000 loan from Bills owner Ralph Wilson. In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation. In fact, the only major change was the Chargers' move from Los Angeles to nearby San Diego (they would return to Los Angeles in 2017).
On August 8, 1961, the AFL challenged the CFL to an exhibition game that would feature the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and the Buffalo Bills, which was attended by 24,376 spectators. Playing at Civic Stadium in Hamilton, Ontario, the Tiger-Cats defeated the Bills 38–21 playing a mix of AFL and CFL rules.
Movement and instability (1962–63)
While the Oilers found instant success in the AFL, other teams did not fare as well. The Oakland Raiders and Titans of New York struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league. Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses in their first season. Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the team playing in the San Francisco Bay Area—which already had an established NFL team (the San Francisco 49ers)—but the product on the field was also to blame. After winning six games in their debut season, the Raiders won a total of three times in the 1961 and 1962 seasons. Oakland took part in a 1961 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good. They participated in another such draft in 1962. Eventually Wismer could no longer afford to meet his payroll, and on November 8, 1962, the AFL took over operations of the team. The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership group headed by Sonny Werblin on March 28, 1963, and in April the new owners changed the team's name to the New York Jets.
The Raiders and Titans both finished last in their divisions in the 1962 season. The Texans and Oilers, winners of their divisions, faced each other for the 1962 AFL Championship on December 23. The Texans dethroned the two-time champion Oilers, 20–17, in a double-overtime contest that was, at the time, professional football's longest-ever game.
The San Diego Chargers, under head coach Sid Gillman, won a decisive 51–10 victory over the Boston Patriots for the 1963 AFL Championship. Confident that his team was capable of beating that season's NFL champion Chicago Bears (he had the Chargers' rings inscribed with the phrase "World Champions"), Gillman approached NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle and proposed a final championship game between the two teams. Rozelle declined the offer; however, the game would be instituted three seasons later.
Watershed years (1964–65)
A series of events throughout the next few years demonstrated the AFL's ability to achieve a greater level of equality with the NFL. On January 29, 1964, the AFL signed a lucrative $36 million television contract with NBC (beginning in the 1965 season), which gave the league money it needed to compete with the NFL for players. Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney was quoted as saying to NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle after receiving the news of the AFL's new TV deal that, "They don't have to call us 'Mister' anymore". A single-game attendance record was set on November 8, 1964, when 61,929 fans packed Shea Stadium to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills.
The bidding war for players between the AFL and NFL escalated in 1965. The Chiefs drafted University of Kansas star Gale Sayers in the first round of the 1965 AFL draft (held November 28, 1964), while the Chicago Bears did the same in the NFL draft. Sayers eventually signed with the Bears.
After the 1963 season, the Newark Bears of the Atlantic Coast Football League expressed interest in joining the AFL; concerns over having to split the New York metro area with the still-uncertain Jets were a factor in the Bears' bid being rejected. In 1965, Milwaukee officials tried to lure an expansion team to play at Milwaukee County Stadium where the Green Bay Packers had played parts of their home schedule after an unsuccessful attempt to lure the Packers there full-time, but Packers head coach Vince Lombardi invoked the team's exclusive lease, and additionally, signed an extension to keep some home games in Milwaukee until 1976.
In June 1965, the AFL awarded its first expansion team to Cox Broadcasting of Atlanta. The NFL quickly counteroffered insurance executive Rankin Smith a franchise, which he accepted; the Atlanta Falcons began play as an NFL franchise for the 1966 season. In March 1965, Joe Robbie had met with Commissioner Foss to inquire about an expansion franchise for Miami. On May 6,<!--after Atlanta's exit,--> Robbie secured an agreement with Miami mayor Robert King High to bring a team to Miami. League expansion was approved at a meeting held on June 7, and on August 16 the AFL's ninth franchise was officially awarded to Robbie and entertainer Danny Thomas. The Miami Dolphins joined the league for a fee of $7.5 million and started play in the AFL's Eastern Division in 1966. The AFL also planned to add two more teams by 1967. In response to the Gogolak signing and no longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for college talent, the AFL under Davis began to also recruit players already on NFL squads. Davis's strategy focused on quarterbacks in particular, and in two months he persuaded seven NFL quarterbacks to sign with the AFL. Although Davis's intention was to help the AFL win the bidding war, some AFL and NFL owners saw the escalation as detrimental to both leagues. Alarmed with the rate of spending in the league, Hilton Hotels forced Barron Hilton to relinquish his stake in the Chargers as a condition of maintaining his leadership role with the hotel chain.
The same month Davis was named commissioner, several NFL owners, headed by Dallas Cowboys general manager Tex Schramm, secretly approached Lamar Hunt and other AFL owners and started negotiations with the AFL to merge. A series of secret meetings commenced in Dallas to discuss the concerns of both leagues over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching. Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger of the two leagues by the end of May, and on June 8, 1966, the merger was officially announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft. The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues. The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle would remain as commissioner of the merged league, which would be named the NFL. Additional expansion teams would eventually be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring it to a 28-team league. (The additional expansion would not happen until 1976.) The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18 million to the NFL over 20 years. In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on July 25 rather than remain until the completion of the merger, and Milt Woodard was named president of the AFL, with the "commissioner" title vacated because of Rozelle's expanded role.
On January 15, 1967, the first-ever championship game between the two separate professional football leagues, the "AFL-NFL World Championship Game" (retroactively referred to as Super Bowl I), was played in Los Angeles. After a close first half, the NFL champion Green Bay Packers overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35–10. The loss reinforced for many the notion that the AFL was an inferior league. Packers head coach Vince Lombardi stated after the game, "I do not think they are as good as the top teams in the National Football League."
The AFL added its tenth and final team on May 24, 1967, when it awarded the league's second expansion franchise to an ownership group from Cincinnati, Ohio, headed by NFL legend Paul Brown. The league's last expansion team, the Cincinnati Bengals began play in the 1968 season, finishing last in the Western Division.Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968–1970)While many AFL players and observers believed their league was the equal of the NFL, their first two Super Bowl performances did nothing to prove it. However, on November 17, 1968, when NBC cut away from a game between the Jets and Raiders to air the children's movie Heidi, the ensuing uproar helped disprove the notion that fans still considered the AFL an inferior product. The perception of AFL inferiority forever changed on January 12, 1969, when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. The Colts, who entered the contest favored by as many as 18 points, had completed the 1968 NFL season with a 13–1 record, and won the NFL title with a convincing 34–0 win over the Cleveland Browns. Led by their stalwart defense—which allowed a record-low 144 points—the 1968 Colts were considered one of the best-ever NFL teams.
By contrast, the Jets had allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues. They had also only narrowly beaten the favored Oakland Raiders 27–23 in the AFL championship game. Jets quarterback Joe Namath recalled that in the days leading up to the game, he grew increasingly angry when told New York had no chance to beat Baltimore. Three days before the game, a frustrated Namath responded to a heckler at the Touchdown Club in Miami by declaring, "We're going to win Sunday, I guarantee it!"
Namath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter. The Jets won, 16–7, in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. With the win, the AFL finally achieved parity with the NFL and legitimized the merger of the two leagues.
The last game in AFL history was the AFL All-Star Game, held in Houston's Astrodome on January 17, 1970. The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback John Hadl, defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26–3. Buffalo rookie running back O. J. Simpson carried the ball for the last play in AFL history. Hadl was named the game's Most Valuable Player. The AFL ceased to exist as an unincorporated organization on February 1, 1970, when the NFL granted 10 new franchises and issued a new constitution.
Prior to the start of the 1970 NFL season, the merged league was organized into two conferences of three divisions each. All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new American Football Conference. To avoid having an inequitable number of teams in each conference, the leagues voted to move three NFL teams to the AFC. Motivated by the prospect of an intrastate rivalry with the Bengals as well as by personal animosity toward Paul Brown, Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell quickly offered to include his team in the AFC. He helped persuade the Pittsburgh Steelers (the Browns' archrivals) and Baltimore Colts (who shared the Baltimore-Washington market with the Washington Redskins) to follow suit, and each team received US$3 million to make the switch. The remaining 13 NFL teams became part of the National Football Conference.
Pro Football Hall of Fame receiver Charlie Joiner, who started his career with the Houston Oilers (1969), was the last AFL player active in professional football, retiring after the 1986 season, when he played for the San Diego Chargers.
Legacy
Overview
The American Football League stands as the only professional traditional outdoor football league to successfully compete against the NFL. When the two leagues merged in 1970, all ten AFL franchises and their statistics became part of the new NFL. Every other professional league that had competed against the NFL before the AFL–NFL merger had folded completely: the three previous leagues named "American Football League" and the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). From an earlier AFL (1936–1937), only the Cleveland Rams (now the Los Angeles Rams) joined the NFL and are currently operating, as are the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers from the AAFC. A third AAFC team, the Baltimore Colts (not related to the 1953–1983 Baltimore Colts or to the current Indianapolis Colts franchise), played only one year in the NFL, disbanding at the end of the 1950 season.). With that first contract with ABC, the AFL adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the proceeds were divided equally among member clubs. It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the Dallas Texans and the defending champion Houston Oilers. At the time it was the longest professional football championship game ever played. The AFL also appealed to fans by offering a flashier style of play (just like the ABA in basketball), compared to the more conservative game of the NFL. Long passes ("bombs") were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as John Hadl, Daryle Lamonica and Len Dawson.
Despite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks. For example, CBS, which broadcast NFL games, ignored and did not report scores from the innovative AFL. While it has been alleged this snub was on orders from the NFL, it is more likely the arrangement was mutual due to the equally bitter rivalry between CBS and NBC. After the merger agreement was announced, CBS agreed to report AFL scores.
Expanding and reintroducing the sport to more cities
The AFL took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises. Hunt's vision not only brought a new professional football league to California and New York, but introduced the sport to Colorado, restored it to Texas and later to fast-growing Florida, as well as bringing it to Greater Boston for the first time in 12 years. Buffalo, having lost its original NFL franchise in 1929 and turned down by the NFL at least twice (1940 and 1950) for a replacement, returned to the NFL with the merger. The return of football to Kansas City was the first time that city had seen professional football since the NFL's Kansas City Blues of the 1920s; the arrival of the Chiefs, and the contemporary arrival of the St. Louis Football Cardinals, brought professional football back to Missouri for the first time since the temporary St. Louis Gunners of 1934. St. Louis would later regain an NFL franchise in 1995 with the relocation of the LA Rams to the city. The Rams moved back in 2016.
In the case of the Dallas Cowboys, the NFL had long sought to return to the Dallas area after the Dallas Texans folded in 1952, but was originally met with strong opposition by Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall, who had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the American South. Marshall later changed his position after future-Cowboys owner Clint Murchison bought the rights to Washington's fight song "Hail to the Redskins" and threatened to prevent Marshall from playing it at games. By then, the NFL wanted to quickly award the new Dallas franchise to Murchison so the team could immediately begin play and compete with the AFL's Texans. As a result, the Cowboys played its inaugural season in 1960 without the benefit of the NFL draft. The Texans eventually ceded Dallas to the Cowboys and became the Kansas City Chiefs.
As part of the merger agreement, additional expansion teams would be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring the league to 28 franchises; this requirement was fulfilled when the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers began play in 1976. In addition, had it not been for the existence of the Oilers from 1960 to 1996, the Houston Texans also would likely not exist today; the 2002 expansion team restored professional football in Houston after the original charter AFL member Oilers relocated to become the Tennessee Titans.
Kevin Sherrington of The Dallas Morning News has argued that the presence of AFL and the subsequent merger radically altered the fortunes of the Pittsburgh Steelers, saving the team "from stinking". Since the 1970 merger, the Steelers have the NFL's highest winning percentage, the most total victories, the most trips to either conference championship game, are tied for the second most trips to the Super Bowl (tied with the Dallas Cowboys and Denver Broncos, trailing only the New England Patriots), and have won six Super Bowl championships, tied with the Patriots for the most in NFL history.Effects on playersPerhaps the greatest social legacy of the AFL was the domino effect of its policy of being more liberal than the entrenched NFL in offering opportunity for black players. While the NFL was still emerging from thirty years of segregation influenced by Washington Redskins' owner George Preston Marshall, the AFL actively recruited from small and predominantly black colleges. The AFL's color-blindness led not only to the explosion of black talent on the field, but to the eventual entry of blacks into scouting, coordinating, and ultimately head coaching positions, long after the league merged itself out of existence.
The AFL's free agents came from several sources. Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the then newly-formed Canadian Football League. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went north to try their luck with the CFL (which formed in 1958), and later returned to the states to play in the AFL.
In the league's first years, players such as Oilers' George Blanda, Chargers/Bills' Jack Kemp, Texans' Len Dawson, the Titans' Don Maynard, Raiders/Patriots/Jets' Babe Parilli, Pats' Bob Dee proved to be AFL standouts. Other players such as the Broncos' Frank Tripucka, the Pats' Gino Cappelletti, the Bills' Cookie Gilchrist and the Chargers' Tobin Rote, Sam DeLuca and Dave Kocourek also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly needed credibility. Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true "free agents", the walk-ons and the "wanna-be's", who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional American football.
After the AFL–NFL merger agreement in 1966, and after the AFL's Jets defeated an extremely strong Baltimore Colts team, a popular misconception fostered by the NFL and spread by media reports was that the AFL defeated the NFL because of the common draft instituted in 1967. This apparently was meant to assert that the AFL could not achieve parity as long as it had to compete with the NFL in the draft. But the 1968 Jets had less than a handful of "common draftees". Their stars were honed in the AFL, many of them since the Titans days.
Players who chose the AFL to develop their talent included Lance Alworth and Ron Mix of the Chargers, who had also been drafted by the NFL's San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Colts respectively. Both eventually were elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions. Among specific teams, the 1964 Buffalo Bills stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a 14-game schedule.
In 2009, a five-part series, Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League, on the Showtime Network, refuted many of the long-held misconceptions about the AFL. In it, Abner Haynes tells of how his father forbade him to accept being drafted by the NFL's Pittsburgh Steelers, after head coach Buddy Parker and quarterback Bobby Layne had visited the Haynes home drunk; the NFL Cowboys' Tex Schramm is quoted as saying that if his team had ever agreed to play the AFL's Dallas Texans, they would very likely have lost; George Blanda makes a case for more AFL players being inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame by pointing out that Hall of Famer Willie Brown was cut by the Houston Oilers because he couldn't cover Oilers flanker Charlie Hennigan in practice. Later, when Brown was with the Broncos, Hennigan needed nine catches in one game against the Broncos to break Lionel Taylor's professional football record of 100 catches in one season. Hennigan caught the nine passes and broke the record, even though he was covered by Brown.
Influence on professional football coaching
The AFL also spawned coaches whose style and techniques have profoundly affected the play of professional football to this day. In addition to AFL greats like Hank Stram, Lou Saban, Sid Gillman and Al Davis were eventual hall of fame coaches such as Bill Walsh, a protégé of Davis with the AFL Oakland Raiders for one season; and Chuck Noll, who worked for Gillman and the AFL LA/San Diego Chargers from 1960 through 1965. Others include Buddy Ryan (AFL's New York Jets), Chuck Knox (Jets), Walt Michaels (Jets), and John Madden (AFL's Oakland Raiders). Additionally, many prominent coaches began their pro football careers as players in the AFL, including Sam Wyche (Cincinnati Bengals), Marty Schottenheimer (Buffalo Bills), Wayne Fontes (Jets), and two-time Super Bowl winner Tom Flores (Oakland Raiders). Flores also has a Super Bowl ring as a player (1969 Kansas City Chiefs).
AFL 50th anniversary celebration
As the influence of the AFL continues through the present, the 50th anniversary of its launch was celebrated during 2009. The season-long celebration began in August with the 2009 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game in Canton, Ohio, between two AFC teams (as opposed to the AFC-vs-NFC format the game first adopted in 1971). The opponents were two of the original AFL franchises, the Buffalo Bills and Tennessee Titans (the former Houston Oilers). Bills' owner Ralph C. Wilson Jr. (a 2009 Hall of Fame inductee) and Titans' owner Bud Adams were the only surviving members of the Foolish Club at the time (both are now deceased; Wilson's estate sold the team in 2014), the eight original owners of AFL franchises. (As of the season, the Titans and Chiefs are still owned by descendants of the original eight owners.)
The Hall of Fame Game was the first of several "Legacy Weekends", during which each of the "original eight" AFL teams sported uniforms from their AFL era. Each of the 8 teams took part in at least two such "legacy" games. On-field officials also wore red-and-white-striped AFL uniforms during these games.
In the fall of 2009, the Showtime pay-cable network premiered Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League, a 5-part documentary series produced by NFL Films that features vintage game film and interviews as well as more recent interviews with those associated with the AFL.
The NFL sanctioned a variety of "Legacy" gear to celebrate the AFL anniversary, such as "throwback" jerseys, T-shirts, signs, pennants and banners, including items with the logos and colors of the Dallas Texans, Houston Oilers, and New York Titans, the three of the Original Eight AFL teams which have changed names or venues. A December 5, 2009, story by Ken Belson in The New York Times quotes league officials as stating that AFL "Legacy" gear made up twenty to thirty percent of the league's annual $3 billion merchandise income. Fan favorites were the Denver Broncos' vertically striped socks, which could not be re-stocked quickly enough.Teams
}}
{|class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left"
!Division
!Team
!First Season
!Home Stadium
!AFL Record (W-L-T)
!AFL Titles
! class="unsortable" | Destiny after the merger
|-
|rowspan=5|Eastern
|Boston Patriots
|align="center" |1960
|Nickerson Field (1960–1962), Fenway Park (1963–1968), Alumni Stadium (1969)
|align="center" |64–69–9
|align="center" |0
|Still active in the Greater Boston area. Moved to Foxborough, Massachusetts, as the New England Patriots in 1971.
|-
|Buffalo Bills
|align="center" |1960
|War Memorial Stadium (1960–1969)
|align="center" |67–71–6
|align="center" |2
|Still active in the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area. Moved to Orchard Park, New York, in 1973.
|-
|Houston Oilers
|align="center" |1960
|Jeppesen Stadium (1960–1964), Rice Stadium (1965–1967), Houston Astrodome (1968–1969)
|align="center" |72–69–4
|align="center" |2
|Moved to Nashville, Tennessee, as the Tennessee Oilers in 1997, but played in Memphis that year while waiting for a stadium to be constructed. They began play in Nashville in 1998, and were renamed the Tennessee Titans in 1999. Houston would have an NFL team again with the Houston Texans beginning play in 2002.
|-
|Miami Dolphins
|align="center" |1966
|Miami Orange Bowl (1966–1969)
|align="center" |15–39–2
|align="center" |0
|Still active in the Miami metropolitan area. In 2003, their home stadium, which previously had a Miami address, became part of Miami Gardens, Florida.
|-
|Titans of New York/New York Jets
|align="center" |1960
|Polo Grounds (1960–1963), Shea Stadium (1964–1969)
|align="center" |71–66–6
|align="center" |1
|Still active in the New York metropolitan area. Moved to East Rutherford, New Jersey, in 1984.
|-
|rowspan=5|Western
|Cincinnati Bengals
|align="center" |1968
|Nippert Stadium (1968–1969)
|align="center" |7–20–1
|align="center" |0
|Still active in Cincinnati.
|-
|Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs
|align="center" |1960
|Cotton Bowl (1960–1962), Municipal Stadium (1963–1969)
|align="center" |92–50–5
|align="center" |3
|Still active in Kansas City.
|-
|Denver Broncos
|align="center" |1960
|Bears Stadium/Mile High Stadium (1960–1969)
|align="center" |39–97–4
|align="center" |0
|Still active in Denver.
|-
|Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers
|align="center" |1960
|Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1960), Balboa Stadium (1961–1966), San Diego Stadium (1967–1969)
|align="center" |87–52–6
|align="center" |1
|Returned to Los Angeles in 2017.
|-
|Oakland Raiders
|align="center" |1960
|Kezar Stadium (1960), Candlestick Park (1961), Frank Youell Field (1962–1965), Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum (1966–1969)
|align="center" |80–61–5
|align="center" |1
|Moved to Los Angeles in 1982, returned to Oakland in 1995 then moved to Las Vegas, Nevada in 2020.
|}
Today, two of the NFL's eight divisions are composed entirely of former AFL teams, the AFC West (Broncos, Chargers, Chiefs, and Raiders) and the AFC East (Bills, Dolphins, Jets, and Patriots). Additionally, the Bengals now play in the AFC North and the Tennessee Titans (formerly the Oilers) play in the AFC South.
Former stadiums: Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Fenway Park, Nickerson Field, Alumni Stadium, Nippert Stadium, the Cotton Bowl, Balboa Stadium and Kezar Stadium are still standing, but currently do not host a team, and the Houston Astrodome was partially demolished.
Playoffs
From 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single-elimination playoff game between the winners of its two divisions. The home teams alternated each year by division, so in 1968 the Jets hosted the Raiders, even though Oakland had a better record (this was changed in 1969). In 1963, the Buffalo Bills and Boston Patriots finished tied with identical records of 7–6–1 in the AFL East Division. There was no tie-breaker protocol in place, so a one-game playoff was held in War Memorial Stadium in December. The visiting Patriots defeated the host Bills 26–8. The Patriots traveled to San Diego as the Chargers completed a three-game season sweep over the weary Patriots with a 51–10 victory. A similar situation occurred in the 1968 season, when the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs finished the regular season tied with identical records of 12–2 in the AFL West Division. The Raiders beat the Chiefs 41–6 in a division playoff to qualify for the AFL Championship Game. In 1969, the final year of the independent AFL, for the first time professional football featured a playoff team that had not won its division or conference during the regular season. A four-team playoff was held, with the second-place teams in each division playing the winner of the other division. The Chiefs upset the Raiders in Oakland 17–7 in the league's championship, the final AFL game played. The Kansas City Chiefs were the first Super Bowl champion to win two road playoff games and the first team to win the Super Bowl despite not having won its division or conference during the regular season.
AFL Championship Games
}}
All-Star games
The AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960, but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion Buffalo Bills played all-stars from the other teams.
After the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star game had been scheduled for early 1965 in New Orleans' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of area hotels and businesses, black and white players alike called for a boycott. Led by Bills players such as Cookie Gilchrist, the players successfully lobbied to have the game moved to Houston's Jeppesen Stadium.
All-Time AFL Team
As chosen by 1969 AFL Hall of Fame Selection committee members:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|align"center" colspan"6"|All-Time AFL Team
|-
|align"center" colspan"2" | Offense ||align"center" colspan"2" | Defense ||align"center" colspan"2" | Special teams
|-
!Position
!Player
!Position
!Player
!Position
!Player
|-
|WR||Lance Alworth
|rowspan=2|End||Jerry Mays
|rowspan6|K||rowspan6|George Blanda
|-
|End||Don Maynard
|Gerry Philbin
|-
|TE||Fred Arbanas
|rowspan=2|T||Houston Antwine
|-
|rowspan=2|T||Ron Mix
|Tom Sestak
|-
|Jim Tyrer
|rowspan=3|LB||Bobby Bell
|-
|C||Jim Otto
|George Webster
|-
|rowspan=2|G||Ed Budde
|Nick Buoniconti
|rowspan5|P||rowspan5|Jerrel Wilson
|-
|Billy Shaw
|rowspan=2|CB||Willie Brown
|-
|QB||Joe Namath
|Dave Grayson
|-
|rowspan=2|RB||Clem Daniels
|rowspan=2|S||Johnny Robinson
|-
|Paul Lowe
|George Saimes
|}
Records
The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league. The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own.
* Yards passing, game – 464, George Blanda (Oilers, October 29, 1961)
* Yards passing, season – 4,007, Joe Namath (Jets, 1967)
* Yards passing, career – 21,130, Jack Kemp (Chargers, Bills)
* Yards rushing, game – 243, Cookie Gilchrist (Bills, December 8, 1963)
* Yards rushing, season – 1,458, Jim Nance (Patriots, 1966)
* Yards rushing, career – 5,101, Clem Daniels (Texans, Raiders)
* Receptions, season – 101, Charlie Hennigan (Oilers, 1964)
* Receptions, career – 567, Lionel Taylor (Broncos)
* Points scored, season – 155, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots, 1964)
* Points scored, career – 1,100, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots)
Players, coaches, and contributors
* List of American Football League players
* American Football League Most Valuable Players
* American Football League Rookies of the Year
* American Football League draft
* American Football League officials
Commissioners/presidents of the American Football League
<!-- List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees contains a link to this section header -->
* Joe Foss, commissioner (November 30, 1959 – April 7, 1966)
* Al Davis, commissioner (April 8, 1966 – July 25, 1966)
* Milt Woodard, president (July 25, 1966 – March 12, 1970)
See also
* American Football League win–loss records
* American Football League seasons
* American Football League playoffs
* AFL–NFL merger
* List of leagues of American football
* American Basketball Association
* World Hockey Association
Footnotes
References
*
*
*
* History: The AFL – Pro Football Hall of Fame ([http://www.profootballhof.com/history/decades/1960s/afl.jsp link]).
*
*
*
External links
* [http://www.RemembertheAFL.com RemembertheAFL.com Website]
* [http://afl-football.50webs.com afl-football.50webs.com]
* [http://www.remembertheafl.com/AFL.htm#AFLBoxScores American Football League week-by-week box scores, 1960–1969]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090111040936/http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/Detroit_Lions_vs_Denver_Broncos_August_5,_1967.htm The Summer of the Little Super Bowls]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171018003302/http://footballresearch.com/articles/frpage.cfm?topic=00-1926 PFRA article about the 1926 seasons of both the NFL and AFL]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170525151521/http://www.footballresearch.com/articles/frpage.cfm?topic=afl35-41 PFRA article about the 1930s and 40s AFL]
* [http://www.profootballhof.com/hall/story.jsp?story_id3097 Pro Football Hall of Fame American Football League Legacy Game]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090307044602/http://www.titansonline.com/news/titans_news_detail.php?PRKey=6614 Official Titans website story on the AFL's 50th Anniversary Celebration]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090503152506/http://www.remembertheafl.com/CelebrateTheAFL.htm#LegacyGames Schedule of American Football League Legacy Games]
* [https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id=4141175 ESPN.com article on AFL Legacy Games]
* [http://www.remembertheafl.com/AFLThrowbacks.htm#NYTimesThrowbackArticle The New York Times article on AFL "Legacy" gear]
Category:Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States
Category:Sports leagues established in 1960
Category:1970 disestablishments in the United States
Category:1960 establishments in the United States
Category:Defunct national American football leagues
Category:Sports leagues disestablished in 1970
Category:1970 mergers and acquisitions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Football_League | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.798222 |
2358 | AS Roma | (as Italo Foschi)
| ground = Stadio Olimpico
| capacity 70,634
| owner = The Friedkin Group (95.97%)
| chrtitle = President
| chairman = Dan Friedkin
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager = Claudio Ranieri
| league =
| season =
| position =
| current = 2024–25 AS Roma season
| website =
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Associazione Sportiva Roma (Rome Sport Association; Italian pronunciation: ) is a professional football club based in Rome, Italy. Founded by a merger in 1927, Roma has participated in the top tier of Italian football for all of its existence, except for the 1951–52 season. Roma has won Serie A three times, in 1941–42, 1982–83 and 2000–01, as well as nine titles and two titles. In European competitions, Roma won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1960–61 and the UEFA Conference League in 2021–22, while they finished runners-up in the 1983–84 European Cup, the 1990–91 UEFA Cup and the 2022–23 UEFA Europa League.
Sixteen players have won the FIFA World Cup while playing at Roma: Attilio Ferraris and Enrique Guaita (1934); Guido Masetti and Eraldo Monzeglio (1934 and 1938); Aldo Donati and Pietro Serantoni (1938); Bruno Conti (1982); Rudi Völler and Thomas Berthold (1990); Aldair (1994); Vincent Candela (1998); Cafu (2002); Daniele De Rossi, Simone Perrotta and Francesco Totti (2006); Paulo Dybala (2022).
Since 1953, Roma has played home matches at the Stadio Olimpico, a venue the club shares with city rivals Lazio. With a capacity of over 72,000, the stadium is the second-largest of its kind in Italy, with only the San Siro able to seat more. The club plans to move to a new stadium, though it is yet to start construction. Having a strong local rivalry, Roma and Lazio contest the Derby della Capitale.
The club's home colours are carmine red and golden yellow, which gives Roma its nickname "I Giallorossi" ("The Yellow and Reds"). These colours have often been combined with white shorts. The club badge features a she-wolf, an allusion to the founding myth of Rome.
History
Foundation
, Roma captain during their formative years]]
AS Roma was founded in the spring of 1927 when Italo Foschi
The purpose of the merger was to give the Italian capital a strong club to rival that of the more dominant Northern Italian clubs of the time. The only major Roman club to resist the merger was Lazio because of the intervention of the army General Vaccaro, a member of the club and executive of Italian Football Federation (FIGC).
All three founding clubs were relegated, but the fascist-aligned FIGC bet over the capacity of the new team to give a stronger representation to the capital of Italy, and they were awarded a wild card for the , the Serie A forerunner. The club played its earliest seasons at the Motovelodromo Appio stadium, before settling in the working-class streets of Testaccio, where it built an all-wooden ground Campo Testaccio; this was opened in November 1929.First title victory and declineAfter a slump in league form and the departure of high key players, Roma eventually rebuilt their squad, adding goalscorers such as the Argentine Enrique Guaita. Under the management of Luigi Barbesino, the Roman club came close to their first title in 1935–36, finishing just one point behind champions Bologna.
Roma returned to form after being inconsistent for much of the late 1930s. Roma recorded an unexpected title triumph in the 1941–42 season by winning their first title. The 18 goals scored by local player Amedeo Amadei were essential to the Alfréd Schaffer-coached Roma side winning the title. At the time, Italy was involved in World War II and Roma were playing at the Stadio Nazionale PNF.
In the years just after the war, Roma were unable to recapture their league stature from the early 1940s. Roma finished in the lower half of Serie A for five seasons in a row, before eventually succumbing to their only ever relegation to Serie B at the end of the 1950–51 season, around a decade after their championship victory. Under future Italy national team manager Giuseppe Viani, promotion straight back up was achieved. A few years later, Roma won their first Coppa Italia trophy in 1963–64 after defeating Torino 1–0.
Their lowest point came during the 1964–65 season, when manager Juan Carlos Lorenzo announced the club could not pay its players and was unlikely to be able to afford to travel to Vicenza to fulfil its next fixture. Supporters kept the club going with a fundraiser at the Sistine Theatre and bankruptcy was avoided with the election of a new club president Franco Evangelisti.
Their second Coppa Italia trophy was won in 1968–69, when it competed in a small, league-like system.
Time of mixed fortunes from the 1970s to the 1990s
with the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1960–61]]
Roma were able to add another cup to their collection in 1972, with a 3–1 victory over Blackpool in the Anglo-Italian Cup. During much of the 1970s, Roma's appearance in the top half of Serie A was sporadic. The best place the club were able to achieve during the decade was third in 1974–75. Former Milan player Nils Liedholm was the manager at the time, with players such as Bruno Conti, Agostino Di Bartolomei, Roberto Pruzzo and Falcão.
The second scudetto did not elude Roma for much longer. In 1982–83, the Roman club won the title for the first time in 41 years, amidst celebrations in the capital. The following season, Roma finished as runners-up in Italy Roma's successful run in the 1980s would finish with a runners-up spot in 1985–86 The same season, the club won its seventh Coppa Italia
In the 2001–02 Serie A, Roma ended as runners-up to Juventus by one point. The club also re-capitalized several time in 2003–04 season. In November 2003, €37.5 million was injected by "Roma 2000" to cover the half-year loss and loss carried from previous year. and again on 30 June for €44.57 million. Through stock market, a further €19.850 million of new shares issued, and at the year end, the share capital was €19.878 million, which was unchanged . The following season also saw the departure of Walter Samuel for €25 million and Emerson for €28 million, which decreased the strength of the squad. The Giallorossi finished in eighth place, one of the worst of recent seasons.
, with the 2007–08 Coppa Italia]]
On 9 July 2006, Roma's Francesco Totti, Daniele De Rossi and Simone Perrotta were part of the Italy national team which defeated France in the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final. In the Calciopoli scandal of 2006, Roma were not one of the teams involved. After punishments were issued, Roma was re-classified as runners-up for 2005–06, the same season they finished second in the Coppa Italia losing to Internazionale. Meanwhile, in the UEFA Champions League during both of these seasons, they reached the quarter-finals before going out to Manchester United. In the 2008–09 Champions League, Roma reached the knockout stage ahead of Chelsea in their group, thus finishing for the first time in their history as winners of the group stage. However, they lost to Arsenal in the knockout stage on penalty kicks.
After a disappointing start to the 2009–10 season, Claudio Ranieri replaced Luciano Spalletti as head coach. At the time of the switch, Roma lay bottom of the Serie A table after losses to Juventus and Genoa. Despite this setback, Roma went on unbeaten streak of 24 matches in the league – with the last of the 24 being a 2–1 win over rivals Lazio, whereby they came from 1–0 down at half-time to defeat their city rivals after Ranieri substituted both Totti and De Rossi at the interval. The Giallorossi were on top of the table at one point, before a loss to Sampdoria later in the season. Roma would finish runners-up to Internazionale yet again in both Serie A and the Coppa Italia. During the 2000s, Roma had finally recaptured the Scudetto, two Coppa Italia trophies, and their first two Supercoppa Italiana titles. Other notable contributions to the club's history have included a return to the Champions League quarter-finals (in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 editions) since 1984, six runners up positions in the league, four Coppa Italia finals and three Supercoppa finals – marking Roma's greatest ever decade.
American ownership and Pallotta era
In the summer of 2010, the Sensi family agreed to relinquish their control of Roma as part of a debt-settlement agreement, ending their reign that had begun in 1993. Until a new owner was appointed, Rosella Sensi continued her directorial role of the club. Following a series of poor results that saw Roma engage in a winless streak of five consecutive matches, Claudio Ranieri resigned as head coach in February 2011, and former striker Vincenzo Montella was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. It was also during this season that Roma icon Francesco Totti scored his 200th Serie A goal against Fiorentina in March 2011, becoming only the sixth player to achieve such a feat.
, the top goalscorer and the player with the most appearances player in Roma's history]]
On 16 April 2011, the takeover contract was closed with an American investment group led by Thomas R. DiBenedetto, with James Pallotta, Michael Ruane and Richard D'Amore as partners. DiBenedetto became the 22nd president of the club, serving from 27 September 2011 to 27 August 2012 and was succeeded by Pallotta. The new intermediate holding company, NEEP Roma Holding, was 60% owned by American's "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and the rest (40%) was retained by the creditor of Sensi, UniCredit. In turn, NEEP owned all shares held previously by Sensi (about 67%) with the rest free float in the stock market. UniCredit later disinvested NEEP Roma Holding to sell to "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and Pallotta.
The new ownership hired Walter Sabatini as director of football and former Spanish international and Barcelona B coach Luis Enrique as manager. Signings included attacking midfielder Erik Lamela from River Plate and forward Bojan from Barcelona, as well as Dani Osvaldo and Miralem Pjanić. On the pitch, the team were eliminated from 2011–12 UEFA Europa League play-off round by Slovan Bratislava. In 2012, Pallotta became the new president. The 2012–13 pre-season started with the hiring of former manager Zdeněk Zeman. He was sacked on 2 February 2013, while the team ended up in sixth place in Serie A, and lost 1–0 to rivals Lazio in the Coppa Italia final. It was the first time that Lazio and Roma clashed in the Coppa Italia final. As a result, Roma missed out on European competition for the second-straight season.
coaching Roma in 2014]]
On 12 June 2013, Rudi Garcia was appointed the new manager of Roma. He won his first ten matches (an all-time Serie A record) including a 2–0 derby win against Lazio, a 3–0 victory away to Internazionale and a 2–0 home win over title rivals Napoli. During this run, Roma scored 24 times while conceding just once, away to Parma. The club earned 85 points and finished second to Juventus, who won the league with a record-breaking 102 points. In 2014–15, Roma finished second behind Juventus for the second consecutive season after a poor run of form in 2015. At the end of season, the club was sanctioned for loss making and breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, being punished with a fine of up to €6 million and a limited squad for UEFA competitions.
Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Roma acquired Bosnia international, Edin Džeko, from Manchester City on a €4 million loan with an €11 million option to buy clause, which was activated. On 13 January 2016, Garcia was sacked after a run of one win in seven Serie A matches. Luciano Spalletti was subsequently appointed manager of Roma for his second spell. On 21 February, Totti publicly criticised Spalletti due to his own lack of playing-time since returning from injury. Consequently, Totti was subsequently dropped by Spalletti for Roma's 5–0 win over Palermo, with the decision causing an uproar among the fans and in the media. After their initial disagreements, Spalletti began to use Totti as an immediate impact substitute, and he contributed with four goals and one assist after coming off the bench in five consecutive Serie A matches. Spalletti was able to lead Roma from a mid-table spot to a third-place finish in Serie A, clinching the UEFA Champions League play-off spot.
During the summer of 2016, Roma lost midfielder Miralem Pjanić to rivals Juventus to improve its financial position. On 27 April 2017, Roma appointed sporting director Monchi, formerly of Sevilla FC. On 28 May that year, on the last day of the 2016–17 season, Totti made his 786th and final appearance for Roma before retiring in a 3–2 home win against Genoa, coming on as a substitute for Mohamed Salah in the 54th minute and received a standing ovation from the fans. The win saw Roma finish second in Serie A behind Juventus. Daniele De Rossi succeeded Totti as club captain and signed a new two-year contract.
Roma side before a UEFA Champions League Round of 16 match against Shakhtar Donetsk]]
On 13 June 2017, former Roma player Eusebio Di Francesco was appointed as the club's new manager, replacing Spalletti, who had left for Internazionale. Roma again lost a key player during the summer transfer window, with Mohamed Salah joining Liverpool F.C. for a fee of €39 million (£34m). Several new players joined the club, including a club-record deal of up to €40 million for Sampdoria striker Patrik Schick. In the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League Roma were drawn against FC Barcelona in the quarter-finals, being defeated 4–1 away in the first leg but winning 3–0 in the second to advance on away goals to the semi-finals for the first time since 1984. Roma then lost to Liverpool, the team that had defeated them in the 1984 European Cup Final 7–6 on aggregate. Roma ended the 2017–18 season in 3rd place on 77 points, qualifying for the following season's Champions League.
In the summer of 2018, Roma were busy in the transfer market, in large parts thanks to the €83 million they received from reaching the Champions League semi-finals, as well as selling goalkeeper Alisson for a world record €72 million including bonuses to Liverpool. Roma spent €150 million to sign the likes of Shick, Nzonzi, Pastore, Kluivert, Defrel and more, while selling their two starting midfielders from the previous season, Nainggolan and Strootman. The 2018–19 season saw the club eliminated against Porto 4–3 on aggregate in the Champions League round of 16; Di Francesco was sacked and replaced by Claudio Ranieri who served as caretaker manager. The following day, sporting director Monchi stepped down due to disagreements with Pallotta; the club president disputed his account In Monchi's two years at the club, he spent £208 million on 21 signings, while when he left, 12 of his signings remained at the club. Under Ranieri, Roma failed to qualify for the Champions League, finishing 6th.
Friedkin era and European success
In December 2019, AS Roma SPV LLC was in final negotiations to sell the team for $872 million, to American businessman Dan Friedkin, however negotiations stalled during the COVID-19 pandemic. On 6 August 2020, Friedkin signed the preliminary contract to agree to pay $591 million to Pallotta, the main shareholder of Roma.
Paulo Fonseca, who was hired as manager in 2019, left two years later and was replaced by fellow Portuguese José Mourinho. On 25 May 2022, he led Roma to win the inaugural edition of UEFA Europa Conference League, defeating Feyenoord in the final. In September 2024 it was reported that club owners are interested in purchesing the Premier League club of Everton. Club owners claim, it will not effect Roma.
Club identity
Roma's colours of carmine red with a golden yellow trim represents the traditional colours of Rome, the official seal of the Comune di Roma features the same colours. The gold and the purple-red represent Roman imperial dignity. White shorts and black socks are usually worn with the red shirt. However, in particularly high key matches, the shorts and socks are the same colour as the home shirt.
The kit itself was originally worn by Roman Football Club; one of the three clubs who merged to form the current incarnation in 1927. Because of the colours they wear, Roma are often nicknamed i giallorossi meaning the yellow-reds. Roma's away kit is traditionally white, with a third kit changing colour from time to time.
A popular nickname for the club is "i lupi" ("the wolves") – the animal has always featured on the club's badge in different forms throughout their history. The emblem of the team is currently the one which was used when the club was first founded. It portrays the female wolf with the two infant brothers Romulus and Remus, illustrating the myth of the founding of Rome, In the myth from which the club takes their nickname and logo, the twins (sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia) are thrown into the river Tiber by their uncle Amulius. A she-wolf then saved the twins and looked after them.
Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|-
!Period
!Kit manufacturer
!Shirt sponsor (front)
!Shirt sponsor (back)
!Shirt sponsor (sleeve)
|-
|1970–71
||Lacoste
|rowspan=5|None
| rowspan="21" |None
| rowspan="22" |None
|-
|1972–76
||None
|-
|1977–79
||Adidas
|-
|1979–80
||Pouchain
|-
|1980–81
|rowspan=2|Playground
|-
|1981–82
|rowspan=5|Barilla
|-
|1982–83
||Patrick
|-
|1983–86
||Kappa
|-
|1986–91
||NR
|-
|1991–94
||Adidas
|-
|1994–95
|rowspan=2|ASICS
||Nuova Tirrena
|-
|1995–97
|rowspan=3|INA Assitalia
|-
|1997–00
||Diadora
|-
|2000–02
|rowspan=2|Kappa
|-
|2002–03
|rowspan=2|Mazda
|-
|2003–05
|rowspan=3|Diadora
|-
|2005–06
||Banca Italease
|-
|2006–07
||None
|-
|2007–13
||Kappa
||Wind
|-
|2013–14
||In-house production
||Roma Cares
|-
|2014–18
| rowspan"3" |Nike
||None
|-
|2018–20
| rowspan"2"|Qatar Airways
| rowspan="3" |Hyundai
|-
|2020–21
|Iqoniq
|-
|2021–22
| rowspan"2"|New Balance
| rowspan"2"|DigitalBits
| rowspan="3" |None
|-
|2022–23
| rowspan="2" |Auberge Resorts
|-
|2023–
||Adidas
||Riyadh Season
|}
Facilities
Stadiums
The first sport facility Roma used was the Motovelodromo Appio, previously used by Alba-Audace. Roma only played the 1927–28 season there until they moved to Campo Testaccio the very next season. Campo Testaccio was used through 1929 to 1940. The team moved later to the Stadio Nazionale del PNF, where they spent 13 years before moving once again.
In the 1953–54 season, Roma moved to the Olympic arena, Stadio Olimpico, which it shares with Lazio. The arena has undergone several changes over the years. The most significant change took place in the nineties when Stadio Olimpico was demolished and then reconstructed for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy. Roma have played almost every season since 1953–54, with exception of the 1989–90 seasons due to the reconstruction of Stadio Olimpico. That year, Roma played its home matches at Stadio Flaminio.
On 30 December 2012, Roma club president James Pallotta announced the construction of a new stadium in the Tor di Valle area of Rome. The new stadium, Stadio della Roma, will have a capacity of 52,500 spectators. On 2 February 2017, the Region of Lazio and the mayor of Rome rejected the proposal to build a new stadium. However, it was later approved on 24 February after final review of the stadium's design adjustments. In August 2017, the stadium suffered another delay, forcing Roma to renew their lease with the Stadio Olimpico until 2020. It is presently uncertain when the stadium will open. On 5 December 2017 the Stadio della Roma project, after experiencing five years worth of delays due to conflicting interests from various parties in the Roman city government, was given the go-ahead to begin construction, with the stadium expected to be ready to open for the 2020–21 season. On 26 February 2021, it was announced that the stadium project was halted.
List of stadiums used by the club
*1927–1928 Motovelodromo Appio
*1929–1940 Campo Testaccio
*1940–1953 Stadio Nazionale del PNF
*1953– Stadio Olimpico (1989–1990 Stadio Flaminio due to renovations on Olimpico)
Trigoria
A sports centre located in Trigoria at kilometre 3600 in south-east of Rome was purchased on 22 July 1977 by then club president Gaetano Anzalone. It was opened on 23 July 1979 as Anzalone's final act as president. The complex had its first expansion in 1984 when the club was handled by Dino Viola and another in 1998 under the chairmanship of Franco Sensi. The centre's official name is the Fulvio Bernardini di Trigoria, named after club icon Fulvio Bernardini.
On 4 September 2019, the Trigoria training ground began to serve also as a private school named 'Liceo Scientifico Sportivo A.S. Roma' exclusively educating only the team's youth players in a renovated building on the training ground premises. 80 students are currently enrolled in the school which features its own cafeteria and gym.
The centre is also known for hosting the Argentina national team during the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy.
Supporters
Roma is the fifth-most supported football club in Italy – behind Juventus, Internazionale, A.C. Milan and Napoli – with approximately 7% of Italian football fans supporting the club, according to the Doxa Institute-L'Espresso's research of April 2006. Historically, the largest section of Roma supporters in the city of Rome have come from the inner-city, especially Testaccio.
The traditional ultras group of the club was Commando Ultrà Curva Sud
In November 2015, Roma's ultras and their Lazio counterparts boycotted Roma's 1–0 victory in the Derby della Capitale in protest at new safety measures imposed at the Stadio Olimpico. The measures – imposed by Rome's prefect, Franco Gabrielli – had involved plastic glass dividing walls being installed in both the Curva Sud and Curva Nord, splitting the sections behind each goal in two. Both sets of ultras continued their protests for the rest of the season, including during Roma's 4–1 victory in the return fixture. Lazio's ultras returned to the Curva Nord for Roma's 1–4 victory in December 2016, but the Roma ultras continue to boycott matches.
during a Roma match]]
The most known club anthem is "Roma (non-si discute, si ama)", also known as "Roma Roma", by singer Antonello Venditti. The title roughly means, "Roma is not to be questioned, it is to be loved," and it is sung before each match. The song "Grazie Roma", by the same singer, is played at the end of victorious home matches. Recently, the main riff of The White Stripes' song "Seven Nation Army" has also become widely popular at matches.
Rivalries
In Italian football, Roma is a club with many rivalries; first and foremost is their rivalry with Lazio, the club with whom they share the Stadio Olimpico. The derby between the two is called the Derby della Capitale, it is amongst the most heated and emotional footballing rivalries in the world. The fixture has seen some occasional instances of violence in the past, including the death of Lazio fan Vincenzo Paparelli in 1979–80 as a result of an emergency flare fired from the Curva Sud, and the abandonment of a match in March 2004 following unfounded rumours of a fatality which led to violence outside the stadium.
Against Napoli, Roma also compete in the Derby del Sole, meaning the "Derby of the Sun". Nowadays, fans also consider other Juventus (a rivalry born especially in the 1980s), Milan, Atalanta (since 1984, when friendly relations between the two clubs' ultras deteriorated), and Internazionale (increased in recent years) among their rivals, as they are often competitors for the top four spots in the league table and qualification for the UEFA Champions League.HooliganismRivalries with other teams have escalated into serious violence. A group of ultras who label themselves the Fedayn — 'the devotees' — after a group of long-forgotten Iranian guerrilla fighters are regarded to be responsible for the organised hooliganism. In 2014 Daniele De Santis, a Roma ultra, was convicted of shooting Ciro Esposito and two others during clashes with Napoli fans who were in Rome for their club's Coppa Italia final against Fiorentina. Esposito died of his wounds. De Santis was sentenced to 26 years in prison, later reduced to 16 years on appeal. Roma ultras have displayed banners celebrating De Santis.
There have been multiple instances of Roma ultras attacking supporters of foreign clubs when playing in Rome. These attacks have regularly featured the Roma ultras using knives, poles, flares, bottles and stones on unarmed foreign supporters, resulting in multiple hospitalisations. Home games against Liverpool in 1984 and 2001, Middlesbrough in 2006, Manchester United in 2007, Arsenal in 2009, Tottenham Hotspur in 2012, and Chelsea in 2017 have all resulted in multiple stabbings and other injuries to foreign supporters. In 2018 Roma ultras travelling to an away game at Liverpool attacked home supporters, resulting in a home supporter being critically injured.
Players
Current squad
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- Look for an official statement at the AS Roma website (www.asroma.it) prior to editing.
– Any unconfirmed signing will be removed. Thanks.
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Primavera squad
Other players under contract
Out on loan
Women team
Notable players
Retired numbers
Since 2017, Roma has not issued the squad number 10 to commemorate Francesco Totti, who was retired from football since 2017. It was going to be issued to Paulo Dybala in 2022, but Dybala chose the number 21 instead of number 10.
(1993–2017)
Management staff
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Dan Friedkin }}
Ryan Friedkin }}
Florent Ghisolfi }}
Alberto De Rossi }}
Simone Ricchio }}
Bruno Conti }}
Claudio Ranieri }}
Paolo Benetti }}
Simone Farelli }}
Sergio Spalla }}
Manrico Ferrari <br/> Carlo Spignoli <br/> Massimo Catalano }}
Simone Beccaccioli <br/> Leonardo Marasciulo}}
Mark Sertori }}
Simone Lo Schiavo }}
José Fontes <br/> Peyo Doménech}}
Michele Salzarulo }}
Andrea Causarano }}
Federico Manara }}
Marco Esposito <br/> Alessandro Cardini }}
Maurizio Fanchini }}
Raniero Russo }}
Walter Martinelli }}
Guido Rillo }}
Marco Robino Rizzet }}
Vito Scala }}
Federico Balzaretti}}
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Chairmen history
:
Roma have had numerous chairmen ( or ) over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners and co-owners of the club, some of them were nominated by the owners. Franco Sensi was the chairman until his death in 2008, with his daughter, Roma CEO Rosella Sensi taking his place as chairman.
<div style="font-size:100%">
{|
|-
|width="10"|
|valign="top"|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|-
!|Name
!|Years
|-
|align=left|Italo Foschi
|align=left|1927–1928
|-
|align=left|Renato Sacerdoti
|align=left|1928–1935
|-
|align=left|Vittorio Scialoja
|align=left|1935–1936
|-
|align=left|Igino Betti
|align=left|1936–1941
|-
|align=left|Edgardo Bazzini
|align=left|1941–1944
|-
|align=left|Pietro Baldassarre
|align=left|1944–1949
|-
|align=left|Pier Carlo Restagno
|align=left|1949–1952
|-
|align=left|Romolo Vaselli
|align=left|1952
|-
|align=left|Renato Sacerdoti
|align=left|1952–1958
|-
|align=left|Anacleto Gianni
|align=left|1958–1962
|-
|align=left|Francesco Marini-Dettina
|align=left|1962–1965
|-
|align=left|Franco Evangelisti
|align=left|1965–1968
|-
|align=left|Francesco Ranucci
|align=left|1968–1969
|}
|width="30"|
|valign="top"|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|-
!|Name
!|Years
|-
|align=left|Alvaro Marchini
|align=left|1969–1971
|-
|align=left|Gaetano Anzalone
|align=left|1971–1979
|-
|align=left|Dino Viola
|align=left|1979–1991
|-
|align=left|Flora Viola
|align=left|1991
|-
|align=left|Giuseppe Ciarrapico
|align=left|1991–1993
|-|-
|align=left|Ciro Di Martino
|align=left|1993
|-
|align=left|Franco Sensi
|align=left|1993–2008
|-
|align=left|Rosella Sensi
|align=left|2008–2011
|-
|alignleft|Roberto Cappelli
<div style="font-size:100%">
{|
|-
|width="10"|
|valign="top"|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align"
|-
!|Manager
!|Years
|-
| William Garbutt
|align=left|1927–29
|-
| Guido Baccani
|align=left|1929–30
|-
| Herbert Burgess
|align=left|1930–32
|-
| Lászlo Barr
|align=left|1932–33
|-
| Lajos Kovács
|align=left|1933–34
|-
| Luigi Barbesino
|align=left|1934–38
|-
| Guido Ara
|align=left|1938–39
|-
| Alfréd Schaffer
|align=left|1939–42
|-
| Géza Kertész
|align=left|1942–43
|-
| Guido Masetti
|align=left|1943–45
|-
| Giovanni Degni
|align=left|1945–47
|-
| Imre Senkey
|align=left|1947–48
|-
| Luigi Brunella
|align=left|1948–49
|-
| Fulvio Bernardini
|align=left|1949–50
|-
| Adolfo Baloncieri
|align=left|1950
|-
| Pietro Serantoni
|align=left|1950
|-
| Guido Masetti
|align=left|1950–51
|-
| Giuseppe Viani
|align=left|1951–53
|-
| Mario Varglien
|align=left|1953–54
|-
| Jesse Carver
|align=left|1954–56
|-
| György Sárosi
|align=left|1956
|-
| Guido Masetti
|align=left|1956–57
|-
| Alec Stock
|align=left|1957–58
|-
| Gunnar Nordahl
|align=left|1958–59
|-
| György Sarosi
|align=left|1959–60
|}
|width="30"|
|valign="top"|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align"
|-
!|Manager
!|Years
|-
| Alfredo Foni
|align=left|1960–61
|-
| Luis Carniglia
|align=left|1961–63
|-
| Naim Kryeziu
|align=left|1963
|-
| Alfredo Foni
|align=left|1963–64
|-
| Luis Miró
|align=left|1964–65
|-
| Juan Carlos Lorenzo
|align=left|1965–66
|-
| Oronzo Pugliese
|align=left|1966–68
|-
| Helenio Herrera
|align=left|1968–70
|-
| Luciano Tessari
|align=left|1970
|-
| Helenio Herrera
|align=left|1971–72
|-
| Tonino Trebiciani
|align=left|1972–73
|-
| Nils Liedholm
|align=left|1974–77
|-
| Gustavo Giagnoni
|align=left|1978–79
|-
| Ferruccio Valcareggi
|align=left|1979–80
|-
| Nils Liedholm
|align=left|1980–84
|-
| Sven-Göran Eriksson
|align=left|1984–87
|-
| Angelo Sormani
|align=left|1987
|-
| Nils Liedholm
|align=left|1987–89
|-
| Luciano Spinosi
|align=left|1989
|-
| Gigi Radice
|align=left|1989–90
|-
| Ottavio Bianchi
|align=left|1990–92
|-
| Vujadin Boškov
|align=left|1992–93
|-
| Carlo Mazzone
|align=left|1993–96
|-
| Carlos Bianchi
|align=left|1996
|-
| Nils Liedholm
|align=left|1996
|}
|width="30"|
|valign="top"|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align"
|-
!|Manager
!|Years
|-
| Ezio Sella
|align=left|1996
|-
| Zdeněk Zeman
|align=left|1997–99
|-
| Fabio Capello
|align=left|1999–04
|-
| Cesare Prandelli
|align=left|2004
|-
| Rudi Völler
|align=left|2004
|-
| Luigi Delneri
|align=left|2004–05
|-
| Bruno Conti
|align=left|2005
|-
| Luciano Spalletti
|align=left|2005–09
|-
| Claudio Ranieri
|align=left|2009–11
|-
| Vincenzo Montella
|align=left|2011
|-
| Luis Enrique
|align=left|2011–12
|-
| Zdeněk Zeman
|align=left|2012–13
|-
| Aurelio Andreazzoli
|align=left|2013
|-
| Rudi Garcia
|align=left|2013–16
|-
| Luciano Spalletti
|align=left|2016–17
|-
| Eusebio Di Francesco
|align=left|2017–19
|-
| Claudio Ranieri
|align=left|2019
|-
| Paulo Fonseca
|align=left|2019–21
|-
| José Mourinho
|align=left|2021–24
|-
| Daniele De Rossi
|align=left|2024
|-
| Ivan Jurić
|align=left|2024
|-
| Claudio Ranieri
|align=left|2024–
|}
|}
</div>
Honours
in 2001 at the Circus Maximus]]
National titles
*Serie A:
** Winners (3): 1941–42, 1982–83, 2000–01
**Runners-up: (14): 1930–31, 1935–36, 1980–81, 1983–84, 1985–86, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2016–17
*Coppa Italia:
** Winners (9): 1963–64, 1968–69, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1990–91, 2006–07, 2007–08
**Runners-up: (8): 1936–37, 1940–41, 1992–93, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2012–13
*Supercoppa Italiana:
** Winners (2): 2001, 2007
European titles
*European Cup:
** Runners-up (1): 1983–84
*UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League:
** Runners-up (2): 1990–91, 2022–23
*UEFA Conference League:
** Winners (1): 2021–22
*Inter-Cities Fairs Cup:
** Winners (1): 1960–61
Other titles
*Serie B:
** Winners (1): 1951–52
*Anglo-Italian Cup:
** Winners (1): 1972Hall of FameOn 7 October 2012, the AS Roma Hall of Fame was announced.
The Hall of Fame players were voted via the club's official website and a special Hall of Fame panel. In 2013 four players were voted in. In 2014, the third year of AS Roma Hall of Fame four more players were voted in.
Added in 2012:
* Franco Tancredi <small>(1977–90)</small>
* Cafu <small>(1997–03)</small>
* Giacomo Losi <small>(1954–69)</small>
* Aldair <small>(1990–03)</small>
* Francesco Rocca <small>(1972–81)</small>
* Fulvio Bernardini <small>(1928–39)</small>
* Agostino Di Bartolomei <small>(1972–75; 1976–84)</small>
* Falcão <small>(1980–85)</small>
* Bruno Conti <small>(1973–75; 1976–78; 1979–91)</small>
* Roberto Pruzzo <small>(1978–88)</small>
* Amedeo Amadei <small>(1936–38; 1939–48)</small>
Added in 2013:
* Attilio Ferraris <small>(1927–34; 1938–39)</small>
* Sebino Nela <small>(1981–92)</small>
* Giuseppe Giannini <small>(1981–96)</small>
* Vincenzo Montella <small>(1999–2009)</small>
Added in 2014:
* Alcides Ghiggia <small>(1953–61)</small>
* Carlo Ancelotti <small>(1979–87)</small>
* Rudi Völler <small>(1987–92)</small>
* Vincent Candela <small>(1997–2005)</small>
Added in 2015:
* Guido Masetti <small>(1930–43)</small>
* Sergio Santarini <small>(1968–81)</small>
* Damiano Tommasi <small>(1996–2006)</small>
* Gabriel Batistuta <small>(2000–03)</small>
Added in 2016:
* Giorgio Carpi <small>(1927–37)</small>
* Toninho Cerezo <small>(1983–86)</small>
* Giancarlo De Sisti <small>(1960–65; 1974–79)</small>
* Arcadio Venturi <small>(1948–57)</small>
Added in 2017:
* Francesco Totti <small>(1992–2017)</small>
Added in 2018:
* Mario De Micheli <small>(1927–1932)</small>
* Giuliano Taccola <small>(1967–1969)</small>
* Rodolfo Volk <small>(1928–1933)</small>
Club records and statistics
Francesco Totti currently holds Roma's official appearance record, having made 786 appearances in all competitions, over the course of 25 seasons from 1993 until 2017.
Including all competitions, Totti is the all-time leading goalscorer for Roma with 307 goals since joining the club, 250 of which were scored in Serie A (another Roma record). The biggest ever victory recorded by Roma was 9–0 against Cremonese during the 1929–30 Serie A season.Divisional movements{| class"wikitable sortable" style="font-size:90%; text-align: center;"
|-
!Series!!Years!!Last!!Promotions!!Relegations
|-
|align=center|A
|92||2024–25||45 times to Europe|| 1 (1951)
|-
|align=center|B
|1||1951–52|| 1 (1952)||never
|-
!colspan=5|93 years of professional football in Italy since 1929
|-
!colspan=5|AS Roma created in National Division in 1927
|}
UEFA club coefficient ranking
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
! Rank !! Club !! Points
|-
|3||align=left| Bayern Munich||114.000
|-
|4||align=left| Liverpool ||102.000
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"
|5||align=left| Roma||93.000
|-
|6||align=left| Paris Saint-Germain||91.000
|-
|7||align=left| Borussia Dortmund ||85.000
|}
UEFA rankings since 2004
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
! Rank !! Club !! Points
|-
|19||align=left| Girona||1801
|-
|20||align=left| PSV Eindhoven||1797
|-bgcolor="#ddffdd"
|21||align=left| Roma||1793
|-
|22||align=left| VfB Stuttgart||1791
|-
|23||align=left| Tottenham Hotspur ||1791
|}
As a company
€128.520 million (2013–14)
| operating_income = (2013–14)
| net_income (2013–14)
| assets = €386.31 million (2013–14)
| equity €43.398 million (2013–14)
}}
Since 1999, during Franco Sensi's period in charge, Associazione Sportiva Roma has been a listed on Borsa Italiana. From 2004 to 2011, Roma's shares are distributed between; 67.1% to Compagnia Italpetroli SpA (the Sensi family holding; Banca di Roma later acquired 49% stake on Italpetroli due to debt restructuring) and 32.9% to other public shareholders.
Along with Lazio and Juventus, Roma is one of only three quotated Italian clubs. According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the 2010–11 season, Roma was the 15th highest-earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €143.5 million.
In April 2008, after months of speculation, George Soros was confirmed by Rosella Sensi, CEO of Serie A club A.S. Roma, to be bidding for a takeover. The takeover bid was successively rejected by the Sensi family, who instead preferred to maintain the club's ownership. On 17 August 2008 club chairman and owner Franco Sensi died after a long illness; his place at the chairmanship of the club was successively taken by his daughter Rosella.
Since the takeover in 2011, NEEP Roma Holding S.p.A. has owned all shares Sensi previously hold. NEEP, itself a joint venture, was held by DiBenedetto AS Roma LLC (later renamed to AS Roma SPV, LLC) and Unicredit in 60–40 ratio from 2011 to 2013, which the former had four real person shareholders in equal ratio, led by future Roma president Thomas R. DiBenedetto (2011–12). The takeover also activated a mandatory bid of shares from the general public, however not all minority shareholders were willing to sell their shares. The mandatory bid meant NEEP held 78.038% of shares of AS Roma (increased from 67.1% of the Sensi). On 1 August 2013, the president of Roma as well as one of the four American shareholders of AS Roma SPV, LLC, James Pallotta, bought an additional 9% shares of NEEP Roma Holding from Unicredit (through Raptor Holdco LLC), as the bank was not willing to fully participate in the capital increase of NEEP from €120,000 to €160,008,905 (excluding share premium). On 4 April 2014 Starwood Capital Group also became the fifth shareholder of AS Roma SPV, as well as forming a strategic partnership with AS Roma SpA to develop real estate around the new stadium. The private investment firm was represented by Zsolt Kohalmi in AS Roma SPV, who was appointed on 4 April as a partner and head of European acquisitions of the firm. On 11 August 2014, UniCredit sold the remain shares on NEEP (of 31%) for €33 million which meant AS Roma SPV LLC (91%) and Raptor Holdco LLC (9%) were the sole intermediate holding company of AS Roma SpA.
Since re-capitalization in 2003–04, Roma had a short-lived financial self-sustainability, until the takeover in 2011. The club had set up a special amortisation fund using Articolo 18-bis Legge 91/1981 mainly for the abnormal signings prior 2002–03 season, (such as Davide Bombardini for €11 million account value in June 2002, when the flopped player exchange boosted 2001–02 season result) and the tax payment of 2002–03 was rescheduled. In 2004–05, Roma made a net profit of €10,091,689 and followed by €804,285 in 2005–06. In 2006–07 season the accounting method changed to IFRS, which meant that the 2005–06 result was reclassified as net loss of €4,051,905 and 2006–07 season was net income of €10,135,539 (€14.011 million as a group). Moreover, the special fund (€80,189,123) was removed from the asset and co-currently for the equity as scheduled, meant Roma group had a negative equity of €8.795 million on 30 June 2007. Nevertheless, the club had sold the brand to a subsidiary which boost the profit in a separate financial statement, which La Repubblica described as "doping". In 2007–08, Roma made a net income of €18,699,219. (€19 million as a group) However, 2008–09 saw the decrease of gate and TV income, co-currently with finishing sixth in Serie A, which saw Roma make a net loss of €1,894,330. (€1.56 million as a group) The gate and TV income further slipped in 2009–10 with a net loss of €21,917,292 (already boosted by the sale of Alberto Aquilani; €22 million as a group) despite sporting success (finishing in second place in 2009–10). Moreover, despite a positive equity as a separate company (€105,142,589), the AS Roma Group had a negative equity on the consolidated balance sheet, and fell from +€8.8 million to −€13.2 million. In the 2010–11 season, Roma was administered by UniCredit as the Sensi family failed to repay the bank and the club was put on the market, and were expected to have a quiet transfer window. Concurrently with no selling profit on the players, Roma's net loss rose to €30,589,137 (€30.778 million as a group) and the new owner already planned a re-capitalization after the mandatory bid on the shares. On the positive side, TV income was increased from €75,150,744 to €78,041,642, and gate income increased from €23,821,218 to €31,017,179. This was because Roma entered 2010–11 Champions League, which counter-weighed the effect of the new collective agreement of Serie A. In 2011–12, the renewal of squad and participation in 2011–12 UEFA Europa League had worsened the financial result, which the €50 million capital increase (in advance) was counter-weighted totally by the net loss. In the 2012–13 season, the participation in domestic league only, was not only not harmful to the revenue but increase in gate income as well as decrease in wage bill, however Roma still did not yet break even (€40.130 million net loss in consolidated accounts). NEEP Roma also re-capitalized AS Roma in advance for another €26,550,000 during 2012–13. A proposed capital increase by €100 million for Roma was announced on 25 June 2014; however, until 22 May 2014, NEEP already injected €108 million into the club, which depends on public subscription; more than €8 million would convert to medium-long-term loan from shareholder instead of becoming share capital. Another capital increase was carried in 2018.
A joint venture of Roma, which was owned by Roma (37.5%), S.S. Lazio (37.5%) and Parma F.C.(25%), Società Diritti Sportivi S.r.l., was in the process of liquidation since 2005. The company was a joint-venture of four football clubs, including Fiorentina. After the bankruptcy of Fiorentina however, both Roma and Lazio had increased their shares ratio from 25% to 37.5%. Another subsidiary, "Soccer S.A.S. di Brand Management S.r.l.", was a special-purpose entity (SPV) that Roma sold their brand to the subsidiary in 2007. In February 2015, another SPV, "ASR Media and Sponsorship S.r.l", was set up to secure a five-year bank loan of €175 million from Goldman Sachs, for three-month Euribor (min. 0.75%) + 6.25% spread (i.e. min. 7% interests rate p.a.).
In 2015, Inter and Roma were the only two Italian clubs that were sanctioned by UEFA for breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, which they signed settlement agreements with UEFA. It was followed by Milan in 2018.
Roma had compliance with the requirements and overall objective of the settlement agreement in 2018, which the club exited from settlement regime.Superleague Formula
AS Roma had a team in the Superleague Formula race car series where teams were sponsored by football clubs. Roma's driver was ex-IndyCar Series driver Franck Perera. The team had posted three podiums and was operated by Alan Docking Racing.See also
* Football in Italy
* European Club Association
Footnotes
ReferencesExternal links
*
* [https://www.legaseriea.it/en/team/roma AS Roma] at Serie A
* [https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/50137--roma/ AS Roma] at UEFA
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160506030422/http://www.fifa.com/live-scores/clubs/club=italy-as-roma-31083/index.html AS Roma] at FIFA (archived 6 May 2016)
}}
Category:Football clubs in Italy
Category:Football clubs in Rome
Category:Association football clubs established in 1927
Category:Italian football First Division clubs
Category:Publicly traded sports companies
Category:Coppa Italia winning clubs
Category:Serie A–winning clubs
Category:Serie A clubs
Category:Serie B clubs
Category:1927 establishments in Italy
Category:Multi-sport clubs in Italy
Category:Inter-Cities Fairs Cup winning clubs
Category:UEFA Conference League winning clubs
Category:Companies listed on the Borsa Italiana | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS_Roma | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.918862 |
2360 | Abu Nidal Organization | | war | designated_as_terror_group_by
|
|
|
|
| }}
| image = Abu Nidal Organization flag.jpg
| native_name_lang = ar
| caption | active 1974–2002
| other_name = Fatah – Revolutionary Council
| founding_leader = Abu Nidal
| ideology Palestinian nationalism<br />Anti-Zionism<br />Pan-Arabism
| position Left-wing
| clans | headquarters
| area | attacks List of attacks attributed to Abu Nidal
| status = Defunct
| size | split_from Fatah
| allies = Iraq
| Syria
| Libya
| }}
| opponents =
| PLO}}
| url =
}}
The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO; ), officially Fatah – Revolutionary Council ( ), was a Palestinian militant group founded by Abu Nidal in 1974. It broke away from Fatah, a faction within the Palestine Liberation Organization, following the emergence of a rift between Abu Nidal and Yasser Arafat. The ANO was designated as a terrorist organization by Israel, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, the European Union and Japan. However, a number of Arab countries supported the group's activities; it was backed by Iraq from 1974 to 1983, by Syria from 1983 to 1987, and by Libya from 1987 to 1997. It briefly cooperated with Egypt from 1997 to 1998, but ultimately returned to Iraq in December 1998, where it continued to have the state's backing until Abu Nidal's death in August 2002.
In practice, the ANO was leftist and secularist, as well as anti-Zionist and anti-Western. In theory, it was not particularly associated with any specific ideology—or at least no such foundation was declared. It was mostly linked with the pursuit of Abu Nidal's personal agendas. The ANO was established to carry on an armed struggle in pursuit of pan-Arabism and the destruction of Israel.
Formation and background
The Abu Nidal Organization was established by Sabri Khalil al-Bannah (Abu Nidal), known by his nom de guerre Abu Nidal, a Palestinian Arab nationalist and a former Ba'ath party member. Abu Nidal long argued that PLO membership should be open to all Arabs, not just Palestinians. He also argued that Palestine must be established as an Arab state, stretching from the Jordan River in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Following the incident, Mahmoud Abbas of the PLO took flight to Iraq to meet Abu Nidal. In the meeting Abbas became so angry, that he stormed out of the meeting, followed by the other PLO delegates, and from that point on, the PLO regarded Abu Nidal as a mercenary.
Two months later, just after the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, during discussions about convening a peace conference in Geneva, the Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) hijacked a KLM airliner, using the name of the Arab Nationalist Youth Organization. The operation was intended to send a signal to Fatah not to send representatives to any peace conference. In response, Arafat officially expelled Abu Nidal from Fatah in March 1974, and the rift between the two groups, and the two men, was complete. In June the same year, ANO formed the Rejectionist Front, a political coalition that opposed the Ten Point Program adopted by the Palestine Liberation Organization in its 12th Palestinian National Congress session.
Abu Nidal then moved to Ba'athist Iraq where he set up the ANO, which soon began a string of terrorist attacks aimed at Israel and Western countries. Setting himself up as a freelance contractor, Abu Nidal is believed by the United States Department of State to have ordered attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring over 900 people. The ANO group's most notorious attacks were on the El Al ticket counters at Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985, when Arab gunmen high on amphetamines opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings, killing 18 and wounding 120. Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal's biographer, wrote of the attacks that their "random cruelty marked them as typical Abu Nidal operations."
Attacks
The ANO carried out attacks in 20 countries worldwide, killing or injuring about 1,650 people. Targets include the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, and various Arab and European countries. The group has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s.
Major attacks included the Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks in December 1985, the Neve Shalom synagogue in Istanbul and the Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking in Karachi in September 1986, and the City of Poros day-excursion ship attack in Greece in July 1988.
The ANO has been especially noted for its uncompromising stance on negotiation with Israel, treating anything less than all-out military struggle against Israel as treachery. This led the group to perform numerous attacks against the PLO, which had made clear it accepted a negotiated solution to the conflict. Fatah-RC is believed to have assassinated PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security chief Abul Hul in Tunis in January 1991. It assassinated a Jordanian diplomat in Lebanon in January 1994 and has been linked to the killing of the PLO representative there. Noted PLO moderate Issam Sartawi was killed by the Fatah-RC in 1983. In October 1974, the group also made a failed assassination attempt on the present Palestinian president and PLO chairman, Mahmoud Abbas. These attacks, and numerous others, led to the PLO issuing a death sentence in absentia against Abu Nidal. In the early 1990s, it made an attempt to gain control of a refugee camp in Lebanon, but this was thwarted by PLO organizations.Internal executions and torture
The ANO's official newspaper Filastin al-Thawra regularly carried stories announcing the execution of traitors within the movement. Each new recruit of the ANO was given several days to write down his life story and sign a paper agreeing to his execution if anything was found to be untrue. Every so often, the recruit would be asked to rewrite the whole story. Any discrepancies were taken as evidence that he was a spy and he would be made to write it out again, often after days of being beaten and nights spent forced to sleep standing up.
British journalist Alec Collett was killed by the ANO in Aita al-Foukhar (village in Lebanon) in 1986. He was hanged on a rope and was shot in retaliation to US air raids on Libya.
By 1987, Abu Nidal used extreme torture tactics on members of the ANO who were suspected of betrayal and disloyalty.
From 1987 to 1988, hundreds of members of Abu Nidal's organization were killed due to internal paranoia and terror tactics. The elderly wife of a veteran member was also killed on false charges. The killings were mostly carried out by four individuals: Mustafa Ibrahim Sanduqa, Isam Maraqa, Sulaiman Samrin, and Mustafa Awad. Decisions to kill were mostly made by Abu Nidal after he had consumed a whole bottle of whiskey at night. According to ANO dissidents, the attacks made by the group were unconnected to the Palestinian cause and led to their defection. In addition, they claimed the guerrilla was the "living example of paranoia".
See also
*Abu Nidal
*Arab People's Movement
*Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
*Olivia Frank
*List of military units named after people
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
Further reading
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2203099.stm Abu Nidal: Ruthless maverick]
Category:Abu Nidal
Category:Arab nationalist militant groups
Category:Palestinian terrorism in Europe
Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by Japan
Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by the European Union
Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by the United Kingdom
Category:Organizations designated as terrorist by the United States
Category:Organizations based in Asia designated as terrorist
Category:Palestinian militant groups
Category:Organizations designated as terrorist by Canada | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Nidal_Organization | 2025-04-05T18:26:01.972693 |
2362 | Antibody | in a highly specific interaction analogous to a lock and key.]]
An antibody (Ab) or immunoglobulin (Ig) is a large, Y-shaped protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily which is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize antigens such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease. Antibodies can recognize virtually any size antigen, able to perceive diverse chemical compositions. Each antibody recognizes one or more specific antigens. Antigen literally means "antibody generator", as it is the presence of an antigen that drives the formation of an antigen-specific antibody. Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a paratope that specifically binds to one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing the two molecules to bind together with precision. Using this mechanism, antibodies can effectively "tag" a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize it directly (for example, by blocking a part of a virus that is essential for its invasion).
More narrowly, an antibody (Ab) can refer to the free (secreted) form of these proteins, as opposed to the membrane-bound form found in a B cell receptor. The term immunoglobulin can then refer to both forms. Since they are, broadly speaking, the same protein, the terms are often treated as synonymous.
To allow the immune system to recognize millions of different antigens, the antigen-binding sites at both tips of the antibody come in an equally wide variety. The rest of the antibody structure is much less variable; in humans, antibodies occur in five classes, sometimes called isotypes: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Human IgG and IgA antibodies are also divided into discrete subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4; IgA1 and IgA2). The class refers to the functions triggered by the antibody (also known as effector functions), in addition to some other structural features. Antibodies from different classes also differ in where they are released in the body and at what stage of an immune response. Between species, while classes and subclasses of antibodies may be shared (at least in name), their functions and distribution throughout the body may be different. For example, mouse IgG1 is closer to human IgG2 than human IgG1 in terms of its function.
The term humoral immunity is often treated as synonymous with the antibody response, describing the function of the immune system that exists in the body's humors (fluids) in the form of soluble proteins, as distinct from cell-mediated immunity, which generally describes the responses of T cells (especially cytotoxic T cells). In general, antibodies are considered part of the adaptive immune system, though this classification can become complicated. For example, natural IgM, which are made by B-1 lineage cells that have properties more similar to innate immune cells than adaptive, refers to IgM antibodies made independently of an immune response that demonstrate polyreactivity- they recognize multiple distinct (unrelated) antigens. These can work with the complement system in the earliest phases of an immune response to help facilitate clearance of the offending antigen and delivery of the resulting immune complexes to the lymph nodes or spleen for initiation of an immune response. Hence in this capacity, the function of antibodies is more akin to that of innate immunity than adaptive. Nonetheless, in general, antibodies are regarded as part of the adaptive immune system because they demonstrate exceptional specificity (with some exceptions), are produced through genetic rearrangements (rather than being encoded directly in the germline), and are a manifestation of immunological memory.
In the course of an immune response, B cells can progressively differentiate into antibody-secreting cells or into memory B cells. Antibody-secreting cells comprise plasmablasts and plasma cells, which differ mainly in the degree to which they secrete antibody, their lifespan, metabolic adaptations, and surface markers. Plasmablasts are rapidly proliferating, short-lived cells produced in the early phases of the immune response (classically described as arising extrafollicularly rather than from a germinal center) which have the potential to differentiate further into plasma cells. Occasionally plasmablasts are mis-described as short-lived plasma cells; formally this is incorrect. Plasma cells, in contrast, do not divide (they are terminally differentiated), and rely on survival niches comprising specific cell types and cytokines to persist. Plasma cells will secrete huge quantities of antibody regardless of whether or not their cognate antigen is present, ensuring that antibody levels to the antigen in question do not fall to 0, provided the plasma cell stays alive. The rate of antibody secretion, however, can be regulated, for example, by the presence of adjuvant molecules that stimulate the immune response such as TLR ligands. Long-lived plasma cells can live for potentially the entire lifetime of the organism. Classically, the survival niches that house long-lived plasma cells reside in the bone marrow, though it cannot be assumed that any given plasma cell in the bone marrow will be long-lived. However, other work indicates that survival niches can readily be established within the mucosal tissues- though the classes of antibodies involved show a different hierarchy from those in the bone marrow. B cells can also differentiate into memory B cells which can persist for decades similarly to long-lived plasma cells. These cells can be rapidly recalled in a secondary immune response, undergoing class switching, affinity maturation, and differentiating into antibody-secreting cells.
Antibodies are central to the immune protection elicited by most vaccines and infections (although other components of the immune system certainly participate and for some diseases are considerably more important than antibodies in generating an immune response, e.g. in the case of herpes zoster). Durable protection from infections caused by a given microbe – that is, the ability of the microbe to enter the body and begin to replicate (not necessarily to cause disease) – depends on sustained production of large quantities of antibodies, meaning that effective vaccines ideally elicit persistent high levels of antibody, which relies on long-lived plasma cells. At the same time, many microbes of medical importance have the ability to mutate to escape antibodies elicited by prior infections, and long-lived plasma cells cannot undergo affinity maturation or class switching. This is compensated for through memory B cells: novel variants of a microbe that still retain structural features of previously encountered antigens can elicit memory B cell responses that adapt to those changes. It has been suggested that long-lived plasma cells secrete B cell receptors with higher affinity than those on the surfaces of memory B cells, but findings are not entirely consistent on this point.
Structure
Antibodies are heavy (~150 kDa) proteins of about 10 nm in size,
arranged in three globular regions that roughly form a Y shape.
In humans and most other mammals, an antibody unit consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds.
Structurally an antibody is also partitioned into two antigen-binding fragments (Fab), containing one V<sub>L</sub>, V<sub>H</sub>, C<sub>L</sub>, and C<sub>H</sub>1 domain each, as well as the crystallisable fragment (Fc), forming the trunk of the Y shape.
In between them is a hinge region of the heavy chains, whose flexibility allows antibodies to bind to pairs of epitopes at various distances, to form complexes (dimers, trimers, etc.), and to bind effector molecules more easily.
In an electrophoresis test of blood proteins, antibodies mostly migrate to the last, gamma globulin fraction.
Conversely, most gamma-globulins are antibodies, which is why the two terms were historically used as synonyms, as were the symbols Ig and γ.
This variant terminology fell out of use due to the correspondence being inexact and due to confusion with γ (gamma) heavy chains which characterize the IgG class of antibodies.
Antigen-binding site
The variable domains can also be referred to as the F<sub>V</sub> region. It is the subregion of Fab that binds to an antigen.
More specifically, each variable domain contains three hypervariable regions – the amino acids seen there vary the most from antibody to antibody.
When the protein folds, these regions give rise to three loops of β-strands, localized near one another on the surface of the antibody.
These loops are referred to as the complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), since their shape complements that of an antigen.
Three CDRs from each of the heavy and light chains together form an antibody-binding site whose shape can be anything from a pocket to which a smaller antigen binds, to a larger surface, to a protrusion that sticks out into a groove in an antigen.
Typically though, only a few residues contribute to most of the binding energy.
and more recently by North et al.
and Nikoloudis et al. However, describing an antibody's binding site using only one single static structure limits the understanding and characterization of the antibody's function and properties. To improve antibody structure prediction and to take the strongly correlated CDR loop and interface movements into account, antibody paratopes should be described as interconverting states in solution with varying probabilities.
In the framework of the immune network theory, CDRs are also called idiotypes. According to immune network theory, the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes.
Fc region
The Fc region (the trunk of the Y shape) is composed of constant domains from the heavy chains. Its role is in modulating immune cell activity: it is where effector molecules bind to, triggering various effects after the antibody Fab region binds to an antigen.
Another role of the Fc region is to selectively distribute different antibody classes across the body. In particular, the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) binds to the Fc region of IgG antibodies to transport it across the placenta, from the mother to the fetus. In addition to this, binding to FcRn endows IgG with an exceptionally long half-life relative to other plasma proteins of 3-4 weeks. IgG3 in most cases (depending on allotype) has mutations at the FcRn binding site which lower affinity for FcRn, which are thought to have evolved to limit the highly inflammatory effects of this subclass.
Antibodies are glycoproteins,
These conserved glycosylation sites occur in the Fc region and influence interactions with effector molecules.Protein structure
The N-terminus of each chain is situated at the tip.
Each immunoglobulin domain has a similar structure, characteristic of all the members of the immunoglobulin superfamily:
it is composed of between 7 (for constant domains) and 9 (for variable domains) β-strands, forming two beta sheets in a Greek key motif.
The sheets create a "sandwich" shape, the immunoglobulin fold, held together by a disulfide bond.
Antibody complexes
that bind to multiple antigen molecules.]]
Secreted antibodies can occur as a single Y-shaped unit, a monomer.
However, some antibody classes also form dimers with two Ig units (as with IgA), tetramers with four Ig units (like teleost fish IgM), or pentamers with five Ig units (like shark IgW or mammalian IgM, which occasionally forms hexamers as well, with six units). IgG can also form hexamers, though no J chain is required. IgA tetramers and pentamers have also been reported.
Antibodies also form complexes by binding to antigen: this is called an antigen-antibody complex or immune complex.
Small antigens can cross-link two antibodies, also leading to the formation of antibody dimers, trimers, tetramers, etc.
Multivalent antigens (e.g., cells with multiple epitopes) can form larger complexes with antibodies.
An extreme example is the clumping, or agglutination, of red blood cells with antibodies in blood typing to determine blood groups: the large clumps become insoluble, leading to visually apparent precipitation.
B cell receptors
The membrane-bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin (sIg) or a membrane immunoglobulin (mIg). It is part of the B cell receptor (BCR), which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation. The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction. A typical human B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface. In humans, the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers,
For example, IgE antibodies are responsible for an allergic response consisting of histamine release from mast cells, often a sole contributor to asthma (though other pathways exist as do symptoms very similar to yet not technically asthma). The variable region of these antibodies bind to allergic antigen, for example house dust mite particles, while its Fc region (in the ε heavy chains) binds to Fc receptor ε on a mast cell, triggering its degranulation: the release of molecules stored in its granules.
{| class"wikitable" style"width:100%; text-align:center;"
|+ Antibody isotypes of humans
! Class !! Subclasses !! Description
|-
| IgA || 2
| style"text-align:left;" | Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk. Early clinical studies suggest that IgA isotype antibodies have potential as anti-cancer therapeutics, demonstrating the ability to reduce tumor growth.
|-
| IgD || 1
| style"text-align:left;" | Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors. Besides, IgD has also been reported to induce the release of immunoactivity and pro-inflammatory mediators.
|-
| IgG || 4
| style"text-align:left;" | In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. B cell activation follows engagement of the cell-bound antibody molecule with an antigen, causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody-producing cell called a plasma cell. This requires cytokines from T helper cells, unless antigen cross-links B cell receptors. In this activated form, the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane-bound form. Activated B cells that encounter certain signaling molecules undergo immunoglobulin class switching, also known as isotope switching, which causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes, IgE, IgA, or IgG.Light chain types
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain, which are called lambda (λ) and kappa (κ). However, there is no known functional difference between them, and both can occur with any of the five major types of heavy chains.In non-mammalian animals
In most placental mammals, the structure of antibodies is generally the same.
Jawed fish appear to be the most primitive animals that are able to make antibodies similar to those of mammals, although many features of their adaptive immunity appeared somewhat earlier.
Cartilaginous fish (such as sharks) produce heavy-chain-only antibodies (i.e., lacking light chains) which moreover feature longer chain pentamers (with five constant units per molecule). Camelids (such as camels, llamas, alpacas) are also notable for producing heavy-chain-only antibodies.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Antibody classes not found in mammals
|-
! Class !! Types !! Description
|-
| IgY || || Found in birds and reptiles; related to mammalian IgG.
|-
| IgW || || Found in sharks and skates; related to mammalian IgD.
|-
| IgT/Z || || Found in teleost fish
|}
Antibody–antigen interactions
The antibody's paratope interacts with the antigen's epitope. An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously, and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants.
Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity (lock and key). The molecular forces involved in the Fab-epitope interaction are weak and non-specific – for example electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals forces. This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible, and the antibody's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute. Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross-react with different antigens of different relative affinities. Function
thumb|
| A phagocyte (C) approaches the pathogen, and the Fc region (D) of the antibody binds to one of the Fc receptors (E) of the phagocyte.
| Phagocytosis occurs as the pathogen is ingested.
}}
The main categories of antibody action include the following:
* Neutralisation, in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective
* Agglutination, in which antibodies "glue together" foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
* Precipitation, in which antibodies "glue together" serum-soluble antigens, forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
* Complement activation (fixation), in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex, which leads to the following:
** Lysis of the foreign cell
** Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells
More indirectly, an antibody can signal immune cells to present antibody fragments to T cells, or downregulate other immune cells to avoid autoimmunity.
Activated B cells differentiate into either
* antibody-producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or
* memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures.
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life, the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother. Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies, and usually appear within the first years of life. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway. Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens (helminths, allergens).
has five Ig units. Each Ig unit (labeled 1) has two epitope binding Fab regions, so IgM is capable of binding up to 10 epitopes.]]
Activation of complement
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens (for example, on bacteria) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the "classical" complement system.
Activation of effector cells
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells, antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together, causing them to agglutinate. Since an antibody has at least two paratopes, it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens. By coating the pathogen, antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region. These antibodies undergo quality checks in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which contains proteins that assist in proper folding and assembly.Immunoglobulin diversityVirtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response. Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens. It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies, each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen. Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual, the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome. Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes.Domain variabilityThe chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody—the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes (IGH@) is found on chromosome 14, and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes (IGL@ and IGK@) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans. One of these domains is called the variable domain, which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody, but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells. Differences between the variable domains are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions (HV-1, HV-2 and HV-3) or complementarity-determining regions (CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3). CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions. The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs. Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability. This combination is called V(D)J recombination and discussed below.V(D)J recombination
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins, also known as V(D)J recombination, involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region. The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces—known as gene segments (subgenes). These segments are called variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) segments. The rearrangement of several subgenes (i.e. V2 family) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR-650, which further influences biology of B-cells.
RAG proteins play an important role with V(D)J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region.Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation
Following activation with antigen, B cells begin to proliferate rapidly. In these rapidly dividing cells, the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation, by a process called somatic hypermutation (SHM). SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene, per cell division. As a consequence, any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains.
This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody's antigen-binding affinity. Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction (low affinity) with their antigen than the original antibody, and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction (high affinity). B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells, whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not, and will die by apoptosis.
Class switching
Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA, IgE, or IgG).
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR). This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene (except in the δ-chain). The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S-regions. The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to the desired constant region (γ, α or ε). This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype.Specificity designationsAn antibody can be called monospecific if it has specificity for a single antigen or epitope, or bispecific if it has affinity for two different antigens or two different epitopes on the same antigen. A group of antibodies can be called polyvalent (or unspecific) if they have affinity for various antigens Intravenous immunoglobulin, if not otherwise noted, consists of a variety of different IgG (polyclonal IgG). In contrast, monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies produced by a single B cell.Asymmetrical antibodiesHeterodimeric antibodies, which are also asymmetrical antibodies, allow for greater flexibility and new formats for attaching a variety of drugs to the antibody arms. One of the general formats for a heterodimeric antibody is the "knobs-into-holes" format. This format is specific to the heavy chain part of the constant region in antibodies. The "knobs" part is engineered by replacing a small amino acid with a larger one. It fits into the "hole", which is engineered by replacing a large amino acid with a smaller one. What connects the "knobs" to the "holes" are the disulfide bonds between each chain. The "knobs-into-holes" shape facilitates antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity. Single-chain variable fragments (scFv) are connected to the variable domain of the heavy and light chain via a short linker peptide. The linker is rich in glycine, which gives it more flexibility, and serine/threonine, which gives it specificity. Two different scFv fragments can be connected together, via a hinge region, to the constant domain of the heavy chain or the constant domain of the light chain. This gives the antibody bispecificity, allowing for the binding specificities of two different antigens. The "knobs-into-holes" format enhances heterodimer formation but does not suppress homodimer formation.
To further improve the function of heterodimeric antibodies, many scientists are looking towards artificial constructs. Artificial antibodies are largely diverse protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule, but are not limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody. Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three-dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachment of different combinations of drugs to the arms.
Heterodimeric antibodies have a greater range in shapes they can take and the drugs that are attached to the arms do not have to be the same on each arm, allowing for different combinations of drugs to be used in cancer treatment. Pharmaceuticals are able to produce highly functional bispecific, and even multispecific, antibodies. The degree to which they can function is impressive given that such a change of shape from the natural form should lead to decreased functionality. Interchromosomal DNA Transposition Antibody diversification typically occurs through somatic hypermutation, class switching, and affinity maturation targeting the BCR gene loci, but on occasion more unconventional forms of diversification have been documented. For example, in the case of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, some antibodies from those who had been infected demonstrated an insertion from chromosome 19 containing a 98-amino acid stretch from leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1, LAIR1, in the elbow joint. This represents a form of interchromosomal transposition. LAIR1 normally binds collagen, but can recognize repetitive interspersed families of polypeptides (RIFIN) family members that are highly expressed on the surface of P. falciparum-infected red blood cells. In fact, these antibodies underwent affinity maturation that enhanced affinity for RIFIN but abolished affinity for collagen. These "LAIR1-containing" antibodies have been found in 5-10% of donors from Tanzania and Mali, though not in European donors. European donors did show 100-1000 nucleotide stretches inside the elbow joints as well, however. This particular phenomenon may be specific to malaria, as infection is known to induce genomic instability.History
The first use of the term "antibody" occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich. The term Antikörper (the German word for antibody) appears in the conclusion of his article "Experimental Studies on Immunity", published in October 1891, which states that, "if two substances give rise to two different Antikörper, then they themselves must be different". However, the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed; these included Immunkörper, Amboceptor, Zwischenkörper, substance sensibilisatrice, copula, Desmon, philocytase, fixateur, and Immunisin. Created for the Florida campus of the Scripps Research Institute, the antibody is placed into a ring referencing Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man thus highlighting the similarity of the antibody and the human body.]]
The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins. Von Behring and Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity, proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen. His idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side-chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897, when he hypothesized that receptors (described as "side-chains") on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins – in a "lock-and-key" interaction – and that this binding reaction is the trigger for the production of antibodies. Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and, in 1904, Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing; a process that he named opsoninization.
]]
In the 1920s, Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies are made of protein. The biochemical properties of antigen-antibody-binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack. The next major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depend more on their shape than their chemical composition. In 1948, Astrid Fagraeus discovered that B cells, in the form of plasma cells, were responsible for generating antibodies.
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins. A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain, and their realization that this protein is the same as the Bence-Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones. Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond-linked heavy and light chains. Around the same time, antibody-binding (Fab) and antibody tail (Fc) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter. Together, these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG, a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG, other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s: Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody (IgA); David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey discovered IgD; and Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka discovered IgE and showed it was a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions. In a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, Susumu Tonegawa showed that genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies.Medical applicationsDisease diagnosisDetection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics, and applications such as serology depend on these methods. For example, in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis, a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein-Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood. If those antibodies are not present, either the person is not infected or the infection occurred a very long time ago, and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed.
In clinical immunology, levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry (or turbidimetry) to characterize the antibody profile of patient. Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients for whom the diagnosis is unclear.
Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be detected through blood tests. Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test. The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women.
Over-the-counter home pregnancy tests rely on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-directed antibodies.
New dioxaborolane chemistry enables radioactive fluoride (<sup>18</sup>F) labeling of antibodies, which allows for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of cancer.Disease therapyTargeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and many forms of cancer including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer and breast cancer.
Some immune deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia, result in partial or complete lack of antibodies. These diseases are often treated by inducing a short-term form of immunity called passive immunity. Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready-made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum, pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies, into the affected individual.Prenatal therapyRh factor, also known as Rh D antigen, is an antigen found on red blood cells; individuals that are Rh-positive (Rh+) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rh-negative (Rh–) do not. During normal childbirth, delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy, blood from a fetus can enter the mother's system. In the case of an Rh-incompatible mother and child, consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh+ child, putting the remainder of the pregnancy, and any subsequent pregnancies, at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn.
Rho(D) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human RhD antigen. Anti-RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rh-negative mother has a Rh-positive fetus. Treatment of a mother with Anti-RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother's system from the fetus. This occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to "remember" Rh antigen by generating memory B cells. Therefore, her humoral immune system will not make anti-Rh antibodies, and will not attack the Rh antigens of the current or subsequent babies. Rho(D) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease, but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself. To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen, antibody-secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line. The fused cells are called hybridomas, and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture. Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A/G or antigen-affinity chromatography.
In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers, or through use of a specialist search engine. Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins. Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express; different types of cells express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins. They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other molecules in a cell lysate, in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis, and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope. Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies, using ELISA and ELISpot techniques.
Antibodies used in research are some of the most powerful, yet most problematic reagents with a tremendous number of factors that must be controlled in any experiment including cross reactivity, or the antibody recognizing multiple epitopes and affinity, which can vary widely depending on experimental conditions such as pH, solvent, state of tissue etc. Multiple attempts have been made to improve both the way that researchers validate antibodies and ways in which they report on antibodies. Researchers using antibodies in their work need to record them correctly in order to allow their research to be reproducible (and therefore tested, and qualified by other researchers). Less than half of research antibodies referenced in academic papers can be easily identified. Papers published in F1000 in 2014 and 2015 provide researchers with a guide for reporting research antibody use. The RRID paper, is co-published in 4 journals that implemented the RRIDs Standard for research resource citation, which draws data from the antibodyregistry.org as the source of antibody identifiers (see also group at Force11).
Antibody regions can be used to further biomedical research by acting as a guide for drugs to reach their target. Several application involve using bacterial plasmids to tag plasmids with the Fc region of the antibody such as pFUSE-Fc plasmid.RegulationsProduction and testingThere are several ways to obtain antibodies, including in vivo techniques like animal immunization and various in vitro approaches, such as the phage display method. Traditionally, most antibodies are produced by hybridoma cell lines through immortalization of antibody-producing cells by chemically induced fusion with myeloma cells. In some cases, additional fusions with other lines have created "triomas" and "quadromas". The manufacturing process should be appropriately described and validated. Validation studies should at least include:
* The demonstration that the process is able to produce in good quality (the process should be validated)
* The efficiency of the antibody purification (all impurities and virus must be eliminated)
* The characterization of purified antibody (physicochemical characterization, immunological properties, biological activities, contaminants, ...)
* Determination of the virus clearance studies
Before clinical trials
* Product safety testing: Sterility (bacteria and fungi), in vitro and in vivo testing for adventitious viruses, murine retrovirus testing..., product safety data needed before the initiation of feasibility trials in serious or immediately life-threatening conditions, it serves to evaluate dangerous potential of the product.
* Feasibility testing: These are pilot studies whose objectives include, among others, early characterization of safety and initial proof of concept in a small specific patient population (in vitro or in vivo testing).Preclinical studies* Testing cross-reactivity of antibody: to highlight unwanted interactions (toxicity) of antibodies with previously characterized tissues. This study can be performed in vitro (reactivity of the antibody or immunoconjugate should be determined with a quick-frozen adult tissues) or in vivo (with appropriates animal models).
* Preclinical pharmacology and toxicity testing: preclinical safety testing of antibody is designed to identify possible toxicity in humans, to estimate the likelihood and severity of potential adverse events in humans, and to identify a safe starting dose and dose escalation, when possible.
* Animal toxicity studies: Acute toxicity testing, repeat-dose toxicity testing, long-term toxicity testing
* Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics testing: Use for determinate clinical dosages, antibody activities, evaluation of the potential clinical effects
Structure prediction and computational antibody design
The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution. This information is used for protein engineering, modifying the antigen binding affinity, and identifying an epitope, of a given antibody. X-ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures. However, crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time-consuming. Computational approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography, but their results are more equivocal, since they do not produce empirical structures. Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling (WAM) and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS) enable computational modeling of antibody variable regions. Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody F<sub>V</sub> region structure prediction server, which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains, as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen. However, describing an antibody's binding site using only one single static structure limits the understanding and characterization of the antibody's function and properties. To improve antibody structure prediction and to take the strongly correlated CDR loop and interface movements into account, antibody paratopes should be described as interconverting states in solution with varying probabilities. Several methods have been presented for computational design of antibodies based on the structural bioinformatics studies of antibody CDRs.
There are a variety of methods used to sequence an antibody including Edman degradation, cDNA, etc.; albeit one of the most common modern uses for peptide/protein identification is liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). High volume antibody sequencing methods require computational approaches for the data analysis, including de novo sequencing directly from tandem mass spectra and database search methods that use existing protein sequence databases. Many versions of shotgun protein sequencing are able to increase the coverage by utilizing CID/HCD/ETD fragmentation methods and other techniques, and they have achieved substantial progress in attempt to fully sequence proteins, especially antibodies. Other methods have assumed the existence of similar proteins, a known genome sequence, or combined top-down and bottom up approaches. Current technologies have the ability to assemble protein sequences with high accuracy by integrating de novo sequencing peptides, intensity, and positional confidence scores from database and homology searches.
Antibody mimetic
Antibody mimetics are organic compounds, like antibodies, that can specifically bind antigens. They consist of artificial peptides or proteins, or aptamer-based nucleic acid molecules with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa. Antibody fragments, such as Fab and nanobodies are not considered as antibody mimetics. Common advantages over antibodies are better solubility, tissue penetration, stability towards heat and enzymes, and comparatively low production costs. Antibody mimetics have been developed and commercialized as research, diagnostic and therapeutic agents.Binding antibody unitBAU (binding antibody unit, often as BAU/mL) is a measurement unit defined by the WHO for the comparison of assays detecting the same class of immunoglobulins with the same specificity. See also
* Affimer
* Anti-mitochondrial antibodies
* Anti-nuclear antibodies
* Antibody mimetic
* Aptamer
* Colostrum
* ELISA
* Humoral immunity
* Immunology
* Immunosuppressive drug
* Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg)
* Magnetic immunoassay
* Microantibody
* Monoclonal antibody
* Neutralizing antibody
* Optimer Ligand
* Secondary antibodies
* Single-domain antibody
* Slope spectroscopy
* Surrobody
* Synthetic antibody
* Western blot normalization
References
External links
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070403013202/http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/mikeimages.html Mike's Immunoglobulin Structure/Function Page] at University of Cambridge
* [https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/21 Antibodies as the PDB molecule of the month] Discussion of the structure of antibodies at RCSB Protein Data Bank
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070405170923/http://users.path.ox.ac.uk/~scobbold/tig/new1/mabth.html A hundred years of antibody therapy] History and applications of antibodies in the treatment of disease at University of Oxford
* [http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody] from Cells Alive!
Category:Glycoproteins
Category:Immunology
Category:Reagents for biochemistry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.077407 |
2363 | Alessandro Scarlatti | | birth_place Palermo or Trapani, Sicily and of the technique of motivic development. He was a model for the musical theater of his time, as evoked by Händel's Italian works, deeply influenced by his theatrical music.), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily.
He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera Gli equivoci nel sembiante (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her maestro di cappella. In February 1684 he became maestro di cappella to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.
In 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his maestro di cappella, and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.
After visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (Telemaco, 1718; Marco Attilio Regolò, 1719; La Griselda, 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a Messa di Santa Cecilia for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished Erminia serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto.
Music
(c1770)]]
Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school.
His early operas—Gli equivoci nel sembiante 1679; ''L'honestà negli amori 1680, containing the famous aria "Già il sole dal Gange"; Il Pompeo 1683, containing the well-known airs "O cessate di piagarmi" and "Toglietemi la vita ancor," and others down to about 1685—retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the "Italian overture" form (second edition of Dal male il bene), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are La Rosaura (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and Pirro e Demetrio (1694), in which occur the arias "Le Violette", and "Ben ti sta, traditor".
From about 1697 onwards (La caduta del Decemviri), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (L'Eraclea'', 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.
]]
Mitridate Eupatore, accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (L'amor volubile e tiranno 1709; La principessa fedele 1710; Tigrane, 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli. In his opera Teodora (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral ritornello.
His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (Olimpia vendicata) and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.
Besides the operas, oratorios (Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684; La Maddalena, 1685; La Giuditta, 1693; Humanita e Lucifero, 1704; Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705; Cain, 1707; S. Filippo Neri'', 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.
His few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great Saint Cecilia Mass (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.
Operas
Recordings
*Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). La Gloria di Primavera. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale.
*Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (2007). Griselda. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea Röschmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafé, Kobie van Rensburg.
*Le Consert de l'Hostel Dieu. (2006). ''Il martirio di Sant'Orsola. Ligia digital: 0202176–07
*Le parlement de musique. (2005). La Giuditta. Ambronay editions: AMY004
*Ensemble Europa Galante. (2004). Oratorio per la Santissima Trinità. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2
*Academia Bizantina. (2004). Il Giardino di Rose. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA.
*Orqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46
*Seattle Baroque. (2001). Agar et Ismaele Esiliati. Centaur: CRC 2664
*Sedecia, re di Gerusalemme. 2000 . Gérard Lesne, Philippe Jaroussky, Virginie Pouchon, Mark Padmore, Peter Harvey, Il Seminario musicale. Virgin veritas, Erato
*Capella Palatina. (2000). Davidis pugna et victoria. Agora: AG 249.1
*Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (1998). Il Primo Omicidio. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea Röschmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, René Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete
*Ensemble Europa Galante. (1995). Humanita e Lucifero. Opus 111: OPS 30–129
*Ensemble Europa Galante. (1993). La Maddalena. Opus 111: OPS 30–96
*Allesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia Abramo, il tuo sembiante. Nuova era: 7117
*I Musici. (1991). Concerto Grosso. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160–2
*I Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). 12 Sinfonie di concerto grosso Philips Box 6769 066 [9500 959 & 9500 960 – 2 vinyl discs]
*Emma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). Stabat Mater. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237
*Francis Colpron, recorder, with Les Boréades. (2007). Concertos for flute. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521
*Nederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). Vespro della Beata Vergine for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533
See also
* Messa di Santa Cecilia
* Il Martirio di Santa Cecilia''
References
External links
* [http://www.domenicoscarlatti.it Associazione Domenico Scarlatti]. Italian language (some material in English).
* Free scores by Alessandro Scarlatti at the International Music Score Library Project
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150927221629/http://ias.umn.edu/2009/02/12/carissimi-harness/ The Madrigals of Alessandro Scarlatti]: A lecture/recital by Garrick Comeaux and Consortium Carissimi, with Kelley Harness, 12 February 2009. University of Minnesota Institute for Advanced Studies. Audio and video available.
* [https://partimentiscarlatti.blogspot.com/ The partimenti of Alessandro Scarlatti (D-Hs M/A 251)]
Category:1660 births
Category:1725 deaths
Category:17th-century Italian educators
Category:18th-century Italian educators
Category:18th-century Italian male musicians
Category:Catholic liturgical composers
Category:Italian classical composers of church music
Category:Italian Baroque composers
Category:Italian opera composers
Category:Italian classical musicians
Category:Italian male opera composers
Category:Neapolitan school composers
Category:Italian string quartet composers
Category:17th-century Italian composers
Category:18th-century Italian composers
Category:Composers from Sicily
Category:Musicians from Palermo
01
Category:17th-century Italian male musicians
Alessandro | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.109252 |
2369 | Aston Martin | <br/>FTSE 250 component
| fate | predecessor
| successor | foundation
| founders =
| location = Gaydon, Warwickshire, England, United Kingdom
| locations | area_served Worldwide
| key_people =
| industry = Automotive
| products =
| production | services
| revenue £1,583.9 million (2024)
| operating_income −£82.8 million (2024) Their grand tourers and sports cars are regarded as a British cultural icon.
Aston Martin has held a royal warrant as purveyor of motorcars to Charles III (as Prince of Wales and later as King) since 1982, and has over 160 car dealerships in 53 countries, making it a global automobile brand. The company is traded on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index. In 2003 it received the Queen's Award for Enterprise for outstanding contribution to international trade. The company has survived seven bankruptcies throughout its history.
The headquarters and main production of its sports cars and grand tourers are in a facility in Gaydon, Warwickshire, England, on the former site of RAF Gaydon, adjacent to the Jaguar Land Rover Gaydon Centre. The old facility in Newport Pagnell, Buckinghamshire, is the present home of the Aston Martin Works classic car department, which focuses on heritage sales, service, spares and restoration operations. The factory in St Athan, Wales, features three converted 'super-hangars' from MOD St Athan, and serves as the production site of Aston Martin's SUV, the DBX.
Aston Martin has been involved in motorsport at various points in its history, mainly in sports car racing, and also in Formula One. The Aston Martin brand is increasingly being used, mostly through licensing, on other products including a submarine, real estate development, and aircraft.
History
Founding
Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford. The two had joined forces as Bamford & Martin the previous year to sell cars made by Singer from premises in Callow Street, London where they also serviced GWK and Calthorpe vehicles. Martin raced specials at Aston Hill near Aston Clinton, and the pair decided to make their own vehicles. The first car to be named Aston Martin was created by Martin by fitting a four-cylinder Coventry-Simplex engine to the chassis of a 1908 Isotta Fraschini.
They acquired premises at Henniker Mews in Kensington and produced their first car in March 1915. Production could not start because of the outbreak of the First World War, when Martin joined the Admiralty and Bamford joined the Army Service Corps.
1918–1939: Interwar years
After the war they found new premises at Abingdon Road, Kensington and designed a new car. Bamford left in 1920 and Bamford & Martin was revitalised with funding from Louis Zborowski. In 1922, Bamford & Martin produced cars to compete in the French Grand Prix, which went on to set world speed and endurance records at Brooklands. Three works Team Cars with 16-valve twin cam engines were built for racing and record-breaking: chassis number 1914, later developed as the Green Pea; chassis number 1915, the Razor Blade record car; and chassis number 1916, later developed as the Halford Special.
Approximately 55 cars were built for sale in two configurations; long chassis and short chassis. Bamford & Martin went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Dorothea, Lady Charnwood, who put her son John Benson on the board. Bamford & Martin got into financial difficulty again in 1925 and Martin was forced to sell the company (Bamford had already left it in 1920).
Later that year, Bill Renwick, Augustus (Bert) Bertelli and investors including Lady Charnwood took control of the business. They renamed it Aston Martin Motors and moved it to the former Whitehead Aircraft Limited Hanworth works in Feltham. Renwick and Bertelli had been in partnership some years and had developed an overhead-cam four-cylinder engine using Renwick's patented combustion chamber design, which they had tested in an Enfield-Allday chassis. The only "Renwick and Bertelli" motor car made, it was known as "Buzzbox" and still survives.
The pair had planned to sell their engine to motor manufacturers, but having heard that Aston Martin was no longer in production realised they could capitalise on its reputation to jump-start the production of a completely new car. 1947–1972: David Brown
]]
In 1947, old-established (1860) privately owned Huddersfield gear and machine tools manufacturer David Brown Limited bought Aston Martin, putting it under control of its Tractor Group. David Brown became Aston Martin's latest saviour. He also acquired Lagonda, without its factory, for its 2.6-litre W. O. Bentley-designed engine. Lagonda moved operations to Newport Pagnell and shared engines, resources and workshops. Aston Martin began to build the classic "DB" series of cars.
In April 1950, they announced planned production of their Le Mans prototype to be called the DB2, followed by the DB2/4 in 1953, the DB2/4 MkII in 1955, the DB Mark III in 1957 and the Italian-styled 3.7 L DB4 in 1958.
1972–1975: William Willson
Aston Martin was often financially troubled. In 1972, David Brown paid off all its debts, said to be £5 million or more, and handed it for £101 to Company Developments, a Birmingham-based investment bank consortium chaired by accountant William Willson. More detail on this period may be read at Willson's biography. The worldwide recession, lack of working capital and the difficulties of developing an engine to meet California's exhaust emission requirements – it stopped the company's US sales – again pulled Aston Martin into receivership at the end of 1974. The company had employed 460 workers when the manufacturing plant closed. 1975–1981: Sprague and Curtis The receiver sold the business in April 1975 for £1.05 million to North American businessman Peter Sprague of National Semiconductor, Toronto hotelier George Minden, and Jeremy Turner, a London businessman, who insisted to reporters that Aston Martin remained a British controlled business. Sprague later claimed he had fallen in love with the factory, not the cars, the workforce's craftsmanship dedication and intelligence. At this point, he and Minden had brought in investor Alan Curtis, a British office property developer, together with George Flather, a retired Sheffield steel magnate.
Six months later, in September 1975, the factory – shut down the previous December – re-opened under its new owner as Aston Martin Lagonda Limited with 100 employees, and planned to lift staff to 250 by the end of 1975. At the Geneva Motor Show, Fred Hartley, managing director and sales director for 13 years before that, announced he had resigned over "differences in marketing policy".
The new owners pushed Aston Martin into modernising its line, introducing the V8 Vantage in 1977, the convertible Volante in 1978, and the one-off Bulldog styled by William Towns in 1980. Towns also styled the futuristic new Lagonda saloon, based on the V8 model.
Curtis, who had a 42% stake in Aston Martin, also brought about a change in direction from the usual customers who were Aston Martin fans, to successful young married businessmen. Prices had been increased by 25%. At the end of the 1970s, there was widespread debate about running MG into the Aston Martin consortium. 85 Conservative MPs formed themselves into a pressure group to get British Leyland to release their grip and hand it over. CH Industrials plc (car components) bought a 10% share in AML. But in July 1980, blaming a recession, AML cut back their workforce of 450 by more than 20%, making those people redundant. 1981–1987: Victor Gauntlett
In January 1981, there having been no satisfactory revival partners, Alan Curtis and Peter Sprague announced they had never intended to maintain a long-term financial stake in Aston Martin Lagonda and it was to be sold to Pace Petroleum's Victor Gauntlett. Sprague and Curtis pointed out that under their ownership AML finances had improved to where an offer for MG might have been feasible.
Gauntlett bought a 12.5% stake in Aston Martin for £500,000 via Pace Petroleum in 1980, with Tim Hearley of CH Industrials taking a similar share. Pace and CHI took over as joint 50/50 owners at the beginning of 1981, with Gauntlett as executive chairman. Gauntlett also led the sales team, and after some development and publicity when the Lagonda became the world's fastest four-seater production car, was able to sell the car in Oman, Kuwait, and Qatar. In 1982, Aston Martin was granted a Royal Warrant of Appointment by the Prince of Wales. In 1986, Gauntlett negotiated the return of the fictional British secret agent James Bond to Aston Martin. Cubby Broccoli had chosen to recast the character using actor Timothy Dalton, in an attempt to re-root the Bond-brand back to a more Sean Connery-like feel. Gauntlett supplied his personal pre-production Vantage for use in the filming of The Living Daylights, and sold a Volante to Broccoli for use at his home in America. Gauntlett turned down the role of a KGB colonel in the film, however: "I would have loved to have done it but really could not afford the time." 1987–2007: Ford Motor Company As Aston Martin needed funds to survive in the long term, Ford bought a 75% stake in the company in 1987, and bought the rest later. In May of that year, Victor Gauntlett and Prince Michael of Kent were staying at the home of Contessa Maggi, the wife of the founder of the original Mille Miglia, while watching the revival event. Another house guest was Walter Hayes, vice-president of Ford of Europe. Despite problems over the previous acquisition of AC Cars, Hayes saw the potential of the brand and the discussion resulted in Ford taking a share holding in September 1987. In 1988, having produced some 5,000 cars in 20 years, a revived economy and successful sales of limited edition Vantage, and 52 Volante Zagato coupés at £86,000 each; Aston Martin finally retired the ancient V8 and introduced the Virage range.
Although Gauntlett was contractually to stay as chairman for two years, his racing interests took the company back into sports car racing in 1989 with limited European success. However, with engine rule changes for the 1990 season and the launch of the new Volante model, Ford provided the limited supply of Cosworth engines to the Jaguar cars racing team. As the entry-level DB7 would require a large engineering input, Ford agreed to take full control of Aston Martin, and Gauntlett handed over Aston Martin's chairmanship to Hayes in 1991. In 1992, the high-performance variant of the Virage called the Vantage was announced, and the following year Aston Martin renewed the DB range by announcing the DB7.
By 1993, Ford had fully acquired the company after having built a stake in 1987. Ford placed Aston Martin in the Premier Automotive Group, invested in new manufacturing and ramped up production. In 1994, Ford opened a new factory at Banbury Road in Bloxham to manufacture the DB7. In 1995, Aston Martin produced a record 700 cars. Until the Ford era, cars had been produced by hand coachbuilding craft methods, such as the English wheel. During the mid-1990s, the Special Projects Group, a secretive unit with Works Service at Newport Pagnell, created an array of special coach-built vehicles for the Brunei royal family. In 1998, the 2,000th DB7 was built, and in 2002, the 6,000th, exceeding production of all of the previous DB series models. The DB7 range was revamped by the addition of more powerful V12 Vantage models in 1999, and in 2001, Aston Martin introduced the V12-engined flagship model called the Vanquish which succeeded the aging Virage (now called the V8 Coupé).
At the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan in 2003, Aston Martin introduced the V8 Vantage concept car. Expected to have few changes before its introduction in 2005, the Vantage brought back the classic V8 engine to allow Aston Martin to compete in a larger market. 2003 also saw the opening of the Gaydon factory, the first purpose-built factory in Aston Martin's history. The facility is situated on a site of a former RAF V Bomber airbase, with an front building for offices, meeting rooms and customer reception, and a production building. Also introduced in 2003 was the DB9 coupé, which replaced the ten-year-old DB7. A convertible version of the DB9, the DB9 Volante, was introduced at the 2004 Detroit auto show.
In October 2004, Aston Martin set up the dedicated Aston Martin Engine Plant (AMEP) within the Ford Germany plant in Niehl, Cologne. With the capacity to produce up to 5,000 engines a year by 100 specially trained personnel, like traditional Aston Martin engine production from Newport Pagnell, assembly of each unit was entrusted to a single technician from a pool of 30, with V8 and V12 variants assembled in under 20 hours. By bringing engine production back to within Aston Martin, the promise was that Aston Martin would be able to produce small runs of higher performance variants' engines. This expanded engine capacity allowed the entry-level V8 Vantage sports car to enter production at the Gaydon factory in 2006, joining the DB9 and DB9 Volante.
In December 2003, Aston Martin announced it would return to motor racing in 2005. A new division was created, called Aston Martin Racing, which became responsible, together with Prodrive, for the design, development, and management of the DBR9 program. The DBR9 competes in the GT class in sports car races, including the world-famous 24 Hours of Le Mans.
In 2006, an internal audit led Ford to consider divesting itself of parts of its Premier Automotive Group. After suggestions of selling Jaguar Cars, Land Rover, or Volvo Cars were weighed, Ford announced in August 2006 it had engaged UBS AG to sell all or part of Aston Martin at auction.
2007–2018: Private Limited Company
On 12 March 2007, a consortium led by Prodrive chairman David Richards purchased Aston Martin for £475 million (US$848 million). The group included American investment banker John Sinders and two Kuwaiti companies namely Investment Dar and Adeem Investment. Prodrive had no financial involvement in the deal. Ford kept a stake in Aston Martin valued at £40 million (US$70 million).
To demonstrate the V8 Vantage's durability across hazardous terrain and promote the car in China, the first east–west crossing of the Asian Highway was undertaken between June and August 2007. A pair of Britons drove from Tokyo to Istanbul before joining the European motorway network for another to London. The promotion was so successful Aston Martin opened dealerships in Shanghai and Beijing within three months.
On 19 July 2007, the Newport Pagnell plant rolled out the last of nearly 13,000 cars made there since 1955, a Vanquish S. The Tickford Street facility was converted and became the home of the Aston Martin Works classic car department which focuses on heritage sales, service, spares and restoration operations. UK production was subsequently concentrated on the facility in Gaydon on the former RAF V Bomber airbase. In March 2008, Aston Martin announced a partnership with Magna Steyr to outsource manufacture of over 2,000 cars annually to Graz, Austria, reassuringly stating: "The continuing growth and success of Aston Martin is based upon Gaydon as the focal point and heart of the business, with the design and engineering of all Aston Martin products continuing to be carried out there."
More dealers in Europe and the new pair in China brought the total to 120 in 28 countries. On 1 September 2008, Aston Martin announced the revival of the Lagonda marque, proposing a concept car to be shown in 2009 to coincide with the brand's 100th anniversary. The first production cars were slated for production in 2012. In December 2008, Aston Martin announced it would cut its workforce from 1,850 to 1,250 due to the economic recession.
The first four-door Rapide grand tourers rolled out of the Magna Steyr factory in Graz, Austria, in 2010. The contract manufacturer provides dedicated facilities to ensure compliance with the exacting standards of Aston Martin and other marques, including Mercedes-Benz. Then CEO of the company, Ulrich Bez had publicly speculated about outsourcing all of Aston Martin's operations with the exception of marketing. In September 2011, it was announced that production of the Rapide would be returned to Gaydon in the second half of 2012, restoring all of the company's automobile manufacture there.
Italian private equity fund Investindustrial signed a deal on 6 December 2012 to buy a 37.5% stake in Aston Martin, investing £150 million as a capital increase. This was confirmed by Aston Martin in a press release on 7 December 2012. David Richards left Aston Martin in 2013, returning to concentrate on Prodrive.
In April 2013, it was reported that Bez would be leaving his role as the chief executive officer to take up a more ambassadorial position. On 2 September 2014, Aston Martin announced it had appointed the Nissan executive Andy Palmer as the new CEO with Bez retaining a position as non-executive chairman. As sales had been declining from 2015, Aston Martin sought new customers (particularly wealthy female buyers) with introducing concept cars like the DBX SUV along with track focused cars like the Vulcan. According to Palmer, the troubles started when sales of the DB9 failed to generate sufficient fund to develop next-generation models which led to a downward spiral of declining sales and profitability. In preparation for its next-generation of sports cars, the company invested £20 million ($33.4 million) to expand its manufacturing plant in Gaydon. The expansion at the Gaydon plant includes a new chassis and pilot build facility, as well as an extension of the parts and logistics storage area, and new offices. In total, Aston Martin will add approximately to the plant.
]]
In 2014, Aston Martin suffered a pre-tax loss of £72 million, almost triple of the amount of 2013 selling 3,500 cars during the year, well below the 7,300 cars sold in 2007 and 4,200 sold in 2013 respectively. It was reported that Aston Martin's pre-tax losses for 2016 increased by 27% to £162.8 million, the sixth year it continued to suffer a loss.
In February 2016, the company selected a site in St Athan, South Wales for its new factory. The Welsh facility was unanimously chosen by Aston's board despite fierce competition from other locations as far afield as the Americas, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Europe, as well as other sites in the UK, believed to be Bridgend, Birmingham, and Coventry. The facility featured three existing 'super-hangars' of MOD St Athan. Construction work of converting the hangars commenced in April 2017. Aston Martin returned to profit in 2017 after selling over 5,000 cars. The company made a pre-tax profit of £87 million compared with a £163 million loss in 2016. 2017 also marked the return of production of the Newport Pagnell facility ten years after it originally ceased. 2013–present: Partnership with Mercedes-Benz Group In December 2013, Aston Martin signed a deal with Mercedes-Benz Group (at the time known as Daimler) to supply the next generation of Aston Martin cars with Mercedes-AMG engines. Mercedes-AMG also was to supply Aston Martin with electrical systems. This technical partnership was intended to support Aston Martin's launch of a new generation of models that would incorporate new technology and engines. In exchange, Mercedes will get as much as 5% equity in Aston Martin and a non-voting seat on its board. The first model to sport the Mercedes-Benz technology was the DB11, announced at the 86th Geneva Motor Show in March 2016. It featured Mercedes-Benz electronics for the entertainment, navigation and other systems. It was also the first model to use Mercedes-AMG V8 engines. In October 2020, Mercedes confirmed it will increase its holding "in stages" from 5% to 20%. In return, Aston Martin will have access to Mercedes-Benz hybrid and electric drivetrain technologies for its future models. 2018–present: Listed on the London Stock Exchange After "completing a turnaround for the once perennially loss-making company that could now be valued at up to 5 billion pounds ($6.4 billion)," and now reporting a full-year pre-tax profit of £87 million (compared with a £163 million loss in 2016) Aston Martin in August 2018 announced plans to float the company at the London Stock Exchange as Aston Martin Lagonda Global Holdings plc. In June 2019, the company opened its new factory in St Athan for the production of its first-ever SUV the DBX. The factory was finally completed and officially opened on 6 December 2019. When full production begins in the second quarter of 2020, around 600 people will be employed at the factory, rising to 750 when peak production is reached.
On 31 January 2020 it was announced that Canadian billionaire and investor Lawrence Stroll was leading a consortium, Yew Tree Overseas Limited, who will pay £182 million in return for 16.7% stake in the company. The re-structuring includes a £318 million cash infusion through a new rights issue, generating a total of £500 million for the company. Stroll will also be named as chairman, replacing Penny Hughes. Swiss pharmaceutical magnate Ernesto Bertarelli and Mercedes-AMG Petronas F1 team principal and CEO Toto Wolff have also joined the consortium, acquiring 3.4% and 4.8% stakes, respectively. In March 2020, Stroll increased his stake in the company to 25%.
On 26 May 2020, Aston Martin announced that Andy Palmer had stepped down as CEO. Tobias Moers of Mercedes-AMG will succeed him starting 1 August, with Keith Stanton as interim chief operating officer. In June 2020, the company announced that it cut out 500 jobs as a result of the poor sales, an outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. In March 2021, executive chairman Lawrence Stroll stated that the company plans on building electric vehicles by 2025. In May 2022, Aston Martin named 76-year-old Amedeo Felisa as the new chief executive officer, replacing Tobias Moers. Roberto Fedeli was also announced as the new chief technical officer.
In late 2020, Aston Martin was involved in a controversy in which it was accused of using a report to spread disputed information about electric vehicles in the wake of the UK's declaration to end the sale of combustion engine vehicles by 2030, with some in the media dubbing the controversy as "Astongate". In November 2020, a communications agency called Clarendon Communications published a report comparing the environmental impact of various powertrain options for cars. After the report received coverage from The Sunday Times and other publications, it emerged that the company had been set up in February that year and was registered under the name of Rebecca Stephens – the wife of James Stephens, who is the government affairs director of Aston Martin Lagonda. Citing a study by Polestar, the report stated that electric vehicles would need to be driven before they would have lower overall emissions than a petrol car. This statement was disputed by electric vehicle researcher Auke Hoekstra, who argued that the report underestimated the emissions from combustion engine vehicles and did not consider the emissions from creating petrol. According to him, a typical EV would need to drive 16,000–18,000 miles (25,700–30,000 km) to offset the emissions from manufacture. Bosch and a number of other companies were also involved with the report.
In July 2022, Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund (PIF) will take a stake in the company through a £78 million equity placing as well as a £575 million separate rights issue, giving it two board seats in the company. After the rights issue, the Saudi fund will have a 16.7% stake in Aston Martin, behind the 18.3% holding by Stroll's Yew Tree consortium while the Mercedes-Benz Group will own 9.7%. In September 2022, Chinese automaker Geely acquired a 7.6% stake in the company. In December 2022, Stroll and the Yew Tree consortium increased their stake in the company to 28.29%. In May 2023, Geely increased its stake to 17%, becoming the third-largest shareholder after the Yew Tree consortium and the Saudi Arabia Public Investment Fund.
In June 2023, Aston Martin signed an agreement with Lucid Motors after selecting it to help supply electric motors, powertrains, and battery systems for its upcoming range of fully electric cars. In return, Aston Martin will make cash payments and issue a 3.7percent stake in its company to Lucid, worth $232million in total. In September 2023, the Yew Tree consortium increased their stake by 3.27% to 26.23%. In October 2023, Aston Martin announced that it would compete in the FIA World Endurance Championship and IMSA SportsCar Championship in 2025. In April 2024, the company said it would push back production of its first electric vehicle to 2027. In March 2024, Aston Martin announced Adrian Hallmark as its new CEO beginning 1 October 2024, replacing Amedeo Felisa.
In September 2024, Aston Martin issued a profit warning, saying it had been hit by a fall in demand in China. In November 2024, Aston Martin issued another warning following a minor delay in the deliveries of their Valiant model. In response, they said they would issue new shares and debt totalling £210 million. In February 2025, CEO Adrian Hallmark announced the company would again push back production of its first electric vehicle to 2030. On 31 March 2025, the Yew Tree Consortium is set to inject an additional £52.5 million into the marque by purchasing 75 million shares at 70 pence per share, increasing its stake to 33%.
Sales at auction
In August 2017, a 1956 Aston Martin DBR1/1 sold at a Sotheby's auction at the Pebble Beach, California Concours d'Elegance for US$22,550,000, which made it the most expensive British car ever sold at an auction, according to Sotheby's. The car had previously been driven by Carroll Shelby and Stirling Moss.
In 2015 a 1962 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato for US$14,300,000 in New York, and a 1963 Aston Martin DP215 for US$21,455,000 in August 2018.
Models
Pre-war cars
* 1921–1925 Aston Martin Standard Sports
* 1927–1932 Aston Martin First Series
* 1929–1932 Aston Martin International
* 1932–1932 Aston Martin International Le Mans
* 1932–1934 Aston Martin Le Mans
* 1933–1934 Aston Martin 12/50 Standard
* 1934–1936 Aston Martin Mk II
* 1934–1936 Aston Martin Ulster
* 1936–1940 Aston Martin 2-litre Speed Models (23 built; the last 8 were fitted with C-type bodywork)
* 1937–1939 Aston Martin 15/98
Post-war cars
* 1948–1950 Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1)
* 1950–1953 Aston Martin DB2
* 1953–1957 Aston Martin DB2/4
* 1957–1959 Aston Martin DB Mark III
* 1958–1963 Aston Martin DB4
* 1961–1963 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato
* 1963–1965 Aston Martin DB5
* 1965–1966 Aston Martin Short Chassis Volante
* 1965–1969 Aston Martin DB6
* 1967–1972 Aston Martin DBS
* 1969–1989 Aston Martin V8
* 1977–1989 Aston Martin V8 Vantage
* 1986–1990 Aston Martin V8 Zagato
* 1989–1996 Aston Martin Virage
* 1989–2000 Aston Martin Virage
* 1993–2000 Aston Martin Vantage
* 1996–2000 Aston Martin V8 Coupe/V8 Volante
* 1993–2003 Aston Martin DB7
* 2001–2007 Aston Martin Vanquish
* 2002–2003 Aston Martin DB7 Zagato
* 2002–2004 Aston Martin DB AR1
* 2004–2016 Aston Martin DB9
* 2005–2018 Aston Martin V8 and V12 Vantage
* 2007–2012 Aston Martin DBS
* 2009–2012 Aston Martin One-77
* 2010–2020 Aston Martin Rapide
* 2011–2012 Aston Martin Virage
* 2011–2013 Aston Martin Cygnet (based on the Toyota iQ)
* 2012–2018 Aston Martin Vanquish
* 2015–2016 Aston Martin Vulcan
* 2016–2023 Aston Martin DB11
* 2018–2024 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera
* 2021–2024 Aston Martin Valkyrie
* 2018–present Aston Martin Vantage
* 2020–present Aston Martin DBX
* 2023–present Aston Martin DB12
* 2024–present Aston Martin Vanquish
Other
* 1944 Aston Martin Atom (concept)
* 1961–1964 Lagonda Rapide
* 1976–1989 Aston Martin Lagonda
* 1980 Aston Martin Bulldog (concept)
* 1993 Lagonda Vignale (concept)
* 2001 Aston Martin Twenty Twenty (Italdesign concept)
* 2007 Aston Martin V12 Vantage RS (concept)
* 2009 Aston Martin Lagonda SUV (concept)
* 2012 Aston Martin V12 Zagato
* 2013 Aston Martin Rapide Bertone Jet 2+2 (concept)
* 2013 Aston Martin CC100 Speedster (concept)
* 2015 Aston Martin DB10 (concept)
* 2015–2016 Lagonda Taraf
* 2019 Aston Martin Lagonda All-Terrain (concept)
* 2019 Aston Martin Vanquish Vision (concept)
* 2019 Aston Martin DBS GT Zagato
* 2020 Aston Martin V12 Speedster
* 2021 Aston Martin Victor
* 2022 Aston Martin DBR22
* 2023 Aston Martin Valour
* 2024 Aston Martin Valiant
Current models
* Aston Martin Vantage
* Aston Martin DB12
* Aston Martin Vanquish
* Aston Martin DBX
Upcoming models
* Aston Martin Valhalla
Gallery
<gallery mode"packed" caption"Aston Martin models">
File:Aston Martin International, 1500 cm³, Bj. 1930 (2008-06-28).JPG|1930 Aston Martin1.5L International
File:1933 Aston Martin Le Mans.JPG|1932–1934 Aston Martin Le Mans short chassis
File:Aston Martin 2 Litre 1950.JPG|1948–1950 Aston Martin DB1
File:Aston Martin DB2-4 Mark I.jpg|1950–1957 DB2 and later DB2/4
File:Aston Martin DB Mark III.jpg|1957–1959 Aston Martin DB Mark III
File:Aston-Martin DB4.JPG|1958–1963 Aston Martin DB4/GT
File:DB4GT Zagato at Goodwood.jpg|1961–1963 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato
File:AMDB5No1.jpg|1963–1965 Aston Martin DB5
File:Aston Martin DB6 r.jpg|1965–1971 Aston Martin DB6
File:Aston Martin DBS V8 and Series II.jpg|1967–1989 DBS and later V8s
File:Zagato.jpg|1986–1990 Aston Martin V8 Zagato
File:Virage Volante.jpg|1989–2000 Virage/V8/Vantage
File:2001 Aston Martin DB7 Vantage Coupe.jpg|1993–2003 Aston Martin DB7/Vantage
File:Amvanquish.jpg|2001–2007 Aston Martin V12 Vanquish/S
File:Zagato Paris.JPG|2002–2003 DB7 Zagato coupé/roadster
File:Aston Martin DB AR1.jpg|2002–2004 Aston Martin DB AR1 roadster
File:Aston Martin DB9 - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (16) (cropped).jpg|2003–2016 Aston Martin DB9 coupé/Volante
File:Aston Martin V8 Vantage - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (15) (cropped).jpg|2005–2017 Aston Martin V8/V12 Vantage
File:Aston Martin DBS - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (11) (cropped).jpg|2007–2012 Aston Martin DBS
File:Aston Martin One-77 (8701486190) (cropped).jpg|2009–2012 Aston Martin One-77
File:Aston Martin Rapide - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (12) (cropped).jpg|2010–2020 Aston Martin Rapide
File:2012 Aston Martin Virage coupé.jpg|2011–2012 Aston Martin Virage
File:Aston Martin Cygnet (82).JPG|2011–2013 Aston Martin Cygnet
File:Red Aston Martin V12 Zagato fr IAA 2011.jpg|2012–2013 Aston Martin V12 Zagato
File:White Aston Martin Vanquish in France (cropped).jpg|2012–2018 Aston Martin Vanquish
File:2018 Aston Martin DB11 V8 Automatic 4.0.jpg|2016–2023 Aston Martin DB11
File:2019 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera in White Stone, front left.jpg|2018–2024 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera
File:2023 Aston Martin Valkyrie 5.jpg|2021–2024 Aston Martin Valkyrie
File:Aston Martin Vantage, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0660.jpg|2018– Aston Martin Vantage
File:Aston Martin DBX Auto Zuerich 2021 IMG 0427.jpg|2020– Aston Martin DBX
File:Aston Martin DB12 1X7A1921.jpg|2023– Aston Martin DB12
File:Aston Martin Vanquish (2024) Auto Zuerich 2024 DSC 6828.jpg|2024– Aston Martin Vanquish
</gallery>
Brand expansion
pictured in 2017]]
Since 2015, Aston Martin has sought to increase its appeal to women as a luxury lifestyle brand. A female advisory panel was established to adapt the design of the cars to the taste of women. In September 2016, a 37-foot-long Aston Martin speedboat was unveiled called the Aston Martin AM37 powerboat. In May 2018, Aston Martin launched a submersible called Project Neptune in partnership with submarine building company Triton Submarines. Aston Martin has collaborated with the luxury clothing company Hackett London to deliver items of clothing. In November 2017, Aston Martin unveiled a special limited edition bicycle after collaborating with bicycle manufacturer Storck.
Aston Martin and global property developer G&G Business Developments constructed a 66-storey luxury condominium tower called Aston Martin Residences at 300 Biscayne Boulevard Way in Miami, Florida, which opened in 2024. Also in July, a Lego version of James Bond's DB5 car was put on sale, and an Aston Martin-branded watch was released in collaboration with TAG Heuer.
In October 2018, Aston Martin announced it was opening a design and brand studio in Shanghai.
Motorsport
]]
Aston Martin is currently associated with two different racing organisations. The Aston Martin Formula One team which competes in the Formula One Championship and Aston Martin Racing which currently competes in the FIA World Endurance Championship. Both racing organisations use the Aston Martin brand, but are not directly owned by Aston Martin. The Aston Martin Formula One team is owned by major Aston Martin shareholder Lawrence Stroll and operated by his company AMR GP, while Aston Martin Racing is operated by racing company Prodrive as part of a partnership with Aston Martin. In January 2020, it was announced that the Racing Point F1 Team is due to be rebranded as Aston Martin for the 2021 season, as a result of a funding investment led by Racing Point owner Lawrence Stroll. As part of the rebrand, the team switched their racing colour of BWT pink to a modern iteration of Aston Martin's British racing green. The Aston Martin AMR21 was unveiled in March 2021 and became Aston Martin's first Formula One car after a 61-year absence from the sport.
Racing cars (post-war)
at Goodwood Festival of Speed 2009]]
competed with sports prototypes powered by an Aston Martin V12.]]
]]
* Aston Martin DB3 (1950–1953)
* Aston Martin DB3S (1953–1956)
* Aston Martin DBR1 (1956–1959)
* Aston Martin DBR2 (1957–1958)
* Aston Martin DBR3 (1958)
* Aston Martin DBR4 (1959)
* Aston Martin DBR5 (1960)
* Aston Martin DP212 (1962)
* Aston Martin DP214 (1963)
* Aston Martin DP215 (1963)
* Aston Martin RHAM/1 (1976–1979)
* Aston Martin AMR1 (1989)
* Aston Martin AMR2 (never raced)
* Aston Martin DBR9 (2005–2008)
* Aston Martin DBRS9 (2005–2008)
* Aston Martin V8 Vantage N24 (2006–2008)
* Aston Martin V8 Vantage Rally GT (2006–2010)
* Aston Martin V8 Vantage GT2 (2008–2017)
* Aston Martin V8 Vantage GT4 (2008–2018)
* Aston Martin DBR1-2 (2009)
* Aston Martin AMR-One (2011)
* Aston Martin Vantage GTE (2018–2023)
* Aston Martin Vantage DTM (2019)
* Aston Martin Vantage GT3 (2019–)
* Aston Martin Vantage GT4 (2019–)
* Aston Martin AMR21 (2021)
* Aston Martin AMR22 (2022)
* Aston Martin AMR23 (2023)
* Aston Martin AMR24 (2024)
Aston Martin-powered racing cars
* Cooper-Aston Martin (1963)
* Lola T70-Aston Martin (1967)
* Aston Martin DPLM (1980–1982)
* Nimrod NRA/C2-Aston Martin (1982–1984)
* Aston Martin EMKA C83/1 and C84/1 (1983–1985)
* Cheetah G604-Aston Martin
* Lola B08/60-Aston Martin (2008–2011)
24 Hours of Le Mans finishes
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Pos
! Class
! No
! Team
! Drivers
! Chassis
! Engine
! Laps
|-
| 1931
| 5
| 1.5
| 25
| Aston Martin
| A.C. Bertelli<br> Maurice Harvey
| Aston Martin 1½-litre International
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 139
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1932
| 5
| 1.5
| 20
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Sammy Newsome<br> Henken Widengren
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 174
|-
| 7
| 1.5
| 21
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| A.C. Bertelli<br> Pat Driscoll
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 168
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1933
| 5
| 1.5
| 25
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Pat Driscoll<br> Clifton Penn-Hughes
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 188
|-
| 7
| 1.5
| 24
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| A.C. Bertelli<br> Sammy Davis
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 174
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1934
| 10
| 1.5
| 20
| M.R.E. Tongue
| Reggie Tongue<br> Maurice Faulkner
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 188
|-
| 11
| 1.5
| 24
| John Cecil Noël
| John Cecil Noël<br> Jen Wheeler
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 180
|-
| rowspan="6" | 1935
| 3
| 1.5
| 29
| Roy Eccles
| Charles E.C. Martin<br> Charles Brackenbury
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 215
|-
| 8
| 1.5
| 33
| Maurice Faulkner
| Maurice Faulkner<br> Tom Clarke
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 202
|-
| 10
| 1.5
| 32
| C.T. Thomas
| C.T. Thomas<br> M. Kenyon
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 199
|-
| 11
| 1.5
| 31
| P.L. Donkin
| Peter Donkin<br> Lord Malcolm Douglas-Hamilton
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 199
|-
| 12
| 1.5
| 27
| John Cecil Noël
| Jim Elwes<br> Mortimer Morris-Goodall
| Aston Martin 1½-litre
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 196
|-
| 15
| 1.5
| 30
| R.P. Gardner
| R.P. Gardner<br> A.C. Beloë
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 190
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1937
| 5
| 1.5
| 37
| J.M. Skeffington
| J.M. Skeffington<br> R.C. Murton-Neale
| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster
| Aston Martin 1.5L I4
| 205
|-
| 11
| 2.0
| 31
| C.T. Thomas
| Mortimer Morris-Goodall<br> Robert P. Hichens
| Aston Martin Speed Model
| Aston Martin 2.0L I4
| 193
|-
| 1939
| 12
| 2.0
| 29
| Robert Peverell Hichens
| Robert P. Hichens<br> Mortimer Morris-Goodall
| Aston Martin Speed Model
| Aston Martin 2.0L I4
| 199
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1949
| 7
| S<br>2.0
| 27
| Arthur Jones
| Arthur Jones<br> Nick Haines
| Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1)
| Aston Martin 2.0L I4
| 207
|-
| 11
| S<br>2.0
| 29
| Robert Lawrie
| Robert Lawrie<br> Robert W. Walke
| Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1)
| Aston Martin 2.0L I4
| 193
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1950
| 5
| S<br>3.0
| 19
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| George Abecassis<br> Lance Macklin
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 249
|-
| 6
| S<br>3.0
| 21
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Charles Brackenbury<br> Reg Parnell
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 244
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1951
| 3
| S<br>3.0
| 26
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Lance Macklin<br> Eric Thompson
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 257
|-
| 5
| S<br>3.0
| 25
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| George Abecassis<br> Brian Shawe-Taylor
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 255
|-
| 7
| S<br>3.0
| 24
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Reg Parnell<br> David Hampshire
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 252
|-
| 10
| S<br>3.0
| 28
| N.H. Mann
| Nigel Mann<br> Mortimer Morris-Goodall
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 236
|-
| 13
| S<br>3.0
| 27
| P.T.C. Clark
| Peter Clark<br> James Scott Douglas
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 233
|-
| 1952
| 7
| S<br>3.0
| 32
| Peter C.T. Clark
| Peter Clark<br> Mike Keen
| Aston Martin DB2
| Aston Martin 2.6L I6
| 248
|-
| 1955
| 2
| S<br>3.0
| 23
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Peter Collins<br> Paul Frère
| Aston Martin DB3S
| Aston Martin 2.9L I6
| 302
|-
| 1956
| 2
| S<br>3.0
| 8
| Aston Martin Ltd.
| Stirling Moss<br> Peter Collins
| Aston Martin DB3S
| Aston Martin 2.9L I6
| 299
|-
| 1957
| 11
| S<br>3000
| 21
| David Brown
| Jean-Paul Colas<br> Jean Kerguen
| Aston Martin DB3S
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 272
|-
| 1958
| 2
| S<br>3000
| 5
| P & A.G. Whitehead
| Graham Whitehead<br> Peter Whitehead
| Aston Martin DB3S
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 293
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1959
| 1
| S<br>3.0
| 5
| David Brown Racing Dept.
| Carroll Shelby<br> Roy Salvadori
| Aston Martin DBR1/300
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 323
|-
| 2
| S<br>3.0
| 6
| David Brown Racing Dept.
| Maurice Trintignant<br> Paul Frère
| Aston Martin DBR1/300
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 322
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1960
| 3
| S<br>3.0
| 7
| Border Reivers
| Roy Salvadori<br> Jim Clark
| Aston Martin DBR1/300
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 306
|-
| 9
| S<br>3.0
| 8
| Major Ian B. Baillie
| Ian B. Baillie<br> Jack Fairman
| Aston Martin DBR1/300
| Aston Martin 3.0L I6
| 281
|-
| 1977
| 17
| GTP
| 83
| SAS Robin Hamilton
| Robin Hamilton<br> David Preece<br> Mike Salmon
| Aston Martin DBS V8 RHAM/1
| Aston Martin 5.3L V8
| 260
|-
| 1982
| 7
| C
| 32
| Viscount Downe Pace Petroleum
| Ray Mallock<br> Simon Phillips<br> Mike Salmon
| Nimrod NRA/C2
| Aston Martin-Tickford DP1229 5.3L V8
| 317
|-
| 1983
| 17
| C
| 41
| EMKA Productions Ltd.
| Tiff Needell<br> Steve O'Rourke<br> Nick Faure
| EMKA C83/1
| Aston Martin-Tickford 5.3L V8
| 275
|-
| 1985
| 11
| C1
| 66
| EMKA Productions, Ltd.
| Tiff Needell<br> Steve O'Rourke<br> Nick Faure
| EMKA C84/1
| Aston Martin-Tickford 5.3L V8
| 338
|-
| 1989
| 11
| C1
| 18
| Aston Martin<br> Ecurie Ecosse
| Brian Redman<br> Michael Roe<br> Costas Los
| Aston Martin AMR1
| Aston Martin (Callaway) RDP87 6.0L V8
| 340
|-
| 2005
| 9
| GT1
| 59
| Aston Martin Racing
| David Brabham<br> Stéphane Sarrazin<br> Darren Turner
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 333
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2006
| 6
| GT1
| 007
| Aston Martin Racing
| Tomáš Enge<br> Darren Turner<br> Andrea Piccini
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 350
|-
| 9
| GT1
| 62
| Russian Age Racing<br> Team Modena
| Antonio García<br> David Brabham<br> Nelson Piquet Jr.
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 343
|-
| 10
| GT1
| 009
| Aston Martin Racing
| Pedro Lamy<br> Stéphane Sarrazin<br> Stéphane Ortelli
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 342
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2007
| 1
| GT1
| 009
| Aston Martin Racing
| David Brabham<br>Darren Turner<br> Rickard Rydell
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 343
|-
| 3
| GT1
| 008
| AMR Larbre Compétition
| Casper Elgaard<br> Johnny Herbert<br> Fabrizio Gollin
| Aston Martin DBR9
| Aston Martin 6.0L V12
| 341See also
* Aston Martin Heritage Trust Museum
* Aston Martin Owners Club
* List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
References
External links
*
}}
Category:1913 establishments in England
Category:2018 initial public offerings
Category:Automotive companies of England
Category:British racecar constructors
Category:British royal warrant holders
Category:Car brands
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2371 | Albert Pike | | death_date =
| birth_place = Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
| death_place = Washington, D.C., U.S.
| resting_place = Oak Hill Cemetery, Washington, D.C.
| resting_place_coordinates
| signature = Signature of Albert Pike (1809–1891).png
| allegiance =
| branch =
| branch_label = Service
| serviceyears =
| rank =
| commands =
| battles =
* Mexican–American War
** Battle of Buena Vista
* American Civil War
** Battle of Pea Ridge
| battles_label = Battles
}}
Albert Pike (December 29, 1809April 2, 1891) was an American author, poet, orator, editor, lawyer, jurist and Confederate States Army general who served as an associate justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court in exile from 1864 to 1865. He had previously served as a senior officer of the Confederate States Army, commanding the District of Indian Territory in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. A prominent member of the Freemasons, Pike served as the Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council, Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction from 1859 to 1891.
Early life and education
Albert Pike was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 29, 1809, the son of Benjamin and Sarah (Andrews) Pike. He grew up in Byfield and Newburyport, Massachusetts. His colonial ancestors had settled in the area in 1635,
He attended school in Newburyport and Framingham until he was 15. In August 1825, he passed entrance exams at Harvard University, though when the college requested payment of tuition fees for the first two years, he chose not to attend. He began a program of self-education, later teaching school in Gloucester, North Bedford, Fairhaven and Newburyport.
Pike was an imposing figure; tall and with hair that reached his shoulders and a long beard.
Career
Settling in Arkansas in 1833, Pike taught in a school and wrote a series of articles for the Little Rock Arkansas Advocate under the pen name of "Casca." The articles were sufficiently well received for him to be asked to join the newspaper's staff. Under Pike's administration, the Advocate promoted the viewpoint of the Whig Party in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas in December 1832.
He was the first reporter for the Arkansas Supreme Court. He wrote a book (published anonymously), titled The Arkansas Form Book, which was a guidebook for lawyers.
He proved to be a highly effective lawyer, representing clients in courts at every level. This continued after he received permission in 1849 to practice before the United States Supreme Court. He attended the national convention in 1856, but walked out when it failed to adopt a pro-slavery platform.
Poetry
As a young man of letters, Pike wrote poetry, and he continued to do so for the rest of his life. At 23, he published his first poem, "Hymns to the Gods." Later work was printed in literary journals such as ''Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine and local newspapers. His first collection of poetry, Prose Sketches and Poems Written in the Western Country, was published in 1834.
He published a book called Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in 1871, the first of several editions. This helped the Order grow during the nineteenth century. He also researched and wrote the seminal treatise Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda. In the United States, Pike is still considered an eminent and influential Freemason, primarily in the Scottish Rite Southern Jurisdiction.
Pike was also the Provincial Grand Master of the Royal Order of Scotland from 1877 to 1891.Military serviceMexican–American WarWhen the Mexican–American War started, Pike joined the Arkansas Mounted Infantry Regiment and was commissioned as a company commander with the rank of captain in June 1846. With his regiment, he fought in the Battle of Buena Vista. Pike was discharged in June 1847. He and his commander, Colonel John Selden Roane, had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to an "inconclusive" duel between Pike and Roane on July 29, 1847, near Fort Smith, Arkansas. Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.
After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to New Orleans for a time beginning in 1853. Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field.
At the Southern Commercial Convention of 1854, Pike said the South should remain in the Union and seek equality with the North, but if the South "were forced into an inferior status, she would be better out of the Union than in it." His stand was that state's rights superseded national law and he supported the idea of a Southern secession. This stand is made clear in his pamphlet of 1861, "State or Province, Bond or Free?" At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native American nations. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861. At the time, Ross agreed to support the Confederacy, which promised the tribes a Native American state if it won the war. Ross later changed his mind and left Indian Territory, but the succeeding Cherokee government maintained the alliance. Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. When Pike was ordered in May 1862 to send troops to Arkansas, he resigned in protest.
After Pea Ridge, it was alleged that Pike's Native American troops had scalped soldiers in the field. The single incident of scalping was, however, done by a Native American acting on his own. Official records submitted to the Headquarters Department of Indian territory reveal that Pike "regarded [the incident] with horror" and that he was personally "angry and disgusted." He also filed a report in which he said it caused him the "utmost pain and regret."
Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman charged Pike with mishandling of money and material, ordering his arrest. The incident arose when Hindman, who had declared martial law in Arkansas, ordered Pike to turn over weapons and Native American Indian treaty funds. Pike thought the action was illegal and refused. Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, submitting his resignation from the Confederate States Army on July 12, 1862.
In the wake of the war, Pike moved to New York City, then for a short time to Canada.Later life and deathDuring the Arkansas political conflict known as the Brooks-Baxter War, Pike was one of the lawyers to speak on behalf of Elisha Baxter., torn down by rioters on June 19, 2020]]
Pike died on April 2, 1891, at the Scottish Rite Temple of the Supreme Council in Washington DC, at the age of 81, and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery, despite the fact that he had left instructions for his body to be cremated. In 1944, his remains were moved to the House of the Temple, headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite. The House of the Temple contains numerous memorials and artifacts related to Pike, including his personal library.
Legacy
A memorial to Pike was erected in 1901 in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The location was appropriate considering that Pike had sued the government to secure Native American rights. The statue portrayed him as a private citizen and Freemason. He was the only former Confederate military officer with an outdoor statue in Washington, D.C., and in 2019 Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton called for its removal. On June 19, 2020, protesters tore down the statue and set it ablaze, in connection with the George Floyd protests because of Pike's association with the Confederacy and of his alleged association with the Ku Klux Klan.
Albert Pike Highway was an auto trail that extended more than from Hot Springs, Arkansas, to Colorado Springs, Colorado, crossing the Ozark Mountains and passing through Fort Smith, Muskogee, Tulsa, Dodge City, La Junta and Pueblo.Controversies Masonic baptism In 1865, Pike publicly performed a ceremony of Masonic baptism in New York City. The ceremony was greeted with skepticism by many American Masons including Albert Mackey, but was based on older European Masonic baptism ceremonies that began in the 1820s. However, some, like the New York Times, reacted positively to the ceremony describing it as "interesting" and "novel." In the ritual, six children were baptized by Pike with water and consecrated oil.
Racism
In the aftermath of the Civil War, as former Confederates found themselves barred from the ballot box, Pike remained deeply opposed to black suffrage, insisting that "the white race, and that race alone, shall govern this country. It is the only one that is fit to govern, and it is the only one that shall."
Regarding membership in the Freemasons, Pike is quoted as saying, "Prince Hall Lodge was as regular a Lodge as any Lodge created by competent authority. It had a perfect right to establish other Lodges and make itself a Mother Lodge. I am not inclined to meddle in the matter. I took my obligations from white men, not from negroes. When I have to accept negroes as brothers or leave masonry, I shall leave it. Better let the thing drift."
His attitudes towards African-Americans may have changed towards the end of his life. A 1945 letter written by Willard W. Allen, the Sovereign Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, S.J. Prince Hall Affiliation noted that "what practically all Masonic scholars know very well, viz., that in the closing years of General Pike's Masonic career, he became a very staunch friend of Negro Masonry." Pike had become a personal friend of Thornton A. Jackson, Supreme Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction, Prince Hall Affiliation and even gifted to Thornton his complete set of rituals for Prince Hall Scottish Rite Masonry to use.
Involvement with the Ku Klux Klan
Pike first wrote about the Ku Klux Klan less than three years after the Klan's founding, in an April 16, 1868 editorial in the Memphis Daily Appeal. In the editorial, Pike indicated that his main problems lay not with its aims, but with its methods and leadership. Later in this editorial, he proposed "one great Order of Southern Brotherhood", a secret society which would have been a larger and more centrally organized version of the Klan: "If it were in our power, if it could be effected, we would unite every white man in the South, who is opposed to negro suffrage, into one great Order of Southern Brotherhood, with an organization complete, active, vigorous, in which a few should execute the concentrated will of all, and whose very existence should be concealed from all but its members."
In 1905's Ku Klux Klan: Its Origin, Growth and Disbandment, the author Walter Lynwood Fleming, lists Pike as the Klan's "chief judicial officer". Susan Lawrence Davis, whose father was a founding member of the Klan in Alabama, writes in her sympathetic account titled Authentic History: Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877, published in 1924, that Pike was personally chosen by Nathan Bedford Forrest to serve as the Klan's "Chief Judicial Officer" and to head the Klan in Arkansas as "Grand Dragon of that Realm." In 1939's Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871, Stanley Horn, who served as president of the Tennessee Historical Society, also reports that Forrest appointed Pike to lead the Klan in Arkansas and credits him with a surge of local Klan activity in April 1868. Horn says that a pro-Klan poem, "Death's Brigade", is attributed to Pike, although "of course, he did not have the bravado to claim that honor publicly at that time." Southern Agrarian poet John Gould Fletcher, who grew up in Little Rock in a house that Pike built, likewise believed that Pike wrote the poem.
When the Ku Klux Klan was revived in 1915, there even existed an Albert Pike Klan, a local chapter of the organization based in Illinois.
In 1971, Allen W. Trelease published White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, and claimed that the office that Pike allegedly held in the KKK was not mentioned in "The Prescript", the Klan constitution. At the same time, Trelease noted that "Pike may well have affiliated with the Klan." As evidence, Trelease notes that Pike "was intrigued by secret societies and rituals" and "sympathized with the Klan's stated objectives."
In his 1997 biography of Pike, Walter Lee Brown asserts that Pike was not a member of the Klan and Brown found "no contemporary, nor no reliable late evidence that Pike ever joined the Klan."<ref name"Brown439-442" /> Brown claims the work of Fleming, Davis and Horn are "unreliable histories", but offers no further evidence other than citing Trelease, which, in Brown's interpretation "cast's doubt on Pike's membership."Selected books
* Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda (1872)
* Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite (1872)
* Book of the Words (1874)
* Reprints of Old Rituals (1879)
* Esoterika (1887)
See also<!-- EDITORS NOTE: This section should primarily contain lists linked to the main article which are directly related to the person. Thank you. -->
* List of Arkansas adjutants general
* List of Confederate States Army generals
* List of Freemasons
* List of people from Boston
* List of people from Little Rock, Arkansas
Footnotes
References
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*
*
*
*
*
* }}
Further reading
*
* External links<!--
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*
* [https://freemasonry.network/famous-freemasons/reformers-of-freemasonry/albert-pike/ Albert Pike] at Freemasonry.network
* [http://albertpike.wordpress.com/albert-pike-lucifer Albert Pike and Lucifer] at Freemasonry and the World (albertpike.wordpress.com)
* [https://allfreemasonry.com/masonic-lodge-symbols-wisdom-through-art/ Albert Pike and Masonic Lodge Symbols] at Allfreemasonry.com
* [http://www.masonicinfo.com/pikesphilosophy.htm Albert Pike's Philosophy] at Masonicinfo.com
* [http://www.civilwarpoetry.org/confederate/songs/apdixie.html "Everybody's Dixie" by Albert Pike] at Civilwarpoetry.org
*
*
<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please follow the WP:EL guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. Thank you. -->
}}
}}
<br />In exile|years1864–1865}}
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Category:Prisoners and detainees of the Confederate States of America | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Pike | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.305118 |
2372 | ALF Tales | | starring =
| country = United States
| language = English
| network = NBC
| company =
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 21
}}
ALF Tales is a 30-minute Saturday morning animated series that aired on NBC from September 10, 1988, to December 9, 1989. The show is a spin-off of ALF: The Animated Series that featured characters from that series playing various characters from fairy tales. The fairy tale parody was usually altered for comedic effect in a manner akin to Jay Ward's "Fractured Fairy Tales".
The episodes were performed in the style of a resident theater company or ensemble cast where Gordon and Rhonda would take the leading male and female roles, and the other characters were cast according to their characteristics.
Many stories spoof a film genre, such as the "Cinderella" episode which is presented like an Elvis Presley film. Some episodes featured a "fourth wall" effect where Gordon is backstage preparing for the episode, and Rob Cowan would appear drawn as a TV executive (who introduced himself as "Roger Cowan, network executive") who tries to brief Gordon on how to improve the episode. For instance Cowan once told Gordon who was readying for a medieval themed episode that "less than 2% of our audience lives in the Dark Ages".
Voice cast
*Paul Fusco as ALF (Gordon Shumway), Rick Fusterman
*Paulina Gillis) as Augie, Rhonda
*Peggy Mahon as Flo
*Thick Wilson as Larson Petty, Bob
*Dan Hennessey as Sloop
*Rob Cowan as Skip
*Ellen-Ray Hennessy as Stella the Waitress
*Noam Zylberman as Curtis (1988)
*Michael Fantini as Curtis (1989)
Episodes
Season 1 (1988–89)
| ShortSummary = Gordon portrays Robin Hood, leading a jazz band called "Ye Merry Men." They oppose the Sheriff of Nottingham's unjust taxes and raids on peasants. Robin Hood's group sneaks into Nottingham Castle to rescue Maid Marian, using their jazz music to disarm the guards, who are unexpectedly sympathetic. When King Richard returns, he punishes Prince John and the Sheriff by making them watch the Home Shopping Network for ten years.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon takes on the role of Sleeping Beauty. A witch, angered by Flo and Bob, curses their newborn with a fatal papercut. Three wizards, Rick, Skip, and Curtis, arrive to bless the baby. One wizard counters the curse with a sleeping spell. King Bob responds by outlawing paper in his kingdom and promotes television over reading. Sixteen years later, a bored teenage prince reads a smuggled newspaper and gets a paper cut. Rhonda portrays a princess who must defeat the witch with the help of the three wizards.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Based in 1962, "Gordo Shumway" portrays a rock star akin to Elvis Presley in search of love. Cinderella's stepfamily obtains tickets to his concert, where he plans to choose a bride. Feeling disheartened, Cinderella receives a wish from her fairy godmother "which he can't refuse." At the concert, Gordo performs his hit song, and Cinderella impresses him with a spontaneous duet, culminating in a high note that breaks all the glass in the auditorium. Determined to find the woman who can shatter a glass slipper, Gordo searches until he discovers Cinderella.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon plays Ichabod Crane, a photographer applicant at the Daily Hemisphere in Sleepy Hollow. He meets Katrina, the publisher's daughter, and is assigned to photograph the Headless Horseman. During a date with Katrina, he is chased by the horseman, who warns him away. Ichabod, spurred by the full moon, pursues multiple headless horsemen, discovering they are impostors. Eventually, he flees with Katrina, only to be pursued by a genuinely frightening headless horseman.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon plays Jack Bates (Norman Bates's son) who, in an effort to save their struggling motel, trades the family cow for three magic beans. Overnight, the beans grow into a massive beanstalk. Climbing it, Jack finds a giant named J. Mason with a hen that lays golden eggs. Jack steals the hen to renovate the motel. When a beautiful guest named Pippi Lee Sing arrives, Jack is captured by two men and taken to the giant. Fortunately, Pippi, actually a secret agent, rescues him. They escape with the hen, cutting down the beanstalk and defeating the giant. Jack and Pippi marry and leave with the hen by train. The story parodies Alfred Hitchcock's works, with nods to Psycho, Vertigo and Rear Window.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Inspired by the One Thousand and One Nights, Gordon and Skip play Ziggy and Roy Aladdin, a struggling duo who discover a magic lamp. The genie inside transports them to Sheboygan, where they face trouble for catching sight of the princess. After overcoming challenges and exposing a plot against the king, they win favor and marry the princess and Skip's girlfriend.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = The Wicked Witch controls all media in the country, offering limited content on Witch TV and censoring rap music. Rhonda portrays Rapunzel, whose family loses on the Witch's rigged television quiz show, leading to her imprisonment. Prince Gordon and his rap friends rescue Rapunzel from the forest and return to advocate for media reform. They persuade the king to limit media ownership and establish a commission to prevent monopolies.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Presented like a Dashiell Hammett novel, Gordon plays Sam Shovel Private Eye. A poor girl makes a deal with a dwarf magician to spin straw into gold to impress the king. However, unless she discovers the dwarf's name in 24 hours he will claim her first born child. She hires Sam Shovel to find his name, Rumplestilskin, and he does so in the nick of time. Caricature of Humphrey Bogart as Sam Shovel. NOTE: Last episode with a mailbag segment.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Prince Gordy would rather be a stand-up comic on the David Letterock Show than a prince but the Queen chooses a short, overweight, precocious princess for him to marry. Meanwhile, Gordy misses his chance to perform before Letterock, but he impresses Avery Fisher-Hall, the waitress in the comedy café who is really a princess. Gordy tells the Queen that he wants to marry Avery so she demands that Avery must pass the mattress test to prove she is a princess before she can marry the prince - and she does. Caricature of David Letterman.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon play John Henry, a master chef with his TV show, Eatie Gourmet who focusses on hand preparation of his meals. His competitor, the evil Art Cuisine, invents the K-Art mechanical food processor as part of his plot to take over the world. A competition to see who can serve the most six-course meals is held, with John Henry's old-fashioned methods being extremely slow and losing to K-Art's rapid ways. Henry fades into obscurity and Cuisine becomes prominent with everyone in America now owning the K-Art Chopper. However, during a dinner at the White House, the President is disgusted with the processed food of the K-Art Chopper and demands tomato roses, which only John Henry knew how to make. Art Cuisine activates all K-Art Choppers to transform into killer robots to cow all of America and depose the President. When all seems lost, Henry returns and destroys the robots using hand tools. As a reward for saving his life, the President appoints John Henry the White House Chef. Parody of the H. G. Wells book, The War of the Worlds and features a Caricature of Bob Dylan as a folk singer.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Rick, Skip, and Alf play the respective trio (Ernie, Chip, and Robbie) in a twist on the classic story. The beginning and ending scenes parody The Twilight Zone. Also, the straw is switched to soup cans.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon doesn't want to do the story, but everyone else does. As he begins to ready, he falls asleep and a humanoid rabbit named Blanche du Lapine steals his birthday present for Rhonda. Gordon follows her down an elevator shaft and through a cat door to a Wonderland featuring obnoxious flowers, a Pee-wee Herman version of Humpty Dumpty, a Wooster-Chester cat, a saxophone-playing caterpillar (possibly played by Skip), the Tweedle Sisters (Dee is changed to Blonde), Rick and Larson as The Mad Catter and The March Hare, and a very awful Queen. In the end, Blanche reveals herself to be Rhonda and the whole thing was an un-birthday surprise for Gordon, and the whole thing was a dream.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
| ShortSummary = Peter Pan (Gordon) and Tinkerbell (Neep) take Wendy (Rhonda) and her siblings off to Never-Never land. Meanwhile, Captain Hook is a stand-up pirate comedian who see Peter Pan as a rival. Wendy fancies Peter, but becomes frustrated when she is treated like a maid by Peter and the Lost Boys, and tells them all to "grow up". To find Peter's secret location, Hook captures Tinkerbell who resents Wendy's arrival. Hook then kidnaps, Wendy and the others, but Tinkerbell escapes and warns Peter who comes to their rescue. Peter decides to "grow up" and after returning to England with Wendy and the others, he opens a burger joint with Hook. Features a caricature of Michael "Crocodile" Dundee as the crocodile.
| LineColor = 8B4513
}}
}}
Season 2 (1989)
| ShortSummary = Gordon plays a plump Bavarian boy with a large appetite, Hansel and Rhonda plays his sister Gretel. They get lost in the forest and end up at Camp Eat-a-Kid. The resident witch Fattens up Hansel while Gretel is thrown in a cell with Simon and Theodore – Alvin has disappeared. They get free but are recaptured so they put Hansel through a rigorous fitness program to lose weight. This time they escape and the witch is arrested. Parody of Alvin and the Chipmunks and caricatures of Mr. T as Mr. Tree and The Monkees as The New Donkees.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = Set in East Velcro back in the era of Black and White TV, Gordon is selling encyclopedias door-to-door when a tornado lifts up the family farmhouse and he lands in the colourful 60s along the Mellow Brick Road. He lands on a witch and her magical ruby high-top sneakers attaches themselves to his feet. He heads along the road to find the Wizard of Oz to remove them, meanwhile the Wicked Witch casts faulty spells in an effort to retrieve them. He encounters a trio, Tin, Straw and Fur who join him and the travel to the Cubic Zirconia City where they are caught by the Witch. Gordon challenges her to a game of basketball and when she gets covered in milk during the game she melts away and he returns home, to live with the Good Witch and star in his own sitcom. Parody of counterculture of the 1960s, caricature of Bill Cosby as the Wizard of Oz.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = In the village of Birkenstock, Melmac's lower east side, two elves from "Elves-R-Us" are sent to help the struggling shoe store of Donald Tramp played by Larson and his wife Imelda played by Sloop. The elves make shoes which Tramp sells for a high price, and each night they do the same until the store becomes very successful. He expands his business to become the richest man in the land, however the elves feel exploited and go on strike. Special agent of the Impartial Mediators Federation (IMF), Gordon, is assigned to resolve the situation and he approaches Tramp but has no success. Meanwhile the new automated production line malfunctions and faulty shoes threaten to overwhelm the factory. Gordo/Gordon finds a solution where Tramp is arrested and Imelda takes over the production and she leaves Tramp for Shumway. Parody of Mission Impossible and caricature of Donald Trump and Imelda Marcos.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = The emperor demands some new clothes for an upcoming the Label Day parade. The prime minister, Lord Bloomingdale, played by Snout, grouses that he must spent most of his time presenting clothes and hardly any energy left over for governmental issues. Gordon plays a wannabe clothes designer, Beneton Espirit who, joins Coco Klein's fashion house where he meets the beautiful model Christy Dinkly played by Rhonda. However his casual sportswear look is soundly rejected by the emperor. He tries again as a masked fashion designer named Guess Who but when he appears to have no pants, Guess says his pants are made of invisible Schmatex. The Emperor demands that his new outfit be made of Schmatex and when he walks through the streets the ruse is revealed along with his nakedness. However, Beneton has a change of heart and presents the emperor with one of his actual line, a simple shirt and pair of chinos. Having learned his lesson on vanity, the emperor donates his excessive wardrobe to the poor. Parody of the fashion industry and haute couture.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = Mayor Bear and his family have to go away on business, so they contract Rhonda's house-sitting service to look after their Malizoo beach house while they're away, including their special possessions, their canine Studs and very special vibrating beds. However, Rhonda gets a better offer and asks Goldilocks, played by Gordon, to do the job. Gordon and his friends decide to turn the place into an amusement park to earn some extra money, but they are busted by the corrupt police who confiscate the house's contents. Desperate, Goldilocks uses his profits to buy the furniture back from the police, but when the Bears return, they detect that someone has been using their furniture and beds. Eventually everything is resolved, although the Bears contemplate starting a folk band called the Moma and the Poppa. Parody of Southern California youth culture and their social dialect.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = Gordon plays a Courier called Red who has to deliver a package to scientist Grandma to complete her shrinking and enlarging device, however the Wolf gets there first and shrinks then swallows grandma. Red arrives, and the Wolf shrinks and swallows him too. However, Grandma and Red end up in the McStomach start a food fight which gives the Wolf a stomach ache and he burps them up. They get free and complete the assembly of Grandma's device, shrinking the Wolf and returning themselves to normal size. Parody of Honey I Shrunk the Kids.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = The story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is presented as an episode of Unsolved Mysteries by Gordon as Robert Stuck. Snow White, a keen skier, disappears after winning a ski competition and beating the Wicked Queen. The Queen used to ask ski instructor Mario de la Wall "who is the fairest skier", and after he answered "Snow White" she disappeared. She was last seen in the company of a thug for hire, played by Bob, tasked by the Queen to cut off her fingers and toes. However, the thug takes pity on her and tells her to head to the forest. Stuck says the thug was seen at a joke shop where he acquired funny fingers, giving those to the Queen as a ploy. Snow White heads to "The middle of Nowhere" where she finds a condo rented by seven dwarf ski bums. Besides skiing, her passion is cleaning and is soon appreciated by the dwarves for making their quartes pleasant. The Queen resumes her vendetta when she realizes she was tricked. While the dwarves are away at work, Snow White bites a poisonous apple left by the Queen and goes into a deep sleep. The dwarfs enter her in the "Date Connection Show". All the male skiers try to kiss her awake, but their lips are chapped. Robert Stuck is ineligible as he is not a skier, so he masters the green circle slope and kisses her, thus being the one to awaken her and marry her. Parody of dating game shows and caricature of Robert Stack in Unsolved Mysteries.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
| ShortSummary = Oklahoma Jones (Gordon) goes in search of King Midas but he is captured by the evil Professor Bouquet who steals his map. It appears that Midas made a fortune franchising camel mufflers and a grateful client granted him the power to turn everything he touched into gold. Jones travels to Midas Land and finds King Midas and decides to help remove the spell by finding a magic coffee mug. Parody of Indiana Jones and Midas automotive service centers.
| LineColor = D2B48C
}}
}}
Home media
The first seven episodes were released on DVD on May 30, 2006, in Region 1 from Lionsgate Home Entertainment in a single-disc release entitled ALF and The Beanstalk and Other Classic Fairy Tales.
The complete series was remastered and subsequently released on October 17, 2023, by Shout! Factory in the DVD box set ALF: The Complete Series (Deluxe Edition). The box set release also included the original 1986–90 sitcom, ALF: The Animated Series and Project: ALF.
See also
*List of animated spinoffs from prime time shows
References
External links
*
Category:ALF (TV series)
Category:1980s American animated comedy television series
Category:1980s American children's comedy television series
Category:1980s American comic science fiction television series
Category:1988 American animated television series debuts
Category:1989 American television series endings
Category:American animated television spinoffs
Category:American children's animated comic science fiction television series
Category:Animated television series about extraterrestrial life
Category:American English-language television shows
Category:Television series by DIC Entertainment
Category:Television series by Lorimar Television
Category:Television series by Saban Entertainment
Category:Television series created by Paul Fusco
Category:Television series created by Tom Patchett
Category:Animated television shows based on fairy tales
Category:Television series by Lorimar-Telepictures
Category:NBC animated television series | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALF_Tales | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.339420 |
2376 | Abdul Rashid Dostum | | native_name = }}
| native_name_lang = prs
| image = Abdul Rashid Dostum in September 2014.jpg
| alt | caption Dostum in September 2014
| predecessor = Yunus Qanuni
| president = Ashraf Ghani
| successor = Amrullah Saleh
| signature | birth_name
| birth_date
| birth_place = Khwaja Du Koh, Jowzjan, Kingdom of Afghanistan
| death_date = <!-- -->
| death_place | blank1 Nationality
| data1 = Afghan
| party = PDPA (until 1992)<br/>Junbish-e Milli (from 1992)
| relations | website <!-- -->
| nickname = Pasha (پاشا)
| allegiance = Republic of Afghanistan<br>(1976–1978)<br /> Democratic Republic of Afghanistan<br>(1978–1992)<br /> Junbish-e Milli<br>(1992–1996)<br /> Northern Alliance<br>(1996–2001)<br /> Islamic Republic of Afghanistan<br>(2001–2021)
| branch = Afghan Army
| serviceyears = 1976–2021
| rank = Field Marshal
| unit = *2nd Infantry Division
**444th Commando Battalion
*6th Corps
| commands =
* Afghan Army
** Afghan Commando Forces (formerly)
| battles =
* Saur Revolution
* Soviet–Afghan War
** Siege of Khost
** Second Battle of Zhawar
** Battle of Arghandab
* First Afghan Civil War
** Battle of Jalalabad
* Second Afghan Civil War
** Battle of Kabul
** Afshar Operation
* Third Afghan Civil War
** Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif
* War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
** US invasion of Afghanistan
**Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif
**Siege of Kunduz
**Battle of Qala-i-Jangi
**Dasht-i-Leili massacre
** Operation Enduring Freedom
** Taliban insurgency
** Battle of Darzab
** 2021 Taliban offensive
| awards = Hero of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan<br/> Order of the Red Banner<br/> Afghan KGB Medal<br/>
| image_size | term_start 29 September 2014
| term_end = 19 February 2020
| placeofburial | placeofburial_label
| placeofburial_coordinates <!-- -->
| servicenumber | battles_label
| laterwork | honorific_prefix Marshal
}}
Abdul Rashid Dostum ( ; ; Uzbek Latin: , Uzbek Cyrillic: , ; born 25 March 1954) is an Afghan former military officer, warlord and exiled politician. He is the founder and leader of the Junbish-e Milli political party, and was a senior army officer in the military of the former Afghan communist government during the Soviet–Afghan War, initially part of the Afghan Commando Forces. In 2001, Dostum became a key indigenous ally to the U.S. Special Forces and the CIA during the campaign to topple the Taliban government. He is one of the most powerful warlords since the beginning of the Afghan conflict, infamous for being an opportunist and siding with winners during Afghanistan's several civil wars. Dostum was also referred to as a kingmaker due to his significant role in Afghan politics.
An ethnic Uzbek from a peasant family in Jawzjan province, Dostum joined the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) as a teenager before enlisting in the Afghan Army and training as a paratrooper, serving in his native region around Sheberghan. Following the outbreak of the Soviet–Afghan War, Dostum commanded a KHAD paramilitary unit and eventually gained a reputation for defeating mujahideen commanders in northern Afghanistan and even persuading some to defect to the communist cause. As a result, the communist government gained effective control over the country's north. He achieved several promotions in the army and was honored as a "Hero of Afghanistan" by President Mohammed Najibullah in 1988. By this time he was commanding up to 45,000 troops in the region under his responsibility.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Dostum played a central role in the collapse of Najibullah's government by "defecting" to the mujahideen; the division-sized Initially supporting the new government of Burhanuddin Rabbani, he switched sides in 1994 by allying with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, but he backed Rabbani again by 1996. During this time he remained in control of the country's north which functioned as a relatively stable proto-state, but remained a loose partner of Massoud in the Northern Alliance. A year later, Mazar-i-Sharif was overrun by his former aide Abdul Malik Pahlawan, resulting in a battle in which he regained control. In 1998, the city was overrun by the Taliban and Dostum fled the country until returning to Afghanistan in 2001, joining the Northern Alliance forces after the US invasion and leading his loyal faction in the Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif. His militia feuded with forces loyal to general Atta Muhammad Nur. Dostum was a candidate in the 2004 elections, and was an ally of victorious Karzai in the 2009 elections. From 2011, he was part of the leadership council of the National Front of Afghanistan along with Ahmad Zia Massoud and Mohammad Mohaqiq. He served as Vice President of Afghanistan in Ashraf Ghani's administration from 2014 to 2020. In 2020, he was promoted to the rank of marshal after a political agreement between Ghani and former Chief Executive Abdullah Abdullah. On 11 August 2021 during the Taliban's nationwide offensive, Dostum fled across Hairatan to Uzbekistan.
Dostum is a controversial figure in Afghanistan. He is seen as a capable and fierce military leader and remains wildly popular among the Uzbek community in the country. Many of his supporters call him "Pasha" (پاشا), an honorable Uzbek/Turkic term. In 2018, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was reported to be considering launching an inquiry into whether Dostum had engaged in war crimes in Afghanistan.
Early life
Dostum was born in 1954 in Khwaja Du Koh near Sheberghan in Jowzjan province, Afghanistan. Coming from an impoverished ethnic Uzbek family, he received a very basic traditional education as he was forced to drop out of school at a young age. From there, he took up work in the village's major gas fields.
Career
Dostum began working in 1970 in a state-owned gas refinery in Sheberghan. He began participating in union politics when the republican government led by Daoud Khan started to arm the staff of the workers in the oil and gas refineries. The reason for this was to create "groups for the Defense of the Revolution". As a result of the new communist ideas entering Afghanistan in the 1970s, Dostum enlisted in the Afghan Army in 1976. He received his basic military training in Jalalabad and his squadron was deployed in the rural areas around Sheberghan, under the auspices of the Ministry of National Security. According to photographic evidence, Dostum additionally received airborne training and still chooses to wear two first-class "Master Paratrooper" Afghan jump wings.
As a Parcham faction member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), he was exiled after the purge of Parcham by the party's Khalqist faction leaders, living in Peshawar, Pakistan for a while. After the Soviet invasion (Operation Storm-333) and installation of Babrak Karmal as head of state, Dostum returned to Afghanistan, where he started commanding a local pro-government militia in his native Jawzjan Province. While the unit recruited throughout Jowzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum's home village. He left the army after the purge of Parchamites, but returned after the Soviet occupation began. Later on, he became the commander of the military unit 374 in Jowzjan. He defended the Soviet-backed Afghan government against the mujahideen forces throughout the 1980s. While he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised his forces by himself. The Jowzjani militia Dostum controlled was one of the few in the country that was able to be deployed outside its own region. They were deployed in Kandahar in 1988 when Soviet forces were withdrawing from Afghanistan.
Due to his efforts in the army, Dostum was awarded the title "Hero of the Republic of Afghanistan" by President Najibullah.
Civil war and northern Afghanistan autonomous state
Dostum's men would become an important force in the fall of Kabul in 1992, with Dostum deciding to defect from Najibullah and allying himself with opposition commanders Ahmad Shah Massoud and Sayed Jafar Naderi, the head of the Isma'ili community, and together they captured the capital city. With the help of fellow defectors Mohammad Nabi Azimi and Abdul Wakil, his forces entered Kabul by air in the afternoon of 14 April. He and Massoud fought in a coalition against Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.
Dostum then left Kabul for his northern stronghold Mazar-i-Sharif, where he ruled, in effect, an independent region (or 'proto-state'), often referred as the Northern Autonomous Zone. He printed his own Afghan currency, ran a small airline named Balkh Air, and formed relations with countries like Uzbekistan effectively creating his own proto-state with an army of up to 40,000 men, and with tanks supplied by Uzbekistan and Russia. While the rest of the country was in chaos, his region remained prosperous and functional, and it won him the support from people of all ethnic groups. Many people fled to his territory to escape the violence and fundamentalism imposed by the Taliban later on. In 1994, Dostum allied himself with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar against the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud, but in 1995 sided with the government again. Accordingly, on 25 May 1997, Malik arrested Khan, handed him over and let the Taliban enter Mazar-e-Sharif, giving them control over most of northern Afghanistan. Because of this, Dostum was forced to flee to Turkey. However, Malik soon realized that the Taliban were not sincere with their promises as he saw his men being disarmed. He then rejoined the Northern Alliance and turned against his erstwhile allies, driving them from Mazar-e-Sharif. In October 1997, Dostum returned from exile and retook charge. After Dostum briefly regained control of Mazar-e-Sharif, the Taliban returned in 1998, and he again fled to Turkey.
Operation Enduring Freedom
Dostum returned to Afghanistan in May 2001 to open up a new front before the U.S.-led campaign against the Taliban joined him, along with Commander Massoud, Ismail Khan and Mohammad Mohaqiq. Dostum, the Tajik commander Atta Muhammad Nur and their American allies defeated Taliban forces and recaptured Mazar-i-Sharif on 10 November 2001.
On 24 November 2001, 15,000 Taliban soldiers were due to surrender after the Siege of Kunduz to American and Northern Alliance forces. Instead, 400 Al-Qaeda prisoners arrived just outside Mazar-i-Sharif. After they surrendered to Dostum, they were transferred to the 19th century garrison fortress, Qala-i-Jangi. The next day, while being questioned by CIA officers Spann and David Tyson, they used concealed weapons to revolt, triggering what became the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi against the guards. The uprising was finally brought under control after six days. Dasht-i-Leili massacre
Dostum has been accused by Western journalists of responsibility for the suffocating or otherwise killing of Taliban prisoners in December 2001,
Karzai administration
In the aftermath of Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with Tajik forces loyal to Atta Muhammad Nur. Atta's men kidnapped and killed a number of Dostum's men, and constantly agitated to gain control of Mazar-e-Sharif. Through the political mediations of the Karzai administration, the International Security Assistance Force (ISA) and the United Nations, the Dostum-Atta feud gradually declined, leading to their alignment in a new political party.
Dostum served as deputy defense minister the early period of the Karzai administration. On 20 May 2003, Dostum narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. He was often residing outside Afghanistan, mainly in Turkey. In February 2008, he was suspended after the apparent kidnapping and torture of a political rival. Time in TurkeySome media reports in 2008 stated earlier that Dostum was "seeking political asylum" in Turkey while others said he was exiled. One Turkish media outlet said Dostum was visiting after flying there with then Turkey's Foreign Minister Ali Babacan during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
On 16 August 2009, Dostum was asked to return from exile to Afghanistan to support President Hamid Karzai in his bid for re-election. He later flew by helicopter to his northern stronghold of Sheberghan, where he was greeted by thousands of his supporters in the local stadium. He subsequently made overtures to the United States, promising he could "destroy the Taliban and al Qaeda" if supported by the U.S., saying that "the U.S. needs strong friends like Dostum." Ghani administration
on 30 September 2014]]
On 7 October 2013, the day after filing his nomination for the 2014 general elections as running mate of Ashraf Ghani, Dostum issued a press statement that some news media were willing to welcome as "apologies": "Many mistakes were made during the civil war (…) It is time we apologize to the Afghan people who were sacrificed due to our negative policies (…) I apologize to the people who suffered from the violence and civil war (…)".
Dostum was directly chosen as First Vice President of Afghanistan in the April–June 2014 Afghan presidential election, next to Ashraf Ghani as president and Sarwar Danish as second vice president.
In July 2016, Human Rights Watch accused Abdul Rashid Dostum's National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan of killing, abusing and looting civilians in the northern Faryab Province during June. Militia forces loyal to Dostum stated that the civilians they targeted – at least 13 killed and 32 wounded – were supporters of the Taliban.
On 26 July 2018, he narrowly escaped a suicide bombing by ISIL-KP as he returned to Afghanistan at Kabul airport. Just after Dostum's convoy departed the airport, an attacker armed with a suicide vest bombed a crowd of several hundred people celebrating his return at the entrance to the airport. The attack killed 14 and injured 50, including civilians and armed security.
On 30 March 2019, Dostum again escaped an expected assassination attempt while traveling from Mazar-e-Sharif to Jawzjan Province, though two of his bodyguards were killed. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the attack, the second in eight months.
On 11 August 2021 during the Taliban's nationwide offensive, Dostum, along with Atta Muhammad Nur, led the government's defence of the city of Mazar-i-Sharif. Three days later, they fled across Hairatan to Uzbekistan. Atta Nur claimed that they were forced to flee due to a "conspiracy". Both men later pled allegiance to the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan, the remaining remnants of the collapsed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Dostum, Atta, Yunus Qanuni, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and some other political figures formed the Supreme Council of National Resistance of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in opposition to the new Taliban government in October 2021. Dostum now resides in exile in Turkey, and on 15 September 2024 urged groups opposed to Taliban rule to form a government-in-exile. When Dostum was ruling his northern Afghanistan proto-state before the Taliban took over in 1998, women were able to go about unveiled, girls were allowed to go to school and study at the University of Balkh, cinemas showed Indian films, music played on television, and Russian vodka and German beer were openly available: activities which were all banned by the Taliban.
}}
He viewed the ISAF forces attempt to crush the Taliban as ineffective and has gone on record saying in 2007 that he could mop up the Taliban "in six months"
He named one of his sons Mustafa Kamal, after the founder of the modern Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Dostum is known to drink alcohol, a rarity in Afghanistan, and apparently a fan of Russian vodka. He reportedly suffered from diabetes. In popular culture * Navid Negahban portrays Dostum in the 2018 film 12 Strong.
* Dostum appears as a playing card in the board game A Distant Plain, part of a series of wargames simulating historic insurgency and counterinsurgency conflicts. See also
* Abdul Jabar Qahraman
* Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)
* Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)
References
Bibliography
*
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110128113515/http://generaldostum.com/ General Abdul Rashid Dostum's official website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090310122509/http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com/abdul-rashid-dostum/ Article on Abdul Rashid Dostum on Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (.com)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1563344.stm Profile: General Rashid Dostum] – BBC News
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051115130402/http://www.zmag.org/cockburndostum.htm Biography about Dostum]
* [http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/presents/index.house.of.war.html CNN Presents: House of War]
* [https://swap.stanford.edu/20100312073854/http%3A//afghanistan.phrblog.org/ Afghanistan Mass Grave: The Dasht-e Leili War Crimes Investigation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090422060348/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/227/story/57649.html As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent]
* [http://www.democracynow.org/2009/7/13/obama_calls_for_probe_into_2001 Obama Calls for Probe into 2001 Massacre of Suspected Taliban POWs by US-Backed Afghan Warlord] – video by Democracy Now!
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130601225547/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0203/life.html Eyewitness account from National Geographic war reporter Robert Young Pelton]
Category:1954 births
Category:Living people
Category:Afghan military personnel
Category:Vice presidents of Afghanistan
Category:Afghan warlords
Category:Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)
Category:People of the Soviet–Afghan War
Category:Afghan communists
Category:National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan politicians
Category:People from Jowzjan Province
Category:Afghan expatriates in Turkey
Category:Afghan exiles
Category:Afghan expatriates in Pakistan
Category:Military of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Category:Islamic State of Afghanistan<!--Northern Alliance-->
Category:21st-century Afghan politicians
Category:Afghan Uzbek politicians
Category:Afghan military officers
Category:Marshals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.385785 |
2377 | Andhra Pradesh | | image_caption = From top, left to right: Venkateswara temple at Tirumala, Undavalli Caves near Vijayawada, and Vizag seaport
| image_seal = Emblem of Andhra Pradesh.svg
| etymology = Province of Andhras (State of Andhras)
| motto = Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone triumphs)
| anthem = "Mā Telugu Talliki"<br/> (To Our Telugu Mother)
| image_map = IN-AP.svg
| coordinates
| region = South India
| year_start = <!-- the year in which the territory was established as a separate entity -->
| formation_date4 = 1 October 1953 <!-- formation date of the state or territory -->
| consolidation = 1 November 1956 <!-- the date when the states or territories were merged or into another state -->
| before_was = Undivided Andhra Pradesh
| formation_date3 = 2 June 2014 (Bifurcation by forming Telangana) <!-- date when the state or territory was bifurcated -->
| capital = Amaravati
| largestcity = Visakhapatnam
| metro = Andhra Pradesh Capital Region
| districts = 26
| Governor = Syed Abdul Nazeer
| Chief_Minister = N. Chandrababu Naidu
| party = TDP
| Deputy_CM = K. Pawan Kalyan<br />(JSP)
| judiciary = Andhra Pradesh High Court
| Chief_secretary = K.Vijayanand, IAS
| legislature_type = Bicameral <br/>Andhra Pradesh Legislature
| assembly = Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly
| assembly_seats = 175 seats
| council = Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council
| council_seats = 58 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 11 seats
| lok_sabha_seats = 25 seats
| area_total_km2 = 162970
| area_rank = 7th
| elevation_m = 269
| elevation_max_m = 1680
| elevation_max_point = Arma Konda
| population_total = 49577103
| population_footnotes
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 10th
| population_urban = 29.47% (14610372)
| population_rural = 70.53% (34966730)
| population_density = 304
| population_demonym = Andhrulu, Teluguvaaru
| 0fficial_Langs = Telugu
| additional_official Urdu
| official_script = Telugu script
| GDP_footnotes
| GDP_total
| GDP_year = 2024–25
| GDP_rank = 9th
| GDP_per_capita
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 16th
| HDI_year = 2024
| HDI 0.648
| bird Rose-ringed parakeet Andhras were referred to as non-aryans living on the fringes of Aryan settlements. The Satavahanas, the earliest kings who ruled this region were mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jateeya, and Andhrabhrtya in the Puranic literature. "Andhra" is both a tribal and territorial name. The region inhabited by Andhras was called Andhradesa.
History
Pre-history
Excavated stone tools from Hanumanthunipadu in Prakasam district were dated to be 2.47 lakh (247,000) years old (Middle Paleolithic). This finding means that these tools were developed by archaic hominins (pre-humans) as such tools were thought to be used by modern man migrating out of Africa about 2.10 lakh (210,000) years ago. In the absence of fossil evidence, it became a riddle to understand what happened to them. The discovery of petroglyphs, pictographs, and dolmens in Chakrala Bodu, near Boyalapalli village in the Yerragondapalem mandal area of Prakasam district indicates the presence of Neolithic-age human settlements in the region. Early and medieval history
, built during the 3rd century BCE–2nd century BCE]]
Megasthenes reported in his Indica () that Andhras were living in the Godavari and Krishna river deltas and were famous for their military strength which was second only to Mauryans in all of India. Archaeological evidence from places such as Bhattiprolu, Amaravathi, and Dharanikota suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan empire. After the death of Emperor Ashoka, Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE and was replaced by several smaller kingdoms in the Andhra region. One of the earliest examples of the Brahmi script, from Bhattiprolu was used on an urn containing the relics of Buddha. This is considered as the rosetta stone for decipherment of Tamil Brahmi. Kadamba script, derived from Bhattiprolu Brahmi later led to the evolution of Telugu and Kannada scripts.
The Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan Plateau from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. It had trade relations with the Roman Empire. The Satavahanas made Dhanyakataka-Amaravathi their capital. According to historian Stanley Wolpert, it might have been the most prosperous city in India in 2nd century CE. Nagarjuna, the philosopher of Mahayana, lived in this region. Mahayana spread to China, Japan, and Korea. It became the largest Buddhist denomination in the world. Amaravati School of Art is regarded as one of the three major styles of ancient Indian art and had a great influence on art in South India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The Andhra Ikshvakus, with their capital at Vijayapuri, succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley in the latter half of the 2nd century CE. The Salankayanas were an ancient dynasty that ruled the Andhra region between Godavari and Krishna rivers with their capital at Vengi (modern Pedavegi) around 300 CE. Telugu Cholas ruled present-day Kadapa region from the six to the thirteenth centuries intermittently. Kallamalla sasanam (law), engraved in 575 CE during the rule of Dhanamjaya, is the earliest completely Telugu inscription.
, Guntur district]]
The Vishnukundinas was the first dynasty in the fifth and sixth centuries to hold sway over South India. Undavalli Caves is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture of that time. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose dynasty lasted for around five hundred years from the 7th century until 1130 CE, eventually merged with the Chola dynasty. They continued to rule under the protection of the Chola dynasty until 1189 CE. At the request of King Rajaraja Narendra, Nannaya, considered the first Telugu poet, took up the translation of the Mahabharata into Telugu in 1025 CE.
Kakatiyas ruled this region and Telangana for nearly two hundred years between the 12th and 14th centuries. They were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate. Bahamani sultanate took over when Delhi sultanate became weak. Around the same time, Musunuris and Reddi Kingdom ruled parts of this region in the early 14th century. Reddy kings constructed Kondaveedu Fort and Kondapalli Fort. Gajpathis ruled parts of this region, before the entire region became part of the Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Pemmasani Nayaks controlled parts of Andhra Pradesh and had large mercenary armies that were the vanguard of the empire in the 16th century. Several tanks and anicuts were built. Some of these include the Cumbum tank, Mopad tank, and Koregal anicut, Vallabhapur anicut across the Tungabhadra River. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Lepakshi group of monuments built during this period have mural paintings of the Vijayanagara kings, Dravidian art, and inscriptions. These are put on the tentative list of the UNESCO World Heritage committee.
Modern history
, Carnatic Sultanate, British East India Company and Kingdom of Mysore and transformation to British East India Company rule by 1801 (map dated 1805) (right)]]
Following the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over most of present-day general Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Later, this region came under the rule of the Mughal Empire. Chin Qilich Khan who was initially appointed as viceroy of Deccan by the Mughal in 1713, established himself as a semi-independent ruler as Nizam of Hyderabad . In 1765, British Lord Robert Clive obtained from the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II a grant of four circars to the British East India Company, that was formalised in 1778 treaty with Nizam Ali, the 5th Nizam of Hyderabad state with addition of another circar. Later, four territories were ceded to the British by Nizam Ali in 1800, which eventually became the Rayalaseema region. Meanwhile, in the present day North Andhra, Raja Viziaram Raz (Vijayaram Raj) established a sovereign kingdom and acquired neighbouring estates with the support of British. Later it fell out with the British and, as a result, was attacked and defeated in the battle of Padmanabham in 1794. It was annexed as a tributary estate like other principalities and remained so until it acceded to the Indian Union in 1949. Following the annexation of Carnatic sultanate in 1801, the last major piece of the present day Andhra Pradesh came under British East India Company rule as part of Madras Presidency. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the region became part of British crown till India became independent in 1947.
built in 1850 by Arthur Cotton]]
Anicut at Dowleswaram built in 1850 by Arthur Cotton and several others at Vijayawada, Nellore, Sangam, Sunkesula, and Polampalli are examples of irrigation facilities built during the British raj, that irrigated lacs of acres across coastal districts. Telegraph service initiated in 1850 served for over 160 years till it was stopped on 15 July 2013 citing poor patronage due to advances in mobile communications and short message service. Charles Philip Brown did pioneering work in transforming Telugu to the print era and introduced Vemana poems to English readers. Kandukuri Veeresalingam is considered the father of the Telugu renaissance movement, as he encouraged the education of women and lower caste people. He fought against Brahmin marriage customs such as child marriage, the bride price system, and the prohibition of widow remarriage.
, whose fast unto death in 1952 led to the formation of Andhra State]]
To gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. The Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras state on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States reorganisation act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956. Hyderabad grew rapidly partly through investments flowing in from agrarian change and 'green revolution' in coastal Andhra.
In the unified state, Indian National Congress (INC) enjoyed a monopoly in ruling the state till 1983. After that Telugu Desam Party (TDP) led by N. T. Rama Rao (NTR) came to power and became another major party to rule the state. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam commissioned in 1967, Srisailam hydro electric project commissioned in 1982 are few examples of irrigation and electricity projects. The increased presence of women, Dalits, and tribals in the social and political spheres of the state, driven by social movements, led to a rise in violence against these groups. Securing access to resources like land remains an unachieved objective in the effort to expand their economic opportunities in the state. When the union cabinet decided to consider the formation of Telangana state in 2009 heeding to the demand of relaunched Telangana movement, Samaikyandhra Movement opposing it took shape and the state went through a turmoil. Finally, the Andhra Pradesh reorganisation act bill was passed by the parliament of India for the formation of the Telangana state, despite opposition by the state legislature. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh.
TDP formed the first government of the residual state with Chandrababu Naidu as chief minister. In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme. In the 2019 elections, Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, leader of the YSR Congress Party, became the chief minister by winning 151 out of 175 seats. He introduced the 'village and ward volunteers' system, and reorganised the state with 26 districts. Introduction of English as the medium of instruction was done in almost all the state schools. The move to three capitals with Amaravati getting reduced to being the legislative capital, Vizag as the executive capital and Kurnool as the judicial capital was stuck down by the High Court. His government appealed to the Supreme Court.
Geography
Andhra Pradesh is the seventh-largest state with an area of . Politically, the state shares borders with Orissa to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the north, Karnataka to the southwest, Tamil Nadu to the south, Telangana to northwest and the Bay of Bengal to the east. Yanam district, an enclave of Puducherry, is in the state bordering Kakinada district. It has a coastline of around , which makes it the second-longest coastline in the nation.
The Eastern Ghats are a major dividing line separating coastal plains and peneplains in the state's geography. These are discontinuous, and individual sections have local names. The ghats become more pronounced towards the south and extreme north of the coast. Some of these consist of the Horsley Hills, the Seshachala Hills, the Nallamala Hills, and the Papi Hills. Arma Konda, located in Visakhapatnam district, is the highest peak in the state. Peneplains, part of Rayalaseema, slope towards the east. The Eastern Coastal Plains comprise the area of coastal districts up to the Eastern ghats as their border along the Bay of Bengal, with variable width. These are, for the most part, delta regions formed by the Krishna, Godavari, and Penna rivers. The state has five different soil types with the majority soil types being red lateritic and black soil types. Most of the coastal plains are put to intensive agricultural use. The Kadapa basin, formed by two arching branches of the Eastern ghats, is a mineral-rich area.
in YSR district]]
The valleys include Araku Valley, which is rich in biodiversity and Gandikota gorge. Gandikota gorge is a canyon formed between the Erramala range of hills, through which the Penna (Pennar) river flows. Borra Caves, created millions of years ago by water activity and the country's second-longest cave system, the Belum Caves are in the state. The state has several beaches in its coastal districts, such as Rushikonda, Mypadu, Suryalanka. Flora and fauna
(parrot) (state bird) feeding on Neem fruits (state tree)]]
The total forest cover of the state is , amounting to 18.28% of the total area. The Eastern ghats region is home to dense tropical forests, while the vegetation becomes sparse as the ghats give way to the peneplains, where shrub vegetation is more common. The vegetation found in the state is largely of dry deciduous types, with a mixture of teak, and genera of Terminalia, Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, etc. The state possesses some rare and endemic plants like Cycas beddomei, Pterocarpus santalinus, Terminalia pallida, Syzygium alternifolium, Shorea tumburgia etc.
The state has 3 national parks and 13 wildlife sanctuaries . Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is an example of mangrove forests and salt-tolerant forest ecosystems near the sea. The area of these forests is , accounting for about 9% of the local forest area of the state. Other sanctuaries include Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kolleru Bird Sanctuary, and Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary. Neem (Azadirachta indica) is the state tree, jasmine is the state flower, rose ringed parakeet is the state bird, and blackbuck is the state mammal. The largest reserves of uranium are in Tummalapalli village of YSR district. The state also has reserves of oil and natural gas.
Climate
The climate varies considerably, depending on the geographical region. Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are generally higher than in the rest of the state, with temperatures exceeding . The minimum temperature during summer is about in the far southwest. July to September is the season for tropical rains from the southwest monsoon. The winter season is from October to February. The range of winter temperatures is generally except in the northeast where it could fall below . Lambasingi in Visakhapatnam district is nicknamed the "Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh" as its temperature ranges from . The normal rainfall for the state is . Demographics
(2011) The state has a sex ratio of 997 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 926 per 1000. The literacy rate in the state stands at 67.35%. Erstwhile West Godavari district has the highest literacy rate of 74.32%, and erstwhile Vizianagaram district has the lowest with 58.89%.
Human Development Index (HDI) of the state for the year 2022 is 0.642. , there are 39,984,868 voters including 3,924 third-gender voters. Kurnool district has the maximum number of voters at 1,942,233, while Alluri Sitharama Raju district has the minimum at 729,085.
Telugu is the first official language, and Urdu is the second official language of the state. Telugu is the mother tongue of nearly 90% of the population. Tamil, Kannada, and Odia are spoken in the border areas. Lambadi and several other languages are spoken by the scheduled tribes of the state. 19% of the population aged 12+ years can read and understand English, as per the Indian readership survey for Q4 2019.Religion
According to the 2011 census, the major religious groups in the state are Hindus (90.89%), Muslims (7.30%), and Christians (1.38%). Some of the popular Hindu religious pilgrim destinations include Tirumala Venkateswara temple at Tirupati, Mallikarjuna temple at Srisailam, Kanaka Durga Temple at Vijayawada, and Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Simhachalam. Buddhist sites at Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda are also popular.
Sub categorisaton
For the state of Andhra Pradesh, there are 59 entries in the SC category, 34 entries in the ST category, and 104 entries in Other Backward Classes (OBC) category. Komati, Brahmin, Kamma, Kapu, Raju, Reddy, and Velama communities constitute the Forward castes. Culture
Andhra Pradesh has 32 museums featuring a varied collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery, inscriptions, and religious artefacts. The Amaravathi archaeological museum has a display of art traditions of Amaravathi and images of Buddha. Bapu museum in Vijayawada has historical galleries, stone cut writings, coins, swords, body armour, shields, arms, and ornamentation. Telugu Samskruthika Niketanam in Visakhapatnam displays historical artefacts of the pre-independence era. The Archaeological Survey of India identified 135 centrally protected monuments in the state of Andhra Pradesh. These include the reconstructed monuments at Anupu and Nagarjunakonda. The state has 17 geographical indication (GI) registrations in the categories of agriculture, handicrafts, foodstuffs, and textiles as per the Geographical indications of goods (Registration and protection) act, 1999.Clothing
artwork on a cloth]]
The men's traditional wear consists of Panche, a long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes. Women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from in length and in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff, as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity. Women wear colourful silk saris on special occasions such as marriages. The traditional wear of young girls is a half-saree with blouse. The shift to wearing western clothing of pant and shirt has become common for boys and men, while women also wear salwar kameez in addition to saris. Dharmavaram textiles, Machilipatnam, and Srikalahasti Kalamkari handicrafts are few examples in clothes category with GI status.
A tamarind-rich dish popularly known as Pulihora is made with a thick sauce of tamarind, chillies, salt and asafoetida. It is tempered with mustard, curry leaves, peanuts and mixed with rice. It is offered even to the gods and then served as a prasadam (divine offering) in the temples to the devotees. Popular vegetarian curries include Dondakaya koora (ivy gourd cooked with coconut and green chilli) and Guttivankaya koora(stuffed brinjal curry). Thalakaya koora (lamb head gravy), Royyala koora (prawns cooked in tamarind), and Natukodi koora (freehold chicken curry with chillies) are popular non-vegetarian dishes across Guntur and surrounding regions. Yeta mamsam kobbari biryani (mutton cooked with coconut), Seema kodi (Rayalaseema-style chicken), Chennuru dum biryani, and Gongura mamsam (mutton cooked in sorrel gravy) are popular non-vegetarian dishes in Rayalaseema. Among fish preparations, Pulasa pulusu, thick aromatic and tangy gravy made from a single fish of the Godavari Pulasa variety is most desired in Konaseema. Ariselu, Burelu, Laddu, and Pootharekulu are some of the sweets made for special festivals and occasions. Pootharekulu, a preparation of sugar and rice flour and Taandri, a mango-flavoured sun-dried fruit jelly are popular sweets originating from Athreyapuram in Konaseema. Kakinada Khaaja layered flour deep fried and dipped in sugar is another popular sweetmeat. Bandar laddu, Tirupati Laddu are some of the food products with GI status. Pothana translated Bhagavatam into Telugu. Vemana was an Indian philosopher who wrote Telugu poems using simple language and native idioms on a variety of subjects including yoga, wisdom, and morality. Potuluri Veerabrahmendhra swami, a clairvoyant and social reformer of 17th century, wrote Kalagnanam, a book of predictions.
Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam is termed Adhunika Telugu Sahityam (modern Telugu literature). He was the author of the first Telugu social novel Rajasekhara Charitram, published in 1880. The use of colloquial idiom rather than grandhik (classical) in literature, championed by Gurajada Apparao and Gidugu Ramamurthy Panthulu led to increased literacy. Various forms of literature such as poetry, novel, short story were vibrant as indicated by the responses to national and international developments in various spheres of human life. The modern Telugu poetry, which began around 1900 developed into three forms – Bhava kavitvam (lyrical poetry), Abhyudaya kavitvam (progressive poetry), and new experimental poetry, including Viplava kavitvam (revolutionary poetry). Gurajada Apparao, Rayaprolu Subbarao, Gurram Jashuva, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Devulapalli Krishnasastri, and Sri Sri were some of the modern Telugu poets. Palagummi Padmaraju's short story Galivaana won second prize in World Short Story competition in 1952. Rachakonda Viswanadha Sastry initiated a new trend by focussing on the downtrodden in his novel Raju-Mahishi. Women writers such as Malati Chandur and Ranganayakamma dominated novels in the 1950s and 1960s. However, in the late 1970s, Yandamuri Veerendranath started writing popular novels with a focus on sex, suspense and violence, which were serialised in magazines. Telugu film song as literature took shape in the 1930s. Some of the famous lyric writers include Samudrala Senior, Arudra, Athreya, Daasarathi, and C. Narayana Reddy.Architecture
, showing Gopuram (big tower) in the front and Vimanam(small tower) in gold color at the back]]
Traditional temple architecture is influenced by Dravidian and Vijayanagara styles. In Dravidian architecture for which Tirumala temple is an example, the temples consisted of porches or mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, gate-pyramids or gopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple, and pillared halls used for many purposes. Besides these, the temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or pushkarni. The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. Vimanam are similar structures built over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum of the temple but are usually smaller than the gopurams. In the Vijayanagar style for which Lepakshi Veerabhadra temple is an example, the main temple is laid out in three parts, these are: The assembly hall known as the mukha mantapa; arda mantapa or antarala (ante chamber); and the garbhagriha or the sanctum sanctorum. Sri Venkateswara institute of traditional sculpture and architecture, run by Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams offers diploma courses. Civic architecture which mainly featured courtyard structure to support joint family system and simple round houses is giving way to modern apartments. Arts
at a house in Vijayawada]]
dance]]
Kondapalli Toys, the soft limestone idol carvings of Durgi and Etikoppaka lacquered wooden toys are few handicrafts with GI status. Sannai and Dolu are common musical instruments of marriages, household, and temple functions in the state. Harikathaa Kalakshepam (or Harikatha) involves the narration of a story, intermingled with various songs relating to the story. Burra katha is an oral storytelling technique in which the topic is either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue. Drama is an Indian theatre art form that is still popular. Gurajada Apparao wrote the play Kanyasulkam in spoken dialect for the first time. It was first presented in 1892. It is considered the greatest play in the Telugu language.
The Telugu film industry (known as "Tollywood") is primarily based in Hyderabad, though several films are shot in Vizag, Tirupati, Rajamahendravaram. About 300 films are produced annually, C. Pullaiah is cited as the father of the Telugu cinema. Film producer D. Ramanaidu holds a Guinness record for the most films produced by a person. Music composers and playback singers of the state include Ghantasala, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela, S. Janaki, and P. B. Sreenivas. "Naatu Naatu" from the film RRR became the first song from an Asian film to win the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2023. Efforts are on to make Vizag as the hub of film industry by offering incentives.
Festivals
Sankranti is the major harvest festival celebrated across the state. It is celebrated for four days in the second week of January. The first day of the Telugu new year Ugadi which occurs during March/April is also a special festival with the preparation and sharing of pickles (pachhadi) made from raw mangoes, neem flowers, pepper powder, jaggery and tamarind. Tasting this pickle which is a mix of different tastes teaches the importance of taking positive/negative life experiences in one's stride. Celebrations end with the recitation of the coming year's astrological predictions called Panchanga sravanam. Vijaya Dasami known commonly as Dussera and Deepavali, the festival of lights are other major Hindu festivals. Shivaratri is celebrated at Kotappakonda, with people from nearby villages preparing 80–100 ft height frames called prabhalu and taking it in a procession to the shine. Eid is celebrated with special prayers. Rottela Panduga is celebrated at Bara Shaheed Dargah in Nellore with participation across religious lines. Christians celebrate their religious festivals Good Friday, Easter and Christmas with processions and prayers.
Government and administration
There are a total of 175 assembly constituencies in the state legislative assembly. The legislative council is the upper house with 58 members. In the Indian parliament, the state has 25 seats in the Lok Sabha and 11 seats in the Rajya Sabha.
Reddy, Kamma and Kapu communities cornered a share of 66% of seats in the 2019 election results. In the 2024 assembly elections, Reddy, Kamma and Kapu communities among the forward classes got more allocation than OBC in the unreserved category by major political parties or alliances. TDP-led National Democratic Alliance with Jana Sena Party and Bharatiya Janata Party emerged victorious defeating the incumbent YSRCP led by Jagan. It won 164 seats, while YSRCP got 11, a big drop from 151 it held. N. Chandrababu Naidu became the chief minister of the state for the fourth time. According to an opinion by Ayesha Minhaz in The Hindu daily, several factors including the prevailing anti-incumbency against the previous government and the alliance's promise of "Welfare with wealth generation" contributed to the success of TDP-led alliance.
Andhra Pradesh police are structured in district, subdivision, circle, and police station hierarchy. In 2022, crimes against women and children saw a rise of 43.66% with a case count of 25,503 cases in Andhra Pradesh as per the National crime records bureau (NCRB) data. The state stood fifth in the country with 2,341 cybercrime cases. Andhra Pradesh High Court at Amaravati is headed by Chief justice with 37 judges. District judiciary is organised in a three-tier system with district courts at the top, civil (senior) and assistant sessions courts in the middle and civil (junior) and judicial first-class magistrate courts at the lower level. Apart from these, there are special courts such as family, CBI, ACB, Land reforms appellate tribunals, and industrial tribunals.
Andhra Pradesh comprises two regions, namely Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema from a historical perspective. The northern part of Coastal Andhra is sometimes mentioned separately as North Andhra, to raise voice against underdevelopment. The state is further divided into 26 districts.
Cities and towns
There are 123 urban local bodies, comprising 17 municipal corporations, 79 municipalities, and 27 nagar panchayats, in the state. The urban population is 14.9 million (1.49 crores) as per the 2011 census. There are two cities with more than one million inhabitants, namely Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada.
{| class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers"
|+Cities with the highest population in Andhra Pradesh, as per the 2011 Census
| 1,728,128
|-
!scope=row| Vijayawada
| NTR
| 1,476,931
|-
!scope=row| Guntur
| Guntur
| 743,354
|-
!scope=row| Nellore
| Nellore
| 558,548
|-
!scope=row| Kurnool
| Kurnool
| 484,327
|-
!scope=row| Rajahmundry
| East Godavari
| 476,873
|-
!scope=row| Tirupati
| Tirupati
| 461,900
|-
!scope=row| Kakinada
| Kakinada
| 443,028
|-
!scope=row| Kadapa
| YSR
| 344,893
|-
!scope=row| Anantapur
| Anantapur
| 340,613
|}
Government revenue and expenditure
For 2021–22, total receipts of the Andhra Pradesh government were , inclusive of of loans. States' tax revenue was . The top three sources of tax revenue are statedcrores goods and services tax (GST) (₹23,809 crore), sales tax/value added tax (VAT) (₹20,808 crores), and state excise (₹14,703 crores). The government earned a revenue of ₹7,345 crore from 2.574 million transactions for registration services. Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Guntur, and Tirupati are the top contributors to the revenue.
The government's total expenditure was ₹1,91,594 crore, which includes debt repayment of ₹13,920 crore. The fiscal deficit was 2.1% of the GSDP. Outstanding debt was ₹3.89 lakh crore, an increase of almost ₹40,000 crore compared to the previous year. This accounts for 32.4 per cent of the GSDP, which is more than the usual limit of 25% as per the Fiscal Responsibility Budget Management Actthe and Budget Management ActActstated crores. The outstanding guarantee estimate was ₹1,38,875 crore, of which power sector accounts for ₹38,473 crore equal to 12% of GDP. Economy
Gross state domestic product (GSDP/GDP) at current prices for the year 2022–23 is estimated at (advanced estimates). The share of agriculture's contribution to the GSDP is at 36.19%, while industry is at 23.36%, and services are at 40.45%. The state posted a record growth of 7.02% at constant prices (2011–12) against the country's growth of 7%. GDP per capita is estimated at . The sectoral growth rates at constant 2011–12 prices were for agriculture at 4.54%; industry at 5.66 and services at 10.05%. Poverty rate is reduced to 4.2% in 2023 from 11.77% in 2015–16 as per Niti Ayog report. The methodology, based on the global multidimensional poverty index uses 10 indicators, covering three areas health, education, and standard of living and additionally maternal health and bank accounts. Unemployment rate of people with graduation in Andhra Pradesh is estimated at 24% as per periodic labour force survey of July 2022 to June 2023, the third highest in the country. The number for the whole of India is at 13.4%.
Agriculture
]]
The agricultural economy comprises agriculture, livestock, poultry farming, and fisheries. Four important rivers in India, the Godavari, Krishna, Penna, and Tungabhadra, flow through the state and provide irrigation. Banaganapalle mangoes produced in the state were accorded GI status in 2017. Banking services through banking correspondent are also integrated. 10,778 RSKs are functioning. AP land titling act 2023 was brought in to change from presumptive land ownership system based on possession, registration or inheritance documents to conclusive land ownership system, with government standing as surety for the ownership. Lands in 6000 villages were surveyed with drones and land title certificates were issued to owners, with georeferencing of their land parcels. The benefits of the act include a reduction in land disputes and easier acquisition of lands for public requirements. The newly formed TDP led NDA alliance government decided to repeal the act citing the scope for misuse of authority and deviation from the centre's draft bill.
The Commission on Inclusive and Sustainable Agricultural Development of Andhra Pradesh, chaired by Prof. R. Radhakrishna, estimated the number of tenant farmers at 24.25 lakh in 2014. This consists of 6.29 lakh landless tenants and the rest owning some land. Out of 60.73 lakh hectares under cultivation, 27.15 lakh hectares or 44% was cultivated by tenants. Departmental estimates for 2021 put the number of tenant farmers at about 16 lakh. To identify and serve the needs of tenants, the Crop Cultivator Rights Act (CCRA) of 2019 was brought out. Only 26% of tenants obtained the CCRA or loan eligibility cards as per 2022 data.
Industries
manufacturing plant aerial view, Sri City]]
-SHAR, Sriharikota]]
As per the annual survey of industries 2019–20, the number of factories was 12,582 with 681,224 employees. The top four employment providers are food products (25.48%), non-metallic minerals (11.26%), textiles (9.35%), and pharmaceuticals (8.68%). Gross value added (GVA) contributed by the industrial sector is , of which food products (18.95%), pharmaceuticals (17.01%), and non-metallic minerals (16.25%) are the top three contributors. From a district perspective, the top three districts were undivided Visakhapatnam, Chittoor, and Krishna.
The defence administered Hindustan Shipyard Limitedwerecondensate built the first ship in India in 1948. The state has 36 big auto players, such as Ashok Leyland, Hero Motors, Isuzu Motors India, and Kia Motors, The mining sector contributed in revenue to the state during 2021–22. Nearly 225 million barrels of crude oil was produced from Ravva block, in the shallow offshore area of the Krishna Godavari basin during 1994–2011. The state accounted for 0.6% of had and codensate production, and 2.9% of natural gas production of India in 2020–21.
there are 190 science and technology organisations in Andhra Pradesh, including 12 central labs and research institutions. Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), known as Sriharikota range (SHAR), on the barrier island of Sriharikota in Tirupati district, is the primary satellite launching station operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation.Services Trade, hotels & restaurants registered the highest growth rate of 16.64%, while public administration, the lowest growth rate of 4.24% for the year 2022–23 at constant 2011–12 prices among the services category. The state is ranked third in domestic tourist footfalls for the year 2021, with 93.2 million domestic tourists, which amounts to 13.8% of all domestic tourists in India. A major share of the tourists visit temples in Tirupati, Vijayawada, and Srisailam. The value of information technology exports from the state in 2021–22 was , which is 0.14% of the IT exports from India. Exports have remained below 0.2% in the past five years. Infrastructure Transport Roads
, Vijayawada]]
the state has a total major road network of . This comprises of national highways, of state highways, and of major district roads. In the category of national highways, NH 16, with a highway network of around in the state, is a part of the Golden Quadrilateral project. Vehicles on the register consist of 1.828 million transport vehicles and 13.7 million non-transport vehicles. In the transport category, goods carriages constitute 53.61%, auto rickshaws 36.21%, and stage carriages 1.14% constitute the top 3 categories. In the non-transport category, motorcycles constitute 89.5%, four-wheelers 7.29%, and cabs 5.96% occupy the top 3 ranks. The state government-owned Andhra Pradesh state road transport organisation is the public bus transport provider. It is split into 129 depots across four zones. It has a fleet strength of 11,098 buses and a staff count of 49,544. It operates 1.11 billion kilometres and serves 3.68 million passengers daily as per the socio-economic survey of 2023.
Railways
Renigunta was the first among major stations to appear on the railway map of Andhra Pradesh when Madras railway connected it to Madras in 1862. Rajahmundry-Vijag and Viajayawad-Kovvur sections were opened in 1893. Vijayawada-Madras section was started in 1899. It was extended to Howrah in 1900. The state has a total broad-gauge railway route of with rail density at 24.36 km per 1000 square kilometres. The railway network in Andhra Pradesh is under the South Central railway, East Coast railway, and South Western railway zones. During 2014–2022, 350 km of new lines were constructed at a rate of 44 km per year in Andhra Pradesh under the South Central railway division. The rate of construction was only 2 km per year in the preceding five years. The Nadikudi–Srikalahasti line of 308.70 km sanctioned at a budget of in 2011–12 as a joint project of the centre and state is progressing slowly, with only phase one of 46 km between New Piduguralla station and Savalyapuram completed in 2021–22. There are three A1 and 23 A-category railway stations in the state, as per the assessment in 2017. was declared the cleanest railway station in the country, as per the assessment in 2018. The railway station in Shimiliguda is the second broad gauge railway station at high altitude in the country next to Qazigund in Jammu and Kashmir. A new railway zone South Coast railway (SCoR), with headquarters in Visakhapatnam, was announced in 2019, but is yet to be implemented.
Airports
Tirupati Airport was established in 1976. Visakhapatnam became a part of civil aviation in 1981. Daily flights to Vijayawada were started in 2003. Apart from these three which are international airports, the state has three domestic airports, namely Rajahmundry, Kadapa, and Kurnool. A privately owned airport for emergency flights and chartered flights is at Puttaparthi. Bhogapuram international airport is being constructed with a budget of ₹4,750 crore on an area of 2,300 acres near Visakhapatnam. It is expected to be completed by 2025. Andhra Pradesh saw a 60% increase in domestic air passenger traffic, with 24.74 lakh visitors at its five airports during the 2021–22 fiscal year (up to January 2022), compared to 15.48 lakh in the same period the previous fiscal year. Sea ports
The state has one major port at Visakhapatnam under the administrative control of the central government and 15 notified ports, including three captive ports, under the control of the state government. Visakhapatnam port was the earliest port to be commissioned in 1933. Gangavaram port is a deep seaport that can accommodate ocean liners up to 200,000–250,000 DWT. Cargo of 189.21 million tonnes was handled by Gangavaram, Kakinada deepwater, Krishnapatnam, Ravva, Kakinada anchorage, and Visakhapatnam during 2023–34, with a growth of 7.9% over the previous year. New sea ports are under construction at Ramayapatnam, Machilipatnam, Mulapeta, and Kakinada.
Communication
As per socio-economic survey released in January 2023, Andhra Pradesh has post offices. Bharat sanchar nigam limited (BSNL) operates telephone exchanges with 20.6 million landline connections and also has 5.4 million wireless subscribers. Airtel, Jio, Vodaphone Idea, and BSNL provide mobile services in the state. Several providers including state government owned Andhra Pradesh state fibre net limited operate wireline services supporting internet connectivity, telephony, and Internet Protocol television. The AP statewide area network connects 2,164 offices of state administration at 668 locations down to the level of mandal headquarters. The network supports both data and video communications. BSNL and the National Knowledge Network multi-purposeCricket link district headquarters with state headquarters with a bandwidth of 34 Mbit/s. Mandal headquarters are connected with a bandwidth of 8 Mbit/s.
Water
The state has 40 major and medium rivers and 40,000 minor irrigation sources. Godavari, Krishna, and Penna are major rivers. The total cultivable area is 19.904 million acres. Major, medium, and minor irrigation projects irrigate 10.172 million acres or 51.1% . Several water projects in the state are facing issues. The Polavaram Project is a multi purpose terminal reservoir project located 42 km upstream of Davaleswaram barrage. It is a national project as per the AP Reorganisation Act of 2014. It has a reservoir capacity of 194.6 TMC and is expected to utilise 322.73 TMC of water in a year. The under-construction project suffered setbacks with damage to its diaphragm wall during the 2022 floods. The Veligonda Project, taken up to serve needs of Prakasam, Nellore, and Madala districts is progressing slowly. The Annamayya project, washed away in the 2021 floods, is set to be redesigned for 787 crores. Following the bifurcation, disputes with Telangana regarding the allocation of Krishna and Godavari waters continue to dog the state. Power
]]
Thermal, hydel and renewable power plants supply power to the state. The installed capacity share of the state in the public sector generating stations was 7,245 MW. The private sector installed capacity was 9,370 MW, which includes an independent power producer capacity of 1,961 MW. The total installed capacity was 16,615 MW. Peak power demand for the state in 2021–22 was 12,032 MW and per capita consumption was 1,285 kilowatt hours. The energy consumed was 68,972 million units. Energy consumption increased from 54,555 MU in 2018–19 to 69,113 MU in 2023–24, at a growth rate of 4.8% which is among the lowest in the country. The per capita electricity consumption of AP. Increased by only 123 kWh in the same period when there was an increase of 146 kWh at the national level. The reasons were because of steep tariff increases and re-imposing power cuts as there was a delay in commissioning of the Polavaram hydro-electric power project (960 MW), Sri Damodaram Sanjeevaiah thermal power station (Krishnapatnam) stage-II unit-3 (800 MW) and Dr. Narla Tata Rao thermal power station stage-V unit-8 (800 MW) stations. Healthcare The health infrastructure consists of 13 district hospitals, 28 sub-district hospitals, and urban and rural health centres as of 2019–20. Doorstep healthcare support services are provided through Accredited social health activist(ASHA) workers as of July 2019. The 108 service provides fast emergency management services by shifting patients to a nearby healthcare facility. The 104 service provides health care services at the doorstep of villages through mobile medical units that visit at least once a month. All the poor families are covered by the free state health insurance scheme up to a limit of . The scheme serves 42.5 million people. The services are provided in government and private hospitals under the network. During 2014–2018, though the nominal mean claim amount of beneficiaries went up significantly, it decreased after accounting for inflation. Mortality rates have significantly decreased, which indicates better outcomes are being achieved at a lower cost. Out of 2,700 private hospitals registered under the state health insurance scheme, 540 (20%) are speciality hospitals. The number of patients treated under the state health insurance scheme increased from 1.2 million in 2022–23 to 1.39 million in 2023–24. whereas the budget remained constant at ₹3,350 crore. The National family health survey-5 conducted in 2019–21 data provided an insight into the economic and health status of households. Housing, electricity, clean fuel, access to toilets, mobile phone usage, and bank account access were available for more than 85% of households. Piped water facilities were available for only 22% of households. The state health insurance scheme, the employee health scheme, the Rashtriya swasthya bima yojana, the Employees' state insurance scheme, and the Central government health scheme covered 70% of households with at least one member covered.
Banking
there are 33 private sector banks, 12 public sector banks, three rural banks, three small finance banks, three payment banks, one cooperative bank, and one state financial corporation operating in the state. The total number of branches is 7,881. Banks have deposits amounting to and extended credit amounting to , with credit deposit ratio of 144% against Reserve Bank of India norm of 60%. Primary sector advances amounted to 60.13% of total bank credit. Till March 2011, the microfinance industry flourished in united Andhra Pradesh with a share of 65% of pan India gross loans. Due to state regulation enacted in 2010, the loan portfolio shrank to 0.8% in Andhra Pradesh as of 31 March 2023. With the court deciding against state regulation, the industry is likely to pick up again.
Education
]]
Primary and secondary school education is imparted by government and private schools, regulated by the school education department of the state. The government decided to stop financial aid to aided schools with history dating to 1870s, forcing them to handover the schools with the aided staff to government or become private in 2021. As per Unified district information system for education plus (UDISE+) report of 2021–22, there were a total of students enrolled in schools. Performance of rural students on reading, arithmetic skills in grades 1–8 declined during 2018–2022 partly attributed to Covid outbreak. As an example, for the reading assessment in Class VIII students, it nosedived 67% in 2022 from over 78% in 2018. However, the student enrolment at government schools improved from 63.2% to 71%. In the March 2024 secondary school certificate (SSC) exam students appeared in the regular stream. Parvathipuram-Manyam district achieved the highest pass percentage of 96.37 among districts. The overall pass percentage was 86.69%, an increase of 14.43% over the previous year, with 100% in 2,803 schools.
In intermediate (higher secondary) examinations held in March 2024, 393,757 students appeared. The pass percentage was 78%, which is an increase of 7% over the previous year.
The state initiated education reforms in 2020 by creating six types of schools: satellite foundation schools (pre-primary), foundational schools (pre-primary – class II), foundational school plus (pre-primary – class V), pre-high school (class III – class VII/VIII), high school (class III – class X), and high school plus (class III – class XII). The transition to English-medium education in all government schools was started in the academic year 2020–2021. It is expected to reach completion by 2024–25. Affiliation of 1,000 government schools to the Central Board of Secondary Education in 2022–23 was done as an initial step. The state government went ahead with the English medium based on the parents survey despite protests and court cases. The state initiative is being funded in part by a loan from the World Bank to the tune of $250 million over 2021–2026 through the "Supporting Andhra's learning transformation" project to improve the learning outcomes of children up to class II level.
there are 169 government-aided degree colleges and 55 private-aided degree colleges in the state. National assessment and accreditation council grades were awarded to 66 government colleges and 48 private-aided colleges. There are 85 government-aided and 175 private polytechnic colleges with a sanctioned strength of 75,906 students. In the category of technical education, there are 685 institutions offering diploma, undergraduate, and postgraduate Visakhapatnamthe courses, with an intake of 299,608. The AP state council of higher education organises various entrance tests for different streams and conducts counselling for admissions. The AP state skill development corporation is set up to support skill development and placement for the educated. there are a total of 36 universities: three central universities, 23 state public universities, six state private universities, and four deemed universities. Andhra University is the oldest of the universities in the state, established in 1926. The government established Rajiv Gandhi university of knowledge technologies in 2008 to cater to the education needs of the rural youth of the state. NTR University of health sciences oversees medical education in 348 affiliated colleges spanning the entire range from traditional medicine to modern medicine. The public universities, including the legacy universities such as Andhra, Sri Venkateswara, and Nagarjuna, are suffering from a severe fund crunch and staff shortage, managing with only 20% of sanctioned full-time staff. Koneru Lakshmaiah education foundation university bagged the 50th rank, while Andhra university bagged the 76th rank in the overall category of India rankings for 2023 as per the national institute ranking framework of the union ministry of education in which 2,478 institutions, including 242 institutions from the state, participated. The gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education for the age group 18–23 for the state was at 35.2% for the year 2019–20, which comparing favourably with the GER for all of India at 27.1%. With a female GER of 35.3 and a male GER of 38.2, the Gender Parity Index was 0.84. The corresponding ratio for India was 1.01.
There were 510 industrial training institutes (ITI) in 2020–21 in Andhra Pradesh, with 82 under government management and 417 under private management. The total available seats in 2021 were 93,280, out of which 48.90% were filled. In 2020, 10,053 students completed ITI. The state has 2,510 public libraries, including four regional libraries and 13 district central libraries under government management. Saraswata Niketanam at Vetapalem in Bapatla district, one of the oldest libraries established under private management in 1918, is losing its attraction as the Internet spreads. The government is planning to develop digital libraries at the village panchayat level.
Media
The total number of registered newspapers and periodicals in the state for the years 2020–21 was 5,798. There were 1,645 dailies, 817 weeklies, 2,431 monthlies, and 623 fortnightlies. Telugu dailies number 787 with a circulation of 9,911,005, while English dailies account for 103 with a circulation of 1,646,453. Eenadu, Sakshi, and Andhra Jyothi are the top three Telugu daily newspapers in terms of circulation in India and are also the top three Telugu news sites. BBC Telugu news was launched on 2 October 2017. Several privately owned news media outlets are considered biased towards specific political parties in the state.
There were 23 news channels, 10 general entertainment channels, two health channels, six religious channels, two other channels, and two cable distribution channels, for a total of 45 channels empanelled by the Andhra Pradesh information and public relations department. Akashvani previously known as All India Radio, operates 3 MW, 17 FM transmitters from 14 locations in the state. It reaches 99% of the area and 99.5% of the population. Akashvani's FM coverage alone reaches 36% of the area and 45% of the population. Five private operators run 13 FM stations, with Red FM operating from five locations.
Sports
in Visakhapatnam]]
Traditional games played during childhood include Dagudu Mootalu (Hide and seek), Tokkudu Billa, Yedu Penkulata, Vamanaguntalu, Chadarangam (Chess), Puli Joodam, Ashta Chamma, Vaikuntapali (Snakes and ladders), Nalugu Stambalata, and Nalugu ralla aata. Karrasamu (stick fight) is a traditional martial art form of the state. It is a form of self-defence to prevent thefts and robbery in villages. It is a discipline in the national sports, though it is not recognised for the sports quota category of reservations in Andhra Pradesh. Kodi Rammurthy Naidu was an strongman, bodybuilder, and wrestler of the state. He was renowned for his strength and physical prowess and for feats performed in 1911 such as stopping two cars using his muscle power and taking an elephant on his chest.
Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh is the governing body that looks after the infrastructure development, coaching, and administration of sports promotion schemes. Sports authority of India (SAI) operates three SAI Training centres in Andhra Pradesh . Dr. YSR Sports School, Putlampalli, Kadapa district was selected for upgradation as Khelo India centre of excellence in 2021. Andhra Cricket Visakhapatnam District Association cricket Association (ACA-VDCA) stadium in Visakhapatnam is known for hosting international cricket matches.
Pullela Gopichand is a former Indian badminton player. He won the All England Open Badminton Championships in 2001, becoming the second Indian to win after Prakash Padukone. P. V. Sindhu is one of India's most successful athletes, having won medals in major tournaments like the Olympics and the BWF circuit, including a gold at the 2019 World Championships. She is the first Indian to become a badminton world champion and only the second to win two consecutive Olympic medals. Karnam Malleswari is the first female Indian to win an Olympic medal. She won bronze medal in 69 kg weightlifting event at 2000 Olympics games. Srikanth Kidambi, a badminton player, is the first Indian to reach the world championships final in 2021 in the men's singles and win a silver medal. The state secured 16 medals at the 36th national games held in 2022. It was ranked 21st in the competition. The state sportpersons won 11 medals in Tennis, Archery, Badminton, Athletics, Chess and Cricket disciplines in the 19th Asian games held in China in 2022. The state was ranked at 13th spot in the sixth edition of Khelo India youth games-2023, by winning 27 medals.
See also
* Outline of Andhra Pradesh
* Disputes between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Category:South India
Category:States and union territories of India
Category:States and territories established in 1956
Category:1956 establishments in India | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.527869 |
2380 | Accelerated Graphics Port | | invent-name = Intel
| replaces = PCI for graphics
| super-name = PCI Express
| super-date = 2004
| width = 32
| style = p
| numdev = One device per slot
| speed = Half-duplex<br />Up to 2133 MB/s
| website
}}
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a parallel expansion card standard, designed for attaching a video card to a computer system to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. It was originally designed as a successor to PCI-type connections for video cards. Since 2004, AGP was progressively phased out in favor of PCI Express (PCIe), which is serial, as opposed to parallel; by mid-2008, PCI Express cards dominated the market and only a few AGP models were available, with GPU manufacturers and add-in board partners eventually dropping support for the interface in favor of PCI Express.Advantages over PCIAGP is a superset of the PCI standard, designed to overcome PCI's limitations in serving the requirements of the era's high-performance graphics cards.
The primary advantage of AGP is that it doesn't share the PCI bus, providing a dedicated, point-to-point pathway between the expansion slot(s) and the motherboard chipset. The direct connection also allows higher clock speeds.
The second major change is the use of split transactions, wherein the address and data phases are separated. The card may send many address phases, so the host can process them in order, avoiding any long delays caused by the bus being idle during read operations.
Third, PCI bus handshaking is simplified. Unlike PCI bus transactions, whose length is negotiated on a cycle-by-cycle basis using the FRAME# and STOP# signals, AGP transfers are always a multiple of 8 bytes long, with the total length included in the request. Further, rather than using the IRDY# and TRDY# signals for each word, data is transferred in blocks of 4 clock cycles (32 words at AGP 8× speed), and pauses are allowed only between blocks.
Finally, AGP allows (mandatory only in AGP 3.0) sideband addressing, meaning that the address and data buses are separated, so the address phase does not use the main address/data (AD) lines at all. This is done by adding an extra 8-bit "SideBand Address" bus, over which the graphics controller can issue new AGP requests while other AGP data is flowing over the main 32 address/data (AD) lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughput.
This great improvement in memory read performance makes it practical for an AGP card to read textures directly from system RAM, while a PCI graphics card must copy it from system RAM to the card's video memory. System memory is made available using the graphics address remapping table (GART), which apportions main memory as needed for texture storage. The maximum amount of system memory available to AGP is defined as the AGP aperture.
History
The AGP slot first appeared on x86-compatible system boards based on Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium II processors. Intel introduced AGP support with the i440LX Slot 1 chipset on August 26, 1997, and a flood of products followed from all the major system board vendors.
The first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP were the VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V. Intel never released an AGP-equipped Socket 7 chipset. FIC demonstrated the first Socket 7 AGP system board in November 1997 as the FIC PA-2012 based on the VIA Apollo VP3 chipset, followed very quickly by the EPoX P55-VP3 also based on the VIA VP3 chipset which was first to market.
Early video chipsets featuring AGP support included the Rendition Vérité V2200, 3dfx Voodoo Banshee, Nvidia RIVA 128, 3Dlabs PERMEDIA 2, Intel i740, ATI Rage series, Matrox Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Some early AGP boards used graphics processors built around PCI and were simply bridged to AGP. This resulted in the cards benefiting little from the new bus, with the only improvement used being the 66 MHz bus clock, with its resulting doubled bandwidth over PCI, and bus exclusivity. Intel's i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new AGP feature set; in fact it was designed to texture only from AGP memory, making PCI versions of the board difficult to implement (local board RAM had to emulate AGP memory), though this was eventually accomplished much later in the form of AGP-to-PCI bridges.
Microsoft first introduced AGP support into Windows via the USB Supplement patch for OSR2 of Windows 95 in 1997, also known as OSR2.1. The first Windows NT-based operating system to receive AGP support was Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 3, also in 1997. Linux support for AGP-enhanced fast data transfers was first added in 1999 with the implementation of the AGPgart kernel module.Later use
With the increasing adoption of PCIe, graphics cards manufacturers continued to produce AGP cards as the standard became obsolete. As GPUs began to be designed to connect to PCIe, an additional PCIe-to-AGP bridge-chip was required to create an AGP-compatible graphics card. The inclusion of a bridge, and the need for a separate AGP card design, incurred additional board costs.
The GeForce 6600 and ATI Radeon X800 XL, released during 2004–2005, were the first bridged cards. In 2009 AGP cards from Nvidia had a ceiling of the GeForce 7 series. In 2011 DirectX 10-capable AGP cards from AMD vendors (Club 3D, HIS, Sapphire, Jaton, Visiontek, Diamond, etc.) included the Radeon HD 2400, 3450, 3650, 3850, 4350, 4650, and 4670. The HD 5000 AGP series mentioned in the AMD Catalyst software was never available. There were many problems with the AMD Catalyst 11.2 - 11.6 AGP hotfix drivers under Windows 7 with the HD 4000 series AGP video cards; use of 10.12 or 11.1 AGP hotfix drivers is a possible workaround. Several of the vendors listed above make available past versions of the AGP drivers.
By 2010, no new motherboard chipsets supported AGP and few new motherboards had AGP slots, however some continued to be produced with older AGP-supporting chipsets.
In 2016, Windows 10 version 1607 dropped support for AGP. Possible future removal of support for AGP from open-source Linux kernel drivers was considered in 2020.
Versions
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align: left; margin-left: 1.5em;"
|+ AGP and PCI: 32-bit buses operating at 66 and 33 MHz respectively
|-
!Specification || Voltage || Clock || Speed || Transfers/<br>clock || Rate (MB/s)
|-
|PCI || 3.3/5 V || 33 MHz || — || 1 || 133
|-
|PCI 2.1 || 3.3/5 V || 33/66 MHz || — || 1 || 133/266
|-
|AGP 1.0 || 3.3 V || 66 MHz || 1× || 1 || 266
|-
|AGP 1.0 || 3.3 V || 66 MHz || 2× || 2 || 533
|-
|AGP 2.0 || 1.5 V || 66 MHz || 4× || 4 || 1066
|-
|AGP 3.0 || 0.8 V || 66 MHz || 8× || 8 || 2133
|-
|AGP 3.5<sup>*</sup> || 0.8 V || 66 MHz || 8× || 8 || 2133
|}
Intel released "AGP specification 1.0" in 1997.
64-bit AGP
A 64-bit channel was once proposed as an optional standard for AGP 3.0 in draft documents, but it was dropped in the final version of the standard.
The standard allows 64-bit transfer for AGP8× reads, writes, and fast writes; 32-bit transfer for PCI operations.
Unofficial variations
A number of non-standard variations of the AGP interface have been produced by manufacturers.
Internal AGP interface
;Ultra-AGP, Ultra-AGPII: It is an internal AGP interface standard used by SiS for the north bridge controllers with integrated graphics. The original version supports same bandwidth as AGP 8×, while Ultra-AGPII has maximum 3.2 GB/s bandwidth.
PCI-based AGP ports
;AGP Express: Not a true AGP interface, but allows an AGP card to be connected over the legacy PCI bus on a PCI Express motherboard. It is a technology used on motherboards made by ECS, intended to allow an existing AGP card to be used in a new motherboard instead of requiring a PCIe card to be obtained (since the introduction of PCIe graphics cards few motherboards provide AGP slots). An "AGP Express" slot is basically a PCI slot (with twice the electrical power) with an AGP connector. It offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, but provides incomplete support (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance—the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP.
;AGI: The ASRock Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for ASRock motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP support. However, it is not fully compatible with AGP, and several video card chipsets are known not to be supported.
;AGX: The EPoX Advanced Graphics eXtended (AGX) is another proprietary AGP variant with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI. User manuals recommend not using AGP 8× ATI cards with AGX slots.
;XGP: The Biostar Xtreme Graphics Port is another AGP variant, also with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI and AGX.
PCIe based AGP ports
;AGR: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the AGP port used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer limited backward compatibility with AGP. It is, effectively, a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4×/8× slot, but does not support all AGP cards; the manufacturer published a list of some cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot.
Compatibility
AGP cards are backward and forward compatible within limits. 1.5 V-only keyed cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though "Universal" cards exist which will fit into either type of slot. There are also unkeyed "Universal" slots that will accept either type of card. When an AGP Universal card is plugged-into an AGP Universal slot, only the 1.5 V portion of the card is used. Some cards, like Nvidia's GeForce 6 series (except the 6200) or ATI's Radeon X800 series, only have keys for 1.5 V to prevent them from being installed in older mainboards without 1.5 V support. Some of the last modern cards with 3.3 V support were:
* the Nvidia GeForce FX series (FX 5200, FX 5500, FX 5700, some FX 5800, FX 5900 and some FX 5950),
* certain Nvidia GeForce 6 series and 7 series (some 6600, 6800, 7300, 7600, 7800, 7900 and 7950 cards, really uncommon compared to their AGP 1.5v only versions; the GeForce 6200 is the only exception, as it was the most common card with 3.3 V support),
* the ATI Radeon 9000 series (Radeon 9500/9700/9800 (R300/R350), but not 9600/9800 (R360/RV360)).
Some cards incorrectly have dual notches, and some motherboards incorrectly have fully open slots, allowing a card to be plugged into a slot that does not support the correct signaling voltage, which may damage card or motherboard. Some incorrectly designed older 3.3 V cards have the 1.5 V key.
AGP Pro cards will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot. Motherboards equipped with a Universal AGP Pro slot will accept a 1.5 V or 3.3 V card in either the AGP Pro or standard AGP configuration, a Universal AGP card, or a Universal AGP Pro card.
There are some proprietary systems incompatible with standard AGP; for example, Apple Power Macintosh computers with the Apple Display Connector (ADC) have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Some cards designed to work with a specific CPU architecture (e.g., PC, Apple) may not work with others due to firmware issues.
Mark Allen of Playtools.com has made the following comments regarding practical AGP compatibility for AGP 3.0 and AGP 2.0: Power consumption
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align: center; margin-left: 1.5em;"
|+ AGP power provisioning
|-
! Slot Type !! 3.3 V !! 5 V !! 12 V !! 3.3 V Aux !! 1.5 V !! 3.3 V !! 12 V !! Total power
|-
|AGP || 6 A || 2 A || 1 A || 0.375 mA || 2 A || - || - || 48.25 W
|-
|AGP Pro110 || || || || || || 7.6 A || 9.2 A || 50 to 110 W
|-
|AGP Pro50 || || || || || || 7.6 A || 4.17 A || 25 to 50 W
|}
Actual power supplied by an AGP slot depends upon the card used. The maximum current drawn from the various rails is given in the specifications for the various versions. For example, if maximum current is drawn from all supplies and all voltages are at their specified upper limits,
|-
! Pin !! Side B !!colspan=2| Side A !! Comments
|-
! 1
|style"background:#f69"| OVERCNT# ||style"background:silver" colspan2| +12 V ||alignleft| USB port overcurrent warning
|-
! 2
|style"background:silver"| +5 V ||style"background:#f69" colspan2| TYPEDET# ||alignleft| Pulled low by card to indicate 1.5 V (AGP 2.0 4x) ability
|-
! 3
|style"background:silver"| +5 V ||style"background:#f69" colspan2| GC_DET# ||alignleft| Pulled low by card to indicate 0.8 V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability
|-
! 4
|style"background:#9f9"| USB+ ||style"background:#9f9" colspan2| USB− ||alignleft| USB pins for pass through to monitor
|-
! 5
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan2| Ground ||alignleft|
|-
! 6
|style"background:#fc6"| INTB# ||style"background:#fc6" colspan2| INTA# ||alignleft| Interrupt lines (open-drain)
|-
! 7
|style"background:#66f"| CLK ||style"background:#66f" colspan2| RST# ||alignleft| 66 MHz clock, Bus reset
|-
! 8
|style"background:#f69"| REQ# ||style"background:#66f" colspan2| GNT# ||alignleft| Bus request from card, and grant from motherboard
|-
! 9
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V ||style"background:silver" colspan2| +3.3 V ||alignleft|
|-
! 10
|style"background:#66f"| ST[0] ||style"background:#66f" colspan2| ST[1] ||alignleft| AGP status (valid while GNT# low)
|-
! 11
|style"background:#66f"| ST[2] ||style"background:#66f" colspan2| MB_DET# ||alignleft| Pulled low by motherboard to indicate 0.8 V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability
|-
! 12
|style"background:#f69"| RBF# ||style"background:#f69"| PIPE# ||style"background:#9f9"| DBI_HI ||alignleft| Read buffer full, Pipeline request, Data bus inversion[31:16]
|-
! 13
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan2| Ground ||alignleft|
|-
! 14
|style"background:#9f9"| DBI_LO ||style"background:#f69" colspan2| WBF# ||alignleft| Data bus inversion [15:0], Write buffer full
|-
! 15
|style"background:#f69"| SBA[0] ||style"background:#f69" colspan2| SBA[1] ||rowspan7 align=left| Sideband address bus
|-
! 16
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| +3.3 V
|-
! 17
|style"background:#f69"| SBA[2] ||style"background:#f69" colspan=2| SBA[3]
|-
! 18
|style"background:#f69"| SB_STB ||style"background:#f69" colspan=2| SB_STB#
|-
! 19
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 20
|style"background:#f69"| SBA[4] ||style"background:#f69" colspan=2| SBA[5]
|-
! 21
|style"background:#f69"| SBA[6] ||style"background:#f69" colspan=2| SBA[7]
|-
! 22
|style"background:#ff9"| Reserved ||style"background:#ff9" colspan2| Reserved ||rowspan4 align=left| Key notch for 3.3 V AGP cards
|-
! 23
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 24
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V aux ||style"background:#ff9" colspan=2| Reserved
|-
! 25
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| +3.3 V
|-
! 26
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[31] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan2| AD[30] ||rowspan14 align=left| Address/data bus (upper half)
|-
! 27
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[29] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[28]
|-
! 28
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| +3.3 V
|-
! 29
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[27] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[26]
|-
! 30
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[25] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[24]
|-
! 31
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 32
|style"background:#9f9"| AD_STB[1] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD_STB[1]#
|-
! 33
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[23] ||style"background:#f9f" colspan=2| C/BE[3]#
|-
! 34
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| Vddq
|-
! 35
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[21] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[22]
|-
! 36
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[19] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[20]
|-
! 37
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 38
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[17] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[18]
|-
! 39
|style"background:#f9f"| C/BE[2]# ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[16]
|-
! 40
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:silver" colspan2| Vddq ||alignleft| 3.3 or 1.5 V
|-
! 41
|style"background:#f9f"| IRDY# ||style"background:#f9f" colspan2| FRAME# ||alignleft| Initiator ready, Transfer in progress
|-
! 42
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V aux ||style"background:#ff9" colspan2| Reserved ||rowspan4 align=left| Key notch for 1.5 V AGP cards
|-
! 43
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 44
|style"background:#ff9"| Reserved ||style"background:#ff9" colspan=2| Reserved
|-
! 45
|style"background:silver"| +3.3 V ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| +3.3 V
|-
! 46
|style"background:#99f"| DEVSEL# ||style"background:#99f" colspan2| TRDY# ||alignleft| Target selected, Target ready
|-
! 47
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:#99f" colspan2| STOP# ||alignleft| Target requests halt
|-
! 48
|style"background:#f69"| PERR# ||style"background:#fc6" colspan2| PME# ||alignleft| Parity error, Power management event (optional)
|-
! 49
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan2| Ground ||alignleft|
|-
! 50
|style"background:#fc6"| SERR# ||style"background:#9f9" colspan2| PAR ||alignleft| System error, Even parity for (1x) PCI transactions only
|-
! 51
|style"background:#f9f"| C/BE[1]# ||style"background:#9f9" colspan2| AD[15] ||rowspan15 align=left| Address/data bus (lower half)
|-
! 52
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| Vddq
|-
! 53
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[14] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[13]
|-
! 54
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[12] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[11]
|-
! 55
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 56
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[10] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[9]
|-
! 57
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[8] ||style"background:#f9f" colspan=2| C/BE[0]#
|-
! 58
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| Vddq
|-
! 59
|style"background:#9f9"| AD_STB[0] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD_STB[0]#
|-
! 60
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[7] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[6]
|-
! 61
|style"background:#999"| Ground ||style"background:#999" colspan=2| Ground
|-
! 62
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[5] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[4]
|-
! 63
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[3] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[2]
|-
! 64
|style"background:silver"| Vddq ||style"background:silver" colspan=2| Vddq
|-
! 65
|style"background:#9f9"| AD[1] ||style"background:#9f9" colspan=2| AD[0]
|-
! 66
|style"background:#66f"| Vregcg ||style"background:#f69" colspan2| Vrefgc ||alignleft| I/O reference voltages
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Legend
!style="background:#999"| Ground pin
| Zero volt reference
|-
!style="background:silver"| Power pin
| Supplies power to the AGP card
|-
!style="background:#f69"| Output pin
| Driven by the AGP card, received by the motherboard
|-
!style="background:#f9f"| Initiator output
| Driven by the master/initiator, received by the target
|-
!style="background:#9f9"|I/O signal
| May be driven by initiator or target, depending on operation
|-
!style="background:#99f"| Target output
| Driven by the target, received by the initiator/master
|-
!style="background:#66f"| Input
| Driven by the motherboard, received by the AGP card
|-
!style="background:#fc6"| Open drain
| May be pulled low and/or sensed by card or motherboard
|-
!style="background:#ff9"| Reserved
| Not presently used, do not connect
|}
PCI signals omitted are:
* The −12 V supply
* The third and fourth interrupt requests (INTC#, INTD#)
* The JTAG pins (TRST#, TCK, TMS, TDI, TDO)
* The SMBus pins (SMBCLK, SMBDAT)
* The IDSEL pin; an AGP card connects AD[16] to IDSEL internally
* The 64-bit extension (REQ64#, ACK64#) and 66 MHz (M66EN) pins
* The LOCK# pin for locked transaction support
Signals added are:
* Data strobes AD_STB[1:0] (and AD_STB[1:0]# in AGP 2.0)
* The sideband address bus SBA[7:0] and SB_STB (and SB_STB# in AGP 2.0)
* The ST[2:0] status signals
* USB+ and USB− (and OVERCNT# in AGP 2.0)
* The PIPE# signal (removed in AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling)
* The RBF# signal
* The TYPEDET#, Vregcg and Vreggc pins (AGP 2.0 for 1.5V signaling)
* The DBI_HI and DBI_LO signals (AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling only)
* The GC_DET# and MB_DET# pins (AGP 3.0 for 0.8V signaling)
* The WBF# signal (AGP 3.0 fast write extension)
See also
* List of device bandwidths
* Serial Digital Video Out for ADD DVI adapter cards
* AGP Inline Memory Module
Notes
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061010060709/http://www.agpforum.org/ Archived AGP Implementors Forum]
* AGP specifications: [https://web.archive.org/web/20150503042109/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp10.pdf 1.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080920213138/http://www.motherboards.org/files/techspecs/agp20.pdf 2.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620060750/https://download.intel.com/support/motherboards/desktop/sb/agp30.pdf 3.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20021003222339/http://www.agpforum.org/downloads/apro_r10.pdf Pro 1.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20021003222339/http://www.agpforum.org/downloads/apro_r11a.pdf Pro 1.1a]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100330154952/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/newagp.html AGP Compatibility For Sticklers]
* [http://pinouts.ru/Slots/agp_pinout.shtml AGP pinout]
* [http://www.motherboards.org/articles/tech-planations/920_4.html AGP expansion slots]
* [http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html AGP compatibility] (with pictures)
* [http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/uagp.mspx Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP)]
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/agp.htm How Stuff Works - AGP]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050804000048/http://www.ocfaq.com/article.php/overclocking/vidcard/43 A discussion from 2003 of what AGP aperture is, how it works, and how much memory should be allocated to it.]
Category:Macintosh internals
Category:IBM PC compatibles
Category:Intel graphics
Category:Motherboard expansion slot
Category:Peripheral Component Interconnect | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_Graphics_Port | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.621970 |
2381 | Andreas Aagesen | thumb|Andreas Aagesen
Andreas Aagesen (5 August 1826 – 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist.
Biography
Aagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.
In 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making.
Bibliography
Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned:
Bidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871–1872);
Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876).
Notes
References
Attribution
This source cites:
Johan Henrik Deuntzer, Dansk biografisk leksikon, vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887) (online);
Samlede Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1883)
External links
Obituary
Category:1826 births
Category:1879 deaths
Category:19th-century Danish jurists
Category:Members of the Landsting (Denmark)
Category:Academic staff of the University of Copenhagen
Category:19th-century Danish army officers
Category:Rectors of the University of Copenhagen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Aagesen | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.645191 |
2382 | Aalen | |postal_code = 73430–73434
|area_code = 07361/-66/-67
|licence = AA
|mayor Frederick Brütting
|leader_term = 2021–29
|party = SPD
|website = [http://www.aalen.de/ www.aalen.de]
}}
Aalen () is a town located in the eastern part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, about east of Stuttgart and north of Ulm. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district and is its largest town. It is also the largest town in the Ostwürttemberg region. Since 1956, Aalen has had the status of Große Kreisstadt (major district town). It is noted for its many half-timbered houses constructed from the 16th century through the 18th century.
The Kocher enters the town's territory from Oberkochen to the south, crosses the district of Unterkochen, then enters the town centre, where the Aal flows into it. The Aal is a small river located only within the town's territory. Next, the Kocher crosses the district of Wasseralfingen, then leaves the town for Hüttlingen. Rivers originating near Aalen are the Rems (near Essingen, west of Aalen) and the Jagst (near Unterschneidheim, east of Aalen), both being tributaries of the Neckar, just like the Kocher.
The elevation in the centre of the market square is relative to Normalhöhennull. The territory's lowest point is at the Lein river near Rodamsdörfle, the highest point is the Grünberg's peak near Unterkochen at .
Geology
Aalen's territory ranges over all lithostratigraphic groups of the South German Jurassic: Aalen's south and the Flexner massif are on top of the White Jurassic, the town centre is on the Brown Jurassic, and a part of Wasseralfingen is on the Black Jurassic. As a result, the town advertises itself as a "Geologist's Mecca".
Most parts of the territory are on the Opalinuston-Formation (Opalinum Clay Formation) of the Aalenian subdivision of the Jurassic Period, which is named after Aalen.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Borough !! class"unsortable" | Coat of arms !! Area in km<sup>2</sup> !! Residents<br /><small>(1 July 2011)</small> !! class"unsortable" | Villages
|-
| Town centre
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 30,62
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 34.466<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Hammerstadt, Hofherrnweiler, Mädle, Mantelhof, Neßlau, Oberrombach, Unterrombach, the latter also known as Weststadt ("West Town")
|-
| Dewangen
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 16,53
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 3.183<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Aushof, Bernhardsdorf, Bronnenhäusle, Degenhof, Dreherhof, Faulherrnhof, Freudenhöfle, Gobühl, Großdölzerhof, Haldenhaus, Hüttenhöfe, Kleindölzerhof, Kohlhöfle, Langenhalde, Lusthof, Neuhof, Rauburr, Reichenbach, Riegelhof, Rodamsdörfle, Rotsold, Schafhof, Schultheißenhöfle, Streithöfle, Tannenhof, Trübenreute
|-
| Ebnat
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 21,16
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 3.327<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Affalterwang, Diepertsbuch, Niesitz
|-
| Fachsenfeld
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 3,95
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 3.605<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Bodenbach, Hangendenbuch, Himmlingsweiler, Mühlhäusle, Scherrenmühle, Waiblingen
|-
| Hofen
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 12,58
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 2.080<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Attenhofen, Fürsitz, Goldshöfe, Heimatsmühle, Oberalfingen, Wagenrain
|-
| Unterkochen
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 21,44
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 4.927<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Birkhöfe, Glashütte, Neukochen, Neuziegelhütte, Stefansweilermühle
|-
| Waldhausen
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 24,38
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 2.335<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Arlesberg, Bernlohe, Beuren, Brastelburg, Geiselwang, Hohenberg, Neubau, Simmisweiler
|-
| Wasseralfingen
| align="center" |
| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 15,97
| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" | 11.767<span style"position:absolute"></span>
|Affalterried, Brausenried, Bürgle, Erzhäusle, Heisenberg, Mäderhof, Onatsfeld, Rötenberg, Röthardt, Salchenhof, Treppach, Weidenfeld
|}
Spatial planning
Aalen forms a Mittelzentrum ("medium-level centre") within the Ostwürttemberg region. Its designated catchment area includes the following municipalities of the central and eastern Ostalbkreis district: Abtsgmünd, Bopfingen, Essingen, Hüttlingen, Kirchheim am Ries, Lauchheim, Neresheim, Oberkochen, Riesbürg and Westhausen, and is interwoven with the catchment area of Nördlingen, situated in Bavaria, east of Aalen.
Climate
As Aalen's territory sprawls on escarpments of the Swabian Jura, on the Albuch and the Härtsfeld landscapes, and its elevation has a range of , the climate varies from district to district.
The weather station the following data originate from is located between the town centre and Wasseralfingen at about and has been in operation since 1991.
The sunshine duration is about 1800 hours per year, which averages 4.93 hours per day. So Aalen is above the German average of 1550 hours per year. However, with 167 days of precipitation, Aalen's region also ranks above the German average of 138. The annual rainfall is , about the average within Baden-Württemberg.
The annual mean temperature is . Here Aalen ranks above the German average of and the Baden-Württemberg average of .
History Civic history First settlements Numerous remains of early civilization have been found in the area. Tools made of flint and traces of Mesolithic human settlement dated between the 8th and 5th millennium BC were found on several sites on the margins of the Kocher and Jagst valleys. On the Schloßbaufeld plateau (appr. ), situated behind Kocherburg castle near Unterkochen, a hill-top settlement was found, with the core being dated to the Bronze Age. In the Appenwang forest near Wasseralfingen, in Goldshöfe, and in Ebnat, tumuli of the Hallstatt culture were found. In Aalen and Wasseralfingen, gold and silver coins left by the Celts were found. The Celts were responsible for the fortifications in the Schloßbaufeld settlement consisting of sectional embankments and a stone wall. Also, Near Heisenberg (Wasseralfingen), a Celtic nemeton has been identified; however, it is no longer readily apparent. Roman era After abandoning the Alb Limes (a limes generally following the ridgeline of the Swabian Jura) around 150 AD, Aalen's territory became part of the Roman Empire, in direct vicinity of the then newly erected Rhaetian Limes. The Romans erected a castrum to house the cavalry unit Ala II Flavia milliaria; its remains are known today as Kastell Aalen ("Aalen Roman fort"). The site is west of today's town centre at the bottom of the Schillerhöhe hill. With about 1,000 horsemen and nearly as many grooms, it was the largest fort of auxiliaries along the Rhaetian Limes. There were Civilian settlements adjacent along the south and the east. Around 260 AD, the Romans gave up the fort as they withdrew their presence in unoccupied Germania back to the Rhine and Danube rivers, and the Alamanni took over the region. Based on 3rd- and 4th-century coins found, the civilian settlement continued to exist for the time being. However, there is no evidence of continued civilization between the Roman era and the Middle Ages.
Aalen itself was first mentioned in an inventory list of Ellwangen Abbey, dated ca. 1136, as the village Alon, along with a lower nobleman named Conrad of Aalen. This nobleman probably had his ancestral castle at a site south of today's town centre and was subject first to Ellwangen abbey, later to the House of Hohenstaufen, and eventually to the House of Oettingen. 1426 was the last time a member of that house was mentioned in connection with Aalen.
Documents, from the Middle Ages, indicate that the town of Aalen was founded by the Hohenstaufen some time between 1241 and 1246, but at a different location than the earlier village, which was supposedly destroyed in 1388 during the war between the Alliance of Swabian Cities and the Dukes of Bavaria.
Later, it is documented that the counts of Oettingen ruled the town in 1340. They are reported to have pawned the town to Count Eberhard II and subsequently to the House of Württemberg in 1358 or 1359 in exchange for an amount of money.
Imperial City
During the war against Württemberg, Emperor Charles IV took the town without a fight after a siege. On 3 December 1360, he declared Aalen an Imperial City, that is, a city or town responsible only to the emperor, a status that made it a quasi-sovereign city-state and that it kept until 1803. In 1377, Aalen joined the Alliance of Swabian Cities, and in 1385, the term civitas appears in the town's seal for the first time. In 1398, Aalen was granted the right to hold markets, and in 1401 Aalen obtained proper jurisdiction.
The oldest artistic representation of Aalen was made in 1528. It was made as the basis of a lawsuit between the town and the Counts of Oettingen at the Reichskammergericht in Speyer. It shows Aalen surrounded by walls, towers, and double moats. The layout of the moats, which had an embankment built between them, is recognizable by the present streets named Nördlicher, Östlicher, Südlicher and Westlicher Stadtgraben (Northern, Eastern, Southern and Western Moat respectively). The wall was about tall, 1518 single paces () long and enclosed an area of . During its early years, the town had two town gates: The Upper or Ellwangen Gate in the east, and St. Martin's gate in the south; however due to frequent floods, St. Martin's gate was bricked up in the 14th century and replaced by the Lower or Gmünd Gate built in the west before 1400. Later, several minor side gates were added. The central street market took place on the Wettegasse (today called Marktplatz, "market square") and the Reichsstädter Straße. So the market district stretched from one gate to the other, however in Aalen it was not straight, but with a 90-degree curve between southern (St. Martin's) gate and eastern (Ellwangen) gate.
Around 1500, the civic graveyard was relocated from the town church to St. John's Church, two ensigns of the army of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar who were fighting with the Swedes and retreating after the Battle of Nördlingen set fire to two powder carriages, to prevent the war material to fall into Croatian hands and to prevent their advance. The result was a conflagration, that some say destroyed portions of the town. There are differing stories regarding this fire. According to 17th-century accounts, the church and all the buildings, except of the Schwörturm tower, were casualties of the fire, and only nine families survived. 19th century research by Hermann Bauer, Lutheran pastor and local historian, discovered that the 17th-century account is exaggerated, but he does agree that the town church and buildings in a "rather large" semicircle around it were destroyed. The fire also destroyed the town archive housed in an addition to the church, with all of its documents. It took nearly 100 years for the town to reach its population of 2,000.
French troops marched through Aalen in 1688 during the Nine Years' War; however, unlike other places, they left without leaving severe damages. The French came through again in 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession and in 1741 during the War of the Austrian Succession,
The town church's tower collapsed in 1765, presumably because proper building techniques were not utilized during the reconstruction after the fire of 1634. The collapsing tower struck two children of the tower watchman who died of their injuries, and destroyed the nave, leaving only the altar cross intact. The remaining walls had to be knocked down due to the damage. Reconstruction began the same year, creating the building that exists today.
In 1811, the municipality of Unterrombach was formed out of some villages previously belonging to Aalen, some to the Barons of Wöllwarth, and the eastern villages were assigned to the municipality of Unterkochen.
In the age of the Napoleonic wars, the town walls were no longer of use, and in the 18th century, with the maintenance of walls, gates and towers becoming more neglected Finally, due to the fact that the funds were lacking, starting in 1800, most towers were demolished, the other buildings followed soon.
In Aalen, industrialisation was a slow process. The first major increase was in the 1840s, when three factories for nails and some other factories emerged. Starting in 1866, the utilities in town all began to be upgraded. Starting with the Aalen gasworks which were opened and gas lighting was introduced. Then in 1870, a modern water supply system was started and in 1912 the mains electricity. Finally, in 1935, the first electrically powered streetlights were installed.
The democratically elected mayor Friedrich Schwarz remained in office until the Nazis removed him from office, in 1934, and replaced him by chairman of the Nazi Party town council head and brewery owner Karl Barth. Karl Barth was a provisional mayor until the more permanent solution of Karl Schübel. In August 1934, the Nazi consumer fair Braune Messe ("brown fair") was held in Aalen.
During Nazi rule in Germany, there were many military offices constructed in Aalen, starting with, in 1936, a military district riding and driving school for Wehrkreis V. The Nazis also built an army replenishment office (Heeresverpflegungsamt), a branch arsenal office (Heeresnebenzeugamt) and a branch army ammunitions institute (Heeresnebenmunitionsanstalt).
Starting in 1935, mergers of neighbouring towns began. In 1938, the Oberamt was transformed into the Landkreis of Aalen and the municipality of Unterrombach was disbanded. Its territory was mostly added to Aalen, with the exception of Hammerstadt, which was added to the municipality of Dewangen. Forst, Rauental and Vogelsang were added to Essingen (in 1952 the entire former municipality of Unterrombach was merged into Aalen, with the exception of Forst, which is part of Essingen until present).
In September 1944, the Wiesendorf concentration camp, a subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof, was constructed nearby. It was designated for between 200 and 300 prisoners who were utilized for forced labor in industrial businesses nearby. Until the camp's dissolution in February 1945, 60 prisoners died. Between 1946 and 1957, the camp buildings were torn down; however, its foundations are still in place in house Moltkestraße 44/46. Also, there were several other labour camps which existed where prisoners of war along with women and men from occupied countries occupied by Germany were pooled. The prisoners at these other camps had to work for the arms industry in major businesses like Schwäbische Hüttenwerke and the Alfing Keßler machine factory.
In the civic hospital, the deaconesses on duty were gradually replaced by National Socialist People's Welfare nurses. Nazi eugenics led to compulsory sterilization of some 200 persons there.
Fortunately, Aalen avoided most of the combat activity during World War II. It was only during the last weeks of the war that Aalen became a target of air warfare, which led to the destruction and severe damage of parts of the town, the train station, and other railway installations. A series of air attacks lasting for more than three weeks reached its peak on 17 April 1945, when United States Army Air Forces planes bombed the branch arsenal office and the train station. During this raid, 59 people were killed, more than half of them buried by debris, and more than 500 lost their homes. Also, 33 residential buildings, 12 other buildings and 2 bridges were destroyed, and 163 buildings, including 2 churches, were damaged. The district of Waldhausen was the district with the highest percentage of Roman Catholic inhabitants at 75.6 percent, and the central district was the one with the highest percentage of Evangelical-Lutheran inhabitants at 25.6 percent, as well as those claiming no religious preference at 32.5 percent. Protestantism
Aalen's population originally was subject to the jus patronatus of Ellwangen Abbey, and thus subject to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Augsburg.
With the assistance of the Duke of Württemberg, in 1575, the reformation was implemented in Aalen. Subsequently, Aalen has been a predominantly Protestant town for centuries, with the exception of the years from 1628 until 1632 (see reformation section). Being an Imperial City, Aalen could govern its clerical matters on its own, so Clerics, organists and choir masters were direct subjects to the council, which thus exerted bishop-like power. There was even a proper hymn book for Aalen. Alongside the church, the Late Gothic St. Odile's Chapel is standing, whose entrance has the year 1462 engraved upon it. Foundations of prior buildings have been dated to the 11th and 13th century.
St. Mary's Church of Unterkochen was first mentioned in 1248, and has served the Catholics of Aalen for a long time. Waldhausen's parish church of St. Nicholas was built between 1699 and 1716. Wasseralfingen at first was a chapel of ease for Hofen, but has since had its own chapel, St. Stephen, built. It was presumably built in 1353 and remodeled in 1832. In 1834, a proper parish was established, which built a new St. Stephen's Church. This new building utilized the Romanesque Revival architecture style and was built between 1881 and 1883, and has since remained the parish's landmark. Also, Fachsenfeld received its own church, named Sacred Heart in 1895. All Catholic parishes within Aalen are today incorporated into four pastoral care units within the Ostalb Deanery of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart; however these units also comprise some parishes outside of Aalen. Pastoral Care Unit two comprises the parishes of Essingen, Dewangen and Fachsenfeld, unit four comprises Hofen and Wasseralfingen, unit five comprises both parishes of Aalen's centre and Hofherrnweiler, unit five comprises Waldhausen, Ebnat, Oberkochen and Unterkochen. Other Christian communities In addition to the two major religions within Aalen, there are also free churches and other communities, including the United Methodist Church, the Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the New Apostolic Church. Other religions Until the late 19th century, no Jews were documented within Aalen. In 1886 there were four Jews were living in Aalen, a number that rose to ten in 1900, fell to seven in 1905, and remained so until 1925. Upon the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, seven Jews, including two children, lived in Aalen. During the Kristallnacht in 1938, the vitrines of the three Jewish shops in the town were smashed and their proprietors imprisoned for several weeks. After their release, most Aalen Jews emigrated. The last Jews of Aalen, Fanny Kahn, was forcibly resettled to Oberdorf am Ipf, which had a large Jewish community. Today, a street of Aalen is named after her. The Jew Max Pfeffer returned from Brussels to Aalen in 1948 to continue his shop, but emigrated to Italy in 1967. The mosque's construction started on 30 August 2008. The Islamist Millî Görüş organisation maintains the Fatih Mosque, as well at Ulmer Straße.
Mergings
The present-day make up of Aalen was created on 21 June 1975 by the unification of the cities of Aalen and Wasseralfingen, with the initial name of Aalen-Wasseralfingen. This annexation made Aalen's territory one third larger than its prior size. On 1 July 1975, the name Aalen was revived. Prior to this merger, the town of Aalen had already annexed the following municipalities:
* 1938: Unterrombach
* 1 January 1970: Waldhausen
* 1 July 1972: Ebnat
* 1 January 1973: Dewangen, Fachsenfeld (including the village of Hangendenbach, which was transferred from Abtsgmünd in 1954) and Unterkochen. The merging of Dewangen nearly doubled the territory of Aalen.
Population's progression and structure
During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Aalen was just a small town with a few hundred inhabitants. The population grew slowly due to numerous wars, famines and epidemics. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century where Aalen's growth accelerated. Whereas in 1803, only 1,932 people inhabited the town, in 1905 it had already increased to 10,442. The number continued to rise and reached 15,890 in 1939.
The influx of refugees and ethnic Germans from Germany's former eastern territories after World War II pushed the population to 31,814 in 1961. The merger with Wasseralfingen on 21 June 1975 added 14,597 persons and resulted in a total population of 65,165 people. On 30 June 2005, the population, which was officially determined by the Statistical Office of Baden-Württemberg, was 67,125.
The following overview shows how the population figures of the borough were ascertained. Until 1823, the figures are mostly estimates, thereafter census results or official updates by the state statistical office. Starting in 1871, the figures were determined by non-uniform method of tabulation using extrapolation.
{|
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Inhabitants
|-----
| 1634 || align="right" | 2,000
|-----
| 1803 || align="right" | 1,932
|-----
| 1823 || align="right" | 2,486
|-----
| 3 December 1843 ¹ || align="right" | 3,319
|-----
| 3 December 1855 ¹ || align="right" | 3,720
|-----
| 3 December 1861 ¹ || align="right" | 4,272
|-----
| 1 December 1871 ¹ || align="right" | 5,552
|-----
| 1 December 1880 ¹ || align="right" | 6,659
|-----
| 1 December 1890 ¹ || align="right" | 7,155
|-----
| 1 December 1900 ¹ || align="right" | 9,058
|-----
| 1 December 1905 ¹ || align="right" | 10,442
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Inhabitants
|-----
| 1 December 1910 ¹ || align="right" | 11,347
|-----
| 1 December 1916 ¹ || align="right" | 10,655
|-----
| 5 December 1917 ¹ || align="right" | 10,551
|-----
| 8 October 1919 ¹ || align="right" | 11,978
|-----
| 16 June 1925 ¹ || align="right" | 12,171
|-----
| 16 June 1933 ¹ || align="right" | 12,703
|-----
| 17 May 1939 ¹ || align="right" | 15,890
|-----
| 31 December 1945 || align="right" | 19,552
|-----
| 29 October 1946 ¹ || align="right" | 21,941
|-----
| 13 September 1950 ¹ || align="right" | 25,375
|-----
| 25 September 1956 ¹ || align="right" | 29,360
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Inhabitants
|-----
| 6 June 1961 ¹ || align="right" | 31,814
|-----
| 31 December 1965 || align="right" | 34,373
|-----
| 27 May 1970 ¹ || align="right" | 37,366
|-----
| 31 December 1975 || align="right" | 64,735
|-----
| 31 December 1980 || align="right" | 63,030
|-----
| 31 December 1985 || align="right" | 63,195
|-----
| 31 December 1990 || align="right" | 64,781
|-----
| 1994 || align "right" | 66,330
|-----
| 31 December 1995 || align="right" | 66,234
|-----
| 31 December 2000 || align="right" | 66,373
|-----
| 31 December 2005 || align="right" | 67,066
|-----
| 31 December 2010 || align="right" | 66,113
|}
|}
<small>¹ Census result</small>
On 31 December 2008, Aalen had precisely 66,058 inhabitants, of which 33,579 were female and 32,479 were male. The average age of Aalen's inhabitants rose from 40.5 years in 2000 to 42.4 in 2008. Within the borough, 6,312 foreigners resided, which is 9.56 percent. Of them, the largest percentage are from Turkey (38 percent of all foreigners), the second largest group are from Italy (13 percent), followed by Croatians (6 percent) and Serbs (5 percent).
The number of married residents fell from 32,948 in 1996 to 31,357 in 2007, while the number of divorced residents rose in the same period from 2,625 to 3,859. The number of single residents slightly increased between 1996 and 2004 from 25,902 to 26,268 and fell slightly until 2007 to 26,147. The number of widowed residents fell from 5,036 in 1996 to 4,783 in 2007.
<gallery>
File:Durchschnittsalter Aalen.png|Average age of Aalen's inhabitants
File:Familienstand Aalen.png|Ratio of married inhabitants contrasted to unmarried
</gallery>
Politics
Aalen has arranged a municipal association with Essingen and Hüttlingen.
Council
Since the local election of 25 May 2014, the town council consists of 51 representatives having a term of five years. The seats are distributed as follows on parties and groups (changes refer to the second last election of 2004):
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right"
|+ Town council since 2014
|-
! Parliamentary group !! Election result !! ± !! Strength !! ±
|-
|style="text-align:left"| CDU
|style="text-align:center"| 37,4 %
|style="text-align:center"| +1,2 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 19 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| −2
|-
|style="text-align:left"| SPD
|style="text-align:center"| 22,9 %
|style="text-align:center"| −0,5 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 11 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| –2
|-
|style="text-align:left"| Alliance 90/The Greens
|style="text-align:center"| 15,6 %
|style="text-align:center"| –0,1 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 8 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| –1
|-
|style="text-align:left"| Free Voters Aalen
|style="text-align:center"| 11,5 %
|style="text-align:center"| +11,5 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 6 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| +6
|-
|style="text-align:left"| The Left/Pro Aalen
|style="text-align:center"| 7,3 %
|style="text-align:center"| –0,3 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 4 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| +1
|-
|style="text-align:left"| FDP/FW
|style="text-align:center"| 3,4 %
|style="text-align:center"| –10,4 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 2 Sitze
|style="text-align:center"| –5
|-
|style="text-align:left"| Active Citizens (Aktive Bürger)
|style="text-align:center"| 1,9 %
|style="text-align:center"| −1,5 Pp.
|style="text-align:center"| 1 Sitz
|style="text-align:center"| 0
|}
Mayors
Since 1374, the mayor and the council maintain the government of the town. In the 16th century, the town had two, sometimes three mayors, and in 1552, the council had 13 members. Later, the head of the administration was reorganized several times. In the Württemberg era, the mayor's title was initially called Bürgermeister, then from 1819 it was Schultheiß, and since 1947 it is Oberbürgermeister. The mayor is elected for a term of eight years, and he is chairman and a voting member of the council. He has one deputy with the official title of Erster Bürgermeister ("first mayor") and one with the official title of Bürgermeister ("mayor").
Heads of town in Aalen since 1802
* 1802–: Theodor Betzler
* 1812–1819: Ludwig Hölder
* 1819–1829: Theodor Betzler
* 1829: Palm
* 1829–1848: Philipp Ehmann
* 1848–1873: Gustav Oesterlein
* 1873–1900: Julius Bausch
* 1900–1902: Paul Maier
* 1903–1934: Friedrich Schwarz
* 1935–1945: Karl Schübel (NSDAP)
* 1945–1950: Otto Balluff
* 1950–1975: Karl Schübel (independent)
* 1976–2005: Ulrich Pfeifle (SPD)
* 2005–2013: Martin Gerlach (independent)
* 2013–2021: Thilo Rentschler (SPD)
* 2021–: Frederick Brütting
* 2006 total: 109.9 million Euros debts (64.639 million of the finance department and 48.508 million of the municipal enterprises and fund assets)
* 2007 total: 114.5 million Euros debts (69.448 million of the finance department and 45.052 million of the municipal enterprises and fund assets)
Twin towns – sister cities
Aalen is twinned with:
* Saint-Lô, France (1978)
* Christchurch, United Kingdom (1981)
* Tatabánya, Hungary (1987)
* Antakya, Turkey (1995); initiated by Ismail Demirtas, who emigrated in 1962 from Turkey to Aalen and was social adviser for foreign employees
* Cervia, Italy (2011)
* Vilankulo, Mozambique (2018)
The "Twin Towns Society of Aalen" (Städtepartnerschaftsverein Aalen e. V.) promotes friendly relations between Aalen and its twin towns, which comprises mutual exchanges of sports and cultural clubs, schools and other civic institutions. On the occasion of the Reichsstädter Tage, from 11 until 13 September 2009 the first conference of twin towns was held.
Culture and sights
Theatre
The Theater der Stadt Aalen theatre was founded in 1991 and stages 400 to 500 performances a year.
Schubart Literary Award
The town endowed the "Schubart Literary Award" (Schubart-Literaturpreis) in 1955 in tribute to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, who spent his childhood and youth in Aalen. It is one of the earliest literary awards in Baden-Württemberg and is awarded biennially to German-language writers whose work coincide with Schubart's "liberal and enlightened reasoning". It is compensated with 12,000 Euros.
Music
Founded in 1958, the "Music School of the Town of Aalen" today has about 1,500 students taught by 27 music instructors in 30 subjects. In 1977, a symphony orchestra was founded in Aalen, which today is called Aalener Sinfonieorchester, and consists mostly of instructors and students of the music school. It performs three public concerts annually: The "New Year's Concert" in January, the "Symphony Concert" in July and a "Christmas Concert" in December. Beyond that, music festivals regularly take place in Aalen, like the Aalen Jazzfest.
The Aalen volunteer fire department has had a marching band since 1952, whose roots date back to 1883. In 1959, the band received its first glockenspiel from TV host Peter Frankenfeld on the occasion of a TV appearance.
A famous German rapper, designer and singer, that goes under the name of Cro, was born in Aalen and lived his early years here.
Arts
The Kunstverein Aalen was founded in 1983 as a non-profit art association and today is located in the Old Town Hall.
The institution with more than 400 members focuses on solo and group exhibitions by international artists. It belongs to the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Kunstvereine (ADKV), an umbrella organization for non-profit art associations.
Museums and memorial sites
Museums
In the central district of Aalen, there are two museums: The "Aalen Limes Museum" (Limesmuseum Aalen) is located at the place of the largest Roman cavalry fort north of the Alps until about 200 AD. It opened in 1964. The museum exhibits numerous objects from the Roman era. The ruins of the cavalry fort located beside the museum is open to museum visitors. Every other year, a Roman festival is held in the area of the museum (see below).
In the Geological-Paleontological Museum located in the historic town hall, there are more than 1500 fossils from the Swabian Jura, including ammonites, ichthyosaurs and corals, displayed.
In the Waldhausen district the Heimatstüble museum of local history has an exhibition on agriculture and rural living.
In the Wasseralfingen district, there are two more museums: The Museum Wasseralfingen comprises a local history exhibition and an art gallery including works of Hermann Plock, Helmut Schuster and Sieger Köder. Also, the stove plate collection of the Schwäbische Hüttenwerke steel mill is exhibited, with artists, modellers and the production sequence of a cast plate from design to final product being presented.
Memorial sites
There is memorial stone at the Schillerlinde tree above Wasseralfingen's ore pit dedicated to four prisoners of the subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp killed there. Also in Wasseralfingen, in the cemetery a memorial with the Polish inscription "To the victims of Hitler" which commemorates the deceased forced labourers buried there.
Buildings
Churches
The town centre is dominated by the Evangelical-Lutheran St. Nicholas' Church in the heart of the pedestrian area. The church, in its present shape being built between 1765 and 1767, is the only major Late Baroque building in Aalen and is the main church of the Evangelical-Lutheran parish of Aalen.
''St. John's Church'' is located inside of St. John's cemetery in the western centre. The building presumably is from the 9th century and thus is one of Württemberg's oldest existing churches. The interior features frescos from the early 13th century.
For other churches in Aalen, see the Religions section.
Historic Town Hall with "Spy"
The Historic Town Hall was originally built in the 14th century. After the fire of 1634, it was re-constructed in 1636. This building received a clock from Lauterburg,
According to legend, the citizens of Aalen owe the "Spy of Aalen" (Spion von Aalen) their town having been spared from destruction by the emperor's army:
<blockquote>The Imperial City of Aalen was once in quarrel with the emperor, and his army was shortly before the gates to take the town. The people of Aalen got scared and thus dispatched their "most cunning" one out into the enemy's camp to spy out the strength of their troops. Without any digression, he went straight into the middle of the enemy camp, which inescapably led to him being seized and presented to the emperor. When the emperor asked him what he had lost here, he answered in Swabian German: "Don't frighten, high lords, I just want to peek how many cannons and other war things you've got, since I am the spy of Aalen". The emperor laughed upon such a blatancy and acted naïvety, steered him all through the camp and then sent him back home. Soon the emperor withdrew with his army as he thought a town such wise guys reside in deserved being spared.</blockquote> Old Town Hall The earliest record of the Old Town Hall was in 1575. Its outside wall features the oldest known coat of arms, which is of 1664. Until 1851, the building also housed the Krone-Post hotel, which coincided with being a station of the Thurn und Taxis postal company. It has housed many notable persons. Thus the so-called "Napoleon Window" with its "N" painted on reminds of the stay of French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805. According to legend, he rammed his head so hard it bled on this window, when he was startled by the noise of his soldiers ridiculing the "Spy of Aalen".
Observatory
The Aalen Observatory was built in 1969 as school observatory for the Schubart Gymnasium. In 2001, it was converted to a public observatory. Since then, it has been managed by the Astronomische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Aalen ("Aalen Astronomical Society"). It is located on Schillerhöhe hill and features two refractive telescopes. They were manufactured by Carl Zeiss AG which has its headquarters in nearby Oberkochen and operates a manufacturing works in Aalen (see below). In the observatory, guided tours and lectures are held regularly.
Windpark Waldhausen
The Windpark Waldhausen wind farm began operations in early 2007. It consists of seven REpower MM92 wind turbines with a nameplate capacity of 2 MW each. The hub height of each wind turbine is , with a rotor diameter of . Aalbäumle observation tower The tall Aalbäumle observation tower is built atop Langert mountain. This popular hiking destination was built in 1898 and was remodelled in 1992. It features a good view over Aalen and the Welland region, up to the Rosenstein mountain and Ellwangen. Beneath the tower, an adventure playground and a cabin is located. A flag on the tower signals whether the cabin's restaurant is open. Natural monuments
The Baden-Württemberg State Institute for Environment, Measurements and Natural Conservation has laid out six protected landscapes in Aalen (the Swabian Jura escarpment between Lautern and Aalen with adjacent territories, the Swabian Jura escarpment between Unterkochen and Baiershofen, the Hilllands around Hofen, the Kugeltal and Ebnater Tal valleys with parts of Heiligental valley and adjacent territories, Laubachtal valley and Lower Lein Valley with side valleys), two sanctuary forests (Glashütte and Kocher Origin), 65 extensive natural monuments, 30 individual natural monuments and the following two protected areas:
The large Dellenhäule protected area between Aalen's Waldhausen district and Neresheim's Elchingen district, created in 1969, is a sheep pasture with juniper and wood pasture of old willow oaks.
The large Goldshöfer Sande protected area was established in 2000 and is situated between Aalen's Hofen district and Hüttlingen. The sands on the hill originated from the Early Pleistocene are of geological importance, and the various grove structures offer habitat to severely endangered bird species.
Sports
The football team, VfR Aalen, was founded in 1921 and played in the 2nd German League between 2012 and 2015, after which they were relegated to 3. Liga. Its playing venue is the Scholz-Arena situated in the west of the town, which bore the name Städtisches Waldstadion Aalen ("Civic Forest Stadium of Aalen") until 2008. From 1939 until 1945, the VfR played in the Gauliga Württemberg, then one of several parallel top-ranking soccer leagues of Germany.
The KSV Aalen wrestles in the Wrestling Federal League. It was German champion in team wrestling in 2010. Its predecessor, the KSV Germania Aalen disbanded in 2005, was German champion eight times and runner-up five times since 1976. Another Aalen club, the TSV Dewangen, wrestled in the Federal League until 2009.
Two American sports, American Football and Baseball, are pursued by the MTV Aalen. Volleyball has been gaining in popularity in Aalen for years. The first men's team of DJK Aalen accomplished qualification for regional league in the season of 2008/09.
The Ostalb ski lifts are located south of the town centre, at the northern slope of the Swabian Jura. The skiing area comprises two platter lifts that have a vertical rise of , with two runs with lengths of and a beginners' run.
Regular events
Reichsstädter Tage
Since 1975, Reichsstädter Tage ("Imperial City days") festival is held annually in the town centre on the second weekend in September. It is deemed the largest festival of the Ostwürttemberg region, and is associated with a shopping Sunday in accordance with the code. The festival is also attended by delegations from the twinned cities. On the town hall square, on Sunday an ecumenical service is held.
Roman Festival
The international Roman Festival (Römertage) are held biannially on the site of the former Roman fort and the modern Limes museum. The festival's ninth event in 2008 was attended by around 11,000 people.
Aalen Jazz Festival
Annually during the second week of November, the Aalen Jazz Festival brings known and unknown artists to Aalen. It has already featured musicians like Miles Davis, B. B. King, Ray Charles, David Murray, McCoy Tyner, Al Jarreau, Esbjörn Svensson and Albert Mangelsdorff. The festival is complemented by individual concerts in spring and summer, and, including the individual concerts, comprises around 25 concerts with a total of about 13,000 visitors.
Economy and infrastructure
In 2008 there were 30,008 employees liable to social insurance living in Aalen. 13,946 (46.5 percent) were employed in the manufacturing sector, 4,715 (15.7 percent) in commerce, catering, hotels and transport, and 11,306 (37.7 percent) in other services. Annually 16,000 employees commute to work, with about 9,000 living in the town and commuting out.
Altogether in Aalen there are about 4,700 business enterprises, 1,100 of them being registered in the trade register. The others comprise 2,865 small enterprises and 701 craft enterprises.
In Aalen, metalworking is the predominant industry, along with machine-building. Other industries include optics, paper, information technology, chemicals, textiles,
Bus
Aalen also is a regional hub in the bus network of OstalbMobil, the transport network of the district Aalen is in. The bus lines are operated and serviced by regional companies like OVA and RBS RegioBus Stuttgart.
Street
The junctions of Aalen/Westhausen and Aalen/Oberkochen connect Aalen with the Autobahn A7 (Würzburg–Füssen). Federal roads (Bundesstraßen) connecting with Aalen are B 19 (Würzburg–Ulm), B 29 (Waiblingen–Nördlingen) and B 290 (Tauberbischofsheim–Westhausen). The Schwäbische Dichterstraße ("Swabian Poets' Route") tourist route established in 1977/78 leads through Aalen.
Several bus lines operate within the borough. The Omnibus-Verkehr Aalen company is one of the few in Germany that use double-decker buses, it has done so since 1966. A district-wide fare system, OstalbMobil, has been in effect since 2007.
Air transport
Stuttgart Airport, offering international connections, is about away, the travel time by train is about 100 Minutes. At Aalen-Heidenheim Airport, located south-east of Aalen, small aircraft are permitted. Gliding airfields nearby are in Heubach and Bartholomä.
Bicycle
Bicycle routes stretching through Aalen are the Deutscher Limes-Radweg ("German Limes Bicycle Route") and the Kocher-Jagst Bicycle Route.
Public facilities
Aalen houses an Amtsgericht (local district court), chambers of the Stuttgart Labour Court, a notary's office, a tax office and an employment agency. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district office, of the Aalen Deanery of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church and of the Ostalb deanery of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart.
The Stuttgart administrative court, the Stuttgart Labour Court and the Ulm Social Welfare Court are in charge for Aalen.
Aalen had a civic hospital, which resided in the Bürgerspital building until 1873, then in a building at Alte Heidenheimer Straße. In 1942, the hospital was taken over by the district. The district hospital at the present site of Kälblesrain, known today as Ostalb-Klinikum, was opened in 1955.
<gallery>
File:Lufthansa B737-530 (D-ABJF) landing at London Heathrow Airport.jpg|Boeing 737-500 "Aalen"
File:ICE Aalen.jpg|ICE "Aalen" at Aalen station
</gallery>
Notable people
, before 1804]]
, 1869]]
, 1971]]
* Johann Christoph von Westerstetten (1563–1637), Prince-bishop of Eichstätt and counter-reformer
* Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (1739–1791), poet, organ player, composer and journalist; lived in Aalen as a child and adolescent.
* Karl Joseph von Hefele (1809–1893), Roman Catholic theologian, clerical historian and bishop.
* Stephan Jakob Neher (1829–1902), Catholic priest and church historian.
* Rudolf Duala Manga Bell (1873–1914), King of Duala and resistance leader in the German colony of Kamerun, lived in Aalen from 1891 until 1896.
* Karl Wahl (1892–1981), Gauleiter of Gau Swabia, Obergruppenführer
* Kurt Jooss (1901–1979), born in Wasseralfingen; dancer, choreographer and dance educator
* Georg Elser (1903–1945), opponent of Nazism, worked in 1923 as an apprentice carpenter in Aalen.
* August Zehender (1903–1945), SS Brigade Commander and Major General of the Waffen-SS
* Bruno Heck (1917–1989), politician (CDU), former minister of the government and CDU secretary general
* Hermann Bausinger (1926–2021), cultural scientist
* Hans Elsässer (1929–2003), astronomer and founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy
* Werner Sobek (born 1953), architect and structural engineer
* Gerhard Thiele (born 1953 in Heidenheim), physicist and former astronaut, attended school in Aalen.
* Angela Schanelec (born 1962), actress, film director and screenwriter
* Ulrich Spiesshofer (born 1964), business executive, former CEO of the ABB Group
* Martin Gerlach, (DE Wiki) (born 1965), independent politician, mayor of Aalen (2005–2013)
* Steffen Schorn (born 1967), jazz musician & professor at the Hochschule für Musik Nürnberg
* Carlo Waibel (born 1990), singer known as Cro, wears a panda mask on stage.
Sport
* Werner Bickelhaupt (born 1939), football coach, lives in Aalen since 2004, head coach for Swaziland for 3 months in 2003
* Walter Adams (born 1945 in Wasseralfingen), middle-distance runner
* Thomas Zander (born 1967), wrestler, world champion in 1994 and silver medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics
* Carl-Uwe Steeb (born 1967), retired tennis player
* Erol Sabanov (born 1974), former football goalkeeper who played about 300 games
* Andreas Beck (born 1987), footballer, immigrated aged 3, grew up in Aalen; played about 475 games and 9 for Germany
* Patrick Funk (born 1990), footballer, played about 375 games
* Fabio Kaufmann (born 1992), footballer, played over 350 games
Honorary citizens
* Ruland Ayßlinger, composer
* Erwin Rommel (1891–1944), Field Marshal of World War II, grew up in Aalen
* Paul Edel
* Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker (1859–1927), founder of the Aalen Historical Society (Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen) and name giver of the Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker Award<ref name = GA/>
* Ulrich Pfeifle, Mayor of Aalen from 1976 until 2005
Notes
References
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Further reading
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External links
* [https://www.aalen.de/startseite.1.htm Town of Aalen's website]
* [http://www.gisserver.de/aalen/start.html Geographical information system of the town of Aalen] (in German)
Category:Towns in Baden-Württemberg
Category:Ostalbkreis
Category:150s establishments in the Roman Empire
Category:260s disestablishments in the Roman Empire
Category:Populated places established in the 7th century
Category:7th-century establishments in Germany
Category:States and territories established in 1360
Category:1360s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Category:1360 establishments in Europe
Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1800s
Category:1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Category:Free imperial cities
Category:Holocaust locations in Germany | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalen | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.755897 |
2383 | Alois Alzheimer | |birth_place = Marktbreit, Bavaria<br />
|death_date
|death_place = Breslau, Prussia, German Empire<br />
|profession = Psychiatrist, physician
|specialism = Neuropathology
|known_for = First published case of "presenile dementia" (Alzheimer's disease)
|spouse
|children = 3
|education =
|work_institutions =
|signature = Alois Alzheimer signature.svg
}}
<!--WP:CREDENTIAL: Academic/professional titles (such as "Doctor" or "Professor") and postnominal degree abbreviations (such as "PhD") should not be used-->
Alois Alzheimer ( , , ; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist, neuropathologist and colleague of Emil Kraepelin. He is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin later identified as Alzheimer's disease.
Early life and education
Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria, on 14 June 1864, the son of Anna Johanna Barbara Sabina and Eduard Román Alzheimer. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown. The family was devoutly Catholic.
The Alzheimers moved to Aschaffenburg when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium. After graduating with Abitur in 1883, Alzheimer studied medicine at University of Berlin, University of Tübingen, and University of Würzburg. In his final year at university, he was a member of a fencing fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team. In 1887, Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg as Doctor of Medicine.
While at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him. They faced many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, formal and informal arrangements were made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers.Auguste DeterIn 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community;
On 8 April 1906, Auguste Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin's laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the newly developed Bielschowsky stain to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies became identifiers of what is now known as Alzheimer's disease.
On 3November 1906, Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists.
Following his presentation, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his presentation; in 1907 he wrote a longer paper detailing the disease and his findings. Alzheimer eventually conceived "his" disease as mainly characterized clinically by a severe dementia with instrumental symptoms, and pathologically by extended neurofibrillary tangles. He debated fiercely with Oskar Fischer, a German-speaking pathologist from Prague, who instead emphasized on the importance of neuritic plaques and of presbyophrenia as the phenotype.
Alzheimer and Fischer had different interpretations of the disease, but owing to Alzheimer's short life,Critics and rediscoveryIn the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer's findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer's notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin. Claire O'Brien, meanwhile, hypothesized that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease.
See also
* Gaetano Perusini
* German inventors and discoverers
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090301211434/http://www.alzheimers-research.org.uk/news/article.php?typeNews&archive1&id=71 Alzheimer's: 100 years on]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118065913/http://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3445 Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization]
* [http://www.yorku.ca/ahp/?p=30 Bibliography of secondary sources] on Alois Alzheimer and Alzheimer's disease, selected from peer-reviewed journals
* Graeber Manuel B. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081219054825/http://www.ibro.info/media/pdf/si-his-pdf-pdf9.pdf "Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915)"], International Brain Research Organization
Category:1864 births
Category:1915 deaths
Category:People from Marktbreit
Category:Physicians from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Category:German neuroscientists
Category:German Roman Catholics
Category:Alzheimer's disease
Category:German psychiatrists
Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery
Category:Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Category:Academic staff of the University of Breslau
Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Category:University of Tübingen alumni
Category:University of Würzburg alumni
Category:Neuropathologists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Alzheimer | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.789484 |
2384 | Aedile | Aedile ( , , from , "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order and duties to ensure the city of Rome was well supplied and its civil infrastructure well maintained, akin to modern local government.
There were two pairs of aediles: the first were the "plebeian aediles" (Latin: aediles plebis) and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were "curule aediles" (Latin: aediles curules), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An aedilis curulis was classified as a magister curulis.
The office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity.
History of the office
Plebeian aediles
The plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the tribune of the plebs (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebeians with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole. Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance.
Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the Senate. When a senatus consultum was passed, it would be transcribed into a document and deposited in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents. They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (People's Assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the censors. Occasionally, if a censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an aedile would perform the task instead.Curule aedilesAccording to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed—at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either—at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul. Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both curule as well as plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct.
Differences between the two
There was a distinction between the two sets of aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of plebeian aediles. Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the curule aediles, and it was often with these festivals that the aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done to secure voters' support in future elections. Because aediles were not reimbursed for public expenditures, most individuals seeking the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's aedileship.
Election to the office
Plebeian aediles and Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly. Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians rather than by all of the people of Rome (plebeians as well as patricians), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the Lex Villia Annalis, individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-six. By the 1st century BC, aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.
Powers of the office
Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads:
(1) Care of the city:
the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures.
(2) Care of provisions:
investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity.
(3) Care of the games:
superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g., at funerals) at their own expense.
Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement. Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes. In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.
Modern day
Examples of modern use of the term "edil" include:
*Portugal, where the county mayor can still be referred to as edil (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a form of reference used also in Brazil.
*Romania, where the term edit is used for a mayor (e.g. 'Edil al Bucureștiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest').
*Spain (and Latin America), where the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles.
Shakespeare
In his play Coriolanus, Shakespeare references the aediles. However, they are minor characters, and their chief role is to serve as policemen.
References
Books
*
*
*
Category:Cursus honorum
Category:Ancient Roman occupations
Category:Ancient Roman titles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedile | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.815097 |
2386 | American Airlines | <br />(as American Airways, Inc.)
| commenced =
| aoc AALA025A
| hubs
| frequent_flyer = AAdvantage
| alliance = Oneworld
| fleet_size = 985
| destinations 353
| parent = American Airlines Group
| headquarters Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.
| key_people
| revenue (2024)
| operating_income (2024) American, along with its regional subsidiaries and contractors operating under the brand name American Eagle, operate an extensive international and domestic network with almost 6,800 flights per day to nearly 350 destinations in 48 countries. The airline is also a founding member of the Oneworld alliance, one of the world's three major airline alliances.
American Airlines and American Eagle operate out of ten hubs, with Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) being the largest. The airline serves more than 200 million passengers annually, and averages more than 500,000 daily. , the company employs 103,440 staff members.
History
"Flagship" American's chief aircraft type during the World War II period]]
American Airlines was started in 1930 as a union of more than eighty small airlines. The two organizations from which American Airlines originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first created in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation. This, in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system and was renamed American Airlines. The airline fully developed its international business between 1970 and 2000. It purchased Trans World Airlines in 2001.
American had a direct role in the development of the Douglas DC-3, which resulted from a marathon telephone call from American Airlines CEO C. R. Smith to Douglas Aircraft Company founder Donald Wills Douglas Sr., when Smith persuaded a reluctant Douglas to design a sleeper aircraft based on the DC-2 to replace American's Curtiss Condor II biplanes. (The existing DC-2's cabin was wide, too narrow for side-by-side berths.) Douglas agreed to proceed with development only after Smith informed him of American Airline's intention to purchase 20 aircraft. The prototype DST (Douglas Sleeper Transport) first flew on December 17, 1935, the 32nd anniversary of the Wright Brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Its cabin was wide, and a version with 21 seats instead of the 14–16 sleeping berths of the DST was given the designation DC-3. There was no prototype DC-3; the first DC-3 built followed seven DSTs off the production line and was delivered to American Airlines. American Airlines inaugurated passenger service on June 26, 1936, with simultaneous flights from Newark, New Jersey, and Chicago, Illinois.
American also had a direct role in the development of the DC-10, which resulted from a specification from American Airlines to manufacturers in 1966 to offer a widebody aircraft that was smaller than the Boeing 747, but capable of flying similar long-range routes from airports with shorter runways. McDonnell Douglas responded with the DC-10 trijet shortly after the two companies' merger. On February 19, 1968, the president of American Airlines, George A. Spater, and James S. McDonnell of McDonnell Douglas announced American's intention to acquire the DC-10. American Airlines ordered 25 DC-10s in its first order. The DC-10 made its first flight on August 29, 1970, and received its type certificate from the FAA on July 29, 1971. On August 5, 1971, the DC-10 entered commercial service with American Airlines on a round-trip flight between Los Angeles and Chicago.
In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, American Airlines' parent company, the AMR Corporation, filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2013, American Airlines merged with US Airways but kept the American Airlines name, as it was the better-recognized brand internationally; the combination of the two airlines resulted in the creation of the largest airline in the United States, and ultimately the world.
In December 2023, the company was added to the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index.
Network
Destinations
, American Airlines flies (or has flown) to the following destinations:
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Country or Territory
! City
! Airport
! Notes
! class="unsortable" | Refs
|-
|American Samoa||Pago Pago||Pago Pago International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Antigua and Barbuda||St. John's||V. C. Bird International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Argentina||Buenos Aires||Ministro Pistarini International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Córdoba||Ingeniero Aeronáutico Ambrosio L.V. Taravella International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Aruba||Oranjestad||Queen Beatrix International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Australia||Brisbane||Brisbane Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Sydney||Sydney Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Bahamas||Nassau||Lynden Pindling International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Freeport||Freeport International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Barbados||Bridgetown||Grantley Adams International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Belgium||Brussels||Brussels Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Belize||Belize City||Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Bermuda||Hamilton||L.F. Wade International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Bolivia||La Paz||El Alto International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Santa Cruz de la Sierra||Viru Viru International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Bonaire||Kralendijk||Flamingo International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"11"|Brazil||Belo Horizonte||Tancredo Neves International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Brasília||Brasília International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Fortaleza||Pinto Martins International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Manaus||Eduardo Gomes International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Porto Alegre||Salgado Filho International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Recife||Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Rio de Janeiro||Rio de Janeiro/Galeão International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Salvador da Bahia||Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Shanghai||Shanghai Pudong International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"6"|Cuba||Camagüey||Ignacio Agramonte International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Havana||José Martí International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Holguín||Frank País Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"5"|Dominican Republic||La Romana||La Romana International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Puerto Plata||Gregorio Luperón International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Punta Cana||Punta Cana International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Santiago de los Caballeros||Cibao International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Santo Domingo||Las Américas International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Ecuador||Guayaquil||José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Quito||Mariscal Sucre International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|El Salvador||San Salvador||El Salvador International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Finland||Helsinki||Helsinki Airport||||align=center|
|-
|rowspan"3"|France||rowspan"2"|Paris||Charles de Gaulle Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Orly Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Nice||Côte d'Azur Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Haiti||Cap-Haïtien||Hugo Chávez International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Port-au-Prince||Toussaint Louverture International Airport (Suspended)||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"3"|Honduras||Roatán||Juan Manuel Gálvez International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|San Pedro Sula||La Mesa International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Tegucigalpa||Comayagua International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Hong Kong||Hong Kong||Hong Kong International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Hungary||Budapest||Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|India||Delhi||Indira Gandhi International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Ireland||Dublin||Dublin Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Shannon||Shannon Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"5"|Italy||Bologna||Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Milan||Milan Malpensa Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Komaki Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Osaka||Kansai International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Tokyo||Haneda Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Narita International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Martinique||Fort-de-France||Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|rowspan"11"|Mexico||Cancún||Cancún International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Cozumel||Cozumel International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Guadalajara||Guadalajara International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Mexico City||Mexico City International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Morelia||General Francisco Mujica International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|León||Bajío International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Oaxaca||Oaxaca International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Puebla||Puebla International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Puerto Vallarta||Licenciado Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|San José del Cabo||Los Cabos International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Zihuatanejo||Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Netherlands||Amsterdam||Amsterdam Airport Schiphol||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|New Zealand||Auckland||Auckland Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Christchurch||Christchurch Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Nicaragua||Managua||Augusto C. Sandino International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Panama||Panama City||Tocumen International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Paraguay||Asunción||Silvio Pettirossi International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Peru||Lima||Jorge Chávez International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Cuzco||Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Portugal||Lisbon||Lisbon Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Qatar||Doha||Hamad International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Russia||Moscow||Domodedovo International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Saint Kitts and Nevis||Basseterre||Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Saint Lucia||Vieux Fort||Hewanorra International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines||Kingstown||Argyle International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Sint Maarten||Philipsburg||Princess Juliana International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|South Korea||Seoul||Incheon International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Spain||Barcelona||Josep Tarradellas Barcelona–El Prat Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Sweden||Stockholm||Stockholm Arlanda Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Switzerland||Zürich||Zurich Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Trinidad and Tobago||Port of Spain||Piarco International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Turks and Caicos Islands||Providenciales||Providenciales International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"7"|United Kingdom||Birmingham||Birmingham Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"3"|London||Gatwick Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Heathrow Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Stansted Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Manchester||Manchester Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"3"|United States (Arizona)||Phoenix||Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Tucson||Tucson International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Yuma||Yuma International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Arkansas)||Bentonville||Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"12"|United States (California)||Burbank||Hollywood Burbank Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Fresno||Fresno Yosemite International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Los Angeles||Los Angeles International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Oakland||Oakland International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Ontario||Ontario International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Palm Springs||Palm Springs International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Sacramento||Sacramento International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|San Diego||San Diego International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|San Francisco||San Francisco International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|San Jose||San Jose Mineta International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Santa Ana||John Wayne Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Santa Barbara||Santa Barbara Municipal Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"6"|United States (Colorado)||Colorado Springs||Colorado Springs Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|rowspan"2"|Denver||Denver International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Stapleton International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Eagle/Vail||Eagle County Regional Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Hayden/Steamboat Springs||Yampa Valley Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Montrose||Montrose Regional Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Connecticut)||Hartford||Bradley International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (District of Columbia)||rowspan"2"|Washington, D.C.||Dulles International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport||||align=center|
|-
| rowspan"9" |United States (Florida)||Fort Lauderdale||Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Fort Myers||Southwest Florida International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Jacksonville||Jacksonville International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Miami||Miami International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Orlando||Orlando International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Sarasota||Sarasota–Bradenton International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Pensacola||Pensacola International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Tampa||Tampa International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|West Palm Beach||Palm Beach International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Georgia)||Atlanta||Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"4"|United States (Hawaii)||Honolulu||Daniel K. Inouye International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Kahului||Kahului Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Kailua-Kona||Kona International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Lihue||Lihue Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Idaho)||Boise||Boise Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Illinois)||Chicago||O'Hare International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|United States (Indiana)||Indianapolis||Indianapolis International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Iowa)||Des Moines||Des Moines International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Kansas)||Wichita||Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Kentucky)||Louisville||Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Louisiana)||Baton Rouge||Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|New Orleans||Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Maine)||Portland||Portland International Jetport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Maryland)||Baltimore||Baltimore/Washington International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Massachusetts)||Boston||Logan International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Worcester||Worcester Regional Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Michigan)||Detroit||Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Minnesota)||Minneapolis||Minneapolis−Saint Paul International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Mississippi)|| Jackson||Jackson–Medgar Wiley Evers International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Gulfport||Gulfport–Biloxi International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Missouri)||Kansas City||Kansas City International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|St. Louis||St. Louis Lambert International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Montana)||Bozeman||Bozeman Yellowstone International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Missoula||Missoula International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (Nebraska)||Omaha||Eppley Airfield||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Nevada)||Las Vegas||Harry Reid International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Reno||Reno–Tahoe International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (New Hampshire)||Manchester||Manchester-Boston Regional Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|United States (New Jersey)||Newark||Newark Liberty International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (New Mexico)||Albuquerque||Albuquerque International Sunport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Santa Fe||Santa Fe Municipal Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
| rowspan"7" |United States (New York)||Albany||Albany International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Buffalo||Buffalo Niagara International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|New York City||John F. Kennedy International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|LaGuardia Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Rochester||Greater Rochester International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Syracuse||Syracuse Hancock International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Watertown||Watertown International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"4"|United States (North Carolina)||Charlotte||Charlotte Douglas International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Greensboro||Piedmont Triad International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Raleigh||Raleigh–Durham International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Wilmington||Wilmington International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (North Dakota)||Bismarck||Bismarck Municipal Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Fargo||Hector International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"6"|United States (Ohio)||Akron||Akron–Canton Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Cincinnati/Covington||Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Cleveland||Cleveland Hopkins International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Columbus||John Glenn Columbus International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Dayton||Dayton International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Toledo||Toledo Express Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Oklahoma)||Oklahoma City||Will Rogers World Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Tulsa||Tulsa International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"2"|United States (Oregon)||Portland||Portland International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Redmond||Redmond Municipal Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"4"|United States (Pennsylvania)||Harrisburg||Harrisburg International Airport||aligncenter| ||align=center|
|-
|Philadelphia||Philadelphia International Airport||||align=center|
|-
|Wyoming Valley||Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|Pittsburgh||Pittsburgh International Airport||aligncenter| ||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"3"|United States (Puerto Rico)||Aguadilla|||Rafael Hernández Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Ponce||Mercedita Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|rowspan"3"|Venezuela||Caracas||Simón Bolívar International Airport||||aligncenter|
|-
|Maracaibo||La Chinita International Airport||||aligncenter|
* Charlotte: American's hub for the southeastern United States and secondary Caribbean gateway.
* Chicago–O'Hare: American's hub for the Midwest.
* Dallas/Fort Worth: American's hub for the southern United States and largest hub overall.
* Los Angeles: American's hub for the West Coast and secondary transpacific gateway.
* Miami: American's primary Latin American and Caribbean hub.
* New York–JFK: American's secondary transatlantic hub mainly serves destinations with high demand from local New York traffic.
* New York–LaGuardia: American's New York hub for domestic flights with a few exceptions.
* Philadelphia: American's primary transatlantic hub.
* Phoenix–Sky Harbor: American's southwestern hub.
* Washington–National: American's hub for the capital of the United States.
Alliance and codeshare agreements
American Airlines is a member of the Oneworld alliance and has codeshares with the following airlines:
* Aer Lingus
* Air Tahiti Nui
* Alaska Airlines
* British Airways
* Cape Air
* Cathay Pacific
* China Southern Airlines
* Etihad Airways
* Finnair
* Fiji Airways
* Gol Linhas Aéreas Inteligentes
* Hawaiian Airlines
* Iberia Airlines
* IndiGo
* Japan Airlines
* JetSmart
* LAM Mozambique Airlines
* Malaysia Airlines
* Philippine Airlines
* Qantas
* Qatar Airways
* Royal Air Maroc
* Royal Jordanian
* Silver Airways
* SriLankan Airlines
Joint ventures
In addition to the above codeshares, American Airlines has entered into three joint ventures.
Atlantic Joint Business
American Airlines is a vital member of the Oneworld Atlantic joint venture on flights across the North Atlantic with European carriers British Airways, Finnair, and Iberia. Aer Lingus, which shares ownership with British Airways and Iberia, has received regulatory approval to join this joint venture. Itineraries including flights operated by Oneworld partner Alaska Airlines are sold as part of itineraries in this JV, but Alaska is not a part of the JV. Pacific Joint Business American Airlines has a joint venture with fellow Oneworld member Japan Airlines for flights across the Pacific. Combined, the airlines offer 16 daily flights to 9 cities between Japan and the United States with connections possible on Japan Airlines beyond Japan, and on American Airlines throughout North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Australia and New Zealand Joint Business In 2019, American Airlines received regulatory approval to enter into a joint business relationship with Qantas covering flights between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.
Fleet
<!-- This section is an excerpt of the introduction of the American Airlines fleet page. Please do not add a fleet table to this section. Detailed fleet information is covered in the posted American Airlines fleet page.-->
Cabins
;Flagship First
]]
Flagship First is American's international and transcontinental first class product. It is offered only on Boeing 777-300ERs and select Airbus A321s, which American designates "A321T". The seats are fully lie-flat and offer direct aisle access with only one on each side of the aisle in each row. As with the airline's other premium cabins, Flagship First offers wider food and beverage options, larger seats, and lounge access at certain airports. American offers domestic Flagship First service on transcontinental routes between New York–JFK and Los Angeles, New York–JFK and San Francisco, New York-JFK and Santa Ana, Boston and Los Angeles, and Miami and Los Angeles, as well as on the standard domestic route between New York-JFK and Boston. The airline will debut new Flagship Suite premium seats and a revamped aircraft interior for its long-haul fleet with fresh deliveries of its Airbus A321XLR and Boeing 787-9 aircraft, beginning in 2024.
;Flagship Business
]]
Flagship Business is American's international and transcontinental business class product. It is offered on all Boeing 777-200ERs, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-8s, and Boeing 787-9s, as well as select Airbus A321s. All Flagship Business seats are fully lie-flat. The amenities in Flagship Business include complimentary alcoholic/non-alcoholic beverages, multi-course meals, and lounge access.
;First and Business
]]
First class is the highest class of service on domestically configured aircraft. When such aircraft are used on international services this cabin is branded as business class. Seats range from in width and have of pitch.
;
Premium Economy is American's economy plus product. It is offered on all widebody aircraft. The cabin debuted on the airline's Boeing 787-9s in late 2016 and is also available on Boeing 777-200s and -300s, and Boeing 787-8s. Premium Economy seats are wider than seats in the main cabin (American's economy cabin) and provide more amenities: Premium Economy customers get two free checked bags, priority boarding, and enhanced food and drink service, including free alcohol. This product made American Airlines the first U.S. carrier to offer a four-cabin aircraft. It is available on all of the mainline fleet and American Eagle aircraft. Originally Basic Economy passengers could only carry a personal item. Later, American revised their Basic Economy policies to allow for a carry-on bag.
In May 2017, American announced it would add more seats to some of its Boeing 737 MAX 8 jets and reduce overall legroom in the basic economy class. The last three rows were to lose , going from the current . The remainder of the main cabin was to have of legroom. This "Project Oasis" seating configuration has since been expanded to all 737 MAX 8s as well as standard Boeing 737-800 and non-transcontinental Airbus A321 jets. New Airbus A321neo jets have been delivered with the same configuration. This configuration has been considered unpopular with passengers, especially American's frequent flyers, as the new seats have less padding, less legroom, and no seatback entertainment.
Reward programs
AAdvantage
AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program for American Airlines. It was launched on May 1, 1981, and remains the largest frequent flyer program, with over 115 million members as of 2021. Miles accumulated in the program allow members to redeem tickets, upgrade service class, or obtain free or discounted car rentals, hotel stays, merchandise, or other products and services through partners. The most active members, based on the accumulation of Loyalty Points with American Airlines, are designated AAdvantage Gold, AAdvantage Platinum, AAdvantage Platinum Pro, and AAdvantage Executive Platinum elite members, with privileges such as separate check-in, priority upgrade, and standby processing, or free upgrades. AAdvantage status corresponds with Oneworld status levels allowing elites to receive reciprocal benefits from American's Oneworld partner airlines.
AAdvantage co-branded credit cards are also available and offer other benefits. The cards are issued by CitiCards, a subsidiary of Citigroup, Barclaycard, and Bilt card in the United States, by several banks including Butterfield Bank and Scotiabank in the Caribbean, and by Banco Santander in Brazil. In December 2024, it was announced that American would be cutting ties with Barclays and would instead be rolling members into its partnership with Citigroup starting in 2026.
AAdvantage allows one-way redemption, starting at 7,500 miles. Admirals Club The Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing promotion shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary title designations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers "admirals" of the "Flagship fleet" (AA called its aircraft "Flagships" at the time). The list of admirals included many celebrities, politicians, and other VIPs, as well as more "ordinary" customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline.
There was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper-level lounge for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the "Admirals Club" in 1939.
The second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the club contained refrigerators for the use of its members so they could store their liquor at the airport. For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination, the club switched to a paid membership program in 1974. Flagship Lounge Though affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge designed explicitly for customers flying in first class and business class on international flights and transcontinental domestic flights. Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for American Airlines are (as of the financial year ending 31 December):
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right;"
!
!Net income<br>(US$ m)
!Number of<br>employees<br>(FTE, k)
!Passenger<br>enplanements<br>(m)
!Passenger<br>load factor<br>(%)
!Fleet size
!References
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2015
|7,610
|99
|201
|83.0
|946
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2016
|2,676
|101
|198
|81.7
|930
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2017
|1,919
|103
|194
|81.9
|948
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2018
|1,412
|102
|203
|82.0
|956
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2019
|1,686
|104
|215
|84.6
|942
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2020
|<span style="color:red;">−8,885</span>
|78
|95
|64.1
|855
|
|-
|2021
|<span style="color:red;">−1,993</span>
|97
|165
|75.3
|865
|
|-
|2022
|127
|102
|199
|82.9
|925
|
|-
|2023
|822
|103
|210
|83.5
|965
|
|-
|2024
|846
|103
|226
|84.9
|977
|
|}
Ownership and structure
American Airlines, Inc., is publicly traded through its parent company, American Airlines Group Inc., under NASDAQ: AAL , with a market capitalization of about $11 billion as of 2024, and is included in the S&P 500 index. The campus is located on 300 acres, adjacent to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, American's fortress hub.
Before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979, American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, which affected up to 1,300 jobs. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a "betrayal" of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas.<!--January 16, 1983 is a Sunday, so January 17 would be a Monday--> On January 17, 1983, the airline finished moving into a $150 million ($ when adjusted for inflation), facility in Fort Worth; $147 million (about $ when adjusted for inflation) in Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport bonds financed the headquarters. The airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility.
In 2015, American announced it would build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016, and occupancy was completed in September 2019. The airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building. The logo was redesigned by Massimo Vignelli in 1967. Thirty years later, in 1997, American Airlines was able to make its logo Internet-compatible by buying the domain AA.com. AA is also American's two-letter IATA airline designator.
On January 17, 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign with FutureBrand dubbed "A New American". This included a new logo, which includes elements of the 1967 logo.
American Airlines faced difficulty obtaining copyright registration for their 2013 logo. On June 3, 2016, American Airlines sought to register it with the United States Copyright Office, but in October of that year, the Copyright Office ruled that the logo was ineligible for copyright protection, as it did not pass the threshold of originality, and was thus in the public domain. After American Airlines submitted additional materials, the Copyright Office reversed its decision on December 7, 2018, and ruled that the logo contained enough creativity to merit copyright protection.
Aircraft livery
American's early liveries varied widely, but a standard livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage. The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.
In the late 1960s, American commissioned designer Massimo Vignelli to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage and a simple "AA" logo, without an eagle, on the tail; instead, Vignelli created a highly stylized eagle, which remained the company's logo until January 16, 2013.
in May 2012]]
On January 17, 2013, American unveiled a new livery. Before then, American had been the only major U.S. airline to leave most of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C. R. Smith would not say he liked painted aircraft and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert "Bob" Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving fuel costs.
In January 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign dubbed "The New American." In addition to a new logo, American Airlines introduced a new livery for its fleet. The airline calls the new livery and branding "a clean and modern update". The current design features an abstract American flag on the tail, along with a silver-painted fuselage, as a throw-back to the old livery. The new design was painted by Leading Edge Aviation Services in California. Doug Parker, the incoming CEO, indicated that the new livery could be short-lived, stating that "[the] only reason this is an issue now is that they just did it right in the middle [of the merger], which kind of makes it confusing, so that allows us, actually, to decide if we are going to do something different because we have so many airplanes to paint". The current logo and livery have had mixed criticism, with Design Shack editor Joshua Johnson writing that they "boldly and proudly communicate the concepts of American pride and freedom wrapped into a shape that instantly makes you think about an airplane", and [http://www.askthepilot.com/ AskThePilot.com] author Patrick Smith describing the logo as a linoleum knife poking through a shower curtain'. Later in January 2013, Bloomberg asked the designer of the 1968 American Airlines logo (Massimo Vignelli) on his opinion over the rebranding.
in June 2013]]
In the end, American let their employees decide the new livery's fate. On an internal website for employees, American posted two options, one the new livery and one a modified version of the old livery. All of the American Airlines Group employees (including US Airways and other affiliates) were able to vote. American ultimately decided to keep the new look. Parker announced that American would keep a US Airways and America West heritage aircraft in the fleet, with plans to add a heritage TWA aircraft and a heritage American plane with the old livery. As of September 2019, American has heritage aircraft for Piedmont, PSA, America West, US Airways, Reno Air, TWA, and AirCal in their fleet. They also have two AA branded heritage 737-800 aircraft, an AstroJet N905NN, and the polished aluminum livery used from 1967 to 2013, N921NN.
Customer Service
American, both before and after the merger with US Airways, has consistently performed poorly in rankings. The Wall Street Journal's annual airline rankings have ranked American as the worst or second-worst U.S. carrier for ten of the past twelve years, and in the bottom three of U.S. Airlines for at least the past twelve years. The airline has persistently performed poorly in the areas of losing checked luggage and bumping passengers due to oversold flights. Worker relations
The main representatives of key groups of employees are:
* The Allied Pilots Association is an in-house union which represents the nearly 15,000 American Airlines pilots; it was created in 1963 after the pilots left the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA). However the majority of American Eagle pilots are ALPA members.
* The Association of Professional Flight Attendants represents American Airlines flight attendants, including former USAirways flight attendants.
* Flight attendants at wholly owned regional carriers (Envoy, Piedmont, and PSA) are all represented by [http://www.afacwa.org/ Association of Flight Attendants – Communications Workers of America] (AFA-CWA). US Airways flight attendants were active members of AFA-CWA before the merger, and they are honorary lifetime members. AFA-CWA is the largest flight attendant union in the industry.
* The Transport Workers Union-International Association of Machinists alliance (TWU-IAM) represents the majority of American Airlines employed fleet service agents, mechanics, and other ground workers.
* American's customer service and gate employees belong to the Communications Workers of America/International Brotherhood of Teamsters Passenger Service Association.
* PAFCA-AAL represents the nearly 550 FAA-certificated Aircraft Dispatchers and Operations Specialists at American Airlines. This specialized group, many of whom are licensed pilots, former Air Traffic Control personnel, and military airmen share equal responsibility with the Pilot-in-Command for the safe conduct of each the flight.
Subsidiary companies
Sky Chefs
In 1942, American Airlines established Sky Chefs, a wholly-owned subsidiary, as a catering company to serve their fleet. In 1986, Sky Chefs was sold to Toronto-based Onex Capital Corporation for $170 million. Since 2001, it has been fully owned by the LSG Group.Flagship Hotels / Americana HotelsIn the late-1960s, American Airlines established the Flagship Hotels chain as a subsidiary of Sky Chefs. On July 21, 1972, American Airlines leased four hotels from the Loews Corporation, three of them branded as Americana Hotels, for a period of thirty years. American merged the hotels with their Flagship Hotels, and rebranded the entire chain as Americana Hotels. In 1980, American Airlines sold Americana Hotels to Bass Brothers Enterprises of Fort Worth, Texas.
Concerns and conflicts
Environmental violations
Between October 1993 to July 1998, American Airlines was repeatedly cited for using high-sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country, a violation of the Clean Air Act. Lifetime AAirpass
In 1981, as a means of creating revenue in a period of loss-making, American Airlines offered a lifetime pass of unlimited travel for the initial cost of $250,000. This entitled the pass holder to fly anywhere in the world. Twenty-eight were sold. However, after some time, the airline realized they were making losses on the tickets, with the ticketholders costing them up to $1 million each. Ticketholders were booking large numbers of flights with some ticketholders flying interstate for lunch or flying to London multiple times a month. AA raised the cost of the lifetime pass to $3 million, and then finally stopped offering it in 2003. AA then used litigation to cancel two of the lifetime offers, saying the passes "had been terminated due to fraudulent activity". Cabin fume events * In 1988, on American Airlines Flight 132's approach into Nashville, flight attendants notified the cockpit that there was smoke in the cabin. The flight crew in the cockpit ignored the warning, as on a prior flight, a fume event had occurred due to a problem with the auxiliary power unit. However, the smoke on Flight 132 was caused by improperly packaged hazardous materials. According to the NTSB inquiry, the cockpit crew persistently refused to acknowledge that there was a serious threat to the aircraft or the passengers, even after they were told that the floor was becoming soft and passengers had to be reseated. As a result, the aircraft was not evacuated immediately on landing, exposing the crew and passengers to the threat of smoke and fire longer than necessary.
* On April 11, 2007, toxic smoke and oil fumes leaked into the aircraft cabin as American Airlines Flight 843 taxied to the gate. A flight attendant who was present in the cabin subsequently filed a lawsuit against Boeing, stating that she was diagnosed with neurotoxic disorder due to her exposure to the fumes, which caused her to experience memory loss, tremors, and severe headaches. She settled with the company in 2011.
* In 2009, Mike Holland, deputy chairman for radiation and environmental issues at the Allied Pilots Association and an American Airlines pilot, said that the pilot union had started alerting pilots of the danger of contaminated bleed air, including contacting crew members that the union thinks were exposed to contamination based on maintenance records and pilot logs.
* In a January 2017 incident on American Airlines Flight 1896, seven flight attendants were hospitalized after a strange odor was detected in the cabin. The Airbus A330 involved subsequently underwent a "thorough maintenance inspection", having been involved in three fume events in three months.
* In August 2018, American Airlines flight attendants picketed in front of the Fort Worth company headquarters over a change in sick day policy, complaining that exposure to ill passengers, toxic uniforms, toxic cabin air, radiation exposure, and other issues were causing them to be sick.
* In January 2019, two pilots and three flight attendants on Flight 1897 from Philadelphia to Fort Lauderdale were hospitalized following complaints of a strange odor.
Discrimination complaints
On October 24, 2017, the NAACP issued a travel advisory for American Airlines urging African Americans to "exercise caution" when traveling with the airline. The NAACP issued the advisory after four incidents. In one incident, a black woman was moved from first class to coach while her white traveling companion was allowed to remain in first class. In another incident, a black man was forced to give up his seats after being confronted by two unruly white passengers. According to the NAACP, while they did receive complaints on other airlines, most of their complaints in the year before their advisory were on American Airlines. In July 2018, the NAACP lifted their travel advisory saying that American has made improvements to mitigate discrimination and unsafe treatment of African Americans.
Accidents and incidents
<!-- This section is an excerpt of the first paragraphs of the List of American Airlines accidents and incidents page. -->
Carbon footprintAmerican Airlines reported total CO2e emissions (direct and indirect) for the twelve months ending December 31, 2020, at 20,092 Kt (-21,347 /-51.5% y-o-y). The company aims to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050. In November 2023, American Airlines purchased the first carbon credit contract (for 10,000 metric tons of sequestered at $100 per ton) from Graphyte, a carbon removal startup company invested in by Breakthrough Energy that compresses sawdust, tree bark, rice hulls, plant stalks, and other agricultural waste into biomass bricks wrapped in a polymer barrier to prevent decomposition that are stored underground.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ American Airline's annual total CO2e emissions - Location-based scope 1 + scope 2 (in kilotonnes)
|-
! Dec 2016 !! Dec 2017 !! Dec 2018 !! Dec 2019 !! Dec 2020
|-
| 39,254 || 39,388 || 40,604 || 41,439 || 20,092<ref name="American Airlines Group Inc. Total CO2e emissions for 2020Q4"/>
|}
See also
* AAirpass
* Air transportation in the United States
* List of airlines of the United States
* List of airports in the United States
* US Airways, which merged with American Airlines in 2015
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
* [https://www.aavacations.com Official American Airlines Vacations website]
}}
Category:1934 establishments in the United States
Category:Airlines based in Texas
Category:Airlines established in 1934
Category:Airlines for America members
Category:American Airlines Group
Category:American companies established in 1934
Category:Aviation in Arizona
Category:Companies based in Fort Worth, Texas
Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines | 2025-04-05T18:26:02.982087 |
2388 | Antidepressant | | MedlinePlus = antidepressants
| Consumer_Reports = antidepressants
| medicinenet = antidepressants
| rxlist = 100734
<!-- External links -->
| MeshID = D000928
}}
venlafaxine, a typical example of an antidepressant.]]
Antidepressants are a class of medications used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and addiction.
Common side effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, akathisia, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting. There is an increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior when taken by children, adolescents, and young adults. Discontinuation syndrome, which resembles recurrent depression in the case of the SSRI class, may occur after stopping the intake of any antidepressant
Research regarding the effectiveness of antidepressants for depression in adults is controversial and has found both benefits and drawbacks. Meanwhile, evidence of benefit in children and adolescents is unclear, even though antidepressant use has considerably increased in children and adolescents in the 2000s. While a 2018 study found that the 21 most commonly prescribed antidepressant medications were slightly more effective than placebos for the short-term (acute) treatments of adults with major depressive disorder, other research has found that the placebo effect may account for most or all of the drugs' observed efficacy.
Research on the effectiveness of antidepressants is generally done on people who have severe symptoms, a population that exhibits much weaker placebo responses, meaning that the results may not be extrapolated to the general population that has not (or has not yet) been diagnosed with anxiety or depression. Proponents of the monoamine hypothesis of depression recommend choosing an antidepressant which impacts the most prominent symptoms. Under this practice, for example, a person with MDD who is also anxious or irritable would be treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, while a person suffering from loss of energy and enjoyment of life would take a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor.Major depressive disorderThe UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)'s 2022 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, "unless that is the person's preference". The guidelines recommended that antidepressant treatment be considered:
* For people with a history of moderate or severe depression.
* For people with mild depression that has been present for an extended period.
* As a first-line treatment for moderate to severe depression.
* As a second-line treatment for mild depression that persists after other interventions.
The guidelines further note that in most cases, antidepressants should be used in combination with psychosocial interventions and should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse and that SSRIs are typically better tolerated than other antidepressants.
Reviews of antidepressants generally find that they benefit adults with depression. Sertraline, escitalopram, and duloxetine may also help reduce symptoms. Likewise, a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for major depressive disorder in children and adolescents found small improvements in quality of life. Quality of life as an outcome measure is often selectively reported in trials of antidepressants.
Anxiety disorders
For children and adolescents, fluvoxamine and escitalopram are effective in treating a range of anxiety disorders. Fluoxetine, sertraline, and paroxetine can also help with managing various forms of anxiety in children and adolescents. In relation to this, most of the benefit of antidepressants for anxiety disorders is attributable to placebo responses rather than to the effects of the antidepressants themselves. The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.Obsessive–compulsive disorderSSRIs are a second-line treatment for adult obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) with mild functional impairment, and a first-line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment.
In children, SSRIs are considered as a second-line therapy in those with moderate-to-severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects. Sertraline and fluoxetine are effective in treating OCD for children and adolescents.
Placebo responses are a large component of the benefit of antidepressants in the treatment of depression and anxiety. A 2019 meta-analysis found placebo improvement effect sizes (SMD) of about 1.2 for depression, 1.0 for anxiety disorders, and 0.6 for OCD with antidepressants.
Panic disorder
Panic disorder is treated relatively well with medications compared to other disorders. Several classes of antidepressants have shown efficacy for this disorder, with SSRIs and SNRIs used first-line. Paroxetine, sertraline, and fluoxetine are FDA-approved for panic disorder, while fluvoxamine, escitalopram, and citalopram are also considered effective for them. SNRI venlafaxine is also approved for this condition. Unlike social anxiety and PTSD, some TCAs antidepressants, like clomipramine and imipramine, have shown efficacy for panic disorder. Moreover, the MAOI phenelzine is also considered useful. Panic disorder has many drugs for its treatment. However, the starting dose must be lower than the one used for major depressive disorder because people have reported an increase in anxiety as a result of starting the medication. In conclusion, while panic disorder's treatment options seem acceptable and useful for this condition, many people are still symptomatic after treatment with residual symptoms.Eating disordersAntidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other antidepressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term trials. Long-term efficacy remains poorly characterized. Bupropion is not recommended for the treatment of eating disorders, due to an increased risk of seizure.
Similar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder.
Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Antidepressants including amitriptyline, fluoxetine, duloxetine, milnacipran, moclobemide, and pirlindole are recommended by the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) for the treatment of fibromyalgia based on "limited evidence".Neuropathic painA 2014 meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found the antidepressant duloxetine to be effective for the treatment of pain resulting from diabetic neuropathy. The same group reviewed data for amitriptyline in the treatment of neuropathic pain and found limited useful randomized clinical trial data. They concluded that the long history of successful use in the community for the treatment of fibromyalgia and neuropathic pain justified its continued use. The group was concerned about the potential overestimation of the amount of pain relief provided by amitriptyline, and highlighted that only a small number of people will experience significant pain relief by taking this medication. Bupropion is used to help people stop smoking. Antidepressants are also used to control some symptoms of narcolepsy. Antidepressants may be used to relieve pain in people with active rheumatoid arthritis. However, further research is required. Antidepressants have been shown to be superior to placebo in treating depression in individuals with physical illness, although reporting bias may have exaggerated this finding. Antidepressants have been shown to improve some parts of cognitive functioning for depressed users, such as memory, attention, and processing speed.
Certain antidepressants acting as serotonin 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonists, such as trazodone and mirtazapine, have been used as hallucinogen antidotes or "trip killers" to block the effects of serotonergic psychedelics like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).Limitations and strategiesAmong individuals treated with a given antidepressant, between 30% and 50% do not show a response. Approximately one-third of people achieve a full remission, one-third experience a response, and one-third are non-responders. Partial remission is characterized by the presence of poorly defined residual symptoms. These symptoms typically include depressed mood, anxiety, sleep disturbance, fatigue, and diminished interest or pleasure. It is currently unclear which factors predict partial remission. However, it is clear that residual symptoms are powerful predictors of relapse, with relapse rates three to six times higher in people with residual symptoms than in those, who experience full remission. In addition, antidepressant drugs tend to lose efficacy throughout long-term maintenance therapy. According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, less than one-third of Americans taking one antidepressant medication have seen a mental health professional in the previous year. Several strategies are used in clinical practice to try to overcome these limits and variations. They include switching medication, augmentation, and combination.
There is controversy amongst researchers regarding the efficacy and risk-benefit ratio of antidepressants. Although antidepressants consistently out-perform a placebo in meta-analyses, the difference is modest and it is not clear that their statistical superiority results in clinical efficacy. The aggregate effect of antidepressants typically results in changes below the threshold of clinical significance on depression rating scales. Assessments of antidepressants using alternative, more sensitive scales, such as the MADRS, do not result in marked difference from the HDRS and likewise only find a marginal clinical benefit. Poor and complex clinical trial design might also account for the small effects seen for antidepressants. The randomized controlled trials used to approve drugs are short, and may not capture the full effect of antidepressants. More naturalistic studies, such as STAR*D, have produced results, which suggest that antidepressants may be less effective in clinical practice than in randomized controlled trials.
Critics of antidepressants maintain that the superiority of antidepressants over placebo is the result of systemic flaws in clinical trials and the research literature. Although this issue has diminished with time, it remains an obstacle to accurately assessing the efficacy of antidepressants. Misreporting of clinical trial outcomes and of serious adverse events, such as suicide, is common. Critics charge that the widespread use and public acceptance of antidepressants is the result of pharmaceutical advertising, research manipulation, and misinformation.
Switching antidepressants
The American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline advises that where no response is achieved within the following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant, switch to an antidepressant in the same class, and then to a different class. A 2006 meta-analysis review found wide variation in the findings of prior studies: for people who had failed to respond to an SSRI antidepressant, between 12% and 86% showed a response to a new drug. However, the more antidepressants an individual had previously tried, the less likely they were to benefit from a new antidepressant trial.Augmentation and combinationFor a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) guidelines suggest augmentation or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants.
A combination strategy involves adding another antidepressant, usually from a different class to affect other mechanisms. Although this may be used in clinical practice, there is little evidence for the relative efficacy or adverse effects of this strategy. Other tests conducted include the use of psychostimulants as an augmentation therapy. Several studies have shown the efficacy of combining modafinil for treatment-resistant people. It has been used to help combat SSRI-associated fatigue.Long-term use and stoppingThe effects of antidepressants typically do not continue once the course of medication ends. This results in a high rate of relapse. In 2003, a meta-analysis found that 18% of people who had responded to an antidepressant relapsed while still taking it, compared to 41% whose antidepressant was switched for a placebo.
A gradual loss of therapeutic benefit occurs in a minority of people during the course of treatment. A strategy involving the use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of the acute episode, followed by psychotherapy in its residual phase, has been suggested by some studies. For patients who wish to stop their antidepressants, engaging in brief psychological interventions such as Preventive Cognitive Therapy or mindfulness-based cognitive therapy while tapering down has been found to diminish the risk for relapse.Adverse effectsAntidepressants can cause various adverse effects, depending on the individual and the drug in question.
Almost any medication involved with serotonin regulation has the potential to cause serotonin toxicity (also known as serotonin syndrome) – an excess of serotonin that can induce mania, restlessness, agitation, emotional lability, insomnia, and confusion as its primary symptoms. Although the condition is serious, it is not particularly common, generally only appearing at high doses or while on other medications. Assuming proper medical intervention has been taken (within about 24 hours) it is rarely fatal. Antidepressants appear to increase the risk of diabetes by about 1.3-fold.
MAOIs tend to have pronounced (sometimes fatal) interactions with a wide variety of medications and over-the-counter drugs. If taken with foods that contain very high levels of tyramine (e.g., mature cheese, cured meats, or yeast extracts), they may cause a potentially lethal hypertensive crisis. At lower doses, the person may only experience a headache due to an increase in blood pressure.
In response to these adverse effects, a different type of MAOI, the class of reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), has been developed. The primary advantage of RIMAs is that they do not require the person to follow a special diet while being purportedly effective as SSRIs and tricyclics in treating depressive disorders.
Tricyclics and SSRI can cause the so-called drug-induced QT prolongation, especially in older adults; this condition can degenerate into a specific type of abnormal heart rhythm called Torsades de points, which can potentially lead to sudden cardiac arrest.
Some antidepressants are also believed to increase thoughts of suicidal ideation.
Antidepressants have been associated with an increased risk of dementia in older adults.
Researchers have developed a tool that allows people to rate their concern about common side effects of antidepressants. The tool ranks potential treatment options in a visual display that highlights the drugs with side effects of least concern to an individual.
Pregnancy
SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflect a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear.
SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight.
A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. A study of fluoxetine-exposed pregnancies found a 12% increase in the risk of major malformations that did not reach statistical significance. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies. and the MAOI should be avoided.
A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found that antidepressant use during pregnancy was statistically significantly associated with some pregnancy outcomes, such as gestational age and preterm birth, but not with other outcomes. The same review cautioned that because differences between the exposed and unexposed groups were small, it was doubtful whether they were clinically significant.
A neonate (infant less than 28 days old) may experience a withdrawal syndrome from abrupt discontinuation of the antidepressant at birth. Antidepressants can be present in varying amounts in breast milk, but their effects on infants are currently unknown.
Moreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting the vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increased risk of pre-eclampsia during pregnancy.Antidepressant-induced maniaAnother possible problem with antidepressants is the chance of antidepressant-induced mania or hypomania in people with or without a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Many cases of bipolar depression are very similar to those of unipolar depression. Therefore, the person can be misdiagnosed with unipolar depression and be given antidepressants. Studies have shown that antidepressant-induced mania can occur in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder. For bipolar depression, antidepressants (most frequently SSRIs) can exacerbate or trigger symptoms of hypomania and mania. Bupropion has been associated with a lower risk of mood switch than other antidepressants.
Suicide
Studies have shown that the use of antidepressants is correlated with an increased risk of suicidal behavior and thinking (suicidality) in those aged under 25 years old. According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality occurs within the first one to two months of treatment. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the "early stages of treatment". A meta-analysis suggests that the relationship between antidepressant use and suicidal behavior or thoughts is age-dependent. There is no effect or possibly a mild protective effect among those aged 25 to 64 (OR0.79). Antidepressant treatment has a protective effect against suicidality among those aged 65 and over (OR0.37).Sexual dysfunctionSexual side effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of sexual drive, failure to reach orgasm, and erectile dysfunction. Although usually reversible, these sexual side-effects can, in rare cases, continue after the drug has been completely withdrawn.
In a study of 1,022 outpatients, overall sexual dysfunction with all antidepressants averaged 59.1% with SSRI values between 57% and 73%, mirtazapine 24%, nefazodone 8%, amineptine 7%, and moclobemide 4%. Moclobemide, a selective reversible MAO-A inhibitor, does not cause sexual dysfunction and can lead to an improvement in all aspects of sexual function.
Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5-HT<sub>2</sub> and 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors; decreased dopamine; decreased norepinephrine; blockade of cholinergic and α<sub>1</sub>adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Mirtazapine is reported to have fewer sexual side effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT<sub>2</sub> and 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors and may, in some cases, reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs by the same mechanism.
Bupropion, a weak NDRI and nicotinic antagonist, may be useful in treating reduced libido as a result of SSRI treatment.Emotional bluntingCertain antidepressants may cause emotional blunting, characterized by a reduced intensity of both positive and negative emotions as well as symptoms of apathy, indifference, and amotivation. It may be experienced as either beneficial or detrimental depending on the situation. This side effect has been particularly associated with serotonergic antidepressants like SSRIs and SNRIs but may be less with atypical antidepressants like bupropion, agomelatine, and vortioxetine. Higher doses of antidepressants seem to be more likely to produce emotional blunting than lower doses. while others (such as bupropion and venlafaxine) achieve the opposite effect.
The antihistaminic properties of certain TCA- and TeCA-class antidepressants have been shown to contribute to the common side effects of increased appetite and weight gain associated with these classes of medication.
Bone loss
A 2021 nationwide cohort study in South Korea observed a link between SSRI use and bone loss, particularly in recent users. The study also stressed the need of further research to better understand these effects. A 2012 review found that SSRIs along with tricyclic antidepressants were associated with a significant increase in the risk of osteoporotic fractures, peaking in the months after initiation, and moving back towards baseline during the year after treatment was stopped. These effects exhibited a dose–response relationship within SSRIs which varied between different drugs of that class. A 2018 meta-analysis of 11 small studies found a reduction in bone density of the lumbar spine in SSRI users which affected older people the most.
Risk of death
A 2017 meta-analysis found that antidepressants were associated with a significantly increased risk of death (+33%) and new cardiovascular complications (+14%) in the general population. Conversely, risks were not greater in people with existing cardiovascular disease. The problem usually begins within three days and may last for several months. This includes serotonin reuptake inhibition (SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, vilazodone, vortioxetine), norepinephrine reuptake inhibition (NRIs, SNRIs, TCAs), dopamine reuptake inhibition (bupropion, amineptine, nomifensine), direct modulation of monoamine receptors (vilazodone, vortioxetine, SARIs, agomelatine, TCAs, TeCAs, antipsychotics), monoamine oxidase inhibition (MAOIs), and NMDA receptor antagonism (ketamine, esketamine, dextromethorphan), among others (e.g., brexanolone, tianeptine).
|-
! Class !! Action(s) !! Examples !! Introduced
|-
| Opioids (mostly no longer used) || μ-Opioid receptor agonism || Codeine • Heroin • Morphine • Opium • Tianeptine (1983) || 1800s
|-
| Amphetamine psychostimulants (mostly no longer used) || Norepinephrine release induction • Dopamine release induction || Amphetamine • Dextroamphetamine • Methamphetamine || 1930s
|-
| Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) || Monoamine oxidase inhibition • Other actions in some cases || Iproniazid • Isocarboxazid • Isoniazid • Moclobemide (1989) • Nialamide • Phenelzine • Selegiline (1977/2006) • Tranylcypromine || 1950s
|-
| Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) || Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptor antagonism • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonism • Other actions || Amitriptyline • Butriptyline • Clomipramine • Desipramine • Dosulepin (dothiepin) • Doxepin • Imipramine • Iprindole • Lofepramine • Nortriptyline • Protriptyline • Trimipramine || 1950s
|-
| Tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs) || Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptor antagonism • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonism • Other actions || Amoxapine • Maprotiline • Mianserin • Mirtazapine • Setiptiline || 1970s
|-
| Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) || Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition || Atomoxetine (off-label) • Teniloxazine • Reboxetine • Viloxazine || 1970s
|-
| Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) || Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Dopamine reuptake inhibition || Amineptine • Bupropion • Methylphenidate (off-label) • Nomifensine || 1970s
|-
| Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) || Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Weak monoamine reuptake inhibition • Other actions || Etoperidone • Nefazodone • Trazodone || 1980s
|-
| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) || Serotonin reuptake inhibition || Citalopram • Escitalopram • Fluoxetine • Fluvoxamine • Indalpine • Paroxetine • Sertraline • Zimelidine || 1980s
|-
| Serotonin 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor agonists (azapirones) || Serotonin 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonism • Other actions || Buspirone (off-label) • Gepirone • Tandospirone || 1980s
|-
| Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) || Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition || Desvenlafaxine • Duloxetine • Levomilnacipran • Milnacipran (off-label) • Venlafaxine || 1990s
|-
| Serotonin modulators and stimulators (SMSs) || Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor modulation || Vilazodone • Vortioxetine || 2000s
|-
| Atypical antipsychotics || Serotonin receptor modulation • Dopamine receptor modulation • Other actions || Amisulpride • Aripiprazole • Brexpiprazole • Lumateperone • Lurasidone • Olanzapine • Quetiapine • Risperidone (off-label) • Sulpiride || 2000s
|-
| NMDA receptor antagonists || NMDA receptor antagonism • Possibly other actions || Dextromethorphan/bupropion • Esketamine • Ketamine (off-label) || 2010s
|-
| Neurosteroid-type GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor positive allosteric modulators || GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor positive allosteric modulation || Brexanolone • Zuranolone || 2010s
|-
| Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors || Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Dopamine reuptake inhibition || Toludesvenlafaxine || 2020s
|-
| Other agents || Various/mixed actions || α-Methyltryptamine • Ademetionine (SAMe) • Agomelatine • <small>D</small>-Phenylalanine • Etryptamine • Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort) Indeloxazine • Lithium (off-label) • Medifoxamine • Opipramol • Oxaflozane • Oxitriptan (5-HTP) • Pivagabine • Thyroid hormone (off-label) • Tiazesim • Tofenacin • Tryptophan || Various
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan"4" style"width: 1px; background-color:#eaecf0; text-align: center;" | Notes: (1) Opioids and amphetamines largely ceased being used by the 1950s with the introduction of modern antidepressants. (2) Some antidepressants can also have alternative classifications, such as mirtazapine being a "noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant" (NaSSA) or moclobemide being a "reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A" (RIMA). (3) See list of antidepressants for a complete list of approved/marketed antidepressants. (4) See list of investigational antidepressants for an extensive list of modern investigational antidepressants (including discontinued agents).
|}
The earliest and most widely known scientific theory of antidepressant action is the monoamine hypothesis, which can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s. This theory states that depression is due to an imbalance, most often a deficiency, of the monoamine neurotransmitters, namely serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. A number of alternative hypotheses have been proposed, including hypotheses involving glutamate, neurogenesis, epigenetics, cortisol hypersecretion, and inflammation, among others.
In 2022, a major systematic umbrella review by Joanna Moncrieff and colleagues showed that the serotonin theory of depression was not supported by evidence from a wide variety of areas. The authors concluded that there is no association between serotonin and depression, and that there is no evidence that strongly supports the theory that depression is caused by low serotonin activity or concentrations. This is in spite of about 90% of the general public in Western countries believing the theory to be true and many in the field of psychiatry continuing to promote the theory up to recent times. Instead, findings of reserpine and mood are highly mixed, with similar proportions of studies finding that it has no influence on mood, produces depressive effects, or actually has antidepressant effects. In the case of the pharmaceutical industry, this can be attributed to obvious financial incentives, with the theory creating a bias against non-pharmacological treatments for depression. This is supported by meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for depression, which consistently show that placebo groups in trials improve about 80 to 90% as much as antidepressant groups on average and that antidepressants are only marginally more effective for depression than placebos. Moreover, the small advantage of antidepressants over placebo may simply be a methodological artifact caused by unblinding due to the psychoactive effects and side effects of antidepressants, in turn resulting in enhanced placebo effects and apparent antidepressant efficacy. It has been argued by Kirsch that although antidepressants may be used efficaciously for depression as active placebos, they are limited by significant pharmacological side effects and risks, and therefore non-pharmacological therapies, such as psychotherapy and lifestyle changes, which can have similar efficacy to antidepressants but do not have their adverse effects, ought to be preferred as treatments in people with depression.
The placebo response, or the improvement in scores in the placebo group in clinical trials, is not only due to the placebo effect, but is also due to other phenomena such as spontaneous remission and regression to the mean. This suggests that antidepressants may be associated with much less genuine treatment benefit, whether due to the placebo effect or to the antidepressant itself, than has been traditionally assumed.TypesSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters.
SSRIs are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries. The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression has been disputed.
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
(Effexor), an SNRI]]
Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are potent inhibitors of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are known to play an important role in mood. SNRIs can be contrasted with the more widely used selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which act mostly upon serotonin alone.
The human serotonin transporter (SERT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET) are membrane proteins that are responsible for the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Balanced dual inhibition of monoamine reuptake may offer advantages over other antidepressants drugs by treating a wider range of symptoms.
SNRIs are sometimes also used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic neuropathic pain, and fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), and for the relief of menopausal symptoms.
Serotonin modulators and stimulators
Serotonin modulator and stimulators (SMSs), sometimes referred to more simply as "serotonin modulators", are a type of drug with a multimodal action specific to the serotonin neurotransmitter system. To be precise, SMSs simultaneously modulate one or more serotonin receptors and inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. The term was coined in reference to the mechanism of action of the serotonergic antidepressant vortioxetine, which acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI), a partial agonist of the 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor, and antagonist of the 5-HT<sub>3</sub> and 5-HT<sub>7</sub> receptors. However, it can also technically be applied to vilazodone, which is an antidepressant as well and acts as an SRI and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonist.
An alternative term is serotonin partial agonist/reuptake inhibitor (SPARI), which can be applied only to vilazodone.
Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors
Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) while mainly used as antidepressants are also anxiolytics and hypnotics. They act by antagonizing serotonin receptors such as 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. Additionally, most also act as α<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptor antagonists. The majority of the currently marketed SARIs belong to the phenylpiperazine class of compounds. They include trazodone and nefazodone.
Tricyclic antidepressants
The majority of the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) act primarily as serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) by blocking the serotonin transporter (SERT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), respectively, which results in an elevation of the synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters, and therefore an enhancement of neurotransmission. Notably, with the sole exception of amineptine, the TCAs have weak affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT), and therefore have low efficacy as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs).Tetracyclic antidepressantsTetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs) are a class of antidepressants that were first introduced in the 1970s. They are named after their chemical structure, which contains four rings of atoms, and are closely related to tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which contain three rings of atoms.Monoamine oxidase inhibitorsMonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are chemicals that inhibit the activity of the monoamine oxidase enzyme family. They have a long history of use as medications prescribed for the treatment of depression. They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression. They are also used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and several other disorders.
Because of potentially lethal dietary and drug interactions, MAOIs have historically been reserved as a last line of treatment, used only when other classes of antidepressant drugs (for example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants) have failed.
MAOIs have been found to be effective in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, atypical depression or mixed anxiety and depression, bulimia, and post-traumatic stress disorder, as well as borderline personality disorder. MAOIs appear to be particularly effective in the management of bipolar depression according to a retrospective-analysis. There are reports of MAOI efficacy in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), trichotillomania, dysmorphophobia, and avoidant personality disorder, but these reports are from uncontrolled case reports.
MAOIs can also be used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease by targeting MAO-B in particular (therefore affecting dopaminergic neurons), as well as providing an alternative for migraine prophylaxis. Inhibition of both MAO-A and MAO-B is used in the treatment of clinical depression and anxiety disorders.
NMDA receptor antagonists
NMDA receptor antagonists like ketamine and esketamine are rapid-acting antidepressants and seem to work via blockade of the ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor. Other NMDA antagonists may also play a role in treating depression. The combination medication dextromethorphan/bupropion (Auvelity), which contains the NMDA receptor antagonist dextromethorphan, was approved in the United States in 2022 for treating major depressive disorder.OthersSee the list of antidepressants and management of depression for other drugs that are not specifically characterized.AdjunctsAdjunct medications are an umbrella category of substances that increase the potency or "enhance" antidepressants. They work by affecting variables very close to the antidepressant, sometimes affecting a completely different mechanism of action. This may be attempted when depression treatments have not been successful in the past.
Common types of adjunct medication techniques generally fall into the following categories:
* Two or more antidepressants taken together, from either the same or different classes (affecting the same area of the brain, often at a much higher level).
* An antipsychotic combined with an antidepressant, particularly atypical antipsychotics such as aripiprazole (Abilify), quetiapine (Seroquel), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and risperidone (Risperdal).<!--first added https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleAntidepressant&diffprev&oldid576824896-->
It is unknown if undergoing psychological therapy at the same time as taking anti-depressants enhances the anti-depressive effect of the medication.
Less common adjuncts
Lithium has been used to augment antidepressant therapy in those who have failed to respond to antidepressants alone. Furthermore, Lithium dramatically decreases the suicide risk in recurrent depression. There is some evidence for the addition of a thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine, in patients with normal thyroid function.
Psychopharmacologists have also tried adding a stimulant, in particular, D-amphetamine. However, the use of stimulants in cases of treatment-resistant depression is relatively controversial. A review article published in 2007 found psychostimulants may be effective in treatment-resistant depression with concomitant antidepressant therapy, but a more certain conclusion could not be drawn due to substantial deficiencies in the studies available for consideration, and the somewhat contradictory nature of their results.<!--
commented out 19 November 2013
However, the authors claim psychostimulants are likely to have a higher level of clinical effectiveness under circumstances in which the patient will probably die soon, so rapid relief is of great importance. In this situation, the patient is likely to die before dependence on, or tolerance of, the medication interferes with their care.
note 15 September 2015
This content should likely be incorporated into the article in some form, likely by mentioning the usage for fatigue in cancer (among others), but it's not happening right now, so please leave this commented out content in place as an important reminder for future editors.
--> Amphetamine has been described as the first antidepressant.
St John's wort fell out of favor in most countries through the 19th and 20th centuries, except in Germany, where Hypericum extracts were eventually licensed, packaged, and prescribed. Small-scale efficacy trials were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, and attention grew in the 1990s following a meta-analysis. It remains an over-the-counter (OTC) supplement in most countries. Lead contamination associated with its usage has been seen as concerning, as lead levels in women in the United States taking St. John's wort are elevated by about 20% on average. Research continues to investigate its active component hyperforin, and to further understand its mode of action.Isoniazid, iproniazid, and imipramineIn 1951, Irving Selikoff and Edward H. Robitzek, working out of Sea View Hospital on Staten Island, began clinical trials on two new anti-tuberculosis agents developed by Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazid, and iproniazid. Only patients with a poor prognosis were initially treated. Nevertheless, their condition improved dramatically. Selikoff and Robitzek noted "a subtle general stimulation ... the patients exhibited renewed vigor and indeed this occasionally served to introduce disciplinary problems." The promise of a cure for tuberculosis in the Sea View Hospital trials was excitedly discussed in the mainstream press.
In 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients. In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that isoniazid improved depression in two-thirds of their patients, so they then coined the term antidepressant to refer to its action. A similar incident took place in Paris, where Jean Delay, head of psychiatry at Sainte-Anne Hospital, heard of this effect from his pulmonology colleagues at Cochin Hospital. In 1952 (before Lurie and Salzer), Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on depressed patients. The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of diamine oxidase, coupled with a weak inhibition of monoamine oxidase A.
Selikoff and Robitzek also experimented with another anti-tuberculosis drug, iproniazid; it showed a greater psychostimulant effect, but more pronounced toxicity. Later, Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George E. Crane, and Frank Ayd, described the psychiatric applications of iproniazid. Ernst Zeller found iproniazid to be a potent monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Nevertheless, iproniazid remained relatively obscure until Nathan S. Kline, the influential head of research at Rockland State Hospital, began to popularize it in the medical and popular press as a "psychic energizer". Roche put a significant marketing effort behind iproniazid.
Antidepressants became prescription drugs in the 1950s. It was estimated that no more than fifty to one hundred individuals per million had the kind of depression that these new drugs would treat, and pharmaceutical companies were not enthusiastic about marketing for this small market. Sales through the 1960s remained poor compared to the sales of tranquilizers, which were being marketed for different uses. Imipramine remained in common use and numerous successors were introduced. The use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) increased after the development and introduction of "reversible" forms affecting only the MAO-A subtype of inhibitors, making this drug safer to use.
By the 1960s, it was thought that the mode of action of tricyclics was to inhibit norepinephrine reuptake. However, norepinephrine reuptake became associated with stimulating effects. Later tricyclics were thought to affect serotonin as proposed in 1969 by Carlsson and Lindqvist as well as Lapin and Oxenkrug.Second-generation antidepressants
Researchers began a process of rational drug design to isolate antihistamine-derived compounds that would selectively target these systems. The first such compound to be patented was zimelidine in 1971, while the first released clinically was indalpine. Fluoxetine was approved for commercial use by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1988, becoming the first blockbuster SSRI. Fluoxetine was developed at Eli Lilly and Company in the early 1970s by Bryan Molloy, Klaus Schmiegel, David T. Wong, and others. SSRIs became known as "novel antidepressants" along with other newer drugs such as SNRIs and NRIs with various selective effects.
Rapid-acting antidepressants
Esketamine (brand name Spravato), the first rapid-acting antidepressant to be approved for clinical treatment of depression, was introduced for this indication in March 2019 in the United States. In 2018, the FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin-assisted therapy for treatment-resistant depression and in 2019, the FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin therapy treating major depressive disorder.
Publication bias and aged research
A 2018 systematic review published in The Lancet comparing the efficacy of 21 different first and second generation antidepressants found that antidepressant drugs tended to perform better and cause less adverse events when they were novel or experimental treatments compared to when they were evaluated again years later. Unpublished data was also associated with smaller positive effect sizes. However, the review did not find evidence of bias associated with industry funded research.
Society and culture
Prescription trends
United Kingdom
In the UK, figures reported in 2010 indicated that the number of antidepressants prescribed by the National Health Service (NHS) almost doubled over a decade. Further analysis published in 2014 showed that number of antidepressants dispensed annually in the community went up by 25 million in the 14 years between 1998 and 2012, rising from 15 million to 40 million. Nearly 50% of this rise occurred in the four years after the Great Recession, during which time the annual increase in prescriptions rose from 6.7% to 8.5%. These sources also suggest that aside from the recession, other factors that may influence changes in prescribing rates may include: improvements in diagnosis, a reduction of the stigma surrounding mental health, broader prescribing trends, GP characteristics, geographical location, and housing status. Another factor that may contribute to increasing consumption of antidepressants is the fact that these medications now are used for other conditions including social anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Between 2005 and 2017, the number of adolescents (12 to 17 years) in England who were prescribed antidepressants has doubled. On the other hand, antidepressant prescriptions for children aged 5–11 in England decreased between 1999 and 2017. From April 2015, prescriptions increased for both age groups (for people aged 0 to 17) and peaked during the first COVID lockdown in March 2020.
According to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines, antidepressants for children and adolescents with depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) should be prescribed together with therapy and after being assessed by a child and adolescent psychiatrist. However, between 2006 and 2017, only 1 in 4 of 12–17 year-olds who were prescribed an SSRI by their GP had seen a specialist psychiatrist and 1 in 6 has seen a pediatrician. Half of these prescriptions were for depression and 16% for anxiety, the latter not being licensed for treatment with antidepressants. Among the suggested possible reasons why GPs are not following the guidelines are the difficulties of accessing talking therapies, long waiting lists, and the urgency of treatment. According to some researchers, strict adherence to treatment guidelines would limit access to effective medication for young people with mental health problems. United States In the United States, antidepressants were the most commonly prescribed medication in 2013. , about 16.5% of white people in the United States took antidepressants compared with 5.6% of black people in the United States.
]]
United States: The most commonly prescribed antidepressants in the US retail market in 2010 were:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Drug name
! scope="col" | Drug class
! scope="col" | Total prescriptions
|-
| Sertraline
| SSRI
| 33,409,838
|-
| Citalopram
| SSRI
| 27,993,635
|-
| Fluoxetine
| SSRI
| 24,473,994
|-
| Escitalopram
| SSRI
| 23,000,456
|-
| Trazodone
| SARI
| 18,786,495
|-
|Venlafaxine (all formulations)
|SNRI
|16,110,606
|-
|Bupropion (all formulations)
|NDRI
|15,792,653
|-
| Duloxetine
| SNRI
| 14,591,949
|-
| Paroxetine
| SSRI
| 12,979,366
|-
| Amitriptyline
| TCA
| 12,611,254
|-
| Venlafaxine XR
| SNRI
| 7,603,949
|-
| Bupropion XL
| NDRI
| 7,317,814
|-
| Mirtazapine
| TeCA
| 6,308,288
|-
| Venlafaxine ER
| SNRI
| 5,526,132
|-
| Bupropion SR
| NDRI
| 4,588,996
|-
| Desvenlafaxine
| SNRI
| 3,412,354
|-
| Nortriptyline
| TCA
| 3,210,476
|-
| Bupropion ER
| NDRI
| 3,132,327
|-
| Venlafaxine
| SNRI
| 2,980,525
|-
| Bupropion
| NDRI
| 753,516
|}
Netherlands: In the Netherlands, paroxetine is the most prescribed antidepressant, followed by amitriptyline, citalopram and venlafaxine.Adherence
, worldwide, 30% to 60% of people did not follow their practitioner's instructions about taking their antidepressants, and in the US, it appeared that around 50% of people did not take their antidepressants as directed by their practitioner.
When people fail to take their antidepressants, there is a greater risk that the drug will not help, that symptoms get worse, that they miss work or are less productive at work, and that the person may be hospitalized.Social science perspectiveSome academics have highlighted the need to examine the use of antidepressants and other medical treatments in cross-cultural terms, because various cultures prescribe and observe different manifestations, symptoms, meanings, and associations of depression and other medical conditions within their populations. These cross-cultural discrepancies, it has been argued, then have implications on the perceived efficacy and use of antidepressants and other strategies in the treatment of depression in these different cultures. these drugs can interfere with natural neurotransmitter levels in other organisms impacted by indirect exposure. Antidepressants fluoxetine and sertraline have been detected in aquatic organisms residing in effluent-dominated streams. The presence of antidepressants in surface waters and aquatic organisms has caused concern because ecotoxicological effects on aquatic organisms due to fluoxetine exposure have been demonstrated.
Coral reef fish have been demonstrated to modulate aggressive behavior through serotonin. Artificially increasing serotonin levels in crustaceans can temporarily reverse social status and turn subordinates into aggressive and territorial dominant males.
Exposure to Fluoxetine has been demonstrated to increase serotonergic activity in fish, subsequently reducing aggressive behavior. Perinatal exposure to Fluoxetine at relevant environmental concentrations has been shown to lead to significant modifications of memory processing in 1-month-old cuttlefish. This impairment may disadvantage cuttlefish and decrease their survival. Somewhat less than 10% of orally administered Fluoxetine is excreted from humans unchanged or as glucuronide.
See also
* Antidepressants in Japan
* Atypical antidepressant
* Depression and natural therapies
* Depression in childhood and adolescence
* List of investigational antidepressants
* Management of depression
References
Further reading
* External links
*
Category:Anaphrodisia
Category:Major depressive disorder
Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.135795 |
2389 | Auger effect | thumb|340px|Two views of the Auger process. (a) illustrates sequentially the steps involved in Auger deexcitation. An incident electron (or photon) creates a core hole in the 1s level. An electron from the 2s level fills in the 1s hole and the transition energy is imparted to a 2p electron which is emitted. The final atomic state thus has two holes, one in the 2s orbital and the other in the 2p orbital. (b) illustrates the same process using X-ray notation, KL1L2,3.
The Auger effect (; ) or Auger−Meitner effect is a physical phenomenon in which atoms eject electrons. It occurs when an inner-shell vacancy in an atom is filled by an electron, releasing energy that causes the emission of another electron from a different shell of the same atom.
When a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. For light atoms (Z<12), this energy is most often transferred to a valence electron which is subsequently ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an Auger electron. For heavier atomic nuclei, the release of the energy in the form of an emitted photon becomes gradually more probable.
Effect
Upon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located.
Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment.
Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization.
The Auger effect can impact biological molecules such as DNA. Following the K-shell ionization of the component atoms of DNA, Auger electrons are ejected leading to damage of its sugar-phosphate backbone.
Discovery
The Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis.
The French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused from an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation, and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations, showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect.
See also
Auger therapy
Charge carrier generation and recombination
Characteristic X-ray
Coster–Kronig transition
Electron capture
Radiative Auger effect
References
Category:Atomic physics
Category:Foundational quantum physics
Category:Electron spectroscopy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auger_effect | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.162520 |
2391 | Akio Morita | | native_name_lang = ja
| birth_date
| birth_name | birth_place Nagoya, Empire of Japan
| death_date
| death_place = Tokyo, Japan
| spouse = Yoshiko Kamei
| children = 3
| known_for = Co-founder of Sony
| education = Osaka University
| awards = Albert Medal (1982)
}}
was a Japanese entrepreneur and co-founder of Sony along with Masaru Ibuka.Early lifeAkio Morita was born in Nagoya. Morita's family was involved in sake, miso and soy sauce production in the village of Kosugaya (currently a part of Tokoname City) on the western coast of Chita Peninsula in Aichi Prefecture since 1665. He was the oldest of four siblings and his father Kyuzaemon trained him as a child to take over the family business. Akio, however, found his true calling in mathematics and physics, and in 1944 he graduated from Osaka Imperial University with a degree in physics. He was later commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and served in World War II. During his service, Morita met his future business partner Masaru Ibuka at a study group for developing infrared-guided bombs (Ke-Go) in the Navy's Wartime Research Committee.SonyIn September 1945, Ibuka founded a radio repair shop in the bombed out Shirokiya Department Store in Nihonbashi, Tokyo. Morita saw a newspaper article about Ibuka's new venture and, after some correspondence, chose to join him in Tokyo. With funding from Morita's father, they co-founded Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, the forerunner of Sony Corporation) in 1946 with about 20 employees and initial capital of ¥190,000.
In 1949, the company developed magnetic recording tape and, in 1950, sold the first tape recorder in Japan. Ibuka was instrumental in securing the licensing of transistor technology from Bell Labs to Sony in the 1950s, thus making Sony one of the first companies to apply transistor technology to non-military uses. In 1957, the company produced a pocket-sized radio (the first to be fully transistorized), and in 1958, Morita and Ibuka decided to rename their company Sony (derived from "sonus"—Latin for "sound"—and "sonny", a then-common American expression). Morita was an advocate for all the products made by Sony. However, since the radio was slightly too big to fit in a shirt pocket, Morita made his employees wear shirts with slightly larger pockets to give the radio a "pocket sized" appearance.
to Sao Paulo governor Laudo Natel in 1972.]]
Morita founded Sony Corporation of America (SONAM, currently abbreviated as SCA) in 1960. In the process, he was struck by the mobility of employees between American companies, which was unheard of in Japan at that time.
Morita became president of Sony in 1971, taking over from Ibuka who had served from 1950 to 1971. In 1975, Sony released the first Betamax home videocassette recorder, a year before the VHS format came out.
Ibuka retired in 1976 In that year, a 3.5-inch floppy disk structure was introduced by Sony, and it soon became the defacto standard. In 1984, Sony launched the Discman series, which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products.
Under the vision of Morita, the company aggressively expanded into new businesses. Twenty years after setting up a joint venture with CBS Records in Japan, Sony bought CBS Records Group which consisted of Columbia Records, Epic Records and other CBS labels. In 1989, they acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures and others).
Morita suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1993 while playing tennis
Awards and honours
In 1972, Morita received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Morita was awarded the Albert Medal by the United Kingdom's Royal Society of Arts in 1982, the first Japanese to receive the honor. Two years later, he received the prestigious Legion of Honour, and in 1991, was awarded the First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1992 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. That same year, he was awarded an honorary British knighthood (KBE). Morita received the International Distinguished Entrepreneur Award from the University of Manitoba in 1987. In 1998, he was the only Asian person on Time magazine's list of the 20 most influential business people of the 20th century as part of their Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century. He was posthumously awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1999. In 2003, Anaheim University's Graduate School of Business was renamed the Akio Morita School of Business in his honor. The Morita family's support for the program led to the growth of the Anaheim University Akio Morita School of Business in Tokyo, Japan.Television commercials*American Express (1984)
Death
Morita, who loved to play golf and tennis, suffered a stroke in 1993, during a game of tennis. On November 25, 1994, he stepped down as Sony chairman. On October 3, 1999, Morita died of pneumonia at the age of 78 in a Tokyo hospital, where he had been admitted since August 1999.
References
Further reading
* Morita, Akio. Made in Japan Dutton, 1986
* Morita, Akio. Never Mind School Records (1966) in Japanese
* Morita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. The Japan That Can Say No Simon & Schuster, 1991 , in Japanese
External links
*
*
*[https://akiomorita.com/en/ Akio Morita Library]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080306071650/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989790,00.html Time magazine, AKIO MORITA: Guru Of Gadgets]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20010128213800/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/morita1.html Time Asia, Time 100: Akio Morita]
*[http://www.sony.com/SCA/press/morita_bio.shtml Sony Biographical notes]
*[https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/addlbios/morita.html PBS notes]
*[https://biography.yourdictionary.com/akio-morita Akio Morita Facts]
Category:1921 births
Category:1999 deaths
Category:Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Category:20th-century Japanese businesspeople
Category:Japanese company founders
Category:Imperial Japanese Navy personnel of World War II
Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Category:People from Nagoya
Category:Businesspeople from Tokyo
Category:Sony people
Category:Osaka University alumni
Category:International Emmy Directorate Award
Category:Imperial Japanese Navy officers
Category:Japanese industrialists
Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Japan
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akio_Morita | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.193943 |
2392 | Anode | anode in a galvanic cell. Note how electrons move out of the cell, and the conventional current moves into it in the opposite direction.]]
An anode usually is an electrode of a polarized electrical device through which conventional current enters the device. This contrasts with a cathode, which is usually an electrode of the device through which conventional current leaves the device. A common mnemonic is ACID, for "anode current into device". The direction of conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit is opposite to the direction of electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow from the anode of a galvanic cell, into an outside or external circuit connected to the cell. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a "+" is the cathode (while discharging).
In both a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, the anode is the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs. In a galvanic cell the anode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge as a result of the oxidation reaction. In an electrolytic cell, the anode is the wire or plate upon which excess positive charge is imposed. As a result of this, anions will tend to move towards the anode where they will undergo oxidation.
Historically, the anode of a galvanic cell was also known as the zincode because it was usually composed of zinc.Charge flow
The terms anode and cathode are not defined by the voltage polarity of electrodes, but are usually defined by the direction of current through the electrode. An anode usually is the electrode of a device through which conventional current (positive charge) flows into the device from an external circuit, while a cathode usually is the electrode through which conventional current flows out of the device.
In general, if the current through the electrodes reverses direction, as occurs for example in a rechargeable battery when it is being charged, the roles of the electrodes as anode and cathode are reversed. However, the definition of anode and cathode is different for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction. Therefore, the electrodes are named based on the direction of this "forward" current. In a diode the anode is the terminal through which current enters and the cathode is the terminal through which current leaves, when the diode is forward biased. The names of the electrodes do not change in cases where reverse current flows through the device. Similarly, in a vacuum tube only one electrode can thermionically emit electrons into the evacuated tube, so electrons can only enter the device from the external circuit through the heated electrode. Therefore, this electrode is permanently named the cathode, and the electrode through which the electrons exit the tube is named the anode.
The use of 'East' to mean the 'in' direction (actually 'in' → 'East' → 'sunrise' → 'up') may appear contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term "eisode" (the doorway where the current enters). His motivation for changing it to something meaning 'the East electrode' (other candidates had been "eastode", "oriode" and "anatolode") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth's magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth's. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the East electrode would not have been the 'way in' any more. Therefore, "eisode" would have become inappropriate, whereas "anode" meaning 'East electrode' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the anode's function any more, but more importantly because as we now know, the Earth's magnetic field direction on which the "anode" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the "eisode" term was based has no reason to change in the future.
Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember and more durably correct technically although historically false, etymology has been suggested: anode, from the Greek anodos, 'way up', 'the way (up) out of the cell (or other device) for electrons'.Electrolytic anodeIn electrochemistry, the anode is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell. At the anode, anions (negative ions) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit. Mnemonics: LEO Red Cat (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Reduction occurs at the Cathode), or AnOx Red Cat (Anode Oxidation, Reduction Cathode), or OIL RIG (Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain of electrons), or Roman Catholic and Orthodox (Reduction – Cathode, anode – Oxidation), or LEO the lion says GER (Losing electrons is Oxidation, Gaining electrons is Reduction).
This process is widely used in metals refining. For example, in copper refining, copper anodes, an intermediate product from the furnaces, are electrolysed in an appropriate solution (such as sulfuric acid) to yield high purity (99.99%) cathodes. Copper cathodes produced using this method are also described as electrolytic copper.
Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction.Battery or galvanic cell anode
In a battery or galvanic cell, the anode is the negative electrode from which electrons flow out towards the external part of the circuit. Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode (even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected.
]]
Battery manufacturers may regard the negative electrode as the anode, particularly in their technical literature. Though from an electrochemical viewpoint incorrect, it does resolve the problem of which electrode is the anode in a secondary (or rechargeable) cell. Using the traditional definition, the anode switches ends between charge and discharge cycles.
Vacuum tube anode
In electronic vacuum devices such as a cathode-ray tube, the anode is the positively charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons.Diode anodeIn a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies holes to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more holes are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).
Sacrificial anode
s mounted "on the fly" for corrosion protection of a metal structure]]
In cathodic protection, a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment than the metal system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system. As a result, the metal anode partially corrodes or dissolves instead of the metal system. As an example, an iron or steel ship's hull may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a static charge is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft. Sacrificial anodes are also generally used in tank-type water heaters.
In 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist-engineer Humphry Davy developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit.
A less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal. As long as the zinc remains intact, the iron is protected from the effects of corrosion. Inevitably, the zinc coating becomes breached, either by cracking or physical damage. Once this occurs, corrosive elements act as an electrolyte and the zinc/iron combination as electrodes. The resultant current ensures that the zinc coating is sacrificed but that the base iron does not corrode. Such a coating can protect an iron structure for a few decades, but once the protecting coating is consumed, the iron rapidly corrodes.
If, conversely, tin is used to coat steel, when a breach of the coating occurs it actually accelerates oxidation of the iron.Impressed current anodeAnother cathodic protection is used on the impressed current anode. It is made from titanium and covered with mixed metal oxide. Unlike the sacrificial anode rod, the impressed current anode does not sacrifice its structure. This technology uses an external current provided by a DC source to create the cathodic protection. Impressed current anodes are used in larger structures like pipelines, boats, city water tower, water heaters and more.Related antonymThe opposite of an anode is a cathode. When the current through the device is reversed, the electrodes switch functions, so the anode becomes the cathode and the cathode becomes anode, as long as the reversed current is applied. The exception is diodes where electrode naming is always based on the forward current direction.
See also
* Anodizing
* Galvanic anode
* Gas-filled tube
* Primary cell
* Redox (reduction–oxidation)
References
External links
* [http://www.av8n.com/physics/anode-cathode.htm How to define anode and cathode]
Category:Electrodes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.221411 |
2393 | Analog television | Analog television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by amplitude, phase and frequency of an analog signal.
Analog signals vary over a continuous range of possible values which means that electronic noise and interference may be introduced. Thus with analog, a moderately weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, picture quality from a digital television (DTV) signal remains good until the signal level drops below a threshold where reception is no longer possible or becomes intermittent.
Analog television may be wireless (terrestrial television and satellite television) or can be distributed over a cable network as cable television.
All broadcast television systems used analog signals before the arrival of DTV. Motivated by the lower bandwidth requirements of compressed digital signals, beginning just after the year 2000, a digital television transition is proceeding in most countries of the world, with different deadlines for the cessation of analog broadcasts. Several countries have made the switch already, with the remaining countries still in progress mostly in Africa, Asia, and South America.
Development
The earliest systems of analog television were mechanical television systems that used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver. Synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. Camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. The reproduced images from these mechanical systems were dim, very low resolution and flickered severely.
Analog television did not begin in earnest as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube (CRT), which uses a focused electron beam to trace lines across a phosphor coated surface. The electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also, far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a mechanical spinning disc system. All-electronic systems became popular with households after World War II.
Standards
Broadcasters of analog television encode their signal using different systems. The official systems of transmission were defined by the ITU in 1961 as: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of scan lines, frame rate, channel width, video bandwidth, video-audio separation, and so on. A color encoding scheme (NTSC, PAL, or SECAM) could be added to the base monochrome signal. Using RF modulation the signal is then modulated onto a very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high frequency (UHF) carrier wave. Each frame of a television image is composed of scan lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness; the whole set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The process repeats and the next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion. The analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal.
The first commercial television systems were black-and-white; the beginning of color television was in the 1950s.
A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance (in a color system), synchronization (horizontal and vertical), and audio signals, and broadcast them over a radio transmission. The transmission system must include a means of television channel selection.
Analog broadcast television systems come in a variety of frame rates and resolutions. Further differences exist in the frequency and modulation of the audio carrier. The monochrome combinations still existing in the 1950s were standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as capital letters A through N. When color television was introduced, the chrominance information was added to the monochrome signals in a way that black and white televisions ignore. In this way backward compatibility was achieved.
There are three standards for the way the additional color information can be encoded and transmitted. The first was the American NTSC system. The European and Australian PAL and the French and former Soviet Union SECAM standards were developed later and attempt to cure certain defects of the NTSC system. PAL's color encoding is similar to the NTSC systems. SECAM, though, uses a different modulation approach than PAL or NTSC. PAL had a late evolution called PALplus, allowing widescreen broadcasts while remaining fully compatible with existing PAL equipment.
In principle, all three color encoding systems can be used with any scan line/frame rate combination. Therefore, in order to describe a given signal completely, it is necessary to quote the color system plus the broadcast standard as a capital letter. For example, the United States, Canada, Mexico and South Korea used (or use) NTSC-M, Japan used NTSC-J, the UK used PAL-I, France used SECAM-L, much of Western Europe and Australia used (or use) PAL-B/G, most of Eastern Europe uses SECAM-D/K or PAL-D/K and so on. <!-- "used" means for broadcast, (taped TV on) VHS still retains analog PAL or NTSC, and thus they are still hypothetically still in use" indefinetly, and DVDs still support and output possibly analog. Most though output and input digital only. -->
Not all of the possible combinations exist. NTSC is only used with system M, even though there were experiments with NTSC-A (405 line) in the UK and NTSC-N (625 line) in part of South America. PAL is used with a variety of 625-line standards (B, G, D, K, I, N) but also with the North American 525-line standard, accordingly named PAL-M. Likewise, SECAM is used with a variety of 625-line standards.
For this reason, many people refer to any 625/25 type signal as PAL and to any 525/30 signal as NTSC, even when referring to digital signals; for example, on DVD-Video, which does not contain any analog color encoding, and thus no PAL or NTSC signals at all.
Although a number of different broadcast television systems are in use worldwide, the same principles of operation apply.Displaying an image
ning is performed from left-to-right and top-to-bottom. Once the screen has been scanned, the beam returns to the beginning of the first line.]]
A cathode-ray tube (CRT) television displays an image by scanning a beam of electrons across the screen in a pattern of horizontal lines known as a raster. At the end of each line, the beam returns to the start of the next line; at the end of the last line, the beam returns to the beginning of the first line at the top of the screen. As it passes each point, the intensity of the beam is varied, varying the luminance of that point. A color television system is similar except there are three beams that scan together and an additional signal known as chrominance controls the color of the spot.
When analog television was developed, no affordable technology for storing video signals existed; the luminance signal had to be generated and transmitted at the same time at which it is displayed on the CRT. It was therefore essential to keep the raster scanning in the camera (or other device for producing the signal) in exact synchronization with the scanning in the television.
The physics of the CRT require that a finite time interval be allowed for the spot to move back to the start of the next line (horizontal retrace) or the start of the screen (vertical retrace). The timing of the luminance signal must allow for this.
The human eye has a characteristic called phi phenomenon. Quickly displaying successive scan images creates the illusion of smooth motion. Flickering of the image can be partially solved using a long persistence phosphor coating on the CRT so that successive images fade slowly. However, slow phosphor has the negative side-effect of causing image smearing and blurring when there is rapid on-screen motion occurring.
The maximum frame rate depends on the bandwidth of the electronics and the transmission system, and the number of horizontal scan lines in the image. A frame rate of 25 or 30 hertz is a satisfactory compromise, while the process of interlacing two video fields of the picture per frame is used to build the image. This process doubles the apparent number of video frames per second and further reduces flicker and other defects in transmission.
Receiving signals
The television system for each country will specify a number of television channels within the UHF or VHF frequency ranges. A channel actually consists of two signals: the picture information is transmitted using amplitude modulation on one carrier frequency, and the sound is transmitted with frequency modulation at a frequency at a fixed offset (typically 4.5 to 6 MHz) from the picture signal.
The channel frequencies chosen represent a compromise between allowing enough bandwidth for video (and hence satisfactory picture resolution), and allowing enough channels to be packed into the available frequency band. In practice a technique called vestigial sideband is used to reduce the channel spacing, which would be nearly twice the video bandwidth if pure AM was used.
Signal reception is invariably done via a superheterodyne receiver: the first stage is a tuner which selects a television channel and frequency-shifts it to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF). The signal amplifier performs amplification to the IF stages from the microvolt range to fractions of a volt.
Extracting the sound
At this point the IF signal consists of a video carrier signal at one frequency and the sound carrier at a fixed offset in frequency. A demodulator recovers the video signal. Also at the output of the same demodulator is a new frequency modulated sound carrier at the offset frequency. In some sets made before 1948, this was filtered out, and the sound IF of about 22 MHz was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. In newer sets, this new carrier at the offset frequency was allowed to remain as intercarrier sound, and it was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. One particular advantage of intercarrier sound is that when the front panel fine tuning knob is adjusted, the sound carrier frequency does not change with the tuning, but stays at the above-mentioned offset frequency. Consequently, it is easier to tune the picture without losing the sound.
So the FM sound carrier is then demodulated, amplified, and used to drive a loudspeaker. Until the advent of the NICAM and MTS systems, television sound transmissions were monophonic.
Structure of a video signal
The video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signalthe minimum video signal level corresponds to maximum carrier amplitude, and vice versa.}} containing luminance, chrominance and synchronization signals. The result is identical to the composite video format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV cameras. To ensure good linearity and thus fidelity, consistent with affordable manufacturing costs of transmitters and receivers, the video carrier is never modulated to the extent that it is shut off altogether. When intercarrier sound was introduced later in 1948, not completely shutting off the carrier had the side effect of allowing intercarrier sound to be economically implemented.
composite video signal (analog)]]
Each line of the displayed image is transmitted using a signal as shown above. The same basic format (with minor differences mainly related to timing and the encoding of color) is used for PAL, NTSC, and SECAM television systems. A monochrome signal is identical to a color one, with the exception that the elements shown in color in the diagram (the colorburst, and the chrominance signal) are not present.
, front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with colorburst, and beginning of next line]]
The front porch is a brief (about 1.5 microsecond) period inserted between the end of each transmitted line of picture and the leading edge of the next line's sync pulse. Its purpose was to allow voltage levels to stabilise in older televisions, preventing interference between picture lines. The front porch is the first component of the horizontal blanking interval which also contains the horizontal sync pulse and the back porch.
The back porch is the portion of each scan line between the end (rising edge) of the horizontal sync pulse and the start of active video. It is used to restore the black level (300 mV) reference in analog video. In signal processing terms, it compensates for the fall time and settling time following the sync pulse.
A sync separator circuit detects the sync voltage levels and sorts the pulses into horizontal and vertical sync.
Horizontal synchronization
The horizontal sync pulse separates the scan lines. The horizontal sync signal is a single short pulse that indicates the start of every line. The rest of the scan line follows, with the signal ranging from 0.3 V (black) to 1 V (white), until the next horizontal or vertical synchronization pulse.
The format of the horizontal sync pulse varies. In the 525-line NTSC system it is a 4.85 μs pulse at 0 V. In the 625-line PAL system the pulse is 4.7 μs at 0 V. This is lower than the amplitude of any video signal (blacker than black) so it can be detected by the level-sensitive sync separator circuit of the receiver.
Two timing intervals are defined – the front porch between the end of the displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the back porch after the sync pulse and before the displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the horizontal blanking (or retrace) interval and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line.
Vertical synchronization
Vertical synchronization separates the video fields. In PAL and NTSC, the vertical sync pulse occurs within the vertical blanking interval. The vertical sync pulses are made by prolonging the length of horizontal sync pulses through almost the entire length of the scan line.
The vertical sync signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The sync pulses occupy the whole line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace; it also indicates whether each field represents even or odd lines in interlaced systems (depending on whether it begins at the start of a horizontal line, or midway through).
The format of such a signal in 525-line NTSC is:
* pre-equalizing pulses (6 to start scanning odd lines, 5 to start scanning even lines)
* long-sync pulses (5 pulses)
* post-equalizing pulses (5 to start scanning odd lines, 4 to start scanning even lines)
Each pre- or post-equalizing pulse consists of half a scan line of black signal: 2 μs at 0 V, followed by 30 μs at 0.3 V. Each long sync pulse consists of an equalizing pulse with timings inverted: 30 μs at 0 V, followed by 2 μs at 0.3 V.
In video production and computer graphics, changes to the image are often performed during the vertical blanking interval to avoid visible discontinuity of the image. If this image in the framebuffer is updated with a new image while the display is being refreshed, the display shows a mishmash of both frames, producing page tearing partway down the image.
Horizontal and vertical hold
The sweep (or deflection) oscillators were designed to run without a signal from the television station (or VCR, computer, or other composite video source). This allows the television receiver to display a raster and to allow an image to be presented during antenna placement. With sufficient signal strength, the receiver's sync separator circuit would split timebase pulses from the incoming video and use them to reset the horizontal and vertical oscillators at the appropriate time to synchronize with the signal from the station.
The free-running oscillation of the horizontal circuit is especially critical, as the horizontal deflection circuits typically power the flyback transformer (which provides acceleration potential for the CRT) as well as the filaments for the high voltage rectifier tube and sometimes the filament(s) of the CRT itself. Without the operation of the horizontal oscillator and output stages in these television receivers, there would be no illumination of the CRT's face.
The lack of precision timing components in early equipment meant that the timebase circuits occasionally needed manual adjustment. If their free-run frequencies were too far from the actual line and field rates, the circuits would not be able to follow the incoming sync signals. Loss of horizontal synchronization usually resulted in an unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization would produce an image rolling up or down the screen.
Older analog television receivers often provide manual controls to adjust horizontal and vertical timing. The adjustment takes the form of horizontal hold and vertical hold controls, usually on the front panel along with other common controls. These adjust the free-run frequencies of the corresponding timebase oscillators.
A slowly rolling vertical picture demonstrates that the vertical oscillator is nearly synchronized with the television station but is not locking to it, often due to a weak signal or a failure in the sync separator stage not resetting the oscillator.
Horizontal sync errors cause the image to be torn diagonally and repeated across the screen as if it were wrapped around a screw or a barber's pole; the greater the error, the more copies of the image will be seen at once wrapped around the barber pole.
By the early 1980s the efficacy of the synchronization circuits, plus the inherent stability of the sets' oscillators, had been improved to the point where these controls were no longer necessary. Integrated Circuits which eliminated the horizontal hold control were starting to appear as early as 1969.
The final generations of analog television receivers used IC-based designs where the receiver's timebases were derived from accurate crystal oscillators. With these sets, adjustment of the free-running frequency of either sweep oscillator was unnecessary and unavailable.
Horizontal and vertical hold controls were rarely used in CRT-based computer monitors, as the quality and consistency of components were quite high by the advent of the computer age, but might be found on some composite monitors used with the 1970s–80s home or personal computers.
Other technical information
Components of a television system
|alt=block diagram of a television receiver showing tuner, intermediate frequency amplifier. A demodulator separates sound from video. Video is directed to the CRT and to the synchronizing circuits.]]
The tuner is the object which, with the aid of an antenna, isolates the television signals received over the air. There are two types of tuners in analog television, VHF and UHF tuners. The VHF tuner selects the VHF television frequency. This consists of a 4 MHz video bandwidth and about 100 kHz audio bandwidth. It then amplifies the signal and converts it to a 45.75 MHz Intermediate Frequency (IF) amplitude-modulated video and a 41.25 MHz IF frequency-modulated audio carrier.
The IF amplifiers are centered at 44 MHz for optimal frequency transference of the audio and video carriers. Like radio, television has automatic gain control (AGC). This controls the gain of the IF amplifier stages and the tuner.
The video amp and output amplifier is implemented using a pentode or a power transistor. The filter and demodulator separates the 45.75 MHz video from the 41.25 MHz audio then it simply uses a diode to detect the video signal. After the video detector, the video is amplified and sent to the sync separator and then to the picture tube.
The audio signal goes to a 4.5 MHz amplifier. This amplifier prepares the signal for the 4.5 MHz detector. It then goes through a 4.5 MHz IF transformer to the detector. In television, there are 2 ways of detecting FM signals. One way is by the ratio detector. This is simple but very hard to align. The next is a relatively simple detector. This is the quadrature detector. It was invented in 1954. The first tube designed for this purpose was the 6BN6 type. It is easy to align and simple in circuitry. It was such a good design that it is still being used today in the Integrated circuit form. After the detector, it goes to the audio amplifier.
Image synchronization is achieved by transmitting negative-going pulses. The horizontal sync signal is a single short pulse that indicates the start of every line. Two-timing intervals are defined – the front porch between the end of the displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the back porch after the sync pulse and before the displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the horizontal blanking (or retrace) interval and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line.
The vertical sync signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The vertical sync pulses occupy the whole of line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace.
A sync separator circuit detects the sync voltage levels and extracts and conditions signals that the horizontal and vertical oscillators can use to keep in sync with the video. It also forms the AGC voltage.
The horizontal and vertical oscillators form the raster on the CRT. They are driven by the sync separator. There are many ways to create these oscillators. The earliest is the thyratron oscillator. Although it is known to drift, it makes a perfect sawtooth wave. This sawtooth wave is so good that no linearity control is needed. This oscillator was designed for the electrostatic deflection CRTs but also found some use in electromagnetically deflected CRTs. The next oscillator developed was the blocking oscillator which uses a transformer to create a sawtooth wave. This was only used for a brief time period and never was very popular. Finally the multivibrator was probably the most successful. It needed more adjustment than the other oscillators, but it is very simple and effective. This oscillator was so popular that it was used from the early 1950s until today.
Two oscillator amplifiers are needed. The vertical amplifier directly drives the yoke. Since it operates at 50 or 60 Hz and drives an electromagnet, it is similar to an audio amplifier. Because of the rapid deflection required, the horizontal oscillator requires a high-power flyback transformer driven by a high-powered tube or transistor. Additional windings on this flyback transformer typically power other parts of the system.
videosignal. From left to right: end of a video line, front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with colorburst, and beginning of next line]]
Loss of horizontal synchronization usually results in a scrambled and unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization produces an image rolling up or down the screen.
Timebase circuits
In an analog receiver with a CRT display sync pulses are fed to horizontal and vertical timebase circuits (commonly called sweep circuits in the United States), each consisting of an oscillator and an amplifier. These generate modified sawtooth and parabola current waveforms to scan the electron beam. Engineered waveform shapes are necessary to make up for the distance variations from the electron beam source and the screen surface. The oscillators are designed to free-run at frequencies very close to the field and line rates, but the sync pulses cause them to reset at the beginning of each scan line or field, resulting in the necessary synchronization of the beam sweep with the originating signal. The output waveforms from the timebase amplifiers are fed to the horizontal and vertical deflection coils wrapped around the CRT tube. These coils produce magnetic fields proportional to the changing current, and these deflect the electron beam across the screen.
In the 1950s, the power for these circuits was derived directly from the mains supply. A simple circuit consisted of a series voltage dropper resistance and a rectifier. This avoided the cost of a large high-voltage mains supply (50 or 60 Hz) transformer. It was inefficient and produced a lot of heat.
In the 1960s, semiconductor technology was introduced into timebase circuits. During the late 1960s in the UK, synchronous (with the scan line rate) power generation was introduced into solid state receiver designs.
In the UK use of the simple (50 Hz) types of power, circuits were discontinued as thyristor based switching circuits were introduced. The reason for design changes arose from the electricity supply contamination problems arising from EMI, and supply loading issues due to energy being taken from only the positive half cycle of the mains supply waveform.
CRT flyback power supply
Most of the receiver's circuitry (at least in transistor- or IC-based designs) operates from a comparatively low-voltage DC power supply. However, the anode connection for a cathode-ray tube requires a very high voltage (typically 10–30 kV) for correct operation.
This voltage is not directly produced by the main power supply circuitry; instead, the receiver makes use of the circuitry used for horizontal scanning. Direct current (DC), is switched through the line output transformer, and alternating current (AC) is induced into the scan coils. At the end of each horizontal scan line the magnetic field, which has built up in both transformer and scan coils by the current, is a source of latent electromagnetic energy. This stored collapsing magnetic field energy can be captured. The reverse flow, short duration, (about 10% of the line scan time) current from both the line output transformer and the horizontal scan coil is discharged again into the primary winding of the flyback transformer by the use of a rectifier which blocks this counter-electromotive force. A small value capacitor is connected across the scan-switching device. This tunes the circuit inductances to resonate at a much higher frequency. This lengthens the flyback time from the extremely rapid decay rate that would result if they were electrically isolated during this short period. One of the secondary windings on the flyback transformer then feeds this brief high-voltage pulse to a Cockcroft–Walton generator design voltage multiplier. This produces the required high-voltage supply. A flyback converter is a power supply circuit operating on similar principles.
A typical modern design incorporates the flyback transformer and rectifier circuitry into a single unit with a captive output lead, known as a diode split line output transformer or an Integrated High Voltage Transformer (IHVT), so that all high-voltage parts are enclosed. Earlier designs used a separate line output transformer and a well-insulated high-voltage multiplier unit. The high frequency (15 kHz or so) of the horizontal scanning allows reasonably small components to be used.
Transition to digital
In many countries, over-the-air broadcast television of analog audio and analog video signals has been discontinued to allow the re-use of the television broadcast radio spectrum for other services.
The first country to make a wholesale switch to digital over-the-air (terrestrial television) broadcasting was Luxembourg in 2006, followed later in 2006 by the Netherlands. The Digital television transition in the United States for high-powered transmission was completed on 12 June 2009, the date that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set. Almost two million households could no longer watch television because they had not prepared for the transition. The switchover had been delayed by the DTV Delay Act. While the majority of the viewers of over-the-air broadcast television in the U.S. watch full-power stations (which number about 1800), there are three other categories of television stations in the U.S.: low-power broadcasting stations, class A stations, and television translator stations. These were given later deadlines.
In Japan, the switch to digital began in northeastern Ishikawa Prefecture on 24 July 2010 and ended in 43 of the country's 47 prefectures (including the rest of Ishikawa) on 24 July 2011, but in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures, the conversion was delayed to 31 March 2012, due to complications from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and its related nuclear accidents.
In Canada, most of the larger cities turned off analog broadcasts on 31 August 2011.
China had scheduled to end analog broadcasting between 2015 and 2021.
Brazil switched to digital television on 2 December 2007 in São Paulo and planned to end analog broadcasting nationwide by 30 June 2016. However, the Ministry of Communications announced in 2012 that the deadline would be delayed. As of 2024, Brazil is in the process of implementing its next-generation digital television system, known as TV 3.0. In July 2024, ATSC 3.0 standard was officially selected for the country's next-generation digital television system.
In Malaysia, the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission advertised for tender bids to be submitted in the third quarter of 2009 for the 470 through 742 MHz UHF allocation, to enable Malaysia's broadcast system to move into DTV. The new broadcast band allocation would result in Malaysia's having to build an infrastructure for all broadcasters, using a single digital terrestrial television broadcast channel. Large portions of Malaysia are covered by television broadcasts from Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, and Indonesia (from Borneo and Batam). Starting from 1 November 2019, all regions in Malaysia were no longer using the analog system after the states of Sabah and Sarawak finally turned it off on 31 October 2019.
In Singapore, digital television under DVB-T2 began on 16 December 2013. The switchover was delayed many times until analog TV was switched off at midnight on 2 January 2019.
In the Philippines, the National Telecommunications Commission required all broadcasting companies to end analog broadcasting on 31 December 2015 at 11:59 p.m. Due to delay of the release of the implementing rules and regulations for digital television broadcast, the target date was moved to 2020. Full digital broadcast was expected in 2021 and all of the analog TV services were to be shut down by the end of 2023. However, in February 2023, the NTC postponed the ASO/DTV transition to 2025 due to many provincial television stations not being ready to start their digital TV transmissions.
In the Russian Federation, the Russian Television and Radio Broadcasting Network (RTRS) disabled analog broadcasting of federal channels in five stages, shutting down broadcasting in multiple federal subjects at each stage. The first region to have analog broadcasting disabled was Tver Oblast on 3 December 2018, and the switchover was completed on 14 October 2019. During the transition, DVB-T2 receivers and monetary compensations for purchasing of terrestrial or satellite digital TV reception equipment were provided to disabled people, World War II veterans, certain categories of retirees and households with income per member below living wage.
See also
* Amateur television
* Narrow-bandwidth television
* Overscan
* Slow-scan television
* Glossary of video terms
Notes
References
External links
* [http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/4750 Video signal measurement and generation]
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Category:Television technology
Category:Television terminology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_television | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.256820 |
2395 | April 11 | Events
Pre-1600
* 491 – Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine emperor, with the name of Anastasius I.
*1241 – Batu Khan defeats Béla IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi.
*1512 – War of the League of Cambrai: Franco-Ferrarese forces led by Gaston de Foix and Alfonso I d'Este win the Battle of Ravenna against the Papal-Spanish forces.
*1544 – Italian War of 1542–46: A French army defeats Habsburg forces at the Battle of Ceresole, but fails to exploit its victory.1601–1900*1689 – William III and Mary II are crowned as joint sovereigns of Great Britain on the same day that the Scottish Parliament concurs with the English decision of 12 February.
*1713 – France and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Utrecht, bringing an end to the War of the Spanish Succession (Queen Anne's War). Britain accepts Philip V as King of Spain, while Philip renounces any claim to the French throne.
*1727 – Premiere of Johann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion BWV 244b at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony (now Germany).
*1809 – Battle of the Basque Roads: Admiral Lord Gambier fails to support Captain Lord Cochrane, leading to an incomplete British victory over the French fleet.
*1814 – The Treaty of Fontainebleau ends the War of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon Bonaparte, and forces him to abdicate unconditionally for the first time.
*1856 – Second Battle of Rivas: Juan Santamaría burns down the hostel where William Walker's filibusters are holed up.
*1868 – Former shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu surrenders Edo Castle to Imperial forces, marking the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.
*1876 – The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks is organized.
*1881 – Spelman College is founded in Atlanta, Georgia as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, an institute of higher education for African-American women.
1901–present
*1908 – , the last armored cruiser to be built by the Imperial German Navy, is launched.
*1909 – The city of Tel Aviv is founded.
*1921 – Emir Abdullah establishes the first centralised government in the newly created British protectorate of Transjordan.
*1935 – Stresa Front: opening of the conference between the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and the French Minister for Foreign Affairs Pierre Laval to condemn the German violations of the Treaty of Versailles.
*1945 – World War II: American forces liberate the Buchenwald concentration camp.
*1951 – Korean War: President Truman relieves Douglas MacArthur of the command of American forces in Korea and Japan.
* 1951 – The Stone of Scone, the stone upon which Scottish monarchs were traditionally crowned, is found on the site of the altar of Arbroath Abbey. It had been taken by Scottish nationalist students from its place in Westminster Abbey.
*1952 – Bolivian National Revolution: Rebels take over Palacio Quemado.
* 1952 – Pan Am Flight 526A ditches near San Juan-Isla Grande Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, after experiencing an engine failure, killing 52 people.
*1955 – The Air India Kashmir Princess is bombed and crashes in a failed assassination attempt on Zhou Enlai by the Kuomintang.
*1957 – United Kingdom agrees to Singaporean self-rule.
*1961 – The trial of Adolf Eichmann begins in Jerusalem.
*1963 – Pope John XXIII issues Pacem in terris, the first encyclical addressed to all Christians instead of only Catholics, and which described the conditions for world peace in human terms.
*1964 – Brazilian Marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco is elected president by the National Congress.
*1965 – The Palm Sunday tornado outbreak of 1965: Fifty-five tornadoes hit in six Midwestern states of the United States, killing 266 people.
*1968 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968, prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing.
* 1968 – A failed assassination attempt on Rudi Dutschke, leader of the German student movement, leaves Dutschke suffering from brain damage.
*1970 – Apollo Program: Apollo 13 is launched.
*1976 – The Apple I is created.
*1977 – London Transport's Silver Jubilee AEC Routemaster buses are launched.
*1979 – Ugandan dictator Idi Amin is deposed.
*1981 – A massive riot in Brixton, south London results in almost 300 police injuries and 65 serious civilian injuries.
*1986 – FBI Miami Shootout: A gun battle in broad daylight in Dade County, Florida between two bank/armored car robbers and pursuing FBI agents. During the firefight, FBI agents Jerry L. Dove and Benjamin P. Grogan were killed, while five other agents were wounded. As a result, the popular .40 S&W cartridge was developed.
*1987 – The London Agreement is secretly signed between Israeli Foreign Affairs Minister Shimon Peres and King Hussein of Jordan.
*1990 – Customs officers in Middlesbrough, England, seize what they believe to be the barrel of a massive gun on a ship bound for Iraq.
*1993 – Four hundred fifty prisoners rioted at the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility in Lucasville, Ohio, and continued to do so for ten days, citing grievances related to prison conditions, as well as the forced vaccination of Nation of Islam prisoners (for tuberculosis) against their religious beliefs.
*2001 – The detained crew of a United States EP-3E aircraft that landed in Hainan, China after a collision with a J-8 fighter, is released.
*2002 – The Ghriba synagogue bombing by al-Qaeda kills 21 in Tunisia.
* 2002 – Over two hundred thousand people march in Caracas towards the presidential palace to demand the resignation of President Hugo Chávez. Nineteen protesters are killed.
*2006 – Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announces Iran's claim to have successfully enriched uranium.
*2007 – Algiers bombings: Two bombings in Algiers kill 33 people and wound a further 222 others.
*2008 – Kata Air Transport Flight 007 crashes while attempting an emergency landing at Chișinău International Airport, killing eight.
*2011 – An explosion in the Minsk Metro, Belarus kills 15 people and injures 204 others.
*2012 – A pair of great earthquakes occur in the Wharton Basin west of Sumatra in Indonesia. The maximum Mercalli intensity of this strike-slip doublet earthquake is VII (Very strong). Ten are killed, twelve are injured, and a non-destructive tsunami is observed on the island of Nias.
*2018 – An Ilyushin Il-76 which was owned and operated by the Algerian Air Force crashes near Boufarik, Algeria, killing 257.
*2021 – Twenty year old Daunte Wright is shot and killed in Brooklyn Center, Minnesota by officer Kimberly Potter, sparking protests in the city, when the officer allegedly mistakes her own gun for her taser.
*2023 – During the Pazigyi massacre, an airstrike conducted by the Myanmar Air Force kills at least 100 villagers in Pazigyi, Sagaing Region.BirthsPre-1600*145 – Septimius Severus, Roman emperor (probable; d. 211)
*1184 – William of Winchester, Lord of Lüneburg (d. 1213)
*1348 – Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1385)
*1357 – John I of Portugal (d. 1433)
*1370 – Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1428)
*1374 – Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, heir to the throne of England (d. 1398)
*1493 – George I, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1531)
*1591 – Bartholomeus Strobel, Silezian painter (d. 1650)
*1592 – John Eliot, English lawyer and politician (d. 1632)
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*1644 – Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1724)
*1658 – James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton, Scottish peer (d. 1712)
*1683 – Jean-Joseph Mouret, French composer and conductor (d. 1738)
*1715 – John Alcock, English organist and composer (d. 1806)
*1721 – David Zeisberger, Czech-American clergyman and missionary (d. 1808)
*1722 – Christopher Smart, English actor, playwright, and poet (d. 1771)
*1749 – Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, French miniaturist and portrait painter (d. 1803)
*1755 – James Parkinson, English surgeon, geologist, and paleontologist (d. 1824)
*1770 – George Canning, Irish-English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1827)
*1794 – Edward Everett, English-American educator and politician, 15th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1865)
*1798 – Macedonio Melloni, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1854)
*1819 – Charles Hallé, German-English pianist and conductor (d. 1895)
*1825 – Ferdinand Lassalle, German philosopher and jurist (d. 1864)
*1827 – Jyotirao Phule, Indian scholar, philosopher, and activist (d. 1890)
*1830 – John Douglas, English architect (d. 1911)
*1837 – Elmer E. Ellsworth, American army officer and law clerk (d. 1861)
*1854 – Hugh Massie, Australian cricketer (d. 1938)
*1856 – Arthur Shrewsbury, English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1903)
*1859 – Stefanos Thomopoulos, Greek historian and author (d. 1939)
*1862 – William Wallace Campbell, American astronomer and academic (d. 1938)
* 1862 – Charles Evans Hughes, American lawyer and politician, 44th United States Secretary of State (d. 1948)
*1864 – Johanna Elberskirchen, German author and activist (d. 1943)
*1866 – Bernard O'Dowd, Australian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1953)
*1867 – Mark Keppel, American educator (d. 1928)
*1869 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor, designed the Nobel Peace Prize medal (d. 1943)
*1871 – Gyula Kellner, Hungarian runner (d. 1940)
*1872 – Aleksandër Stavre Drenova, Albanian poet, rilindas and author of national anthem of Albania (d. 1947)
*1873 – Edward Lawson, English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1955)
*1876 – Paul Henry, Irish painter (d. 1958)
* 1876 – Ivane Javakhishvili, Georgian historian and academic (d. 1940)
*1878 – Percy Lane Oliver, British pioneer of volunteer blood donation (d. 1944)
*1879 – Bernhard Schmidt, Estonian-German astronomer and optician (d. 1935)
*1887 – Jamini Roy, Indian painter (d. 1972)
*1893 – Dean Acheson, American lawyer and politician, 51st United States Secretary of State (d. 1971)
*1896 – Léo-Paul Desrosiers, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1967)
*1899 – Percy Lavon Julian, African-American chemist and academic (d. 1975)
*1900 – Sándor Márai, Hungarian journalist and author (d. 1989)
1901–present
*1903 – Misuzu Kaneko, Japanese poet (d. 1930)
*1904 – K. L. Saigal, Indian singer and actor (d. 1947)
*1905 – Attila József, Hungarian poet and educator (d. 1937)
*1906 – Dale Messick, American author and illustrator (d. 2005)
*1907 – Paul Douglas, American actor (d. 1959)
*1908 – Jane Bolin, American lawyer and judge (d. 2007)
* 1908 – Masaru Ibuka, Japanese businessman, co-founded Sony (d. 1997)
* 1908 – Dan Maskell, English tennis player and sportscaster (d. 1992)
* 1908 – Leo Rosten, Polish-American author and academic (d. 1997)
*1910 – António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (d. 1996)
*1912 – John Levy, American bassist and businessman (d. 2012)
*1913 – Oleg Cassini, French-American fashion designer (d. 2006)
*1914 – Norman McLaren, Scottish-Canadian animator, director, and producer (d. 1987)
* 1914 – Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 2003)
* 1914 – Dorothy Lewis Bernstein, American mathematician (d. 1988)
*1916 – Alberto Ginastera, Argentinian pianist and composer (d. 1983)
* 1916 – Howard W. Koch, American director and producer (d. 2001)
*1917 – David Westheimer, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2005)
*1918 – Richard Wainwright, English soldier and politician (d. 2003)
*1919 – Raymond Carr, English historian and academic (d. 2015)
*1920 – Emilio Colombo, Italian lawyer and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 2013)
* 1920 – William Royer, American soldier and politician (d. 2013)
*1921 – Jim Hearn, American baseball player (d. 1998)
* 1921 – Jack Rayner, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2008)
*1922 – Arved Viirlaid, Estonian-Canadian soldier and author (d. 2015)
*1923 – George J. Maloof, Sr., American businessman (d. 1980)
*1924 – Mohammad Naseem, Pakistani-English activist and politician (d. 2014)
*1925 – Yuriy Lituyev, Russian hurdler and commander (d. 2000)
* 1925 – Viola Liuzzo, American civil rights activist (d. 1965)
* 1925 – Viktor Masing, Estonian botanist and ecologist (d. 2001)
* 1925 – Pierre Péladeau, Canadian businessman, founded Quebecor (d. 1997)
*1926 – David Manker Abshire, American commander and diplomat, United States Permanent Representative to NATO (d. 2014)
* 1926 – Victor Bouchard, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 2011)
* 1926 – Karl Rebane, Estonian physicist and academic (d. 2007)
*1927 – Lokesh Chandra, Indian historian
*1928 – Ethel Kennedy, American philanthropist (d. 2024)
* 1928 – Edwin Pope, American journalist and author (d. 2017)
* 1928 – Tommy Tycho, Hungarian-Australian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2013)
*1930 – Nicholas F. Brady, American businessman and politician, 68th United States Secretary of the Treasury
* 1930 – Walter Krüger, German javelin thrower (d. 2018)
* 1930 – Anton LaVey, American occultist, founded the Church of Satan (d. 1997)
*1931 – Lewis Jones, Welsh rugby player and coach (d. 2024)
*1932 – Joel Grey, American actor, singer, and dancer
*1933 – Tony Brown, American journalist and academic
*1934 – Mark Strand, Canadian-born American poet, essayist, and translator (d. 2014)
* 1934 – Ron Pember, English actor, director and playwright (d. 2022)
*1935 – Richard Berry, American singer-songwriter (d. 1997)
*1936 – Brian Noble, English bishop (d. 2019)
*1937 – Jill Gascoine, English actress and author (d. 2020)
*1938 – Gerry Baker, American soccer player and manager (d. 2013)
* 1938 – Michael Deaver, American politician, Deputy White House Chief of Staff (d. 2007)
* 1938 – Reatha King, American chemist and businesswoman
*1939 – Luther Johnson, American singer and guitarist (d. 2022)
* 1939 – Louise Lasser, American actress
*1940 – Col Firmin, Australian politician (d. 2013)
* 1940 – Władysław Komar, Polish shot putter and actor (d. 1998)
*1941 – Ellen Goodman, American journalist and author
* 1941 – Shirley Stelfox, English actress (d. 2015)
*1942 – Anatoly Berezovoy, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2014)
* 1942 – Hattie Gossett, American writer
* 1942 – James Underwood, English pathologist and academic
*1943 – John Montagu, 11th Earl of Sandwich, English businessman and politician
* 1943 – Harley Race, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2019)
*1944 – Peter Barfuß, German footballer
* 1944 – John Milius, American director, producer, and screenwriter
*1945 – John Krebs, Baron Krebs, English zoologist and academic
*1946 – Chris Burden, American sculptor, illustrator, and academic (d. 2015)
* 1946 – Bob Harris, English journalist and radio host
*1947 – Lev Bulat, Ukrainian-Russian physicist and academic (d. 2016)
* 1947 – Uli Edel, German director and screenwriter
* 1947 – Frank Mantooth, American pianist and composer (d. 2004)
* 1947 – Peter Riegert, American actor, screenwriter and film director
* 1947 – Michael T. Wright, English engineer and academic (d. 2015)
* 1949 – Dorothy Allison, American writer (d. 2024)
*1949 – Bernd Eichinger, German director and producer (d. 2011)
*1950 – Bill Irwin, American actor and clown
*1951 – Paul Fox, English singer and guitarist (d. 2007)
*1952 – Nancy Honeytree, American singer and guitarist
* 1952 – Indira Samarasekera, Sri Lankan engineer and academic
* 1952 – Peter Windsor, English-Australian journalist and sportscaster
*1953 – Guy Verhofstadt, Belgian politician, 47th Prime Minister of Belgium
* 1953 – Andrew Wiles, English mathematician and academic
*1954 – Abdullah Atalar, Turkish engineer and academic
* 1954 – Aleksandr Averin, Azerbaijani cyclist and coach
* 1954 – Francis Lickerish, English guitarist and composer
* 1954 – David Perrett, Scottish psychologist and academic
* 1954 – Ian Redmond, English biologist and conservationist
* 1954 – Willie Royster, American baseball player (d. 2015)
*1955 – Kevin Brady, American lawyer and politician
* 1955 – Michael Callen, American singer-songwriter and AIDS activist (d. 1993)
* 1955 – Micheal Ray Richardson, American basketball player and coach
*1958 – Stuart Adamson, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)
* 1958 – Lyudmila Kondratyeva, Russian sprinter
* 1958 – Wayne Wigham, Australian rugby league player
*1959 – Pierre Lacroix, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1959 – Ana María Polo, Cuban-American lawyer and judge
* 1959 – Zahid Maleque, Bangladeshi politician
*1960 – Jeremy Clarkson, English journalist and television presenter
*1961 – Vincent Gallo, American actor, director, producer, and musician
* 1961 – Doug Hopkins, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1993)
* 1961 – Nobuaki Kakuda, Japanese martial artist
*1962 – Franck Ducheix, French fencer
* 1962 – Mark Lawson, English journalist and author
*1963 – Billy Bowden, New Zealand cricketer and umpire
* 1963 – Waldemar Fornalik, Polish footballer and manager
* 1963 – Elizabeth Smylie, Australian tennis player
* 1963 – Eleni Tsaligopoulou, Greek singer
*1964 – Steve Azar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1964 – John Cryer, English journalist and politician
* 1964 – Johann Sebastian Paetsch, American cellist
* 1964 – Bret Saberhagen, American baseball player and coach
* 1964 – Patrick Sang, Kenyan runner
*1966 – Steve Scarsone, American baseball player and manager
* 1966 – Shin Seung-hun, South Korean singer-songwriter
* 1966 – Lisa Stansfield, English singer-songwriter and actress
*1968 – Sergei Lukyanenko, Kazakh-Russian journalist and author
*1969 – Cerys Matthews, Welsh singer-songwriter
* 1969 – Dustin Rhodes, American wrestler
* 1969 – Michael von Grünigen, Swiss skier
*1970 – Trevor Linden, Canadian ice hockey player and manager
* 1970 – Whigfield, Danish singer and songwriter
*1971 – Oliver Riedel, German bass player
*1972 – Balls Mahoney, American wrestler (d. 2016)
* 1972 – Allan Théo, French singer
* 1972 – Jason Varitek, American baseball player and manager
* 1972 – Jennifer Esposito, American actress and writer
*1973 – Olivier Magne, French rugby player
*1974 – Àlex Corretja, Spanish tennis player and coach
* 1974 – Ashot Danielyan, Armenian weightlifter
* 1974 – David Jassy, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer
* 1974 – Tom Thacker, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1974 – Trot Nixon, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1976 – Marta Breen, Norwegian journalist, non-fiction writer, and organizational leader
* 1976 – Kelvim Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player
* 1976 – Kotomitsuki Keiji, Japanese sumo wrestler
*1977 – Ivonne Teichmann, German runner
*1978 – Josh Hancock, American baseball player (d. 2007)
*1979 – Malcolm Christie, English footballer
* 1979 – Sebastien Grainger, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1979 – Michel Riesen, Swiss ice hockey player
* 1979 – Josh Server, American actor
*1980 – Keiji Tamada, Japanese footballer
* 1980 – Mark Teixeira, American baseball player
*1981 – Alessandra Ambrosio, Brazilian model
* 1981 – Alexandre Burrows, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1981 – Luis Flores, Dominican basketball player
* 1981 – Veronica Pyke, Australian cricketer
*1982 – Ian Bell, English cricketer
* 1982 – Peeter Kümmel, Estonian skier
*1983 – Jennifer Heil, Canadian skier
* 1983 – Rubén Palazuelos, Spanish footballer
* 1983 – Nicky Pastorelli, Dutch race car driver
*1984 – Kelli Garner, American actress
* 1984 – Nikola Karabatić, French handball player
*1985 – Pablo Hernández Domínguez, Spanish footballer
* 1985 – Will Minson, Australian footballer
*1986 – Sarodj Bertin, Haitian model and human rights lawyer
* 1986 – Lena Schöneborn, German pentathlete
*1987 – Joss Stone, English singer-songwriter and actress
* 1987 – Lights, Canadian singer-songwriter
*1988 – Leland Irving, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1989 – Torrin Lawrence, American sprinter (d. 2014)
*1990 – Dimitrios Anastasopoulos, Greek footballer
* 1990 – Thulani Serero, South African footballer
*1991 – Thiago Alcântara, Spanish footballer
* 1991 – Brennan Poole, American racing driver
*1994 – Brandon Montour, Canadian ice hockey player
*1996 – Dele Alli, English international footballer
*2000 – Calen Addison, Canadian ice hockey player
* 2000 – Milly Alcock, Australian actress
* 2000 – Karina, South Korean singer
*2001 – Manuel Ugarte, Uruguayan footballer
*2002 – Jake Fraser-McGurk, Australian cricketer
*2005 – Danielle Marsh, South Korean-Australian singer
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 618 – Yang Guang, Chinese emperor of the Sui Dynasty (b. 569)
* 678 – Donus, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 610)
* 924 – Herman I, chancellor and archbishop of Cologne
*1034 – Romanos III Argyros, Byzantine emperor (b. 968)
*1077 – Anawrahta, king of Burma and founder of the Pagan Empire (b. 1014)
*1079 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, bishop of Kraków (b. 1030)
*1165 – Stephen IV, king of Hungary and Croatia
*1240 – Llywelyn the Great, Welsh prince (b. 1172)
*1349 – Ramadan ibn Alauddin, first known Muslim from Korea
*1447 – Henry Beaufort, Cardinal, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1377)
*1512 – Gaston de Foix, French military commander (b. 1489)
*1554 – Thomas Wyatt the Younger, English rebel leader (b. 1521)
*1587 – Thomas Bromley, English lord chancellor (b. 1530)
1601–1900
*1609 – John Lumley, 1st Baron Lumley, English noble (b. 1533)
*1612 – Emanuel van Meteren, Flemish historian and author (b. 1535)
* 1612 – Edward Wightman, English minister and martyr (b. 1566)
*1626 – Marino Ghetaldi, Ragusan mathematician and physicist (b. 1568)
*1712 – Richard Simon, French priest and critic (b. 1638)
*1723 – John Robinson, English bishop and diplomat (b. 1650)
*1783 – Nikita Ivanovich Panin, Polish-Russian politician, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1718)
*1798 – Karl Wilhelm Ramler, German poet and academic (b. 1725)
*1856 – Juan Santamaría, Costa Rican soldier (b. 1831)
*1861 – Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (b. 1824)
*1873 – Edward Canby, American general (b. 1817)
*1890 – David de Jahacob Lopez Cardozo, Dutch Talmudist (b. 1808)
* 1890 – Joseph Merrick, English man with severe deformities (b. 1862)
*1894 – Constantin Lipsius, German architect and theorist (b. 1832)
*1895 – Julius Lothar Meyer, German chemist (b. 1830)
1901–present
*1902 – Wade Hampton III, Confederate general and politician, 77th Governor of South Carolina (b. 1818)
*1903 – Gemma Galgani, Italian mystic and saint (b. 1878)
*1906 – James Anthony Bailey, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus (b. 1847)
* 1906 – Francis Pharcellus Church, American journalist and publisher, co-founded Armed Forces Journal and The Galaxy Magazine (b. 1839)
*1908 – Henry Bird, English chess player and author (b. 1829)
*1916 – Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (b. 1864)
*1918 – Otto Wagner, Austrian architect and urban planner (b. 1841)
*1926 – Luther Burbank, American botanist and academic (b. 1849)
*1939 – Kurtdereli Mehmet, Turkish wrestler (b. 1864)
*1953 – Kid Nichols, American baseball player and manager (b. 1869)
*1954 – Paul Specht, American violinist and bandleader (b. 1895)
*1958 – Konstantin Yuon, Russian painter and educator (b. 1875)
*1960 – Rosa Grünberg, Swedish actress (b. 1878)
*1962 – Ukichiro Nakaya, Japanese physicist and academic (b. 1900)
* 1962 – George Poage, American hurdler and educator (b. 1880)
* 1962 – Axel Revold, Norwegian painter (b. 1887)
*1967 – Thomas Farrell, American general (b. 1891)
* 1967 – Donald Sangster, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Jamaica (b. 1911)
*1970 – Cathy O'Donnell, American actress (b. 1923)
* 1970 – John O'Hara, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1905)
*1974 – Ernst Ziegler, German actor (b. 1894)
*1977 – Jacques Prévert, French poet and screenwriter (b. 1900)
* 1977 – Phanishwar Nath 'Renu', Indian author and activist (b. 1921)
*1980 – Ümit Kaftancıoğlu, Turkish journalist and producer (b. 1935)
*1981 – Caroline Gordon, American author and critic (b. 1895)
*1983 – Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (b. 1904)
*1984 – Edgar V. Saks, Estonian historian and politician, Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1910)
*1985 – Bunny Ahearne, Irish-born English businessman (b. 1900)
* 1985 – John Gilroy, English artist and illustrator (b. 1898)
* 1985 – Enver Hoxha, Albanian educator and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Albania (b. 1908)
*1987 – Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)
* 1987 – Primo Levi, Italian chemist and author (b. 1919)
*1990 – Harold Ballard, Canadian businessman (b. 1903)
*1991 – Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (b. 1915)
* 1991 – Bruno Hoffmann. German glass harp player (b. 1913)
*1992 – James Brown, American actor and singer (b. 1920)
* 1992 – Eve Merriam, American author and poet (b. 1916)
* 1992 – Alejandro Obregón, Colombian painter, sculptor, and engraver (b. 1920)
*1996 – Jessica Dubroff, American pilot (b. 1988)
*1997 – Muriel McQueen Fergusson, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (b. 1899)
* 1997 – Wang Xiaobo, contemporary Chinese novelist and essayist (b. 1952)
*1999 – William H. Armstrong, American author and educator (b. 1911)
*2000 – Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (b. 1945)
*2001 – Harry Secombe, Welsh-English actor (b. 1921)
*2003 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, founded Texas Instruments (b. 1900)
*2005 – André François, Romanian-French cartoonist, painter, and sculptor (b. 1915)
* 2005 – Lucien Laurent, French footballer and coach (b. 1907)
*2006 – June Pointer, American singer (b. 1953)
* 2006 – DeShaun Holton, American rapper and actor (b. 1973)
*2007 – Roscoe Lee Browne, American actor and director (b. 1922)
* 2007 – Loïc Leferme, French diver (b. 1970)
* 2007 – Janet McDonald, American lawyer and author (b. 1954)
* 2007 – Ronald Speirs, Scottish-American colonel (b. 1920)
* 2007 – Kurt Vonnegut, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1922)
*2008 – Merlin German, American sergeant (b. 1985)
*2009 – Gerda Gilboe, Danish actress and singer (b. 1914)
* 2009 – Vishnu Prabhakar, Indian author and playwright (b. 1912)
* 2009 – Corín Tellado, Spanish author (b. 1927)
*2010 – Julia Tsenova, Bulgarian pianist and composer (b. 1948)
*2011 – Larry Sweeney, American wrestler and manager (b. 1981)
*2012 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (b. 1916)
* 2012 – Roger Caron, Canadian criminal and author (b. 1938)
* 2012 – Tippy Dye, American basketball player and coach (b. 1915)
* 2012 – Hal McKusick, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and flute player (b. 1924)
* 2012 – Agustin Roman, American bishop (b. 1928)
*2013 – Don Blackman, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b. 1953)
* 2013 – Sue Draheim, American fiddler (b.1949)
* 2013 – Grady Hatton, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1922)
* 2013 – Thomas Hemsley, English actor and singer (b. 1927)
* 2013 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist (b. 1916)
* 2013 – Gilles Marchal, French singer-songwriter (b. 1944)
* 2013 – Maria Tallchief, American ballerina (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Clorindo Testa, Italian-Argentinian architect (b. 1923)
* 2013 – Jonathan Winters, American comedian, actor and screenwriter (b. 1925)
*2014 – Rolf Brem, Swiss sculptor and illustrator (b. 1926)
* 2014 – Edna Doré, English actress (b. 1921)
* 2014 – Bill Henry, American baseball player (b. 1927)
* 2014 – Lou Hudson, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1944)
* 2014 – Myer S. Kripke, American rabbi and scholar (b. 1914)
* 2014 – Sergey Nepobedimy, Russian engineer (b. 1921)
* 2014 – Jesse Winchester, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1944)
*2015 – Jimmy Gunn, American football player (b. 1948)
* 2015 – Muhammad Kamaruzzaman, Bangladeshi journalist and politician (b. 1952)
* 2015 – François Maspero, French journalist and author (b. 1932)
* 2015 – Hanut Singh, Indian general (b. 1933)
* 2015 – Tekena Tamuno, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1932)
*2017 – J. Geils, American singer and guitarist (b. 1946)
* 2017 – Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (b. 1945)
*2020 – John Horton Conway, English mathematician (b. 1937)
*2024 – Park Bo-ram, South Korean singer (b. 1994)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Antipas of Pergamum (Greek Orthodox Church)
**Barsanuphius
**Elena Guerra
**Gemma Galgani
**Godeberta
**Guthlac of Crowland
**George Selwyn (Anglicanism)
**Stanislaus of Szczepanów
**April 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Juan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica)
*International Louie Louie Day
*World Parkinson's Day
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/11 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/11 Historical Events on April 11]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_11 | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.315662 |
2396 | Adhesive | thumb|right|Nitrocellulose adhesive dispensed from a tube
Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
The use of adhesives offers certain advantages over other binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastenings, and welding. These include the ability to bind different materials together, the more efficient distribution of stress across a joint, the cost-effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, and greater flexibility in design. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion followed by reactive or non-reactive, a term which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively, they can be organized either by their starting physical phase or whether their raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin.
Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago, when Neanderthals produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in binding stone tools to wooden handles. The first references to adhesives in literature appeared approximately 2000 BC. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period AD 1500–1700. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the 20th century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, and innovation in the field continues to the present.
History
thumbnail|left|Liquid animal glue
The earliest evidence of human adhesive use was discovered in central Italy when three stone implements were discovered with birch bark tar indications. The tools were dated to about 200,000 before present in the Middle Paleolithic. It is the earliest example of tar-hafted stone tools.
Although sticky enough, plant-based, single-component adhesives can be brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions. The first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. Here, 70,000-year-old stone segments that were once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre (natural iron oxide) as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet conditions. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle Stone Age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, which led to the development of new tools. A study of material from Le Moustier indicates that Middle Paleolithic people, possibly Neanderthals, used glue made from a mixture of ocher and bitumen to make hand grips for cutting and scraping stone tools.
More recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree resins. Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered the use of bituminous cements to fasten ivory eyeballs to statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately 4000 BC.
thumb|upright|A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe, which used pitch as an adhesive
In 2000, a paper revealed the discovery of a 5,200-year-old man nicknamed the "Tyrolean Iceman" or "Ötzi", who was preserved in a glacier near the Austria-Italy border. Several of his belongings were found with him including two arrows with flint arrowheads and a copper hatchet, each with evidence of organic glue used to connect the stone or metal parts to the wooden shafts. The glue was analyzed as pitch, which requires the heating of tar during its production. The retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis.
The first references to adhesives in literature appeared in approximately 2000 BC. Further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000 BC. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a casket made of wood and glue in King Tutankhamun's tomb. Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination. Such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein (milk protein)-based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing and a plaster of Paris-like material made of calcined gypsum.
thumb|Beeswax|left
From AD 1 to 500 the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of animal and fish glues refined, and other materials utilized. Egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves, and incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood, bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains. The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and sand. This material, known as pozzolanic cement, was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon. The Romans were also the first people known to have used tar and beeswax as caulk and sealant between the wooden planks of their boats and ships.
In Central Asia, the rise of the Mongols in approximately AD 1000 can be partially attributed to the good range and power of the bows of Genghis Khan's hordes. These bows were made of a bamboo core, with horn on the belly (facing towards the archer) and sinew on the back, bound together with animal glue.
framed|right|Casein glue preparation
In Europe, glue fell into disuse until the period AD 1500–1700. At this time, world-renowned cabinet and furniture makers such as Thomas Chippendale and Duncan Phyfe began to use adhesives to hold their products together. In 1690, the first commercial glue plant was established in The Netherlands. This plant produced glues from animal hides. In 1750, the first British glue patent was issued for fish glue. The following decades of the next century witnessed the manufacture of casein glues in German and Swiss factories. In 1876, the first U.S. patent (number 183,024) was issued to the Ross brothers for the production of casein glue.
The first U.S. postage stamps used starch-based adhesives when issued in 1847. The first US patent (number 61,991) on dextrin (a starch derivative) adhesive was issued in 1867.
Natural rubber was first used as material for adhesives in 1830, which marked the starting point of the modern adhesive. In 1862, a British patent (number 3288) was issued for the plating of metal with brass by electrodeposition to obtain a stronger bond to rubber. The development of the automobile and the need for rubber shock mounts required stronger and more durable bonds of rubber and metal. This spurred the development of cyclized rubber treated in strong acids. By 1927, this process was used to produce solvent-based thermoplastic rubber cements for metal to rubber bonding.
Natural rubber-based sticky adhesives were first used on a backing by Henry Day (US Patent 3,965) in 1845. Later these kinds of adhesives were used in cloth backed surgical and electric tapes. By 1925, the pressure-sensitive tape industry was born.
Today, sticky notes, Scotch Tape, and other tapes are examples of pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA).
A key step in the development of synthetic plastics was the introduction of a thermoset plastic known as Bakelite phenolic in 1910. Within two years, phenolic resin was applied to plywood as a coating varnish. In the early 1930s, phenolics gained importance as adhesive resins.
The 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s witnessed great advances in the development and production of new plastics and resins due to the First and Second World Wars. These advances greatly improved the development of adhesives by allowing the use of newly developed materials that exhibited a variety of properties. With changing needs and ever evolving technology, the development of new synthetic adhesives continues to the present. However, due to their low cost, natural adhesives are still more commonly used.
Types
Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.
By reactiveness
Non-reactive
Drying
There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying: solvent-based adhesives and polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives. Solvent-based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. White glue, contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of the drying adhesive family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees.
Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). They are used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries. They are also used with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones.
Pressure-sensitive
Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) form a bond by the application of light pressure to bind the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed to have a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e., "wet") to the adherend. The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular interactions, such as van der Waals forces, become involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength.
PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications. Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at elevated temperatures. Permanent PSAs may initially be removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days.
Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers, barcode labels, price marking labels, promotional graphics materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and trans-dermal drug patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick. They have low adhesion, and generally cannot support much weight. Pressure-sensitive adhesive is used in Post-it notes.
Pressure-sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive, or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form. Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate-based polymers.
Contact
Contact adhesives form high shear-resistance bonds with a rapid cure time. They are often applied in thin layers for use with laminates, such as bonding Formica to countertops, and in footwear, as in attaching outsoles to uppers. Natural rubber and polychloroprene (Neoprene) are commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization.
Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24 hours to dry completely before the surfaces are to be held together. Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond forms very quickly. Clamps are typically not needed due to the rapid bond formation.
Hot
right|thumbnail|A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive
Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it solidifies.
Thermoplastic glue may have been invented around 1940 by Procter & Gamble as a solution to the problem that water-based adhesives, commonly used in packaging at that time, failed in humid climates, causing packages to open. However, water-based adhesives are still of strong interest as they typically do not contain volatile solvents.
Reactive
Anaerobic
Anaerobic adhesives cure when in contact with metal, in the absence of oxygen. They work well in a close-fitting space, as when used as a Thread-locking fluid.
Multi-part
Multi-component adhesives harden by mixing two or more components which chemically react. This reaction causes polymers to cross-link into acrylates, urethanes, and epoxies .
There are several commercial combinations of multi-component adhesives in use in industry. Some of these combinations are:
Polyester resin & polyurethane resin
Polyols & polyurethane resin
Acrylic polymers & polyurethane resins
The individual components of a multi-component adhesive are not adhesive by nature. The individual components react with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion only on curing. The multi-component resins can be either solvent-based or solvent-less. The solvents present in the adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the polyurethane resin. The solvent is dried during the curing process.
Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives
Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives (PMFs) are adhesives that are mixed, deaerated, packaged, and frozen. As it is necessary for PMFs to remain frozen before use, once they are frozen at −80 °C they are shipped with dry ice and are required to be stored at or below −40 °C. PMF adhesives eliminate mixing mistakes by the end user and reduce exposure of curing agents that can contain irritants or toxins. PMFs were introduced commercially in the 1960s and are commonly used in aerospace and defense.
One-part
One-part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source, such as radiation, heat, and moisture.
thumb|A watch with a date magnifying lens ("cyclops"). The cyclops is attached with transparent UV light curing adhesive to the top of the watch crystal.
Ultraviolet (UV) light curing adhesives, also known as light curing materials (LCM), have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as one second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates (materials) and withstand harsh temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical, aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives, UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products. They are generally acrylic-based.
Heat curing adhesives consist of a pre-made mixture of two or more components. When heat is applied the components react and cross-link. This type of adhesive includes thermoset epoxies, urethanes, and polyimides.
Moisture curing adhesives cure when they react with moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. This type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes.
By origin
Natural
Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch (dextrin), natural resins, or animals (e.g. the milk protein casein and hide-based animal glues). These are often referred to as bioadhesives.
One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water. Starch-based adhesives are used in corrugated board and paper sack production, paper tube winding, and wallpaper adhesives. Casein glue is mainly used to adhere glass bottle labels. Animal glues have traditionally been used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues except in specialist applications like the production and repair of stringed instruments. Albumen made from the protein component of blood has been used in the plywood industry. Masonite, a wood hardboard, was originally bonded using natural wood lignin, an organic polymer, though most modern particle boards such as MDF use synthetic thermosetting resins.
Synthetic
Synthetic adhesives are made out of organic compounds. Many are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets. Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers. The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karlsons Klister in the 1920s.
Application
Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles.
Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes, rollers, using films or pellets, spray guns and applicator guns (e.g., caulk gun). All of these can be used manually or automated as part of a machine.
Mechanisms of adhesion
For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. Firstly, it must be able to wet the base material. Wetting is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface. It must also increase in strength after application, and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being adhered.
Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs.
In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. Thiolated polymers, for example, form chemical bonds with endogenous proteins such as mucus glycoproteins, integrins or keratins via disulfide bridges. Because of their comparatively high adhesive properties, these polymers find numerous biomedical applications. In others, electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.
Methods to improve adhesion
The quality of adhesive bonding depends strongly on the ability of the adhesive to efficiently cover (wet) the substrate area. This happens when the surface energy of the substrate is greater than the surface energy of the adhesive. However, high-strength adhesives have high surface energy. Thus, they bond poorly to low-surface-energy polymers or other materials. To solve this problem, surface treatment can be used to increase the surface energy as a preparation step before adhesive bonding. Importantly, surface preparation provides a reproducible surface allowing consistent bonding results. The commonly used surface activation techniques include plasma activation, flame treatment and wet chemistry priming.
Electrically-debondable adhesive (EDA)
Adhesives can be designed so that they debond when an electric current or electric field is applied, thereby eliminating part damage, or the need for heating.
Failure
thumbnail|550px|Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations
There are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive. Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces. When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are the following:
Cohesive fracture
Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the center of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be "cohesive near the interface".
Adhesive fracture
Adhesive fracture (sometimes referred to as interfacial fracture) is when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherend. In most cases, the occurrence of adhesive fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture toughness.
Other types of fracture
Other types of fracture include:
The mixed type, which occurs if the crack propagates at some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial manner. Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas.
The alternating crack path type which occurs if the cracks jump from one interface to the other. This type of fracture appears in the presence of tensile pre-stresses in the adhesive layer.
Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is tougher than the adherend. In this case, the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, the adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side; this is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure.
Design of adhesive joints
thumbnail|350px|Modes of failure
As a general design rule, the material properties of the object need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use. (i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered.
Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of the joint.
Mode I is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings are normal to the crack.
Mode II is a sliding or in-plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack. This is typically the mode for which the adhesive exhibits the highest resistance to fracture.
Mode III is a tearing or antiplane shear mode.
As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry.
Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that:
The bonded zone is large
It is mainly loaded in mode II
Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure.
Shelf life
Some glues and adhesives have a limited shelf life. Shelf life is dependent on multiple factors, the foremost of which being temperature. Adhesives may lose their effectiveness at high temperatures, as well as become increasingly stiff. Other factors affecting shelf life include exposure to oxygen or water vapor.
See also
Impact glue
References
Bibliography
Kinloch, Anthony J. (1987). Adhesion and Adhesives: Science and Technology. London: Chapman and Hall.
External links
Educational portal on adhesives and sealants
RoyMech: The theory of adhesive bonding
3M's Adhesive & Tapes Classification
Database of adhesives for attaching different materials
Category:Visual arts materials
Category:1750 introductions
Category:Packaging materials | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.371121 |
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Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins (born 31 December 1937) is a Welsh<!--As per MOS:BIO; became notable as Welsh, and self identifies as Welsh; 2012 Guardian interview; "I suppose it's because we are both Welsh" --> actor. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his services to drama in 1993.
After graduating from the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in 1957, Hopkins trained at RADA (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) in London. He was then spotted by Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre in 1965. Productions at the National included King Lear (his favourite Shakespeare play), Coriolanus, Macbeth, and Antony and Cleopatra. In 1985, he received acclaim and a Laurence Olivier Award for his performance in the David Hare play Pravda. His last stage play was a West End production of M. Butterfly in 1989.
Hopkins's early film roles include The Lion in Winter (1968), A Bridge Too Far (1977), and The Elephant Man (1980). He won two Academy Awards for Best Actor for playing Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991) and an octogenarian with dementia in The Father (2020), becoming the oldest Best Actor Oscar winner for the latter. His other Oscar-nominated films include The Remains of the Day (1993), Nixon (1995), Amistad (1997), and The Two Popes (2019). Other notable films include 84 Charing Cross Road (1987), Howards End (1992), ''Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), Shadowlands (1993), Legends of the Fall (1994), The Mask of Zorro'' (1998), and the Marvel Cinematic Universe's Thor films (2011–2017).
For his work on television, Hopkins received a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his performance in War and Peace (1972). He won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series for The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case (1976) and The Bunker (1981). Other notable projects include the BBC film The Dresser (2015), PBS's King Lear (2018), and the HBO series Westworld (2016–2018). the son of Annie Muriel (née Yeates) and baker Richard Arthur Hopkins. One of his grandfathers was from Wiltshire, England. He stated his father's working-class values have always underscored his life, "Whenever I get a feeling that I may be special or different, I think of my father and I remember his hands – his hardened, broken hands."
(the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) in London from 1961 to 1963. In 2005, a new portrait of him featured in their centenary celebrations.]]
Hopkins was inspired by fellow Welsh actor Richard Burton, whom he met at the age of 15. He later called Burton "very gracious, very nice" He enrolled at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, from which he graduated in 1957. He spent two years doing his national service between 1958 and 1960, which he served in the British Army's Royal Artillery regiment where he was known as "Gunner Hopkins", before moving to London to study at RADA (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) from where he graduated in 1963. In 1965, after several years in repertory, he was spotted by Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre in London. Hopkins became Olivier's understudy, and filled in when Olivier was struck with appendicitis during a 1967 production of August Strindberg's The Dance of Death. Olivier later noted in his memoir, Confessions of an Actor, that, "A new young actor in the company of exceptional promise named Anthony Hopkins was understudying me and walked away with the part of Edgar like a cat with a mouse between its teeth." Up until that night, Hopkins was always nervous prior to going on stage. This has since changed, and Hopkins quoted his mentor as saying: "He [Olivier] said: 'Remember: "nerves" is vanity – you're wondering what people think of you; to hell with them, just jump off the edge'. It was great advice."
directed Hopkins in five films, and in the 1970s described him as "unquestionably the greatest actor of his generation". In 1968, Hopkins got his break in The Lion in Winter playing Richard the Lionheart, a performance which saw him nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Hopkins portrayed Charles Dickens in the BBC television film The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens in 1970, and Pierre Bezukhov in the BBC's mini series War and Peace (1972), receiving the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his performance in the latter. Making a name for himself as a screen actor, he appeared in Frank Pierson's neo-noir action thriller The Looking Glass War (1970), and Étienne Périer's When Eight Bells Toll (1971). The first of five collaborations with director Richard Attenborough, in 1972 Hopkins starred as British politician David Lloyd George in Young Winston. Hopkins starred in a film adaptation of the Henrik Ibsen play ''A Doll's House (1973) alongside Claire Bloom, Ralph Richardson, Denholm Elliott, and Edith Evans. He then appeared in the comedy The Girl from Petrovka (1974) with Goldie Hawn and Hal Holbrook and also starred in the Richard Lester suspense film Juggernaut'' opposite Richard Harris and Omar Sharif. In October 1974, Hopkins played the psychologist Dysart in the original Broadway production of Sir Peter Shaffer's play Equus, starring opposite Peter Firth. For this performance, he received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play for the 1974–75 season. In 1977, he played British Army officer John Frost in Attenborough's World War II-set film A Bridge Too Far. In 1978, he starred in the sequel to National Velvet (1944), entitled International Velvet with Tatum O'Neal, Christopher Plummer, which was directed by Bryan Forbes. That same year, he also starred in Attenborough's psychological horror film Magic about a demonic ventriloquist's puppet with Gene Siskel adding it as one of the best films of the year. In 1979, Hopkins appeared as Prospero in a production of The Tempest held at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles.
1980–1989: National Theatre and acclaim
in The Elephant Man (1980).]]
In 1980, he starred in David Lynch's The Elephant Man as the English doctor Sir Frederick Treves, who attends to Joseph Merrick (portrayed by John Hurt), a severely deformed man in 19th century London. The film received critical praise and attention from critics and received eight Academy Award nominations including for Best Picture. That year he also starred opposite Shirley MacLaine in A Change of Seasons and famously didn't get along with MacLaine, adding "she was the most obnoxious actress I have ever worked with." The film was an immense box office and critical failure. In 1981, he starred in the CBS television film The Bunker portraying Adolf Hitler during weeks in and around his underground bunker in Berlin before and during the Battle of Berlin. John O'Connor praised Hopkins in his New York Times review: "The portrait becomes all the more riveting through an extraordinarily powerful performance from Anthony Hopkins. His Hitler is mad, often contemptible, but always understandable. Part of the problem, perhaps, is that the monster becomes a little too understandable. He is not made sympathetic, exactly, but he is given decidedly pathetic dimensions, making him just that much more acceptable as a dramatic and historical character." For his performance, he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. That same year he starred as Paul the Apostle opposite Robert Foxworth as Saint Peter in the biblical drama and miniseries Peter and Paul (1981).
In 1983, Hopkins also became a company member of The Mirror Theater Ltd's Repertory Company. In 1984, he portrayed Deeley in Harold Pinter's play Old Times at the Roundabout Theatre in New York. In 1984, he starred opposite Mel Gibson in The Bounty as William Bligh, captain of the Royal Navy ship , in a more accurate retelling of the mutiny on the Bounty. The following year, he starred as Quasimodo in the CBS television film The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982). The film also starred Derek Jacobi, David Suchet, Tim Pigott-Smith, Nigel Hawthorne, and John Gielgud. He also starred in Strangers and Brothers (1984), Arch of Triumph (1984), Guilty Conscience (1985), Mussolini and I (1985), and The Tenth Man (1988). In 1985, Hopkins starred opposite Colin Firth in the Arthur Schnitzler play The Lonely Road at The Old Vic in London. That same year, he featured as Lambert Le Roux in the National Theatre production of Pravda in Sir David Hare and Howard Brenton's satirical play on the British newspaper industry in the Thatcher era. Receiving acclaim for his performance, Hopkins won the Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement. Frank Rich in his New York Times review wrote, "Mr. Hopkins creates a memorable image of a perversely brilliant modern-day barbarian."
In 1986, he starred in David Hare's production of King Lear, Hopkins's favourite Shakespeare play, at the National Theatre. Director Jonathan Demme wanted a British actor for the role, with Jodie Foster stating, "Lecter is a manipulator and has a way of using language to keep people at bay. You wanted to see that Shakespearean monster." At the time he was offered the role, Hopkins was making a return to the London stage, performing in M. Butterfly. He had come back to Britain after living for a number of years in Hollywood, having all but given up on a career there, saying, "Well that part of my life's over; it's a chapter closed. I suppose I'll just have to settle for being a respectable actor poncing around the West End and doing respectable BBC work for the rest of my life." The following year, After winning the Oscar for Silence of the Lambs, Hopkins was featured in Mark Joffe's film Spotswood and the science fiction film Freejack and also played supporting roles as Charlie Chaplin's biographer in Richard Attenborough's biographical drama Chaplin (1992) and Professor Van Helsing in Francis Ford Coppola's horror adaptation ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992).
In 1992, Hopkins starred in Merchant-Ivory's period film based on the E. M. Forster novel Howards End. Hopkins acted alongside Emma Thompson and Helena Bonham Carter where he played the cold businessman Henry Wilcox. The film received enormous critical acclaim, with critic Leonard Maltin calling it "extraordinarily good on every level". The following year, Hopkins reunited with Merchant-Ivory and Emma Thompson in The Remains of the Day (1993), a film set in 1950s post-war Britain based on the novel by Kazuo Ishiguro. David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter praised Hopkins' performance describing it as "colossal" and a "tour de force". The film was ranked by the British Film Institute as the 64th greatest British film of the 20th century. Starring as the butler Stevens, Hopkins named it among his favourite films. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance and received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor.
Hopkins portrayed Oxford academic C. S. Lewis in the 1993 British biographical film Shadowlands, for which he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor. Hopkins was Britain's highest-paid performer in 1998, starring in The Mask of Zorro and Meet Joe Black, and also agreed to reprise his role as Dr Hannibal Lecter for a fee of £15 million. 2000–2015: Established actor
, Berlin 2001]]
In 2000, Hopkins narrated Ron Howard's live action remake of How the Grinch Stole Christmas. He then reprised the role of Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs sequel simply entitled Hannibal (2001). Director Ridley Scott and actress Julianne Moore replaced Jonathan Demme and Jodie Foster who declined to participate in the sequel. Hopkins, who previously starred with Moore in Surviving Picasso (1996), agreed to do the role approving of the script. In the book, Lecter uses bandages to disguise himself as a plastic surgery patient. This was left out of the film because Scott and Hopkins agreed to leave the face alone. Hopkins said: "It's as if he's making a statement—'catch me if you can'. With his big hat, he's so obvious that nobody thinks he's Hannibal Lecter. I've always thought he's a very elegant man, a Renaissance man.":}}
]]
In the film, Lecter is first seen in Florence "as the classical Lecter, lecturing and being smooth", according to Hopkins. When the film moves to the U.S., Hopkins changed his appearance by building up muscle and cropping his hair short "to make him like a mercenary, that he would be so fit and so strong that he could just snap somebody in two if they got ... in his way". but received mixed reviews from critics. Hopkins starred in the third film in the series Red Dragon (2002) alongside Ralph Fiennes, Edward Norton, Harvey Keitel, Emily Watson, and Philip Seymour Hoffman. The film received generally favourable reviews and was a box office hit.
]]
In 2003, Hopkins received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Hopkins stated that his role as Burt Munro, whom he portrayed in his 2005 film ''The World's Fastest Indian'', was his favourite. He also asserted that Munro was the easiest role that he had played because both men have a similar outlook on life. In 2006, Hopkins was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement. In 2008, he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, the highest award the British Film Academy can bestow. In a 2003 poll conducted by Channel 4, Hopkins was ranked seventh on their list of the 100 Greatest Movie Stars.
On 24 February 2010, it was announced that Hopkins had been cast in The Rite, which was released on 28 January 2011. He played a priest who is "an expert in exorcisms and whose methods are not necessarily traditional". Hopkins, an agnostic who is quoted as saying "I don't know what I believe, myself personally", reportedly wrote a line—"Some days I don't know if I believe in God or Santa Claus or Tinkerbell"—into his character to identify with it. In 2011, Hopkins said, "what I enjoy is uncertainty. ... I don't know. You don't know." On 21 September 2011, Peter R. de Vries cast Hopkins in the role of the Heineken owner Freddy Heineken, in the film about his kidnapping, Kidnapping Freddy Heineken (2015).
Hopkins portrayed Odin, the Allfather or "king" of Asgard, in the 2011 film adaptation of Marvel Comics' Thor and would go on to reprise his role as Odin in Thor: The Dark World in 2013, and again in 2017's Thor: Ragnarok. Hopkins portrayed Alfred Hitchcock in Sacha Gervasi's biopic Hitchcock alongside Helen Mirren who played Hitchcock's wife, Alma Reville. The film focuses on the filming of Psycho and that which followed. He starred in the comedy action film Red 2 (2013) as the main antagonist Edward Bailey. In 2014, he portrayed Methuselah in Darren Aronofsky's Noah. Hopkins played Order of the Witwiccans member Sir Edmund Burton in Transformers: The Last Knight which was released in June 2017.
In October 2015, Hopkins appeared as Sir in a BBC Two production of Ronald Harwood's The Dresser, alongside Ian McKellen, Edward Fox and Emily Watson. The Dresser is set in a London theatre during the Blitz, where an aging actor-manager, Sir, prepares for his starring role in King Lear with the help of his devoted dresser, Norman. Vulture stated the film "capture[d] the heart of the classic Shakespeare tragedy" and described Hopkins' performance as "devastating".
In 2019, Hopkins portrayed Pope Benedict XVI opposite Jonathan Pryce as Pope Francis in Fernando Meirelles's The Two Popes. He stated, "The great treasure was working with – apart from [director] Meirelles – Pryce. We're both from Wales. He's from the north, and I'm from the south". The film is set in the Vatican City in the aftermath of the Vatican leaks scandal and follows Pope Benedict XVI as he attempts to convince Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio to reconsider his decision to resign as an archbishop as he confides his own intentions to abdicate the papacy. In August 2019, the film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival to critical acclaim. The film started streaming on 20 December 2019, by Netflix. The performances of Pryce and Hopkins, as well as McCarten's screenplay, received high praise from critics, and all three men received nominations for their work at the Academy Awards, Golden Globes and British Academy Film Awards. The film also stars Olivia Colman as his daughter. It is based on a Tony Award nominated play Le Père by Florian Zeller, who also directed the film. The Father was released on 18 December 2020 by Sony Pictures Classics. In a Q&A at the Telluride Film Festival Hopkins praised both Colman and Zeller saying comparing the working experience saying it "might've been the highlight of my life". Hopkins mentioned how lucky he's been over the past five years working with Ian McKellen in The Dresser, Emma Thompson in King Lear, and Jonathan Pryce in The Two Popes. Hopkins won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his performance in The Father, making it his fourth BAFTA and his third for Best Actor. He also won a second Academy Award for Best Actor for his role, becoming the oldest person to win an acting Oscar. Hopkins did not attend the Oscars ceremony, but accepted the award in a video posted on social media, from Wales, the following day, saying: "Here I am in my homeland in Wales. And at 83 years of age, I did not expect to get this award. I really didn't and am very grateful to the Academy and thank you." He also paid tribute to fellow nominee Chadwick Boseman, who had died the previous year.
In 2022, he acted in James Gray's semi-autobiographical coming of age drama Armageddon Time (2023). In an interview with El País he said that his performance was inspired by his grandfather who had encouraged him to become an actor. Hopkins starred alongside Jeremy Strong and Anne Hathaway. Hopkins received positive reviews for his turn as a kindly elderly grandfather. A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "Hopkins finds the essential grit hiding underneath the twinkle". That same year he reunited with Florian Zeller, acting in The Son (2022) alongside Hugh Jackman. In 2023, Hopkins starred as stockbroker and humanitarian Sir Nicholas Winton in the biographical drama film One Life, and also played Sigmund Freud in ''Freud's Last Session''. Hopkins also appeared in the Netflix science fiction film Rebel Moon directed by Zack Snyder.
In 2024, Hopkins portrayed Herod the Great in the Netflix film Mary. Other activities Activism and philanthropy in north Wales which Hopkins described as "one of the most beautiful places in the world and Snowdon is the jewel that lies at its heart. It must be cherished and protected."]]
Hopkins has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the National Trust's Snowdonia Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of Snowdonia National Park in north Wales. In 1998 he donated £1 million towards the £3 million needed to aid the Trust's efforts in purchasing parts of Snowdon. Due to his contributions to Snowdonia, in addition to his film career, in 2004 Hopkins was named among the 100 Welsh Heroes in a Welsh poll.
Hopkins has been a patron of the YMCA centre in his home town of Port Talbot, south Wales, for more than 20 years, having first joined the YMCA in the 1950s. He supports other various philanthropic groups. He was a Guest of Honour at a Gala Fundraiser for Women in Recovery, Inc., a Venice, California-based non-profit organisation offering rehabilitation assistance to women in recovery from substance abuse. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskin School of Acting in Santa Monica, California. Hopkins served as the Honorary Patron of The New Heritage Theatre Company in Boise, Idaho from 1997 to 2007, participating in fundraising and marketing efforts for the repertory theatre.
Hopkins contributed toward the refurbishment of a £2.3 million wing at his alma mater, the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, named the Anthony Hopkins Centre. It opened in 1999.
Hopkins is a prominent member of the environmental protection group Greenpeace and as of early 2008 featured in a television advertisement campaign, voicing concerns about whaling in Japan. He has also been a patron of RAPt (Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust) since its early days and in 1992 helped open their first intensive drug and alcohol rehabilitation unit at Downview (HM Prison), a women's prison in Surrey, England.
Hopkins is an admirer of the late Welsh comedian Tommy Cooper. On 23 February 2008, as patron of the Tommy Cooper Society, he unveiled a commemorative statue in the entertainer's home town of Caerphilly. For the ceremony, he donned Cooper's trademark fez and performed a comic routine.
Composing
, Cardiff]]
In an interview, Hopkins stated, "I've been composing music all my life and if I'd been clever enough at school I would like to have gone to music college. As it was I had to settle for being an actor."
In 2007, he announced he would retire temporarily from the screen to tour around the world. Hopkins has also written music for the concert hall, in collaboration with Stephen Barton as orchestrator. These compositions include The Masque of Time, given its world premiere with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra in October 2008, and Schizoid Salsa.
On 31 October 2011, André Rieu released an album including a waltz which Hopkins had composed in 1964, at the age of 26. Hopkins had never heard his composition, "And the Waltz Goes On", before it was premiered by Rieu's orchestra in Vienna; Rieu's album was given the same name as Hopkins's piece.
In January 2012, Hopkins released an album of classical music, entitled Composer, performed by the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, and released on CD via the UK radio station Classic FM. The album consists of nine of his original works and film scores, with one of the pieces titled "Margam" in tribute to his home town near Port Talbot in Wales.
In 1995, he directed August, an adaptation of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya set in Wales. His first screenplay, an experimental drama called Slipstream, which he also directed and scored, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2007. In 1997, Hopkins narrated the BBC natural documentary series, Killing for a Living, which showed predatory behaviour in nature. He narrated episode 1 through 3 before being replaced by John Shrapnel.
Artistry and reception
Hopkins is renowned for his preparation for roles. He indicated in interviews that once he has committed to a project, he will go over his lines as many times as is needed (sometimes upwards of 200) until the lines sound natural to him, so that he can "do it without thinking". This leads to an almost casual style of delivery that belies the amount of groundwork done beforehand. While it can allow for some careful improvisation, it has also brought him into conflict with the occasional director who departs from the script or demands what the actor views as an excessive number of takes. Hopkins has stated that after he is finished with a scene, he simply discards the lines, not remembering them later on. This is unlike others who usually remember their lines from a film, even years later.
In the mid-1970s, he started a collaboration with Richard Attenborough who called him "the greatest actor of his generation". Attenborough, who directed Hopkins on five occasions, found himself going to great lengths during the filming of Shadowlands (1993) to accommodate the differing approaches of his two stars (Hopkins and Debra Winger), who shared many scenes. Whereas Hopkins preferred the spontaneity of a fresh take and liked to keep rehearsals to a minimum, Winger rehearsed continuously. To allow for this, Attenborough stood in for Hopkins during Winger's rehearsals, only bringing him in for the last one before a take. The director praised Hopkins for "this extraordinary ability to make you believe when you hear him that it is the very first time he has ever said that line. It's an incredible gift."
In a 2016 interview with the Radio Times, Hopkins spoke of his ability to frighten people since he was a boy growing up in Port Talbot, Wales. "I don't know why but I've always known what scares people. When I was a kid I'd tell the girls around the street the story about Dracula and I'd go 'th-th-th' (the sucking noise which he reproduced in The Silence of the Lambs). As a result, they'd run away screaming." He recalled going through the script of Silence of the Lambs for the first time with fellow cast members. "I didn't know what they were going to make of it but I'd prepared it—my first line to Jodie Foster was: 'Good morning. You're one of Jack Crawford's aren't you?' Everyone froze. There was a silence. Then one of the producers said, 'Holy crap, don't change a thing'."
Speaking on his favourite performances which inspired him in his own approach to acting, Morgan Freeman mentioned Hopkins' portrayal of the butler Stevens in The Remains of the Day.
Hopkins is a well-known mimic, adept at turning his native Welsh accent into whatever is required by a character. In the 1991 restoration of Spartacus, he recreated the voice of his late mentor Laurence Olivier in a scene for which the soundtrack had been lost. His interview on the 1998 relaunch edition of the British television talk show Parkinson featured an impersonation of comedian Tommy Cooper. Hopkins has said acting "like a submarine" has helped him to deliver credible performances in his thrillers. He said, "It's very difficult for an actor to avoid, you want to show a bit. But I think the less one shows the better."
Personal life
Hopkins has a residence in Malibu, California. In January 2025, his two neighbouring homes in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, were destroyed by the Palisades Fire. He moved to the United States once before, during the late 1970s, to pursue his film career, but returned to London in the late 1980s. However, he decided to return to the US following his 1990s success. Retaining his British citizenship, he became a naturalised American citizen on 12 April 2000, with Hopkins stating: "I have dual citizenship; it just so happens I live in America".
Hopkins has been married three times. He was married to actress Petronella Barker from 1966 to 1972, Jennifer Lynton from 1973 to 2002, and Stella Arroyave since 2003. Hopkins met Arroyave, a Colombian-born antiques dealer, in the early 2000s, and he credits her with helping him overcome his feelings of depression at the time. On Christmas Eve 2013, he celebrated his 10th wedding anniversary by having a blessing at a private service at St Davids Cathedral in St Davids. He has a daughter from his first marriage. The two are estranged; when asked if he had any grandchildren, he said, "I don't have any idea. People break up. Families split and, you know, 'Get on with your life.' People make choices. I don't care one way or the other." In another interview, he said, "I guess I am selfish. I have not been a good husband or father."
Hopkins is a recovering alcoholic; he has stayed sober since just after Christmas 1975. He said, "I made that quantum leap when I asked for help. I just found something and a woman talked to me and she said, just trust in God. And I said, well, why not?" When asked, "Did you literally pray?" Hopkins responded: "No, I didn't. I think because I asked for help, which is a form of prayer." In 2008, he embarked on a weight loss programme, and by 2010, he had lost 5st 10 lb (80 lb or 36 kg). In January 2017, in an interview with The Desert Sun, Hopkins said that he had been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome three years earlier, but that he was "high end". In 2020, he said that "it's a great gift, actually".
He has a pet cat named Niblo, which he adopted in Budapest. Hopkins eschews meat and prefers a pescatarian diet.
He is a fan of the BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, and once remarked in an interview how he would love to appear in the series. Writer John Sullivan saw the interview, and with Hopkins in mind created the character Danny Driscoll, a local villain. However, filming of the new series coincided with the filming of The Silence of the Lambs, making Hopkins unavailable. The role instead went to Roy Marsden.
Commenting on the loss of his Los Angeles home, in the 2025 Palisades fire, Hopkins posted a message on Instagram, supporting those affected, and saying "the only thing we take with us is the love we give".Acting credits and awards
]]
Hopkins was appointed a CBE in 1987 and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for "services to the arts" at Buckingham Palace in 1993. In 1988, he was awarded an honorary D.Litt. degree and in 1992 received an honorary fellowship from the University of Wales, Lampeter. He was made a freeman of his home town, Port Talbot, in 1996.
He has received numerous accolades for his performances, including two Academy Awards, four BAFTA Awards, a Critics' Choice Movie Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards and a Laurence Olivier Award as well as nominations for eight Golden Globe Awards and seven Screen Actors Guild Awards. In receiving the Oscar for Best Actor for his role in The Father (2020), he became the oldest nominee and winner of the award.
-->
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External links
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Category:1937 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century Welsh male actors
Category:21st-century Welsh male actors
Category:Actors awarded knighthoods
Category:Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Category:Alumni of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama
Category:American people of Welsh descent
Category:Autistic actors
Category:Autistic musicians
Category:BAFTA fellows
Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners
Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award winners
Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award (television) winners
Category:British actors with disabilities
Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners
Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Category:Cool Cymru
Category:Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners
Category:David di Donatello winners
Category:Drama Desk Award winners
Category:Honorary members of the Royal Academy of Music
Category:Knights Bachelor
Category:Laurence Olivier Award winners
Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Category:People educated at Cowbridge Grammar School
Category:People educated at West Monmouth School
Category:People from Port Talbot
Category:People with Asperger syndrome
Category:Welsh expatriate male actors in the United States
Category:Welsh male composers
Category:Welsh male film actors
Category:Welsh male Shakespearean actors
Category:Welsh male stage actors
Category:Welsh male television actors
Category:Welsh people with disabilities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hopkins | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.452119 |
2398 | Ardal O'Hanlon | | birth_place = Carrickmacross, County Monaghan, Ireland
| education = Blackrock College
| alma_mater = NIHE, Dublin
| occupation =
| years_active = 1991–present
| father = Rory O'Hanlon
| relatives = Peter Fenelon Collier
| spouse = Melanie O'Hanlon
| children = 3
| website =
}}
'''Ardal O'Hanlon' (; born 8 October 1965) is an Irish comedian, actor, and author. He played Father Dougal McGuire in Father Ted (1995–1998), George Sunday/Thermoman in My Hero (2000–2006), and DI Jack Mooney in Death in Paradise (2017–2020). His novel The Talk of the Town'' was published in 1998.
Early life
O'Hanlon was born in Carrickmacross, County Monaghan, He is the third of six children, and has three brothers and two sisters.
O'Hanlon was schooled in Blackrock College in Dublin and graduated, in 1987, from the National Institute for Higher Education, Dublin (now Dublin City University), with a degree in communication studies.
Career
Together with Kevin Gildea and Barry Murphy, O'Hanlon founded the International Comedy Cellar, upstairs in the International Bar on Dublin's South Wicklow Street. In 1995 he received the Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards for this role. In 1995, he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a Channel 4 ident ("Hello, you're watching ... television"), and during Comic Relief on BBC1. This was followed by the award-winning short comedy film ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll''. In a 2019 interview, O'Hanlon admitted that he had attempted to distance himself from Father Ted once the show had finished. Towards the end of 2005, he played an eccentric Scottish character, Coconut Tam, in the family based film, The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby. He has also appeared on radio, including an appearance on Quote... Unquote on BBC Radio 4 on 18 July 2011. Appropriately, one of his questions concerned a quotation from Father Ted. In 2015, he appeared as incompetent angel Smallbone in the sitcom The Best Laid Plans, on the same channel.
In 2006, O'Hanlon wrote and presented an RTÉ television series called Leagues Apart, which saw him investigate the biggest and most passionate football rivalries in a number of European countries. Included were Roma vs Lazio in Italy, Barcelona vs Real Madrid in Spain, and Galatasaray vs Fenerbahce in Turkey. He followed this with another RTÉ show, So You Want To Be Taoiseach? in 2007. It was a political series in which O'Hanlon gave tongue-in-cheek advice on how to go about becoming Taoiseach of Ireland.
He appeared in the Doctor Who episode "Gridlock", broadcast on 14 April 2007, in which he played a catlike creature named Thomas Kincade Brannigan. O'Hanlon appears in series 3 of the TV show Skins, In 2015 he played the role of Peter the Milkman in the Sky One sitcom After Hours.
On 2 February 2017, it was announced he would play the lead role in the BBC crime drama Death in Paradise taking the role of DI Jack Mooney following Kris Marshall's departure the same day. He announced his intention to leave the series in early 2020 and was replaced by Ralf Little.
On 25 November 2021, it was announced that he would participate in series 13 of Taskmaster. He finished in 4th place ahead of Judi Love.
In 2023, he played Uncle Jack in the National Theatre's production of Dancing at Lughnasa by Brian Friel, alongside Siobhan McSweeney and Tom Vaughan-Lawlor.
In January 2024, he presented his first Irish language show, Inis na nIontas, on TG4, exploring the islands around the coast of Ireland.
Personal life
O'Hanlon met his wife Melanie as a teenager. They have three children. He is a supporter of Leeds United.
Filmography
Film
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1996
| Moll Flanders
| Gentleman From East Chiswick
|
|-
| 1997
| The Butcher Boy
| Mr. Purcell
|
|-
| 1998
| ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll
| Eddie Johnny
| Short film
|-
| 2002
| Another Bobby O'Hara Story...''
| Bobby O'Hara
| Short film
|-
| 2005
| The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby
| Coconut Tam
|
|-
| 2007
| Blind Eye
| Immigration Official
| Short film
|-
| 2008
| Tales of the Riverbank
| Hammy Hamster (voice)
| Direct-to-DVD
|-
| 2009
| Wide Open Spaces
| Myles
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2016
| Donkeys
| Derek
| Short film
|-
| Handsome Devil
| Dan Roche
|
|-
| Twice Shy
| Brendan O'Meara
|
|-
| 2021
| Rian
| McCarthy
| Short film
|-
| 2024
| My Freaky Family
| Nerlin Flood
|
|-
| TBA
| Fran the Man
| Jim O'Dea
| Post production
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1995–1998
| Father Ted
| Father Dougal McGuire
| Series 1–3 (25 episodes)
|-
| 1996
| Whose Line Is It Anyway?
| Himself
| Series 8; Episode 7
|-
| 1997
| Top of the Pops
| Himself - Guest Presenter
| Series 34; Episode 5
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1999
| Hooves of Fire
| Robbie the Reindeer (voice)
| Television film
|-
| The Comedy Trail: A Shaggy Dog Story
| George Sunday / Thermoman
| Television Special
|-
| 1999–2001
| Big Bad World
| Eamon Donaghy
| Series 1–3 (16 episodes)
|-
| 2000–2006
| My Hero
| George Sunday / Thermoman
| Series 1–6 (45 episodes)
|-
| 2002
| Legend of the Lost Tribe
| Robbie the Reindeer (voice)
| Television film
|-
| 2005
| Blessed
| Gary Chandler
| Episodes 1–8
|-
| 2006
| Leagues Apart
| Himself - Presenter
| Episodes 1–6
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2007
| Close Encounters of the Herd Kind
| Robbie the Reindeer (voice)
| Television film
|-
| Doctor Who
| Thomas Brannigan
| Series 3; Episode 3: "Gridlock"
|-
| 2008
| Who Do You Think You Are?
| Himself
| Series 1; Episode 4: "Ardal O'Hanlon"
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2009
| Val Falvey, TD
| Val Falvey
| Episodes 1–6
|-
| Skins
| Kieran
| Series 3; Episodes 1 & 6: "Everyone" and "Naomi"
|-
| 2010
| ''Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow
| Himself
| Series 2; Episode 6: "Leeds"
|-
| 2013
| London Irish''
| Chris 'Da' Lynch
| Mini-series (4 episodes)
|-
| 2014
| ''Lily's Driftwood Bay
| Bull Dozer
| Series 1; Episode 24: "Stop! Watch"
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2015
| Celebrity Mastermind
| Himself - Contestant
| Series 14; Episode 1
|-
| Cucumber
| Brian McCoy
| Mini-series; Episode 4
|-
| Nelly & Nora
| Dad (voice)
| 24 episodes
|-
| After Hours
| Peter Hannigan
| Episodes 1–6
|-
| 2016
| Ireland with Ardal O'Hanlon
| Himself - Presenter
| Episodes 1–3
|-
| 2017–2020
| Death in Paradise
| DI Jack Mooney
| Series 6–9 (24 episodes)
|-
| 2019
| Showbands: How Ireland Learned to Party
| Himself - Presenter
| Television film
|-
| 2019–2022
| Derry Girls
| Eamonn
| Series 2; Episode 4: "The Curse" and Series 3; Episode 7: "The Agreement"
|-
| 2021
| Would I Lie to You?
| Himself - Panellist
| Series 15; Christmas Special
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2022
| Rosie Molloy Gives Up Everything
| Conall
| Series 1; Episodes 1–5
|-
| Taskmaster
| Himself - Contestant
| Series 13; Episodes 1–10
|-
| Countdown
| Himself
| Dictionary Corner. Series 86 & 88 (10 episodes)
|-
| 2023
| The Woman in the Wall
| Dara
| Episodes 2 & 3: "Show Thyself" and "Knock Knock"
|-
| 2023–2024
| Extraordinary
| Martin (voice)
| Series 1 & 2 (8 episodes)
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2024
| Celebrity Catchphrase''
| Himself - Contestant
| Series 9; Episode 9: "Chris Bisson, Ruth Madeley and Ardal O'Hanlon"
|-
| Return to Paradise
| DI Jack Mooney
| Episodes 1 & 6: "R.I.P. Tide" and "Oh Mine Papa"
|-
|''Richard Osman's House of Games''
| Himself - Contestant
| Series 8; Episodes 51–55 (Week 11)
|}
Awards
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Name
|-
| 1994
| Hackney Empire New Act of the Year
|-
| 1995
| Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards
|}
References
External links
*
*
* [http://www.comedycv.co.uk/ardalohanlon/ Ardal O'Hanlon on comedycv.co.uk]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214147/http://www.irlfunds.org/australia/events_29.asp Ardal O'Hanlon in Melbourne at The Australian Ireland Fund charity event]
Category:1965 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century Irish comedians
Category:21st-century Irish comedians
Category:Alumni of Dublin City University
Category:Irish humorists
Category:Irish male comedians
Category:Irish male stage actors
Category:Irish male film actors
Category:Irish male television actors
Category:Irish male voice actors
Category:Irish television presenters
Category:20th-century Irish novelists
Category:Irish stand-up comedians
Category:People educated at Blackrock College
Category:People from Carrickmacross
Category:Irish male novelists
Category:Actors from County Monaghan
Category:20th-century Irish male writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardal_O'Hanlon | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.490336 |
2400 | AMD | | Nasdaq-100 component
| S&P 100 component
| S&P 500 component
}}
| industry = Semiconductors
| founded =
| founder = Team led by Jerry Sanders
| hq_location_city = Santa Clara, California
| hq_location_country United States<br/>
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people =
| products =
| brands =
| revenue = billion (2024)
| operating_income = billion (2024)
| net_income = billion (2024)
| assets = billion (2024)
| equity = billion (2024)
| num_employees = (2024)
| website =
| footnotes
}}
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California and maintains significant operations in Austin, Texas. AMD is a hardware and fabless company that designs and develops central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), system-on-chip (SoC), and high-performance computer solutions. AMD serves a wide range of business and consumer markets, including gaming, data centers, artificial intelligence (AI), and embedded systems.
AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors, and graphics processors for servers, workstations, personal computers, and embedded system applications. The company has also expanded into new markets, such as the data center, gaming, and high-performance computing markets. AMD's processors are used in a wide range of computing devices, including personal computers, servers, laptops, and gaming consoles. While it initially manufactured its own processors, the company later outsourced its manufacturing, after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. Through its Xilinx acquisition in 2022, AMD offers field-programmable gate array (FPGA) products.
AMD was founded in 1969 by Jerry Sanders and a group of other technology professionals. The company's early products were primarily memory chips and other components for computers. In 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market, competing with Intel, its main rival in the industry. In the early 2000s, it experienced significant growth and success, thanks in part to its strong position in the PC market and the success of its Athlon and Opteron processors. However, the company faced challenges in the late 2000s and early 2010s, as it struggled to keep up with Intel in the race to produce faster and more powerful processors.
In the late 2010s, AMD regained market share by pursuing a penetration pricing strategy and building on the success of its Ryzen processors, which were considerably more competitive with Intel microprocessors in terms of performance whilst offering attractive pricing. In 2022, AMD surpassed Intel by market capitalization for the first time.
History
(demolished in 2019)]]
, Ontario, Canada, formerly ATI headquarters]]
Lone Star campus in Austin, Texas<!-- DO NOT LINK SEPARATELY, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance -->]]
Foundational years
Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor, on May 1, 1969. Sanders, an electrical engineer who was the director of marketing at Fairchild, had, like many Fairchild executives, grown frustrated with the increasing lack of support, opportunity, and flexibility within the company. He later decided to leave to start his own semiconductor company, following the footsteps of Robert Noyce (developer of the first silicon integrated circuit at Fairchild in 1959) and Gordon Moore, who together founded the semiconductor company Intel in July 1968.
In September 1969, AMD moved from its temporary location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale, California. To immediately secure a customer base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild and National Semiconductor. AMD first focused on producing logic chips. The company guaranteed quality control to United States Military Standard, an advantage in the early computer industry since unreliability in microchips was a distinct problem that customers – including computer manufacturers, the telecommunications industry, and instrument manufacturers – wanted to avoid.
In November 1969, the company manufactured its first product: the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter, which was highly successful. Its bestselling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available.
In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101, a 64-bit bipolar RAM. That year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year-end the company's total annual sales reached US$4.6 million.
AMD went public in September 1972. The company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102 (a static N-channel 1024-bit RAM) and three low-power Schottky MSI circuits: Am25LS07, Am25LS08, and Am25LS09.
Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971. By 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080, and the Am2900 bit-slice microprocessor family.
In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, a German engineering conglomerate wishing to enhance its technology expertise and enter the American market. Siemens purchased 20% of AMD's stock, giving the company an infusion of cash to increase its product lines. The two companies also jointly established Advanced Micro Computers (AMC), located in Silicon Valley and in Germany, allowing AMD to enter the microcomputer development and manufacturing field, in particular based on AMD's second-source Zilog Z8000 microprocessors. When the two companies' vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens' stake in the American division in 1979. AMD closed Advanced Micro Computers in late 1981 after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors.
Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and began construction on a fabrication plant in San Antonio in 1981. In 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation.
Intel partnership
Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978. In 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intel's x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel would also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. and formally executed in February 1982.
Beginning in 1982, AMD began volume-producing second-source Intel-licensed 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 processors, and by 1984, its own Am286 clone of Intel's 80286 processor, for the rapidly growing market of IBM PCs and IBM clones. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips.
The company continued to spend greatly on research and development, and created the world's first 512K EPROM in 1984. That year, AMD was listed in the book The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America, and later made the Fortune 500 list for the first time in 1985.
By mid-1985, the microchip market experienced a severe downturn, mainly due to long-term aggressive trade practices (dumping) from Japan, but also due to a crowded and non-innovative chip market in the United States. AMD rode out the mid-1980s crisis by aggressively innovating and modernizing, devising the Liberty Chip program of designing and manufacturing one new chip or chipset per week for 52 weeks in fiscal year 1986, and by heavily lobbying the U.S. government until sanctions and restrictions were put in place to prevent predatory Japanese pricing. During this time, AMD withdrew from the DRAM market, and made some headway into the CMOS market, which it had lagged in entering, having focused instead on bipolar chips.
AMD had some success in the mid-1980s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multi-standard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. Beginning in 1986, AMD embraced the perceived shift toward RISC with their own AMD Am29000 (29k) processor; the 29k survived as an embedded processor. The company also increased its EPROM memory market share in the late 1980s. Throughout the 1980s, AMD was a second-source supplier of Intel x86 processors. In 1991, it introduced its 386-compatible Am386, an AMD-designed chip. Creating its own chips, AMD began to compete directly with Intel.
AMD had a large, successful flash memory business, even during the dotcom bust. In 2003, to divest some manufacturing and aid its overall cash flow, which was under duress from aggressive microprocessor competition from Intel, AMD spun off its flash memory business and manufacturing into Spansion, a joint venture with Fujitsu, which had been co-manufacturing flash memory with AMD since 1993. In December 2005, AMD divested itself of Spansion to focus on the microprocessor market, and Spansion went public in an IPO.
2006–present
On July 24, 2006, AMD announced its acquisition of the Canadian 3D graphics card company ATI Technologies. AMD paid $4.3 billion and 58 million shares of its capital stock, for approximately $5.4 billion. The transaction was completed on October 25, 2006. On August 30, 2010, AMD announced that it would retire the ATI brand name for its graphics chipsets in favor of the AMD brand name.
In October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of GlobalFoundries Inc., a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The partnership and spin-off gave AMD an infusion of cash and allowed it to focus solely on chip design. To assure the Abu Dhabi investors of the new venture's success, AMD's CEO Hector Ruiz stepped down in July 2008, while remaining executive chairman, in preparation for becoming chairman of GlobalFoundries in March 2009. President and COO Dirk Meyer became AMD's CEO. Recessionary losses necessitated AMD cutting 1,100 jobs in 2009.
In August 2011, AMD announced that former Lenovo executive Rory Read would be joining the company as CEO, replacing Meyer. In November 2011, AMD announced plans to lay off more than 10% (1,400) of its employees from across all divisions worldwide. In October 2012, it announced plans to lay off an additional 15% of its workforce to reduce costs in the face of declining sales revenue. The inclusion of AMD chips into the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were later seen as saving AMD from bankruptcy.
AMD acquired the low-power server manufacturer SeaMicro in early 2012, with an eye to bringing out an Arm64 server chip.
On October 8, 2014, AMD announced that Rory Read had stepped down after three years as president and chief executive officer. He was succeeded by Lisa Su, a key lieutenant who had been chief operating officer since June.
On October 16, 2014, AMD announced a new restructuring plan along with its Q3 results. Effective July 1, 2014, AMD reorganized into two business groups: Computing and Graphics, which primarily includes desktop and notebook processors and chipsets, discrete GPUs, and professional graphics; and Enterprise, Embedded, and Semi-Custom, which primarily includes server and embedded processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014.
After the GlobalFoundries spin-off and subsequent layoffs, AMD was left with significant vacant space at 1 AMD Place, its aging Sunnyvale headquarters office complex. In August 2016, AMD's 47 years in Sunnyvale came to a close when it signed a lease with the Irvine Company for a new 220,000 sq. ft. headquarters building in Santa Clara. AMD's new location at Santa Clara Square faces the headquarters of archrival Intel across the Bayshore Freeway and San Tomas Aquino Creek. Around the same time, AMD also agreed to sell 1 AMD Place to the Irvine Company. In April 2019, the Irvine Company secured approval from the Sunnyvale City Council of its plans to demolish 1 AMD Place and redevelop the entire 32-acre site into townhomes and apartments.
In October 2023, AMD acquired an open-source AI software provider, Nod.ai, to bolster its AI software ecosystem.
In March 2024, a rally in semiconductor stocks pushed AMD's valuation above $300B for the first time.
In July 2024 AMD announced that it would acquire the Finnish-based artificial intelligence startup company Silo AI in a $665 million all-cash deal in an attempt to better compete with AI chip market leader Nvidia.
List of CEOs
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name !! Years !! Position, education
|-
| Jerry Sanders || 1969–2002 || Founder, electrical engineer
|-
| Hector Ruiz || 2002–2008 || Electrical engineer
|-
| Dirk Meyer || 2008–2011 || Computer engineer
|-
| Rory Read || 2011–2014 || Information Systems
|-
| Lisa Su || 2014–present || Electrical engineer
|}
Products
CPUs and APUs
IBM PC and the x86 architecture
In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but its policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement. In 1984, Intel internally decided to no longer cooperate with AMD in supplying product information to shore up its advantage in the marketplace, and delayed and eventually refused to convey the technical details of the Intel 80386. In 1987, AMD invoked arbitration over the issue, and Intel reacted by canceling the 1982 technological-exchange agreement altogether. After three years of testimony, AMD eventually won in arbitration in 1992, but Intel disputed this decision. Another long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with the arbitrator and AMD.
In 1990, Intel countersued AMD, renegotiating AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors. In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985. In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. The Am5x86, another Am486-based processor, was released in November 1995, and continued AMD's success as a fast, cost-effective processor.
Finally, in an agreement effective 1996, AMD received the rights to the microcode in Intel's x386 and x486 processor families, but not the rights to the microcode in the following generations of processors. K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron
AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5, launched in 1996. The "K" in its name was a reference to Kryptonite, the only substance known to harm comic book character Superman. This itself was a reference to Intel's hegemony over the market, i.e., an anthropomorphization of them as Superman. The number "5" was a reference to the fifth generation of x86 processors; rival Intel had previously introduced its line of fifth-generation x86 processors as Pentium because the U.S. Trademark and Patent Office had ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.
In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen, specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although it was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-III/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth-generation processor).
The K7 was AMD's seventh-generation x86 processor, making its debut under the brand name Athlon on June 23, 1999. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intel's, due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower-cost and limited version of the Athlon (64 KB instead of 256 KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA (socket A) or soldered directly onto the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower-cost Athlon XP, replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era. It has since been migrated upward to all new sockets, up to AM3.
On October 9, 2001, the Athlon XP was released. On February 10, 2003, the Athlon XP with 512 KB L2 Cache was released.
Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom
The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (called x86-64, AMD64, or x64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high-performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor on April 22, 2003. Shortly thereafter, it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64.
On April 21, 2005, AMD released the first dual-core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU. A month later, it released the Athlon 64 X2, the first desktop-based dual-core processor family. In May 2007, AMD abandoned the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of the target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.
In September 2007, AMD released the first server Opteron K10 processors, followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core versions, with all cores on a single die. AMD released a new platform codenamed "Spider", which used the new Phenom processor, and an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. However, AMD built the Spider at 65nm, which was uncompetitive with Intel's smaller and more power-efficient 45nm.
In January 2009, AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using the 45 nm process. AMD's new platform, codenamed "Dragon", used the new Phenom II processor, and an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. The Phenom II came in dual-core, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die, with cores disabled for the triple-core and dual-core versions. The Phenom II resolved issues that the original Phenom had, including a low clock speed, a small L3 cache, and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. The Phenom II cost less but was not performance-competitive with Intel's mid-to-high-range Core 2 Quads. The Phenom II also enhanced its predecessor's memory controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backward compatibility with AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom, and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform.
In April 2010, AMD released a new Phenom II Hexa-core (6-core) processor codenamed "Thuban". This was a totally new die based on the hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron processor. It included AMD's "turbo core" technology, which allows the processor to automatically switch from 6 cores to 3 faster cores when more pure speed is needed.
The Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts were released in 2010. The Magny Cours part came in 8 to 12 cores and the Lisbon part in 4 and 6 core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (multi-chip module) with two hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron parts. This will use a new socket G34 for dual and quad-socket processors and thus will be marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses socket C32 certified for dual-socket use or single socket use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process.
Fusion becomes the AMD APU
Following AMD's 2006 acquisition of Canadian graphics company ATI Technologies, an initiative codenamed Fusion was announced to integrate a CPU and GPU together on some of AMD's microprocessors, including a built in PCI Express link to accommodate separate PCI Express peripherals, eliminating the northbridge chip from the motherboard. The initiative intended to move some of the processing originally done on the CPU (e.g. floating-point unit operations) to the GPU, which is better optimized for some calculations. The Fusion was later renamed the AMD APU (Accelerated Processing Unit).
Llano was AMD's first APU built for laptops. Llano was the second APU released, targeted at the mainstream market. More AMD APUs for laptops running Windows 7 and Windows 8 OS are being used commonly. These include AMD's price-point APUs, the E1 and E2, and their mainstream competitors with Intel's Core i-series: The Vision A- series, the A standing for accelerated. These range from the lower-performance A4 chipset to the A6, A8, and A10. These all incorporate next-generation Radeon graphics cards, with the A4 utilizing the base Radeon HD chip and the rest using a Radeon R4 graphics card, with the exception of the highest-model A10 (A10-7300) which uses an R6 graphics card. New microarchitectures High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores
Bulldozer was AMD's microarchitecture codename for server and desktop AMD FX processors, first released on October 12, 2011. This family 15h microarchitecture is the successor to the family 10h (K10) microarchitecture design. Bulldozer was a clean-sheet design, not a development of earlier processors. The core was specifically aimed at 10–125 W TDP computing products. AMD claimed dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with Bulldozer cores. While hopes were high that Bulldozer would bring AMD to be performance-competitive with Intel once more, most benchmarks were disappointing. In some cases the new Bulldozer products were slower than the K10 models they were built to replace.
The Piledriver microarchitecture was the 2012 successor to Bulldozer, increasing clock speeds and performance relative to its predecessor. Piledriver would be released in AMD FX, APU, and Opteron product lines. Piledriver was subsequently followed by the Steamroller microarchitecture in 2013. Used exclusively in AMD's APUs, Steamroller focused on greater parallelism.
In 2015, the Excavator microarchitecture replaced Piledriver. Expected to be the last microarchitecture of the Bulldozer series, Excavator focused on improved power efficiency. Low-power Cat cores
The Bobcat microarchitecture was revealed during a speech from AMD executive vice-president Henri Richard in Computex 2007 and was put into production during the first quarter of 2011. In addition, it was believed that the core could migrate into the hand-held space if the power consumption can be reduced to less than 1 W.
Jaguar is a microarchitecture codename for Bobcat's successor, released in 2013, that is used in various APUs from AMD aimed at the low-power/low-cost market. Jaguar and its derivates would go on to be used in the custom APUs of the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, and Xbox One X. Jaguar would be later followed by the Puma microarchitecture in 2014.
ARM architecture-based designs
In 2012, AMD announced it was working on ARM products, both as a semi-custom product and server product. The initial server product was announced as the Opteron A1100 in 2014, an 8-core Cortex-A57-based ARMv8-A SoC, and was expected to be followed by an APU incorporating a Graphics Core Next GPU. However, the Opteron A1100 was not released until 2016, with the delay attributed to adding software support. The A1100 was also criticized for not having support from major vendors upon its release.
In 2014, AMD also announced the K12 custom core for release in 2016. While being ARMv8-A instruction set architecture compliant, the K12 was expected to be entirely custom-designed, targeting the server, embedded, and semi-custom markets. While ARM architecture development continued, products based on K12 were subsequently delayed with no release planned. Development of AMD's x86-based Zen microarchitecture was preferred. Zen-based CPUs and APUs
Zen is an architecture for x86-64 based Ryzen series of CPUs and APUs, introduced in 2017 by AMD and built from the ground up by a team led by Jim Keller, beginning with his arrival in 2012, and taping out before his departure in September 2015.
One of AMD's primary goals with Zen was an IPC increase of at least 40%, however in February 2017 AMD announced that they had actually achieved a 52% increase. Processors made on the Zen architecture are built on the 14 nm FinFET node and have a renewed focus on single-core performance and HSA compatibility. Previous processors from AMD were either built in the 32 nm process ("Bulldozer" and "Piledriver" CPUs) or the 28 nm process ("Steamroller" and "Excavator" APUs). Because of this, Zen is much more energy efficient.
The Zen architecture is the first to encompass CPUs and APUs from AMD built for a single socket (Socket AM4). Also new for this architecture is the implementation of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) technology, something Intel has had for years on some of their processors with their proprietary hyper-threading implementation of SMT. This is a departure from the "Clustered MultiThreading" design introduced with the Bulldozer architecture. Zen also has support for DDR4 memory.
AMD released the Zen-based high-end Ryzen 7 "Summit Ridge" series CPUs on March 2, 2017, mid-range Ryzen 5 series CPUs on April 11, 2017, and entry level Ryzen 3 series CPUs on July 27, 2017. AMD later released the Epyc line of Zen derived server processors for 1P and 2P systems. In October 2017, AMD released Zen-based APUs as Ryzen Mobile, incorporating Vega graphics cores. In January 2018 AMD has announced their new lineup plans, with Ryzen 2. AMD launched CPUs with the 12nm Zen+ microarchitecture in April 2018, following up with the 7nm Zen 2 microarchitecture in June 2019, including an update to the Epyc line with new processors using the Zen 2 microarchitecture in August 2019, and Zen 3 slated for release in Q3 2020.
As of 2019, AMD's Ryzen processors were reported to outsell Intel's consumer desktop processors. At CES 2020 AMD announced their Ryzen Mobile 4000, as the first 7 nm x86 mobile processor, the first 7 nm 8-core (also 16-thread) high-performance mobile processor, and the first 8-core (also 16-thread) processor for ultrathin laptops. This generation is still based on the Zen 2 architecture. In October 2020, AMD announced new processors based on the Zen 3 architecture. On PassMark's Single thread performance test the Ryzen 5 5600x bested all other CPUs besides the Ryzen 9 5950X.
In April 2020, AMD launched three new SKUs which target commercial HPC workloads & hyperconverged infrastructure applications. The launch was based on Epyc’s 7 nm second-generation Rome platform and supported by Dell EMC, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Lenovo, Supermicro, and Nutanix. IBM Cloud was its first public cloud partner. In August 2022, AMD announced their initial lineup of CPUs based on the new Zen 4 architecture.
The Steam Deck, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X and Series S all use chips based on the Zen 2 microarchitecture, with proprietary tweaks and different configurations in each system's implementation than AMD sells in its own commercially available APUs.
In March 2025 AMD announced Instella an open source large language model.
Graphics products and GPUs
ATI prior to AMD acquisition
Radeon within AMD
In 2007, the ATI division of AMD released the TeraScale microarchitecture implementing a unified shader model. This design replaced the previous fixed-function hardware of previous graphics cards with multipurpose, programmable shaders. Initially released as part of the GPU for the Xbox 360, this technology would go on to be used in Radeon branded HD 2000 parts. Three generations of TeraScale would be designed and used in parts from 2007 to 2015.
Combined GPU and CPU divisions
In a 2009 restructuring, AMD merged the CPU and GPU divisions to support the company's APUs, which fused both graphics and general purpose processing. In 2011, AMD released the successor to TeraScale, Graphics Core Next (GCN). This new microarchitecture emphasized GPGPU compute capability in addition to graphics processing, with a particular aim of supporting heterogeneous computing on AMD's APUs. GCN's reduced instruction set ISA allowed for significantly increased compute capability over TeraScale's very long instruction word ISA. Since GCN's introduction with the HD 7970, five generations of the GCN architecture have been produced from 2011 through at least 2018.
Radeon Technologies Group
In September 2015, AMD separated the graphics technology division of the company into an independent internal unit called the Radeon Technologies Group (RTG) headed by Raja Koduri. This gave the graphics division of AMD autonomy in product design and marketing. The RTG then went on to create and release the Polaris and Vega microarchitectures released in 2016 and 2017, respectively. In particular the Vega, or fifth-generation GCN, microarchitecture includes a number of major revisions to improve performance and compute capabilities.
In November 2017, Raja Koduri left RTG and CEO and President Lisa Su took his position. In January 2018, it was reported that two industry veterans joined RTG, namely Mike Rayfield as senior vice president and general manager of RTG, and David Wang as senior vice president of engineering for RTG. In January 2020, AMD announced that its second-generation RDNA graphics architecture was in development, with the aim of competing with the Nvidia RTX graphics products for performance leadership. In October 2020, AMD announced their new RX 6000 series series GPUs, their first high-end product based on RDNA2 and capable of handling ray-tracing natively, aiming to challenge Nvidia's RTX 3000 GPUs.
Semi-custom and game console products
In 2012, AMD's then CEO Rory Read began a program to offer semi-custom designs. Rather than AMD simply designing and offering a single product, potential customers could work with AMD to design a custom chip based on AMD's intellectual property. Customers pay a non-recurring engineering fee for design and development, and a purchase price for the resulting semi-custom products. In particular, AMD noted their unique position of offering both x86 and graphics intellectual property. These semi-custom designs would have design wins as the APUs in the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and the subsequent PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, Xbox One X, Xbox Series X/S, and PlayStation 5. Financially, these semi-custom products would represent a majority of the company's revenue in 2016. In November 2017, AMD and Intel announced that Intel would market a product combining in a single package an Intel Core CPU, a semi-custom AMD Radeon GPU, and HBM2 memory. Other hardware AMD motherboard chipsets
Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751, and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This was the "Open Platform Management Architecture" with ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia.
The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors.
As the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename RS690), targeted at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed RS600, sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and ASRock. Although AMD stated the firm would still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of FSB to ATI.
On November 15, 2007, AMD announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from the enthusiast multi-graphics segment to the value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690 series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on November 15, 2007, as part of the codenamed Spider desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later time in spring 2008 as part of the codenamed Cartwheel platform.
AMD returned to the server chipsets market with the AMD 800S series server chipsets. It includes support for up to six SATA 6.0 Gbit/s ports, the C6 power state, which is featured in Fusion processors and AHCI 1.2 with SATA FIS-based switching support. This is a chipset family supporting Phenom processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (890FX), IGP (890GX).
With the advent of AMD's APUs in 2011, traditional northbridge features such as the connection to graphics and the PCI Express controller were incorporated into the APU die. Accordingly, APUs were connected to a single chip chipset, renamed the Fusion Controller Hub (FCH), which primarily provided southbridge functionality.
AMD released new chipsets in 2017 to support the release of their new Ryzen products. As the Zen microarchitecture already includes much of the northbridge connectivity, the AM4-based chipsets primarily varied in the number of additional PCI Express lanes, USB connections, and SATA connections available. These AM4 chipsets were designed in conjunction with ASMedia.
Embedded products
Embedded CPUs
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In the early 1990s, AMD began marketing a series of embedded system-on-a-chips (SoCs) called AMD Élan, starting with the SC300 and SC310. Both combines a 32-Bit, Am386SX, low-voltage 25 MHz or 33 MHz CPU with memory controller, PC/AT peripheral controllers, real-time clock, PLL clock generators and ISA bus interface. The SC300 integrates in addition two PC card slots and a CGA-compatible LCD controller. They were followed in 1996 by the SC4xx types. Now supporting VESA Local Bus and using the Am486 with up to 100 MHz clock speed. A SC450 with 33 MHz, for example, was used in the Nokia 9000 Communicator. In 1999 the SC520 was announced. Using an Am586 with 100 MHz or 133 MHz and supporting SDRAM and PCI it was the latest member of the series.
In February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor for its Alchemy line of MIPS processors for the hand-held and portable media player markets. On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.
In August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors and , and processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia markets, and the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world. The Geode LX processor was announced in 2005 and is said will continue to be available through 2015.
AMD has also introduced 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct Connect Architecture these server-class processors have been targeted at high-end telecom and storage applications. In 2007, AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion, and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008, AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8 W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability.
The ATI acquisition in 2006 included the Imageon and Xilleon product lines. In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, who have since produced the Adreno series. Also in 2008, the Xilleon division was sold to Broadcom.
In April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high-performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk, and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent DVI interfaces.
In January 2011, AMD announced the AMD Embedded G-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This was the first APU for embedded applications. These were followed by updates in 2013 and 2016.
In May 2012, AMD Announced the AMD Embedded R-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This family of products incorporates the Bulldozer CPU architecture, and Discrete-class Radeon HD 7000G Series graphics. This was followed by a system-on-a-chip (SoC) version in 2015 which offered a faster CPU and faster graphics, with support for DDR4 SDRAM memory. Embedded graphics AMD builds graphic processors for use in embedded systems. They can be found in anything from casinos to healthcare, with a large portion of products being used in industrial machines. These products include a complete graphics processing device in a compact multi-chip module including RAM and the GPU. ATI began offering embedded GPUs with the E2400 in 2008. Since that time AMD has released regular updates to their embedded GPU lineup in 2009, 2011, 2015, and 2016; reflecting improvements in their GPU technology. Current product lines CPU and APU products AMD's portfolio of CPUs and APUs
* Athlon – brand of entry level CPUs (Excavator) and APUs (Ryzen)
* A-series – Excavator-class consumer desktop and laptop APUs
* G-series – Excavator- and Jaguar-class low-power embedded APUs
* Ryzen – brand of consumer CPUs and APUs
* Ryzen Threadripper – brand of prosumer/professional CPUs
* R-series – Excavator class high-performance embedded APUs
* Epyc – brand of server CPUs
* Opteron – brand of microserver APUs
Graphics products
AMD's portfolio of dedicated graphics processors
*Radeon – brand for consumer line of graphics cards; the brand name originated with ATI.
** Mobility Radeon offers power-optimized versions of Radeon graphics chips for use in laptops.
*Radeon Pro – Workstation graphics card brand. Successor to the FirePro brand.
* Radeon Instinct – brand of server and workstation targeted machine learning and GPGPU products
Radeon-branded products
RAM
In 2011, AMD began selling Radeon branded DDR3 SDRAM to support the higher bandwidth needs of AMD's APUs. While the RAM is sold by AMD, it was manufactured by Patriot Memory and VisionTek. This was later followed by higher speeds of gaming oriented DDR3 memory in 2013. Radeon branded DDR4 SDRAM memory was released in 2015, despite no AMD CPUs or APUs supporting DDR4 at the time. AMD noted in 2017 that these products are "mostly distributed in Eastern Europe" and that it continues to be active in the business.
Solid-state drives
AMD announced in 2014 it would sell Radeon branded solid-state drives manufactured by OCZ with capacities up to 480 GB and using the SATA interface. Technologies CPU hardware
technologies found in AMD CPU/APU and other products include:
* HyperTransport – a high-bandwidth, low-latency system bus used in AMD's CPU and APU products
* Infinity Fabric – a derivative of HyperTransport used as the communication bus in AMD's Zen microarchitecture
Graphics hardware
technologies found in AMD GPU products include:
* AMD Eyefinity – facilitates multi-monitor setup of up to 6 monitors per graphics card
* AMD FreeSync – display synchronization based on the VESA Adaptive Sync standard
* AMD TrueAudio – acceleration of audio calculations
* AMD XConnect – allows the use of External GPU enclosures through Thunderbolt 3
* AMD CrossFire – multi-GPU technology allowing the simultaneous use of multiple GPUs
* Unified Video Decoder (UVD) – acceleration of video decompression (decoding)
* Video Coding Engine (VCE) – acceleration of video compression (encoding)
Software
AMD has made considerable efforts towards opening its software tools above the firmware level in the past decade.
For the following mentions, software not expressely stated as being free can be assumed to be proprietary.
Distribution
AMD Radeon Software is the default channel for official software distribution from AMD. It includes both free and proprietary software components, and supports both Microsoft Windows and Linux.
Software by type
CPU
* AOCC is AMD's optimizing proprietary C/C++ compiler based on LLVM and available for Linux.
* AMDuProf is AMD's CPU performance and Power profiling tool suite, available for Linux and Windows.
* AMD has also taken an active part in developing coreboot, an open-source project aimed at replacing the proprietary BIOS firmware. This cooperation ceased in 2013, but AMD has indicated recently that it is considering releasing source code so that Ryzen can be compatible with coreboot in the future.
GPU
Most notable public AMD software is on the GPU side.
AMD has opened both its graphic and compute stacks:
* GPUOpen is AMD's graphics stack, which includes for example FidelityFX Super Resolution.
* ROCm (Radeon Open Compute platform) is AMD's compute stack for machine learning and high-performance computing, based on the LLVM compiler technologies. Under the ROCm project, AMDgpu is AMD's open-source device driver supporting the GCN and following architectures, available for Linux. This latter driver component is used both by the graphics and compute stacks.
Other
* AMD conducts open research on heterogeneous computing.
* Other AMD software includes the AMD Core Math Library, and open-source software including the AMD Performance Library.
* AMD contributes to open-source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and Sun xVM on the AMD platform. AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes its changes back to the community.
* In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards.
* Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the SSE5.
* Codenamed SIMFIRE – interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) open architecture.
Production and fabrication
Previously, AMD produced its chips at company-owned semiconductor foundries. AMD pursued a strategy of collaboration with other semiconductor manufacturers IBM and Motorola to co-develop production technologies. AMD's founder Jerry Sanders termed this the "Virtual Gorilla" strategy to compete with Intel's significantly greater investments in fabrication.
In 2008, AMD spun off its chip foundries into an independent company named GlobalFoundries. This breakup of the company was attributed to the increasing costs of each process node. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi purchased the newly created company through its subsidiary Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC), purchasing the final stake from AMD in 2009.
With the spin-off of its foundries, AMD became a fabless semiconductor manufacturer, designing products to be produced at for-hire foundries. Part of the GlobalFoundries spin-off included an agreement with AMD to produce some number of products at GlobalFoundries. Both prior to the spin-off and after AMD has pursued production with other foundries including TSMC and Samsung. It has been argued that this would reduce risk for AMD by decreasing dependence on any one foundry which has caused issues in the past.
In 2018, AMD started shifting the production of their CPUs and GPUs to TSMC, following GlobalFoundries' announcement that they were halting development of their 7 nm process. AMD revised their wafer purchase requirement with GlobalFoundries in 2019, allowing AMD to freely choose foundries for 7 nm nodes and below, while maintaining purchase agreements for 12 nm and above through 2021.
Corporate affairs
Business trends
The key trends for AMD are (as of the financial year ending in late December):
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!
!Revenue (US$ bn)
!Net profit (US$ m)
!Total assets (US$ bn)
!Employees
|-
|2017
|5.3
|43
|3.5
|8,900
|-
|2018
|6.4
|337
|4.5
|10,100
|-
|2019
|6.7
|341
|6.0
|11,400
|-
|2020
|9.7
|2,490
|8.9
|12,600
|-
|2021
|16.4
|3,162
|12.4
|15,500
|-
|2022
|23.6
|1,320
|67.5
|25,000
|-
|2023
|22.6
|854
|67.8
|26,000
|}
Partnerships
AMD uses strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests and to rival Intel's dominance and resources: It is now used in modern motherboards that are compatible with AMD processors.
* AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation. AMD announced that the partnership would extend to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication-related technologies.
* To facilitate processor distribution and sales, AMD is loosely partnered with end-user companies, such as HP, Dell, Asus, Acer, and Microsoft.
* In 1993, AMD established a 50–50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC in 2003. The joint venture went public under the name Spansion and ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares dropping 37%. AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a non-competition agreement on December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including single-chip, multiple-chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory.
* On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by year's end, thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel. In September 2006, Dell began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop lineup.
* In June 2011, HP announced new business and consumer notebooks equipped with the latest versions of AMD APUsaccelerated processing units. AMD will power HP's Intel-based business notebooks as well.
* In the spring of 2013, AMD announced that it would be powering all three major next-generation consoles. The Xbox One and Sony PlayStation 4 are both powered by a custom-built AMD APU, and the Nintendo Wii U is powered by an AMD GPU. According to AMD, having their processors in all three of these consoles will greatly assist developers with cross-platform development to competing consoles and PCs and increased support for their products across the board.
* AMD has entered into an agreement with Hindustan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (HSMC) for the production of AMD products in India.
* AMD is a founding member of the HSA Foundation which aims to ease the use of a Heterogeneous System Architecture. A Heterogeneous System Architecture is intended to use both central processing units and graphics processors to complete computational tasks.
* AMD announced in 2016 that it was creating a joint venture to produce x86 server chips for the Chinese market.
*On May 7, 2019, it was reported that the U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Cray Inc., are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the Frontier exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 1.5 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut sometime in 2021.
*On March 5, 2020, it was announced that the U.S. Department of Energy, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and HPE are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the El Capitan exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 2 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut in 2023.
* In the summer of 2020, it was reported that AMD would be powering the next-generation console offerings from Microsoft and Sony.
* On November 8, 2021, AMD announced a partnership with Meta to make the chips used in the Metaverse.
* In January 2022, AMD partnered with Samsung to develop a mobile processor to be used in future products. The processor was named Exynos 2022 and works with the AMD RDNA 2 architecture.
Litigation with Intel
AMD has a long history of litigation with former (and current) partner and x86 creator Intel.
* In 1986, Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's microchips for IBM; AMD filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded damages for breach of contract.
* In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in 1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486 generation.
* In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the AMD K6 MMX processor.
* In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty of a number of violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market. Since the start of this action, the court has issued subpoenas to major computer manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba.
* In November 2009, Intel agreed to pay AMD $1.25 billion and renew a five-year patent cross-licensing agreement as part of a deal to settle all outstanding legal disputes between them.
Guinness World Record achievement
* On August 31, 2011, in Austin, Texas, AMD achieved a Guinness World Record for the "Highest frequency of a computer processor": 8.429 GHz. The company ran an 8-core FX-8150 processor with only one active module (two cores), and cooled with liquid helium. The previous record was 8.308 GHz, with an Intel Celeron 352 (one core).
* On November 1, 2011, geek.com reported that Andre Yang, an overclocker from Taiwan, used an FX-8150 to set another record: 8.461 GHz.
* On November 19, 2012, Andre Yang used an FX-8350 to set another record: 8.794 GHz. Acquisitions, mergers, and investments {| class"wikitable"
|+
!Date
!Company
!Integration or division
!Price
|-
|January 16, 1996
|NexGen
|amd k6
|$857 million in AMD shares
|-
|February 6, 2002
|Alchemy Semiconductor
|Processors (embedded CPUs)
|Undisclosed
|-
|August 6, 2003
|Coatue
|Memory (non-volatile polymer-based memory)
|Undisclosed
|-
|July 24, 2006
|ATI Technologies
|Graphics and 3D software (Radeon GPUs)
|$5,400 million
|-
|February 29, 2012
|SeaMicro
|Data center platform
|$334 million
|-
|June 29, 2016
|HiAlgo
|Gaming experience (Radeon Chill, Radeon Boost and Radeon Swift)
|Undisclosed
|-
|April 10, 2017
|Nitero
|60 GHz wireless IP (headset AR and VR)
|Undisclosed
|-
|October 27, 2020
|Xilinx
|Custom chips (FPGA, adaptive SoCs, system on modules, IA accelerator)
|$49,000 million
|-
|April 4, 2022
|Pensando
|Data center, cloud solutions and DPUs
|$1,900 million
|-
|August 29, 2023
|Mipsology
|AI inference software
|Undisclosed
|-
|October 10, 2023
|Nod.ai
|Open-source AI software
|Undisclosed
|-
|July 10, 2024
|Silo AI
|AI software
|$665 million
|-
|August 19, 2024
|ZT Systems
|Data center hardware
|$4,900 million
|}
Corporate responsibility
* In its 2022 report, AMD stated that it aimed to embed environmental sustainability across its business, promote safe and responsible workplaces in its global supply chain and advance stronger communities.
* In 2022, AMD achieved a 19 percent reduction in its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions compared to 2020. Based on AMD calculations that are third-party verified (limited level assurance). Other initiatives * The Green Grid, founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek lower power consumption for grids.
Sponsorships
AMD's sponsorship of Formula 1 racing began in 2002 and since 2020 has sponsored the Mercedes-AMG Petronas team. AMD was also a sponsor of the BMW Sauber and Scuderia Ferrari Formula 1 teams together with Intel, Vodafone, AT&T, Pernod Ricard and Diageo. On 18 April 2018, AMD began a multi-year sponsorship with Scuderia Ferrari. In February 2020, just prior to the start of the 2020 race season, the Mercedes Formula 1 team announced it was adding AMD to its sponsorship portfolio.
AMD began a sponsorship deal with Victory Five (V5) for the League of Legends Pro League (LPL) in 2022. AMD was a sponsor of the Chinese Dota Pro Circuit together with Perfect World.
In February 2024, AMD was a Diamond sponsor for the World Artificial Intelligence Cannes Festival (WAICF).
AMD was a Platinum sponsor for the HPE Discover 2024, an event hosted by Hewlett Packard Enterprise to showcase technology for government and business customers. The event was held from 17 to 20 June 2024 in Las Vegas. See also
* 3DNow!
* Cool'n'Quiet
* Bill Gaede
* List of AMD accelerated processing units
* List of AMD chipsets
* List of AMD graphics processing units
* List of AMD processors
* List of ATI chipsets
* PowerNow!
References
Sources
* Rodengen, Jeffrey L. (1998). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0945903219 The Spirit of AMD: Advanced Micro Devices]. Write Stuff.
* Ruiz, Hector (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?idx01Ho5Y_dnoC ''Slingshot: AMD's Fight to Free an Industry from the Ruthless Grip of Intel'']. Greenleaf Book Group. External links
*
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Category:Technology companies established in 1969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.620243 |
2402 | Albrecht Dürer | | birth_date
| birth_place = Nuremberg, Free Imperial City of Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire
| death_date
| death_place = Nuremberg, Free Imperial City of Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire
| nationality = German
| movement =
| buried_in | field
| works =
| spouse =
| module
}}
Albrecht Dürer ( , ; sometimes spelled in English as Durer, was a German painter, printmaker, and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Dürer established his reputation and influence across Europe in his twenties due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in contact with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 was patronized by Emperor Maximilian I.
Dürer's vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts series are stylistically more Gothic than the rest of his work, but revolutionised the potential of that medium, while his extraordinary handling of the burin expanded especially the tonal range of his engravings; well-known engravings include the three Meisterstiche (master prints) Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514), and Melencolia I (1514). His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists.
Dürer's introduction of classical motifs and of the nude into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics for linear perspective and body proportions.
Biography
Early life (1471–1490)
silverpoint drawing by the thirteen-year-old Dürer, 1484. Albertina, Vienna.]]
Dürer was born on 21 May 1471, the third child and second son of Albrecht Dürer the Elder and Barbara Holper, who married in 1467. He married Barbara, his master's daughter, when he himself qualified as a master. as she was born in Sopron. The couple had eighteen children together, of which only three survived. Hans Dürer (1490–1534), also became a painter, trained under the older Albrecht. The other surviving brother, Endres Dürer (1484–1555), took over their father's business and was a master goldsmith. The German name "Dürer" is a translation from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi".
Because Dürer left autobiographical writings and was widely known by his mid-twenties, his life is well documented. After a few years of school, Dürer learned the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he was allowed to start as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486. A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) "when I was a child", as his later inscription says. The drawing is one of the earliest surviving children's drawings of any kind, and, as Dürer's Opus One, has helped define his oeuvre as deriving from, and always linked to, himself. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was then an important and prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps.Wanderjahre and marriage (1490–1494)
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum (Louvre, Paris)]]
After completing his apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking Wanderjahre''—in effect gap years—in which the apprentice learned skills from other masters, their local tradition and individual styles; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, the leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. Later that year, Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg. In 1493 Dürer went to Strasbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancée in Nuremberg. It has been hypothesized by many scholars that Albrecht was bisexual or homosexual, due to the recurrence of allegedly homoerotic themes in some of his works (e.g. ''The Men's Bath), and the nature of his correspondence with close friends.<!--One might consider the Women's Bath as an immidiate counter argument, with a man as a voyeur. The joke with the water cock is childish, not especially homoerotic. And: what other works?-->First journey to Italy (1494–1495)
Within three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis.
In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world. Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Schongauer and the Housebook Master. Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip.Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505)
On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years, his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Arguably his best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as ''The Men's Bath'' (). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.
It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been performed by a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block.
(1500). Alte Pinakothek, Munich.]]
His series of sixteen designs for the Apocalypse is dated 1498, as is his engraving of St. Michael Fighting the Dragon. He made the first seven scenes of the Great Passion in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. The Seven Sorrows Polyptych, commissioned by Frederick III of Saxony in 1496, was executed by Dürer and his assistants c. 1500. In 1502, Dürer's father died. Around 1503–1505 Dürer produced the first 17 of a set illustrating the Life of the Virgin, which he did not finish for some years. Neither these nor the Great Passion were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers. By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the Feast of the Rosary (or the Feast of Rose Garlands). It shows Pope Julius II and Emperor Maximilian I, peacefully kneeling in adoration before her throne, both with their crowns taken off. It also includes portraits of members of Venice's German community and of Dürer himself on the upper right holding a designation of his authorship. Besides the Flemish verism in the depiction of the greenery and the garments, and the use of his own hues, the altar-piece shows a strong Italian influence. It was later acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague.Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)
, 24.5 x 19.1 cm]]
(1514), engraving]]
(1515), National Gallery of Art]]
Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with many of the major artists including Raphael.
Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects, creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this period include the thirty-seven Little Passion woodcuts, published in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. In 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: Knight, Death and the Devil (1513, probably based on Erasmus's Handbook of a Christian Knight), St. Jerome in His Study, and the much-debated Melencolia I (both 1514, the year Dürer's mother died). Further outstanding pen and ink drawings of Dürer's period of art work of 1513 were drafts for his friend Pirckheimer. These drafts were later used to design Lusterweibchen chandeliers, combining an antler with a wooden sculpture.
In 1515, he created his woodcut of a Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century. and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. His only experiments with etching came in this period, producing five between 1515–1516 and a sixth in 1518; a technique he may have abandoned as unsuited to his aesthetic of methodical, classical form.Patronage of Maximilian I
, Vienna (Inv. GG 825)]]
From 1512, Maximilian I became Dürer's major patron. He commissioned The Triumphal Arch, a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica. The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the architectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. The Arch was followed by The Triumphal Procession completed c. 1512.
Dürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed prayer book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.
Maximilian was a very cash-strapped prince who sometimes failed to pay, yet turned out to be Dürer's most important patron. In his court, artists and learned men were respected, which was not common at that time (later, Dürer commented that in Germany, as a non-noble, he was treated as a parasite). Pirckheimer (who he met in 1495, before entering the service of Maximilian) was also an important personage in the court and great cultural patron, who had a strong influence on Dürer as his tutor in classical knowledge and humanistic critical methodology, as well as collaborator. In Maximilian's court, Dürer also collaborated with a great number of other brilliant artists and scholars of the time who became his friends, like Johannes Stabius, Konrad Peutinger, Conrad Celtes, and Hans Tscherte (an imperial architect).
Dürer was proud of his ability. When the emperor tried to sketch Dürer an idea on charcoa, Dürer took the material from Maximilian's hand, finished the drawing and told him: "This is my scepter." On another occasion, Maximilian noticed that the ladder Dürer used was too short and unstable, thus told a noble to hold it for him. The noble refused, saying that it was beneath him to serve a non-noble. Maximilian then came to hold the ladder himself, and told the noble that he could make a noble out of a peasant any day, but he could not make an artist like Dürer out of a noble.
)]]
This story and a 1849 painting depicting it by have become relevant recently. This nineteenth-century painting shows Dürer painting a mural at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. Apparently, this reflects a seventeenth-century "artists' legend" about the previously mentioned encounter (in which the emperor held the ladder) – that this encounter corresponds with the period Dürer was working on the Viennese murals. In 2020, during restoration work, art connoisseurs discovered a piece of handwriting now attributed to Dürer, suggesting that the Nuremberg master had actually participated in creating the murals at St. Stephen's Cathedral. In the recent 2022 Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg (in which the drawing technique is also traced and connected to Dürer's other works), the identity of the commissioner is discussed. Now the painting of Siegert (and the legend associated with it) is used as evidence to suggest that this was Maximilian. Dürer is historically recorded to have entered the emperor's service in 1511, and the mural's date is calculated to be around 1505, but it is possible they have known and worked with each other earlier than 1511.
Cartographic and astronomical works
Dürer's exploration of space led to a relationship and cooperation with the court astronomer Johannes Stabius. Stabius also often acted as Dürer's and Maximilian's go-between for their financial problems.
In 1515 Dürer and Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere. Also in 1515, Stabius, Dürer and the astronomer produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, as well as the first printed celestial maps, which prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe.Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521)
'' (1521), oil on oakwood, 59. × 48.5 cm, Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. Dürer's most important painting created during his fourth and last major journey.]]
Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing "my sight and freedom of hand" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther. In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to attending the coronation, he visited Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece), and Zeeland.
Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented. While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Bernard van Orley, Jan Provoost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir and Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys.
Having secured his pension, Dürer returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness, which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work. This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification.
However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter and St. Paul with St. Mark beside him. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return. He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. The Four Books on Measurement were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German, In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524, Dürer wrote, "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics". Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory ... but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council's mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts with various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's Babylonian Captivity in 1520. Yet Erasmus and C. Grapheus are better said to be Catholic change agents. Also, from 1525, "the year that saw the peak and collapse of the Peasants' War, the artist can be seen to distance himself somewhat from the [Lutheran] movement..."
Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. His 1523 The Last Supper woodcut has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focusing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well as the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism, although this interpretation has been questioned. The delaying of the engraving of St. Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.
Theoretical works
In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, ("snail-line") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.Four Books on Measurement
Dürer's work on geometry is called the Four Books on Measurement (Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt or Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's of 1522.
The second book moves onto two-dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention.
Four Books on Human Proportion
Dürer's work on human proportions is called the Four Books on Human Proportion (Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of "two to three hundred living persons",
Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ("Nutz"), naïve approval ("Wohlgefallen") and the happy medium ("Mittelmass"). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.
<gallery widths"140px" heights"140px">
File:AlbrechtDürer01.jpg|Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of artist
File:Durer foot.jpg|Dürer often used multiview orthographic projections.
File:Durer face transforms.jpg|Dürer's study of human proportions
</gallery>
Book on Fortification
In 1527, Dürer also published Various Lessons on the Fortification of Cities, Castles, and Localities (Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss und Flecken). It was printed in Nuremberg, probably by Hieronymus Andreae and reprinted in 1603 by Johan Janssenn in Arnhem. In 1535 it was also translated into Latin as On Cities, Forts, and Castles, Designed and Strengthened by Several Manners: Presented for the Most Necessary Accommodation of War (De vrbibus, arcibus, castellisque condendis, ac muniendis rationes aliquot : praesenti bellorum necessitati accommodatissimae), published by Christian Wechel (Wecheli/Wechelus) in Paris.FencingDürer created many sketches and woodcuts of soldiers and knights over the course of his life. His most significant martial works, however, were made in 1512 as part of his efforts to secure the patronage of Maximilian I. Using existing manuscripts from the Nuremberg Group as his reference, his workshop produced the extensive Οπλοδιδασκαλια sive Armorvm Tractandorvm Meditatio Alberti Dvreri ("Weapon Training, or Albrecht Dürer's Meditation on the Handling of Weapons", MS 26-232). Another manuscript based on the Nuremberg texts as well as one of Hans Talhoffer's works, the untitled Berlin Picture Book (Libr.Pict.A.83), is also thought to have originated in his workshop around this time. These sketches and watercolours show the same careful attention to detail and human proportion as Dürer's other work, and his illustrations of grappling, long sword, dagger, and messer are among the highest-quality in any fencing manual.Legacy and influence
Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers to promote and distribute their work.
His engravings seem to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors; the "Little Masters" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to also dominate Northern engraving.
Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945. along with Michelangelo, Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Burgkmair.
In 1993, two of Dürer's drawings – ''Women's Bathhouse, valued at about $10 million, and Sitting Mary With Child – along with other works of art were stolen from the National Art Museum of Azerbaijan. The drawings were later recovered.
Gallery
<gallery widths"116" heights"150" caption="Religious paintings">
File:Albrecht Dürer 012.jpg|St Jerome in the Wilderness, , oil on pearwood, 23.1 × 17.4 cm, National Gallery, London (NG6563)
File:Albrecht Dürer - Jesus among the Doctors - Google Art Project.jpg|Christ Among the Doctors, 1506, oil on poplar, 64.3 × 80.3 cm, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid (134 (1934.38)
File:Dürer, Albrecht - Marter der zehntausend Christen - KHM.jpg|Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand, 1508, oil from wood transferred to canvas, 99 × 87 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien (GG 835)
Albrecht Dürer, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie - Allerheiligenbild ("Landauer Altar") - GG 838 - Kunsthistorisches Museum.jpg|Adoration of the Trinity (Landauer Altar), 1511, oil on poplar, 135 × 123.4 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum (GG 838). The framework is a reconstruction of his design.
</gallery>
<gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Portraits">
File:1490 Duerer Bildnis von Barbara Duerer geb. Holper anagoria.JPG|Portrait of Dürer’s Mother Barbara, née Holper, 1490, oil on fir wood, 47.2 × 35.7 cm, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg (Gm 1160)
File:Albrecht Dürer - Ritratto del padre - Google Art Project.jpg|Albrecht Dürer the Elder with a Rosary, 1490, oil on panel, 47.5 × 39.5 cm, Uffizi, Florence
File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Oswolt Krel - WGA6934.jpg|Portrait of Oswolt Krel, 1499, oil on limewood, 49.6 × 39 cm, Alte Pinakothek, München. Krel was a merchant from Lindau.
File:Albrecht Dürer - Bildnis einer jungen Venezianerin - Google Art Project.jpg|Portrait of a Young Venetian Woman, 1506, oil on poplar, 28.5 × 21.5 cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin (557G). The abstract background suggests the sea.
File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen - Google Art Project.jpg|Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen, 1521, 45.5 × 31.5 cm, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden (1871)
File:Dürer - Hieronymus Holzschuher (1469-1529) mit Deckel, 1526, 557E.jpg |Portrait of Hieronymus Holzschuher, 1526, oil and paint on limewood, 51 × 37 cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin (557E)
</gallery>
<gallery widths"116" heights"140" caption="Watercolours">
File:Innsbruck castle courtyard.jpg|Innsbruck Castle Courtyard'', , watercolour and gouache, 36.8 × 26.9 cm, Albertina, Vienna (3057)
File:Vue du val d'Arco dans le Tyrol méridional - Musée du Louvre Arts graphiques INV 18579, Recto.jpg|View of the Arco Valley in Tyrol, 1495, watercolour with highlights, 22.3 × 22.2 cm, Louvre, Paris
File:Albrecht Dürer - Der Weiher im Walde (ca. 1497).jpg|Landscape with a Woodland Pool, , watercolour and gouache, 26.2 × 35.6 cm, British Museum, London
File:Albrecht Dürer - Der Flügel einer Blauracke (ca. 1500).jpg|Wing of a European Roller, ("1512" by later hand), watercolour and gouache on parchment, 19.6 × 20 cm, Albertina (4840)
File:Albrecht Dürer - Mary among a Multitude of Animals, c. 1503 - Google Art Project.jpg|Mary among a Multitude of Animals, , dark brown ink and watercolour, 31,9 × 24,1 cm, Albertina (3066)
File:Albrecht Dürer, Tuft of Cowslips, 1526, NGA 74162.jpg|Tuft of Cowslips, 1526, gouache on vellum, 19.3 × 16.8 cm, National Gallery of Art
</gallery>
<gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Drawings">
File:Dürer - Académie de femme debout, de dos, la main sur une hampe d'où part un voile, INV 19058, Recto.jpg|Study of a Female Nude from Behind, 1495, brush and pen on paper, 31.6 × 21.2 cm, Louvre, Paris (INV 19058 R)
File:Dürer - Liegender weiblicher Akt, 1501.png|Reclining Nude, 1501, brush and pen(?) w/ highlights and construction lines, 16.9 × 21.8 cm, Albertina (3072)
File:Dürer - Trois têtes d'enfants, btv1b100248711.jpeg|''Three Children's Heads, 1506, pen and ink on blue paper with highlights in gouache, 21,8 × 37,9 cm, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris
File:Albrecht Dürer - Selbstbildnis als Akt. (Weimar).jpg|Self-Portrait in the Nude, , pen and brush, black ink with white lead on green prepared paper, 29 × 15 cm, Klassik Stiftung Weimar (KK106)
File:Albrecht Dürer - Barbara Dürer, die Mutter des Künstlers (1514).jpg|Portrait of the Artist's Mother at the Age of 63, spring 1514, charcoal on paper, 42.2 × 30.6 cm, Kupferstichkabinett Berlin (KdZ 22)
File:Albrecht Dürer - Head of an Old Man, 1521 - Google Art Project.jpg|Head of an 93-Year-Old Man, 1521, brush, ink, heightened w/ gouache, on gray-violet prepared paper, 41.5 × 28.2 cm, Albertina (3167). Study for the St. Jerome
</gallery>
<gallery widths"116" heights"174" caption="Copper engravings and an etching">
File:Albrecht Dürer Druckplatte Christus am Ölberg.jpg|Christ on the Mount of Olives, 1515, the only surviving printing plate, iron, 22.7 × 16.1 cm, Bamberg State Library
File:Albrecht Dürer, Nemesis (The Great Fortune), c. 1501-1502, NGA 6603.jpg|Nemesis (The Great Fortune), /02, 33.5 × 23.3 cm (National Gallery of Art)
File:Saint Christopher Facing Left MET DP815920.jpg|St. Christopher, 1521, 11.6 × 7.4 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
File:Willibald Pirckheimer MET DP815931.jpg|Portrait of Willibald Pirckheimer, 1524, 19 × 12.4 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
File:Landscape with a Large Cannon MET MM7867.jpg|The Cannon, 1518, etching, 21.7 × 32 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
</gallery>
<gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Woodcut prints">
File:The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine MET MM30203.jpg|The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine, , carved pearwood block, 39.4 × 28.3 × 2.6 cm, MET, New York
File:Albrecht Dürer, The Flagellation, c. 1497, NGA 6736.jpg|The Flagellation, from the Great Passion, , 39 × 28 cm, (printed , National Gallery of Art)
File:Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen, 1498, NGA 142352.jpg|Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1498, 39.5 × 28.5 cm (NGA, 142352)
File:Albrecht Dürer - The Expulsion from Paradise (NGA 1943.3.3634).jpg|The Expulsion from Paradise from the Small Passion, 1510, 12.5 × 9.8 cm (NGA)
File:Coat of Arms of Albrecht Dürer MET DP816462.jpg|Coat of arms, which features a door as a pun on his name, and the winged bust of a Moor (1523), 35.1 × 26.1 cm (MET)
</gallery>
List of works
* List of paintings by Albrecht Dürer
* List of engravings by Albrecht Dürer
* List of woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
*Bartrum, Giulia. Albrecht Dürer and His Legacy''. London: British Museum Press, 2002.
* Brand Philip, Lotte; Anzelewsky, Fedja. "The Portrait Diptych of Dürer's parents". Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Volume 10, No. 1, 1978–79, pp. 5–18.
*Brion, Marcel. Dürer. London: Thames and Hudson, 1960
*Harbison, Craig. "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, September 1976, pp. 368–373.
*Koerner, Joseph Leo. The Moment of Self-Portraiture in German Renaissance Art. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1993. .
*Landau David; Parshall, Peter. The Renaissance Print. Yale, 1996. .
*Panofsky, Erwin. [https://monoskop.org/images/d/d0/Panofsky_Erwin_The_Life_and_Art_of_Albrecht_Duerer_1955.pdf The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945.
*Price, David Hotchkiss. ''Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith. Michigan, 2003. .
*Strauss, Walter L. (ed.). The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1973.
*Borchert, Till-Holger. Van Eyck to Dürer: The Influence of Early Netherlandish painting on European Art, 1430–1530. London: Thames & Hudson, 2011.
*Wolf, Norbert. Albrecht Dürer. Cologne: Taschen, 2010.
*
Further reading
*Brahms, Iris. Zwischen Licht und Schatten. Zur Tradition der Farbgrundzeichnung bis Albrecht Dürer. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Paderborn 2016, .
*Campbell Hutchison, Jane. Albrecht Dürer: A Biography. Princeton University Press, 1990. .
*Demele, Christine. Dürers Nacktheit – Das Weimarer Selbstbildnis. Rhema Verlag, Münster 2012, .
*Dürer, Albrecht, Of the Just Shaping of Letters'', translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text, Dover Publ., New York 1965. .
*
*
*Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. "The Unconscious and Space: Venice and the Work of Albrecht Dürer", in Architecture and the Unconscious, eds. J. Hendrix and L.Holm, Farnham Surrey: Ashgate, 2016, pp. 27–44, .
*Schmidt, Sebastian. "'dan sӳ machten dy vürtrefflichen künstner reich'. Zur ursprünglichen Bestimmung von Albrecht Dürers Selbstbildnis im Pelzrock", in Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums 2010, pp. 65–82, .
*Wilhelm, Kurth (ed.). The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications, 2000, .
External links
*
*[http://www.clarkart.edu/exhibitions/durer/content/exhibition.cfm/ The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer] at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 14 November 2010 – 13 March 2011
**[https://www.youtube.com/user/ClarkArtInstitute#g/c/E28247179CB5963C Dürer Prints Close-up] on YouTube, made to accompany The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer.
*[http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/2233015R Albrecht Dürer: Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1528)]. [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/durer_home.html Selected pages scanned] from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
*
*
* [https://duerer.gnm.de/wiki/The_Early_Duerer_Research_Project The Early Duerer Research Project] of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg, with a comprehensive bibliography since 1971 (German).
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/durr/hd_durr.htm "Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)".] In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art
*
* [https://www.albertina.at/en/exhibitions/albrecht-duerer Albrecht Dürer, exhibition, Albertina, Vienna], 20 September 2019 – 6 January 2020.
Category:1471 births
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Category:Woodcut designers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.656663 |
2403 | Australian rules football | |ball = Football
| glossary = Glossary of Australian rules football
| olympic = Demonstration sport, 1956 Melbourne Olympics
| nicknames = Australian football, Aussie rules, football, footy, AFL
| country/region = Australia
|venue=Australian rules football playing field}}
Australian rules football, also called Australian football or Aussie rules, or more simply football or footy, is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field, often a modified cricket ground. Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind").
During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession. Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties, or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on the severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring.
The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859.
Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia, while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body. The AFL Grand Final, held annually at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, is the second-highest-attended club championship event in the world. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee.
Name
Australian rules football is known by several nicknames, including Aussie rules, football and footy. In some regions, where other codes of football are more popular, the sport is most often called AFL after the Australian Football League, while the league itself also uses this name for local competitions in some areas.History Origins
on the approximate site of the 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads that Wills "did more than any other person – as a footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game – to develop Australian football during its first decade."]]
Primitive forms of football were played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing, football was considered a mere "amusement" by colonists at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, evidence does not support a causal link with Australian football. In Melbourne, in 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, private schools (then termed "public schools" in accordance with nomenclature in England) began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools. The earliest match, held on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar.
On 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based ''Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle'' published a letter by Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calling for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football while a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant, posted an advertisement for a scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG). This was the first of several "kickabouts" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club, including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed-upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in the British Isles, "others by no rules at all". Another milestone in 1858 was a 40-a-side match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College, held at the Richmond Paddock. Umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam, it began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal. It is commemorated with a statue outside the MCG, and the two schools have since competed annually in the Cordner–Eggleston Cup, the world's oldest continuous football competition.
Since the 1920s, it has been suggested that Australian football may have been derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football. However, there is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes appeared in Australia long before the Irish game evolved in a similar direction. Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up among Aboriginals in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal ball game of Marn Grook, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. There is only circumstantial evidence that he knew of the game, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills was "almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School".First rules
A loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858. The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club was officially established, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs. Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club". These are the laws from which Australian football evolved. The club aimed to create a simple code suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to reduce the risk of injuries to working men. In another significant departure from English public school football, the Melbourne rules omitted any offside law. "The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them", writes Mark Pennings. The rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist.
Early competition in Victoria
, 1866. The MCG and its first pavilion are visible in the background, as are kick-off posts, the forerunner of today's behind posts.]]
Following Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859. While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra club devised its own rules. To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as "Victorian rules". In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison, an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.
The game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals. The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock (Yarra Park), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground. Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter, and, as early as 1859, football was allowed on the MCG. However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day.Spread to other colonies
, 1879]]
Football became organised in South Australia in 1860 with the formation of the Adelaide Football Club, the oldest football club in Australia outside Victoria. It devised its own rules, and, along with other Adelaide-based clubs, played a variety of codes until 1876, when they uniformly adopted most of the Victorian rules, with South Australian football pioneer Charles Kingston noting their similarity to "the old Adelaide rules". Similarly, Tasmanian clubs quarrelled over different rules until they adopted a slightly modified version of the Victorian game in 1879. The South Australian Football Association (SAFA), the sport's first governing body, formed on 30 April 1877, firmly establishing Victorian rules as the preferred code in that colony. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) formed the following month.
, one of the first players to attain Australia-wide celebrity]]
Clubs began touring the colonies in the late 1870s, and in 1879 the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia. In 1883, delegates representing the football associations of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland met to standardise the code across Australia. New rules such as holding the ball led to a "golden era" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom, as well as the rise of professionalism, particularly in Victoria and Western Australia, where the code took hold during a series of gold rushes. Likewise, when New Zealand experienced a gold rush, the sport arrived with a rapid influx of Australian miners. Now known as Australian rules or Australasian rules, the sport became the first football code to develop mass spectator appeal, attracting world record attendances for sports viewing and gaining a reputation as "the people's game".
Australian rules football reached Queensland and New South Wales as early as 1866; the sport experienced a period of dominance in the former, and in the latter, several regions remain strongholds of Australian rules, such as the Riverina. However, by the late 1880s, rugby football had become the dominant code in both colonies, as well as in New Zealand. This shift was largely due to rugby's spread with British migration, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth.Emergence of the VFLIn 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs—Carlton, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne—met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition. Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda, the clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897. The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score. Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn, Footscray and North Melbourne, it had become the preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport.Interstate football and the World Wars
The time around the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 saw Australian rules undergo a revival in New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland. In 1903, both the Queensland Australian Football League and the NSW Australian Football Association were established, and in New Zealand, as it moved towards becoming a dominion, leagues were also established in the major cities. This renewed popularity helped encourage the formation of the Australasian Football Council, which in 1908 in Melbourne staged the first national interstate competition, the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival, with teams representing each state and New Zealand.
The game was also established early on in the new territories. In the new national capital Canberra both soccer and rugby had a head start, but following the first matches in 1911, Australian rules football in the Australian Capital Territory became a major participation sport. By 1981 it had become much neglected and quickly lagged behind the other football codes. Australian rules football in the Northern Territory began shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1916 with the first match in Darwin. The game went on to become the most popular sport in the Territory and build the highest participation rate for the sport nationally.
, published in 1915, questions the public's commitment to Australian football rather than the war.]]
Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian "diggers" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915, a proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league, the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialled without success. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The Anzac Day match, the annual game between Essendon and Collingwood on Anzac Day, is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community.
The role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. In 1968, the ANFC revived the Championship of Australia, a competition first held in 1888 between the premiers of the VFA and SAFA. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—with Adelaide hosting most of the matches at the request of the SAFA/SANFL. The last match took place in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987, the ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series, which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated.
With the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three-quarters of a century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990.
Towards a national league
was a leading advocate of a national club-based competition.]]
The term "Barassi Line", named after VFL star Ron Barassi, was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the "fictitious geographical barrier" separating the rugby-following parts of New South Wales and Queensland from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned. It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league.
The way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television.
and Sydney Swans line up for the national anthem at the 2005 AFL Grand Final.]]
In 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, and a similar situation existing in Western Australia in the sport, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane, joined the league in 1987 generating more than $8 million in license revenue for the Victorian clubs and increasing broadcast revenues which helped the Victorian clubs survive. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because the substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL. To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive.
The VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season, and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and the SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league. In 2011 and 2012, respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney. The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to a second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players.
In the 2010s, the AFL signalled further attempts at expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand, followed by China. After several failed bids since the early 1990s for a Tasmania-based AFL team, the Tasmania Football Club secured the 19th AFL license in 2023, and is set to compete by 2028.
Laws of the game
Players and equipment
, shorts, socks and boots.]]
In a standard match, a team may consist of anywhere between 14 and 18 players who may be permitted on the playing surface at any given time. Each team may have up to four interchange (reserve) players who may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. Although some leagues in less populated areas may use as few as 12 players. In addition, some leagues notably including the AFL, have each team designate one additional player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during a game for either medical or tactical reasons.
Players on the playing surface can be swapped with those on the interchange bench at any time. They must though pass through a designated "Interchange Area". In the event a player fails to pass through this area correctly, or if too many players from one team are found to be on the ground at a time, a free kick will be awarded to the opposing side.
While there is no set uniform, the basic equipment for Australian football consists of a guernsey, shorts, socks and boots, with additional pieces of apparel such as headbands and gloves additionally being permitted. Players may wear certain pieces of protective equipment, such as helmets or arm guards, if approved by the relevant controlling body. Mouthguards are strongly recommended for all players.
Players are not permitted to wear jewellery, or other materials which the field umpire has deemed to be either potentially dangerous or increase the risk of injury to other players.]]
Australian rules football is played with an ellipsoid ball, between in long circumference, and in short circumference. For women's competitions, a smaller ball size of is used. The ball must be inflated to a pressure of .
While there is no standard colour of the ball, red and yellow are most common and the only colours used at AFL level. Yellow is used for games beginning after 3 pm or in an enclosed stadium, due to its greater visibility, and to assist score reviews.
At either end of the field, two sets of posts are erected in a straight line to indicate the scoring areas on the field, each with two kinds of posts, named the goal posts and the behind posts respectively. The goal posts are placed first, located apart from each other, with a behind post being placed a further 6.4 metres to the side of each goal post. The name for the field line between two goal posts is known as the Goal Line.Match durationA game lasts for 80 minutes, split into four-quarters consisting of 20 minutes playing time, with the clock being stopped for stoppages in play such as scores, or at the umpire's discretion, e.g. for serious injury. Leagues may choose to employ shorter quarters of play at their discretion, such as the AFLW using 17 minutes per quarter.
For any given match, two timekeepers are appointed to officiate the duration. The timekeepers record all relevant statistics for the match, such as total quarter duration and score by each team. Additionally timekeepers are required to sound a siren prior to and at the conclusion of each quarter until such time they are acknowledged by the field umpires. To stop and recommence the clock, the field umpires are required to signal to the timekeepers to indicate when the clock should be stopped or restarted.
Officiation
]]
Each game is officiated by at least five match officials, known as an umpire. These match officials are placed into three categories based upon their roles and responsibilities, with varying minimum numbers of Umpires required depending on position:
* Field umpire: Field umpires are positioned within the playing area contained within the Boundary Lines, and are the primary match officials.
* Boundary umpires: Boundary umpires are positioned along the two boundary lines upon either side of the field. Their primary duties include determining when the football is deemed to be outside of the field of play, and to throw the football back into play when directed. A minimum of two boundary umpires are required for a match.
Game skills
Ball movement
An Australian rules football may only be propelled forward in a select few ways as defined by the Laws of Australian Football, published by the AFL. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a kick or a clenched fist (called a handball)—deemed a correct disposal. Failure to dispose of the ball in one of these two methods will result in a free kick to the opposing team. If the ball is not currently in a player's possession, it can be moved legally through the usage of other means, such as punching.
The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees from the front or side. Furthermore, tackles deemed to be dangerous by the umpire and those conducted from front-on while an opposition player has their head over the football are deemed to be prohibited contact, and will incur a free kick against the offending player.
Additionally, players may perform a technique known shepherding when the ball is within of an opposition player. Shepherding involves the use of a player's body to push, bump or otherwise block an opposition player, providing they do not have possession of the ball. To be awarded a mark, it must be deemed that the player sufficiently controlled the ball and took possession prior to it being touched, touching the ground, or in the case of a contest, being spoiled by an opponent. Upon a mark being taken, one opposition player may choose to stand on the point on the field where the mark was taken, known as "the mark". When a mark is taken, a small protected zone is established on the field, extending either side of "the mark" and the player who marked the ball, with a small protected corridor between "the mark" and the player. The opposition player is permitted to jump, but is not allowed to move from their position on "the mark". Any other movements result in a distance penalty (50 metres in the AFL). The player who was awarded the mark may then choose to either dispose of the ball over "the mark" or may choose to attempt disposal via a different method, in which case the field umpire will call "play on"—a verbal instruction to continue play. Only a nominated ruck may contest ball-ups and throw-ins. They are the only player allowed within the 10 metre circle at a centre bounce. Functionally the role is analogous to a basketball center and as such rucks are typically the tallest player on the team. Lifting teammates is not allowed so the ruck may only jump to reach the ball. If the ruck does not take possession of the football, it must be tapped or fisted, which is known as a hit-out. An effective hit-out that passes the ball to a teammate is known as a hit-out to advantage.
Misconduct
In the event a player breaks a rule, a free kick is awarded to the opposing team, from the location that the misconduct occurred, or the ball's current location—whichever is closer to the team's scoring zone. As when a mark is taken, this location is called "the mark", and the same protections regarding the space apply.
The laws of the game allow umpires to send off players for egregious foul play, although this law does not apply to the AFL and is largely only used at the local level.
Scoring
There are two types of scoring shots in Australian football: goals and behinds. A goal is worth six points, and is scored when the football is propelled between the goal posts and across the goal line at any height by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may touch the ground, but must not have been touched by any player from either team or a goalpost prior to crossing the goal line.
A behind is worth one point and is scored when:
The team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions.
As an example of a score report, consider a match between Sydney and Geelong with the former as the home team. Sydney's score of 17 goals and 5 behinds equates to 107 points. Geelong's score of 10 goals and 17 behinds equates to a 77-point tally. Sydney wins the match by a margin of 30 points. Such a result would be written as:
:"Sydney 17.5 (107) defeated Geelong 10.17 (77)".
And spoken as:
:"Sydney, seventeen-five, one hundred and seven, defeated Geelong, ten-seventeen, seventy-seven".
Additionally, it can be said that:
:"Sydney defeated Geelong by 30 points".
The home team is typically listed first and the visiting side is listed second.
A draw would be written as:
:"Greater Western Sydney 10.8 (68) drew with Geelong 10.8 (68)".
Structure and competitions
The football season proper is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September and October. In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March).
The AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian football. There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, all of which are affiliated with the AFL. These state leagues hold annual semi-professional club competitions, with some also overseeing more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations.
In 2002, the AFL became the de facto world governing body for Australian football when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world.
For almost all Australian football club competitions, the aim is to win the Premiership. The premiership is typically decided by a finals series. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ladder after the home-and-away season play-off in a "semi-knockout" finals series, culminating in a single Grand Final match to determine the premiers. Between four and eight teams contest a finals series, typically using the AFL final eight system or a variation of the McIntyre system. The team which finishes first on the ladder after the home-and-away season is referred to as a "minor premier", but this usually holds little stand-alone significance, other than receiving a better draw in the finals.
Some metropolitan leagues have several tiered divisions, with promotion of the lower division premiers and relegation of the upper division's last placed team at the end of each year.
Women and Australian football
between Bond University and Burleigh Heads]]
The high level of interest shown by women in Australian football is considered unique among the world's football codes. It was the case in the 19th century, as it is in modern times, that women made up approximately half of total attendances at Australian football matches—a far greater proportion than, for example, the estimated 10 per cent of women that comprise British soccer crowds. This has been attributed in part to the egalitarian character of Australian football's early years in public parks where women could mingle freely and support the game in various ways.
In terms of participation, there are occasional 19th-century references to women playing the sport, but it was not until the 1910s that the first organised women's teams and competitions appeared. Women's state leagues emerged in the 1980s, and in 2013, the AFL announced plans to establish a nationally televised women's competition. Amidst a surge in viewing interest and participation in women's football, the AFL pushed the founding date of the competition, named AFL Women's, to 2017. Eight AFL clubs won licences to field sides in its inaugural season. By the seventh season, which began in August 2022, all 18 clubs fielded a women's side.Variations and related sports
Many related games have emerged from Australian football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Auskick (played by children aged between 5 and 12), kick-to-kick (and its variants end-to-end footy and marks up), rec footy, 9-a-side footy, masters Australian football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside Australia sometimes engage in related games adapted to available fields, like metro footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa rules (played on rugby fields). One such prominent example in use since 2018 is AFLX, a shortened variation of the game with seven players a side, played on a soccer-sized pitch.International rules football
The similarities between Australian football and the Irish sport of Gaelic football have allowed for the creation of a hybrid code known as international rules football. The first international rules matches were contested in Ireland during the 1967 Australian Football World Tour. Since then, various sets of compromise rules have been trialed, and in 1984 the International Rules Series commenced with national representative sides selected by Australia's state leagues (later by the AFL) and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The competition became an annual event in 1998, but was postponed indefinitely in 2007 when the GAA pulled out due to Australia's severe and aggressive style of play. It resumed in Australia in 2008 under new rules to protect the player with the ball.
Global reach
in Nauru, where Australian football is the national sport]]
, held triennially in Australia.]]
During the colonial period, Australian rules was sometimes referred to as Australasian rules, reflecting its popularity in New Zealand. The game was played outside Australasia as early as 1888 when Australians studying at Edinburgh University and London University formed teams and competed in London. By the early 20th century, it had spread with the Australian diaspora to South Africa, the United States and other parts of the Anglosphere; however this growth went into rapid decline during and after World War I, leading also to a decades long hiatus in New Zealand. After World War II, it experienced growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Papua New Guinea and Nauru, where Australian football is now the national sport.
Today, the sport is played at an amateur level in various countries throughout the world. Twenty-three countries have participated in the International Cup, the highest level of international competition, held triennially in Australia since 2002. Nine countries have also participated in the AFL Europe Championship with both competitions prohibiting Australian players. A fan of the sport since attending school in Victoria, King Charles is the Patron of AFL Europe. In 2013, participation across AFL Europe's 21 member nations was more than 5,000 players, the majority of which are European nationals rather than Australian expats. The sport also has a growing presence in India. Over 20 countries have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL.
Most present-day international amateur clubs and leagues are based in North America, Europe and Asia, with the oldest typically having originated in the 1980s. That decade, the sport developed a cult following in the United States when matches were broadcast on the fledgling ESPN network. Growing international interest has been assisted by exhibition matches, players switching between football codes, and Australia's multicultural makeup. Many VFL/AFL players were born overseas, with a growing number recruited through various initiatives. One notable example is the Irish experiment, which, since the 1980s, has seen many Gaelic footballers leave the amateur GAA to play Australian rules professionally, this has expanded to the AFLW, where it has grown from 1 Irish player in the debut 2017 season, to 36 in 2024.
Although Australian rules football is not an Olympic sport, it was showcased at the MCG as part of the 1956 Summer Olympics, held in Melbourne. In addition, when Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, an exhibition match was held at the Gabba.Cultural influence and popularity
Australian football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other football code, and, when compared with all sports throughout the nation, has consistently ranked first in the winter reports, and third behind cricket and swimming in summer. Over 1,057,572 fans were paying members of AFL clubs in 2019. The 2021 AFL Grand Final was the year's most-watched television broadcast in Australia, with an in-home audience of up to 4.11 million.
In 2019, there were 1,716,276 registered participants in Australia from poems by C. J. Dennis and Peter Goldsworthy, to the fiction of Frank Hardy and Kerry Greenwood. Historians Manning Clarke and Geoffrey Blainey have also written extensively on the sport. Slang within Australian football has impacted Australian English more broadly, with a number of expressions taking on new meanings in non-sporting contexts, e.g., to "get a guernsey" is to gain recognition or approval, while "shirt-fronting" someone is to accost them.
pointing to his skin in 1993 in protest of racial vilification, erected outside Perth Stadium in 2019]]
In 1889, Australian impressionist painter Arthur Streeton captured football games en plein air for the 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition, titling one work The National Game. Paintings by Sidney Nolan (Footballer, 1946) and John Brack (Three of the Players, 1953) helped to establish Australian football as a serious subject for modernists, and many Aboriginal artists have explored the game, often fusing it with the mythology of their region. Vincent Namatjira won the 2020 Archibald Prize for his portrait of Adam Goodes.
In cartooning, WEG's VFL/AFL premiership posters—inaugurated in 1954—have achieved iconic status among Australian football fans. Australian football statues can be found throughout the country, some based on famous photographs, among them Haydn Bunton Sr.'s leap, Jack Dyer's charge and Nicky Winmar lifting his jumper. In the 1980s, a group of postmodern architects based in Melbourne began incorporating references to Australian football into their buildings, an example being Building 8 by Edmond and Corrigan.
Dance sequences based on Australian football feature heavily in Robert Helpmann's 1964 ballet The Display, his first and most famous work for the Australian Ballet. The game has also inspired well-known plays such as And the Big Men Fly (1963) by Alan Hopgood and David Williamson's The Club (1977), which was adapted into a 1980 film, directed by Bruce Beresford. Mike Brady's 1979 hit "Up There Cazaly" is considered an Australian football anthem, and references to the sport can be found in works by popular musicians, from singer-songwriter Paul Kelly to the alternative rock band TISM. Others, such as Tame Impala's Kevin Parker, have written songs for their favourite AFL club. Many Australian football video games have been released, notably the AFL series.
Australian Football Hall of Fame
For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. That year, 136 significant figures across the various competitions were inducted into the Hall of Fame. Each years since the creation of the Hall of Fame, a panel selects a small group of players they deem worthy for this prestigious honour, resulting in a total number of more than 300 inductees as of 2024.
In addition to the Hall of Fame, select members are chosen to receive the elite Legend status. Due to restrictions limiting the number of Legend status players to 10% of the total number of Hall of Fame inductees, there are currently only 32 players with the status in the Hall of Fame as of 2024. See also
* Australian rules football attendance records
* Australian rules football positions
* List of Australian rules football clubs
* List of Australian rules football rivalries
* List of Australian rules football terms
References
Citations
Sources
Books
*
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Journal and conference articles
*
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External links
* [http://www.afl.com.au/ Australian Football League (AFL) official website]
* [http://australianfootball.com/ Australian Football: Celebrating The History of the Great Australian Game]
* [https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2020/08/17/3c2fa0b0-79c5-45ad-bdb5-83e3be392691/2020-Laws-of-the-Game.pdf 2020 Laws of Australian Football]
* [http://www.gators.com.au/Australian%20Football%20Explained%20in%2031%20Languages.pdf Australian Football explained in 31 languages] – a publication from [http://www.afl.com.au/ AFL.com.au]
* [http://www.readingaustralianrulesfootball.org/ Reading Australian Rules Football – The Definitive Guide to the Game]
* [https://guides.slv.vic.gov.au/australianfootball State Library of Victoria Research Guide to Australian Football]
Category:Australian rules football
Category:1858 introductions
Category:1859 establishments in Australia
Category:Ball games
Category:Football codes
Category:Sports originating in Australia
Category:Team sports
Category:Turf sports | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_rules_football | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.710585 |
2405 | Aon (company) | (Class A)|S&P 500 component}}
| founder = Patrick Ryan
| founded =
| location 122 Leadenhall Street, London, United Kingdom
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people =
| industry = Financial services
| services =
| revenue (2024)}}
| operating_income = US$3.835 billion (2024)
| net_income = US$2.654 billion (2024)
| assets = US$48.96 billion (2024)
| equity = US$6.121 billion (2024)
| num_employees = (2024)
| website =
| footnotes
}}
Aon plc () is a British-American professional services firm that offers a range of risk-mitigation products. Aon has over 66,000 employees across 120 countries.
Founded in Chicago by Patrick Ryan, Aon was created in 1982 when the Ryan Insurance Group merged with the Combined Insurance Company of America under W. Clement Stone. In 1987, the holding company was renamed Aon from aon, a Gaelic word meaning "one". The company is globally headquartered in London with its North America operations based in Chicago at the Aon Center. Aon is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under AON with a market cap of $65 billion in April 2023.
History
W. Clement Stone's mother bought a small Detroit insurance agency, and in 1918 brought her son into the business. Mr. Stone sold low-cost, low-benefit accident insurance, underwriting and issuing policies on-site. The next year he founded his own agency, the Combined Registry Co.
As the Great Depression began, Stone reduced his workforce and improved training. Forced by his son's respiratory illness to winter in the South, Stone moved to Arkansas and Texas. In 1939 he bought American Casualty Insurance Co. of Dallas, Texas. It was consolidated with other purchases as the Combined Insurance Co. of America in 1947. The company continued through the 1950s and 1960s, continuing to sell health and accident policies. In the 1970s, Combined expanded overseas despite being hit hard by the recession.
Aon built a global presence through purchases. In 1997, it bought The Minet Group, as well as insurance brokerage Alexander & Alexander Services, Inc. in a deal that made Aon (temporarily) the largest insurance broker worldwide. The firm made no US buys in 1998, but doubled its employee base with purchases including Spain's largest retail insurance broker, Gil y Carvajal, and the formation of Aon Korea.
Responding to industry demands, Aon announced its new fee disclosure policy in 1999, and the company reorganised to focus on buying personal line insurance firms and to integrate its acquisitions. That year it bought Nikols Sedgwick Group, an Italian insurance firm, and formed RiskAttack (with Zurich US), a risk analysis and financial management concern aimed at technology companies. The cost of integrating its numerous purchases, however, hammered profits in 1999.
Despite its troubles, in 2000 Aon bought Reliance Group's accident and health insurance business, as well as Actuarial Sciences Associates, a compensation and employee benefits consulting company. Later in that year, however, the company decided to cut 6% of its workforce as part of a restructuring effort. In 2003, the company saw revenues increase primarily because of rate hikes in the insurance industry. Also that year, Endurance Specialty, a Bermuda-based underwriting operation that Aon helped to establish in November 2001 along with other investors, went public. The next year Aon sold most of its holdings in Endurance.
In the late 2007, Aon announced the divestiture of its underwriting business. With this move, the firm sold off its two major underwriting subsidiaries: Combined Insurance Company of America (acquired by ACE Limited for $2.4 billion) and Sterling Life Insurance Company (purchased by Munich Re Group for $352 million). The low margin and capital-intensive nature of the underwriting industry was the primary reason for the firm's decision to divest.
This growth strategy manifested in November 2008 when Aon announced it had acquired reinsurance intermediary and capital advisor Benfield Group Limited for $1.75 billion. The acquisition amplified the firm's broking capabilities, positioning Aon one of the largest players in the reinsurance brokerage industry.
In 2010, Aon made its most significant acquisition to date with the purchase of Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion. Aside from drastically boosting Aon's human resources consulting capacity and entering the firm into the business process outsourcing industry, the move added 23,000 colleagues and more than $3 billion in revenue.
In January 2012, Aon announced that its headquarters would be moved to London, although North American operations and jobs remained in Chicago.
.]]
On 10 February 2017, Aon announced that it was selling its employee benefits outsourcing business to private equity firm The Blackstone Group for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion).
In February 2020, Aon named Eric Andersen as president of Aon after co-president Michael O'Connor departed the company to pursue new opportunities. He will be reporting to Greg Case, the firm's CEO.
In June 2020, Aon announced it was planning to repay the temporary 20% pay cut from 70% of employees that was published in a statement in April 2020 regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. On 30 June 2020, Aon announced it would repay staff in full, plus 5% of the withheld amount.
In June 2020, Willis Towers Watson called its shareholders to two meetings to discuss its acquisition with Aon for August 26, 2020. It was revealed that the US Department of Justice has requested more information on the deal under antitrust rules.
September 11 attacks
Aon's New York offices were on the 92nd and 98th–105th floors of the South Tower of the World Trade Center at the time of the September 11 attacks. When the North Tower was struck by American Airlines Flight 11 at 8:46 a.m., an evacuation of Aon's offices was quickly initiated by executive Eric Eisenberg, and 924 of the estimated 1,100 Aon employees present at the time managed to get below the 77th floor before United Airlines Flight 175 crashed between Floors 77 and 85 at 9:03 a.m.
Many, however, did not manage to get beneath in the 17 minutes they had between the two impacts. As a result, 176 employees of Aon were killed in the crash or died in the eventual collapse of the tower or from smoke inhalation. At 9:59 a.m., the tower collapsed, killing any survivors still within, including Eisenberg and Kevin Cosgrove.Spitzer investigationIn 2004–2005, Aon, along with other brokers including Marsh & McLennan and Willis, fell under regulatory investigation under New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and other state attorneys general. At issue was the practice of insurance companies' payments to brokers (known as contingent commissions). The payments were thought to bring a conflict of interest, swaying broker decisions on behalf of carriers, rather than customers. In the spring of 2005, without acknowledging any wrongdoing, Aon agreed to a $190 million settlement, payable over 30 months.
UK regulatory breach
In January 2009, Aon was fined £5.69 million in the UK by the Financial Services Authority, who stated that the fine related to the company's inadequate bribery and corruption controls, claiming that between 14 January 2005 and 30 September 2007 Aon had failed to properly assess the risks involved in its dealings with overseas firms and individuals. The Authority did not find that any money had actually made its way to illegal organisations. Aon qualified for a 30% discount on the fine as a result of its cooperation with the investigation. Aon said its conduct was not deliberate, adding it had since "significantly strengthened and enhanced its controls around the usage of third parties".US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violationsIn December 2011, Aon Corporation paid a $16.26 million penalty to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice for violations of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.
According to the Securities and Exchange Commission, Aon's subsidiaries made improper payments of over $3.6 million to government officials and third-party facilitators in Costa Rica, Egypt, Vietnam, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, Myanmar and Bangladesh, between 1983 and 2007, to obtain and retain insurance contracts.
Major acquisitions
On 5 January 2007, Aon announced that its Aon Affinity group had acquired the WedSafe Wedding Insurance program.
On 22 August 2008, Aon announced that it had acquired London-based Benfield Group. The acquiring price was US$1.75 billion or £935 million, with US$170 million of debt.
On 5 March 2010, Hewitt Associates announced that it acquired Senior Educators Ltd. The acquisition offers companies a new way to address retiree medical insurance commitments.
On 12 July 2010, Aon announced that it had agreed to buy Lincolnshire, Illinois-based Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion in cash and stock.
On 7 April 2011, Aon announced that it had acquired Johannesburg, South Africa-based Glenrand MIB. Financial terms were not disclosed.
On 19 July 2011, Aon announced that it bought Westfield Financial Corp., the owner of insurance-industry consulting firm Ward Financial Group, from Ohio Farmers Insurance Co. Financial terms were not disclosed.
On 22 October 2012, Aon announced that it agreed to buy OmniPoint, Inc, a Workday consulting firm. Financial terms were not disclosed.
On 16 June 2014, Aon announced that it agreed to buy National Flood Services, Inc., a large processor of flood insurance, from Stoneriver Group, L.P.
On 31 October 2016, Aon's Aon Risk Solutions completed acquisition of Stroz Friedberg LLC, a specialised risk management firm focusing on cybersecurity.
On 14 November 2016, Aon acquired CoCubes an online Indian Assessment firm, facilitating hiring of entry-level engineering graduates.
On 10 February 2017, Aon plc agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion)
In September 2017, Aon announced its intent to purchase real estate investment management firm The Townsend Group from Colony NorthStar for $475 million, expanding Aon's property investment management portfolio.
On 9 March 2020, Aon announced its merger with Willis Towers Watson for nearly $30 billion in an all-stock deal that creates the world's largest insurance broker. As of 21 May 2020, Willis board was under probe over merger agreement with Aon. The deal was called off in July 2021.
In December 2023, Aon agreed to acquire NFP, a middle-market provider of risk, benefits, wealth and retirement plan advisory services company, for $13.4 billion.
In March 2024, Aon plc acquired the technology assets and intellectual property of Humn.ai, an AI-powered platform. This will enhance its commercial fleet proposition.
Operations
Manchester United
On 3 June 2009, it was reported that Aon had signed a four-year shirt sponsorship deal with English football giant Manchester United. On 1 June 2010, Aon replaced American insurance company AIG as the principal sponsor of the club. The Aon logo was prominently displayed on the front of the club's shirts until the 2014/2015 season when Chevrolet replaced them. The deal was said to be worth £80 million over four years, replacing United's deal with AIG as the most lucrative shirt deal in history at the time.
Awards
* Aon was awarded Investment Consultancy of the Year and Fiduciary Manager of the Year at the FT's 2014 Pension and Investment Provider Awards
* Aon received a perfect score on the Human Rights Campaign's 2013 Corporate Equality Index
* Aon was named to Working Mother's list of the 100 Best Companies for 2012
* Aon Risk Solutions was the most recommended broker in 2012 for service and expertise by middle market buyers in Business Insurance's Buyers Choice Awards
* Aon Risk Solutions was named Broker of the Year and Training Programme of the Year in 2012 by Insurance Times
* Aon Benfield was named 2012 European Reinsurance Broker of the Year, Best European Property Reinsurance Broker and Best European Casualty Reinsurance Broker at the European Intelligent Insurer Awards
* Aon Benfield was named Best Global Reinsurance Broking Company for Analytics at Reactions Global Awards 2012
* Aon Hewitt was named Top Retirement Consultant of 2012 by PLANSPONSOR Magazine2
* Aon Hewitt was named Actuarial and Investment Consultant of the Year for 2012 at the Professional Pensions Awards
References
External links
*
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Category:1982 establishments in Michigan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aon_(company) | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.740055 |
2406 | Alban Berg | | birth_date
| birth_place = Vienna, Austria-Hungary
| death_date
| death_place = Vienna, Federal State of Austria
| nationality | other_names
| spouse = |1911}}
| children | education
| occupation = Composer
| works = List of compositions
}}
Alban Maria Johannes Berg ( , ; 9 February 1885 – 24 December 1935) was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with the twelve-tone technique. Although he left a relatively small oeuvre, he is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century for his expressive style encompassing "entire worlds of emotion and structure".
Berg was born and lived in Vienna. He began to compose at the age of fifteen. He studied counterpoint, music theory and harmony with Arnold Schoenberg between 1904 and 1911, and adopted his principles of developing variation and the twelve-tone technique. Berg's major works include the operas Wozzeck (1924) and Lulu (1935, finished posthumously), the chamber pieces Lyric Suite and Chamber Concerto, as well as a Violin Concerto. He also composed a number of songs (lieder). He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system; his works are seen as more "emotional" than those of Schoenberg. His music had a surface glamour that won him admirers when Schoenberg himself had few.
Berg died from sepsis in 1935.
Life and career
Early life
).
<br>Music is like that – – – and quite a few literary works that are written from within a longing-filled heart! – – : – –
<br>– I've now got to ''A Doll's House''. ...
----
Berg wrote in a typically freewheeling manner to share his reading of Ibsen's ''A Doll's House'' with Watznauer on October 18, 1906, here quoting from Ernst's [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/ernst/strandlb/strandlb.html Meersymphonie] in relating music to dreams, fantasies, feelings, and desires, especially those of a counterfactual and universal nature. Such themes predominate in Berg's often quasi-autobiographical and programmatic œuvre, not only romantically for his muse. On at least one occasion (likely spring 1907), echoing a passage from Frank Wedekind's Erdgeist, which he had seen in Vienna, Berg wrote to his wife : "Again and again I kiss that hand of yours, my most glorious Symphony in D minor"; likewise Alwa sings, in a prominent episode full of kisses, a fanatical hymn comparing Lulu's features to music, with Wedekind's text modified to correspond roughly to music from the Lyric Suite (e.g., "these knees: a misterioso").}} as in his Lyric Suite, but also socially as in Lulu, politically as in Wozzeck,}} and even mortally as in his Violin Concerto. By contrast, Webern, who also started studying with Schoenberg in 1904, took from an evening with Mahler in 1905 that: "Nature is for us the model ...."
}}
Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Konrad Berg. His father ran a successful export business, and the family owned several estates in Vienna and the countryside. The family's financial situation turned to the worse after the death of Konrad Berg in 1900, and it particularly affected young Berg, who had to repeat both his sixth and seventh grade to pass the exams. One of his closest lifelong friends and earliest biographer (under the pseudonym Hermann Herrenried), architect Hermann Watznauer, became a father figure (partly at Konrad's request), being ten years Berg's senior. Berg wrote him letters as long as thirty pages, often in florid, dramatic prose with idiosyncratic punctuation. Berg was more interested in literature than music as a child and would consider a career as a writer several times, turning to music slowly and at times unconfidently until the success of Wozzeck. He did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music, although he did take piano lessons from his sister's governess. With Marie Scheuchl, a maid in the family estate of Berghof in Carinthia and fifteen years his senior, he fathered a daughter, Albine, born 4 December 1902.
In 1906 Berg met the singer (1885–1976), daughter of a wealthy family (rumoured to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph I from his liaison with Anna Nahowski). Despite the outward hostility of her family, the couple married on 3 May 1911, although "her father insisted on a Protestant ceremony to facilitate the divorce he foresaw as inevitable."
Early works (1907–1914)
With little prior music education, Berg began studying counterpoint, music theory, and harmony under Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. By 1906 he was studying music full-time; by 1907 he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas. He also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs (Sieben frühe Lieder), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that year.
The early sketches eventually culminated in the Piano Sonata, Op. 1, published in 1910 and likely composed 19081909; it has been described as one of the most formidable "first" works ever written. Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Among Schoenberg's teachings was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea; this idea was later known as developing variation. Berg passed this on to his students, one of whom, Theodor W. Adorno, stated: "The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different". The Piano Sonata is an example—the whole composition is derived from the work's opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase.
Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg.
|access-date=4 October 2023}}</ref>]]
In 1913 two of Berg's Altenberg Lieder (1912) premiered in Vienna, conducted by Schoenberg in the infamous Skandalkonzert. Settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted. Berg effectively withdrew the work, and it was not performed in full until 1952. The full score remained unpublished until 1966.
Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to structure several works. Various suggestions have been made as to the reason for this interest: that he took it from the biorhythms theory of Wilhelm Fliess, in which a 23-day cycle is considered significant, or because he first suffered an asthma attack on the 23rd of the month.
Wozzeck (1917–1924) and Lulu (1928–1929)
From 1915 to 1918 Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army. During a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, Wozzeck. After the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run his Society for Private Musical Performances, which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeat performances, and the exclusion of professional critics.
In 1924 three excerpts from Wozzeck were performed, which brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in 1922, was first performed on 14 December 1925, when Erich Kleiber conducted the first performance in Berlin. Today, Wozzeck is seen as one of the century's most important works. Berg made a start on his second opera, the three-act Lulu, in 1928 but interrupted the work in 1929 for the concert aria Der Wein which he completed that summer. Der Wein presaged Lulu in a number of ways, including vocal style, orchestration, design and text.
Other well-known Berg compositions include the Lyric Suite (1926), which was later shown to employ elaborate cyphers to document a secret love affair; the post-Mahlerian Three Pieces for Orchestra (completed in 1915 but not performed until after Wozzeck); and the Chamber Concerto (Kammerkonzert, 1923–25) for violin, piano, and 13 wind instruments: this latter is written so conscientiously that Pierre Boulez has called it "Berg's strictest composition" and it, too, is permeated by cyphers and posthumously disclosed hidden programs. It was at this time he began exhibiting tone clusters in his works after meeting with American avant-garde composer Henry Cowell, with whom he would eventually form a lifelong friendship.
Final years (1930–1935)
]]
Life for the musical world was becoming increasingly difficult in the 1930s both in Vienna and Germany due to the rising tide of antisemitism and the Nazi cultural ideology that denounced modernity. Even to have an association with someone who was Jewish could lead to denunciation, and Berg's "crime" was to have studied with the Jewish composer Arnold Schoenberg. Berg found that opportunities for his work to be performed in Germany were becoming rare, and eventually his music was proscribed and placed on the list of degenerate music.
In 1932 Berg and his wife acquired an isolated lodge, the Waldhaus on the southern shore of the Wörthersee, near Schiefling am See in Carinthia, where he was able to work in seclusion, mainly on Lulu and the Violin Concerto. At the end of 1934, Berg became involved in the political intrigues around finding a replacement for Clemens Krauss as director of the Vienna State Opera.
As more of the performances of his work in Germany were cancelled by the Nazis, who had come to power in early 1933, he needed to ensure the new director would be an advocate for modernist music. Originally, the premiere of Lulu had been planned for the Berlin State Opera, where Erich Kleiber continued to champion his music and had conducted the premiere of Wozzeck in 1925, but now this was looking increasingly uncertain, and Lulu was rejected by the Berlin authorities in the spring of 1934. Kleiber's production of the Lulu symphonic suite on 30 November 1934 in Berlin was also the occasion of his resignation in protest at the extent of conflation of culture with politics. Even in Vienna, the opportunities for the Vienna School of musicians were dwindling.
Berg had interrupted the orchestration of Lulu because of an unexpected (and financially much-needed) commission from the Russian-American violinist Louis Krasner for a Violin Concerto (1935). This profoundly elegiac work, composed at unaccustomed speed and posthumously premiered, has become one of Berg's frequently performed compositions. Like much of his mature work, it employs an idiosyncratic adaptation of Schoenberg's "dodecaphonic" or twelve-tone technique, that enables the composer to produce passages openly evoking tonality, including quotations from historical tonal music, such as a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated "to the memory of an Angel", Manon Gropius, the deceased daughter of architect Walter Gropius and Alma Mahler.Death
Berg died aged 50 in Vienna, on Christmas Eve 1935, from blood poisoning apparently caused by a furuncle on his back, induced by an insect sting that occurred in November. He was buried at the Hietzing Cemetery in Vienna.
Before he died, Berg had completed the orchestration of only the first two of the three acts of Lulu''. The completed acts were successfully premièred in Zürich in 1937. For personal reasons Helene Berg subsequently imposed a ban on any attempt to "complete" the final act, which Berg had in fact completed in short score. An orchestration was therefore commissioned in secret from Friedrich Cerha and premièred in Paris (under Pierre Boulez) only in 1979, soon after Helene Berg's own death.Legacy
, Carinthia, Austria]]
Berg is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century and the most widely performed opera composer among the Second Viennese School. He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system, his works seen as more "emotional" than Schoenberg's. Critically, he is seen as having preserved the Viennese tradition in his music.
Berg scholar Douglas Jarman writes in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians that "[as] the 20th century closed, the 'backward-looking' Berg suddenly came as [George] Perle remarked, to look like its most forward-looking composer."
The Alban Berg Foundation, founded by the composer's widow in 1969, cultivates the memory and works of the composer, and awards scholarships. The Alban Berg Monument, situated next to the Vienna State Opera and unveiled in 2016, was funded by the Foundation.
The Alban Berg Quartett was a string quartet named after him, active from 1971 until 2008.
The asteroid 4528 Berg is named after him (1983).Major compositions
Piano
:Piano Sonata, Op. 1
:String Quartet, Op. 3
:Lyric Suite, string quartet
:Chamber Concerto (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments
Orchestral
:Three Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6
:Violin Concerto
Vocal
:Seven Early Songs
:Vier Lieder (Four Songs), Op. 2
:Five Orchestral Songs on Postcard Texts of Peter Altenberg, Op. 4
:Der Wein
:Schließe mir die Augen beide
Operas
:Wozzeck, Op. 7 (1925)
:Lulu (1937)
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
* |referenceBreivik, Magnar. 1998. "The Representation of Sleep and Death in Berg's Piano Songs, op.2". In Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music, ed. Siglind Bruhn, 109–136. Border Crossings Series. London: Taylor & Francis. .}}
* |referenceBruhn, Siglind. 1998. "Editor's Introduction". In Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music, ed. Siglind Bruhn, xv–xvi. Border Crossings Series. London: Taylor & Francis. .}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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* |referenceJohnson, Julian. 1999. Webern and the Transformation of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .}}
* |referenceJohnson, Julius. 2006. "Anton Webern, the Social Democratic Kunstelle and Musical Modernism." Austrian Studies 14(1):197–213.}}
*
* |referenceMonson, Karen. 1979. Alban Berg: A Biography. Reprinted, London: Macdonald and Jane's. 1980. .}}
*
* |referencePerle, George. 1980. The Operas of Alban Berg, Vol. I: Wozzeck. Berkeley: University of California Press. .}}
* |referencePerle, George. 1985. The Operas of Alban Berg, Vol. II: Lulu. Berkeley: University of California Press. .}}
*
*
*
Further reading
* Adorno, Theodor W. Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
* Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters. New York: Norton, 1987.
* Carner, Mosco. Alban Berg: The Man and the Work. London: Duckworth, 1975.
* dos Santos, Silvio J. ''Narratives of Identity in Alban Berg's 'Lulu'. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press, 2014.
* Floros, Constantin. Trans. by Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch. [http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?cPath1037_3025_3071&products_id57669 Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs] . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.
* Grun, Bernard, ed. Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife. London: Faber and Faber, 1971.
* Headlam, Dave. The Music of Alban Berg.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.
*Jarman, Douglas. "Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu". Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. "Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu". The Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Sketches". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978).
*Jarman, Douglas. "Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?". Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81).
*Jarman, Douglas. "Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu". In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure". Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. "The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982).
*
* Leibowitz, René. Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949.
* Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. Alban Berg, the Man and His Music. London: John Calder, 1957.
* Reich, Willi. The life and work of Alban Berg. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982.
* Schmalfeldt, Janet. "Berg's Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1". Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pp. 79–110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
* Schweizer, Klaus. Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970.
*
*
*
* Wilkey, Jay Weldon. Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965.
External links
*
* [http://www.universaledition.com/Alban-Berg/composers-and-works/composer/51 Alban Berg] biography and works on the UE website (publisher)
* [http://www.lieder.net/lieder/get_settings.html?ComposerId=3386 Vocal texts used by Alban Berg with translations to various languages], LiederNet Archive
*
* [http://www.pytheasmusic.org/berg.html Alban Berg at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music]
* [http://albanberg.resampled.de albanberg.resampled.de] The most comprehensive acoustic representation of Alban Bergs Works in digital realisations.
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20230929110046/http://www.schoenberg.at/scans/Clippings/C19351224_b.pdf Alban Berg's obituary in the 24 Dec. 1935 issue of The New York Times]
}}
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Category:Expressionist music
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Category:Second Viennese School
Category:Twelve-tone and serial composers
Category:Lieder composers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alban_Berg | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.764560 |
2408 | Analytical chemistry | thumb|right|300 px|Gas chromatography laboratory
Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration.
Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern analytical techniques. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte.
Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to medicine, science, and engineering.
History
thumb|upright|Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (right)
Analytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the object in question. During this period, significant contributions to analytical chemistry included the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups.
The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860.
Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry took place after 1900. During this period, instrumental analysis became progressively dominant in the field. In particular, many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century.
The separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also became increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples.
Starting in the 1970s, analytical chemistry became progressively more inclusive of biological questions (bioanalytical chemistry), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules. Lasers have been increasingly used as probes and even to initiate and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology.
Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in the discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical.
Classical methods
thumb|The presence of copper in this qualitative analysis is indicated by the bluish-green color of the flame
Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques, many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs.
Qualitative analysis
Qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure quantity.
Chemical tests
There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood.
Flame test
Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain aqueous ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate a range of possibilities and then confirm suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon-containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation, these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in fieldwork or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments is not available or expedient.
Quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis is the measurement of the quantities of particular chemical constituents present in a substance. Quantities can be measured by mass (gravimetric analysis) or volume (volumetric analysis).
Gravimetric analysis
The gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water.
Volumetric analysis
Titration involves the gradual addition of a measurable reactant to an exact volume of a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Titration is a family of techniques used to determine the concentration of an analyte. Titrating accurately to either the half-equivalence point or the endpoint of a titration allows the chemist to determine the amount of moles used, which can then be used to determine a concentration or composition of the titrant. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary education is the acid-base titration involving a color-changing indicator, such as phenolphthalein. There are many other types of titrations, for example, potentiometric titrations or precipitation titrations. Chemists might also create titration curves in order by systematically testing the pH every drop in order to understand different properties of the titrant.
Instrumental methods
thumb|upright=1.2|Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarization interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.
Mass spectrometry
thumb|An accelerator mass spectrometer used for radiocarbon dating and other analysis
Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. In a mass spectrometer, a small amount of sample is ionized and converted to gaseous ions, where they are separated and analyzed according to their mass-to-charge ratios. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).
Potentiometry measures the cell's potential, coulometry measures the cell's current, and voltammetry measures the change in current when cell potential changes.
Thermal analysis
Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat.
Separation
thumb|Separation of black ink on a thin-layer chromatography plate
Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography, electrophoresis and field flow fractionation are representative of this field.
Chromatographic assays
Chromatography can be used to determine the presence of substances in a sample as different components in a mixture have different tendencies to adsorb onto the stationary phase or dissolve in the mobile phase. Thus, different components of the mixture move at different speed. Different components of a mixture can therefore be identified by their respective Rƒ values, which is the ratio between the migration distance of the substance and the migration distance of the solvent front during chromatography.
In combination with the instrumental methods, chromatography can be used in quantitative determination of the substances. Chromatography separates the analyte from the rest of the sample so that it may be measured without interference from other compounds. In Thin-layer chromatography, the analyte mixture moves up and separates along the coated sheet under the volatile mobile phase. In Gas chromatography, gas separates the volatile analytes. A common method for chromatography using liquid as a mobile phase is High-performance liquid chromatography.
Hybrid techniques
Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry.
Hyphenated separation techniques refer to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.
Microscopy
thumb|Fluorescence microscope image of two mouse cell nuclei in prophase (scale bar is 5 μm)
The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues, and nanomaterials is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries.
Lab-on-a-chip
Devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters.
Errors
Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value. The experimental error can be divided into two types, systematic error and random error. Systematic error results from a flaw in equipment or the design of an experiment while random error results from uncontrolled or uncontrollable variables in the experiment.
In error the true value and observed value in chemical analysis can be related with each other by the equation
\varepsilon_{\rm a} = |x - \bar{x}|
where
\varepsilon_{\rm a} is the absolute error.
x is the true value.
\bar{x} is the observed value.
An error of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement, i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement.
Errors can be expressed relatively. Given the relative error(\varepsilon_{\rm r}):
\varepsilon_{\rm r} \frac{\varepsilon_{\rm a}}{|x|} \left | \frac{x - \bar{x}}{x} \right |
The percent error can also be calculated:
\varepsilon_{\rm r} \times 100\%
If we want to use these values in a function, we may also want to calculate the error of the function. Let f be a function with N variables. Therefore, the propagation of uncertainty must be calculated in order to know the error in f:
\varepsilon_{\rm a} (f) \approx \sum_{i 1}^N \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_i) \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_1) + \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_2} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_2) + \ldots + \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_N} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_N)
Standards
Standard curve
thumb|upright=1.2|A calibration curve plot showing limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), dynamic range, and limit of linearity (LOL)
A general method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a calibration curve. This allows for the determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of an unknown sample to those of a series of known standards. If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method, a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample.
Internal standards
Sometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is an isotopically enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of isotope dilution.
Standard addition
The method of standard addition is used in instrumental analysis to determine the concentration of a substance (analyte) in an unknown sample by comparison to a set of samples of known concentration, similar to using a calibration curve. Standard addition can be applied to most analytical techniques and is used instead of a calibration curve to solve the matrix effect problem.
Signals and noise
One of the most important components of analytical chemistry is maximizing the desired signal while minimizing the associated noise. The analytical figure of merit is known as the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR).
Noise can arise from environmental factors as well as from fundamental physical processes.
Thermal noise
Thermal noise results from the motion of charge carriers (usually electrons) in an electrical circuit generated by their thermal motion. Thermal noise is white noise meaning that the power spectral density is constant throughout the frequency spectrum.
The root mean square value of the thermal noise in a resistor is given by and electric motors. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and, therefore, can be avoided. Temperature and vibration isolation may be required for some instruments.
Noise reduction
Noise reduction can be accomplished either in computer hardware or software. Examples of hardware noise reduction are the use of shielded cable, analog filtering, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are digital filtering, ensemble average, boxcar average, and correlation methods. In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing. An interest towards absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in emission spectrometry.
Great effort is being put into shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro total analysis system (μTAS) or lab-on-a-chip). Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used.
Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are genomics, DNA sequencing and related research in genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray; proteomics, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, metabolomics, which deals with metabolites; transcriptomics, including mRNA and associated fields; lipidomics - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.
Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science, and so on.
The recent developments in computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis for completing human genome projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics. In addition to automating specific processes, there is effort to automate larger sections of lab testing, such as in companies like Emerald Cloud Lab and Transcriptic.
Analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enable scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations.
See also
Calorimeter
Clinical chemistry
Environmental chemistry
Ion beam analysis
List of chemical analysis methods
Important publications in analytical chemistry
List of materials analysis methods
Measurement uncertainty
Metrology
Microanalysis
Nuclear reaction analysis
Quality of analytical results
Radioanalytical chemistry
Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy
Sensory analysis - in the field of Food science
Virtual instrumentation
Working range
References
Further reading
Gurdeep, Chatwal Anand (2008). Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis Himalaya Publishing House (India)
Ralph L. Shriner, Reynold C. Fuson, David Y. Curtin, Terence C. Morill: The systematic identification of organic compounds - a laboratory manual, Verlag Wiley, New York 1980, 6. edition, .
Bettencourt da Silva, R; Bulska, E; Godlewska-Zylkiewicz, B; Hedrich, M; Majcen, N; Magnusson, B; Marincic, S; Papadakis, I; Patriarca, M; Vassileva, E; Taylor, P; Analytical measurement: measurement uncertainty and statistics, 2012, .
External links
Infografik and animation showing the progress of analytical chemistry
aas Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
Category:Materials science | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.818108 |
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Music performed a cappella ( , , ; ), less commonly spelled a capella in English, is music performed by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music. Early history Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language. The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000 BC, while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph. the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam.ChristianThe polyphony of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of organum, reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the Franco-Flemish school (such as Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez). The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms. and Andrea Gabrieli when upon his death many choral pieces were discovered, one of which was in the unaccompanied style. Learning from the preceding two composers, Heinrich Schütz utilized the a cappella style in numerous pieces; chief among these were the pieces in the oratorio style, which were traditionally performed during the Easter week and dealt with the religious subject matter of that week, such as the Passion. Five of Schutz's Historien were Easter pieces, and of these the latter three, which dealt with the passion from three different viewpoints, those of Matthew, Luke and John, were all done a cappella style. The parts of the crowd were sung while the solo parts which were the quoted parts from either Christ or the authors were performed in a plainchant.
In the Byzantine Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the music performed in the liturgies is exclusively sung without instrumental accompaniment. Early Russian musika which started appearing in the late 17th century, in what was known as khorovïye kontsertï (choral concertos) made a cappella adaptations of Venetian-styled pieces, such as the treatise, Grammatika musikiyskaya (1675), by Nikolai Diletsky. Divine Liturgies and Western Rite Masses composed by famous composers such as Peter Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Arkhangelsky, and Mykola Leontovych are examples.
Instruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Roman Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of Protestant Reformers, including Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and John Wesley. Opponents of musical instruments in the Christian worship believe that such opposition is supported by the Christian scriptures and Church history. There is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries. Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship.
Those who do not adhere to the regulative principle of interpreting Christian scripture, believe that limiting praise to the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that churches in any age are free to offer their songs with or without musical instruments. Those who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33–180 AD). The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves. Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church, but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today.
* Modern Christians typically believe it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions.
* Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century. Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers, who argued that God had allowed David the "evil" of using musical instruments in praise. While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments, modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament.
Since "a cappella" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony. While Zwingli was destroying organs in Switzerland – Luther called him a fanatic – the Church of England was burning books of polyphony.
Some Holiness Churches such as the Free Methodist Church opposed the use of musical instruments in church worship until the mid-20th century. The Free Methodist Church allowed for local church decision on the use of either an organ or piano in the 1943 Conference before lifting the ban entirely in 1955. The Reformed Free Methodist Church and Evangelical Wesleyan Church were formed as a result of a schism with the Free Methodist Church, with the former retaining a cappella worship and the latter retaining the rule limiting the number of instruments in the church to the piano and organ. many Anabaptist communities (including Old Order Anabaptist groups—such as the Amish, Old German Baptist Brethren, Old Order Mennonites, as well as Conservative Anabaptist groups—such as the Dunkard Brethren Church and Conservative Mennonites), some Presbyterian churches devoted to the regulative principle of worship, Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Plymouth Brethren, Churches of Christ, Church of God, the Reformed Free Methodists, Doukhobors, and the Byzantine Rite of Eastern Christianity. Certain high church services and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as the Roman Catholic Mass and the Lutheran Divine Service) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. Sacred Harp, a type of folk music, is an a cappella style of religious singing with shape notes, usually sung at singing conventions.
Jewish
While worship in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments, traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments given the practice of scriptural cantillation. The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time. This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music.
The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BC. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still. This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service. However, silver trumpets, as described in Numbers 10:1-18, have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the Western Wall.In the United States
, were featured in the movie Pitch Perfect]]
Peter Christian Lutkin, dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was "the first permanent organization of its kind in America."
An a cappella tradition was begun in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was composed, at least partially, of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota), Augustana College (Rock Island, Illinois), Waldorf University (Forest City, Iowa), Luther College (Decorah, Iowa), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, Minnesota), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg University (Minneapolis, Minnesota). The choirs typically range from 40 to 80 singers and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing and pitch in a large choral setting.
Movements in modern a cappella over the past century include barbershop and doo wop. The Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony Inc. host educational events including Harmony University, Directors University, and the International Educational Symposium, and international contests and conventions, recognizing international champion choruses and quartets.
Many a cappella groups can be found in high schools and colleges. There are amateur Barbershop Harmony Society and professional groups that sing a cappella exclusively. Although a cappella is technically defined as singing without instrumental accompaniment, some groups use their voices to emulate instruments; others are more traditional and focus on harmonizing. A cappella styles range from gospel music to contemporary to barbershop quartets and choruses.
The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) is a membership option for former students, whose funds support hosted competitions and events.
A cappella music was popularized between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s with media hits such as the 2009–2014 TV show The Sing-Off and the musical comedy film series Pitch Perfect.
Recording artists
In July 1943, as a result of the American Federation of Musicians boycott of US recording studios, the a cappella vocal group The Song Spinners had a best-seller with "Comin' In on a Wing and a Prayer". In the 1950s, several recording groups, notably The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen, introduced complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. Frank Zappa loved doo wop and a cappella, so Zappa released The Persuasions' first album from his label in 1970. Judy Collins recorded "Amazing Grace" a cappella. In 1983, an a cappella group known as The Flying Pickets had a Christmas 'number one' in the UK with a cover of Yazoo's (known in the US as Yaz) "Only You". A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as The Manhattan Transfer, Bobby McFerrin, Huey Lewis and the News, All-4-One, The Nylons, Backstreet Boys, Boyz II Men, and *NSYNC.
Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal groups and bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock/gospel sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. Examples of such professional groups include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, The House Jacks, Rockapella, Mosaic, Home Free and M-pact. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6, Glad and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment.
A cappella can also describe the isolated vocal track(s) from a multitrack recording that originally included instrumentation. These vocal tracks may be remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs, or released to the public so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of Jay-Z's Black Album, which Danger Mouse mixed with the Beatles' White Album to create The Grey Album.
On their 1966 album titled Album, Peter, Paul and Mary included the song "Norman Normal". All the sounds on that song, both vocals and instruments, were created by Paul's voice, with no actual instruments used.
In 2013, an artist by the name Smooth McGroove rose to prominence with his style of a cappella music. He is best known for his a cappella covers of video game music tracks on YouTube.
in 2015, an a cappella version of Jerusalem by multi-instrumentalist Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre "The Game Starts Here" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.
Musical theatre
A cappella has been used as the sole orchestration for original works of musical theatre that have had commercial runs Off-Broadway (theatres in New York City with 99 to 500 seats) only four times. The first was Avenue X which opened on 28 January 1994, and ran for 77 performances. It was produced by Playwrights Horizons with book by John Jiler, music and lyrics by Ray Leslee. The musical style of the show's score was primarily doo-wop as the plot revolved around doo-wop group singers of the 1960s.
In 2001, The Kinsey Sicks, produced and starred in the critically acclaimed off-Broadway hit, DRAGAPELLA! Starring the Kinsey Sicks at New York's Studio 54. That production received a nomination for a Lucille Lortel award as Best Musical and a Drama Desk nomination for Best Lyrics. It was directed by Glenn Casale with original music and lyrics by Ben Schatz.
The a cappella musical Perfect Harmony, a comedy about two high school a cappella groups vying to win the national championship, made its Off Broadway debut at Theatre Row's Acorn Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City in October 2010 after a successful out-of-town run at the Stoneham Theatre, in Stoneham, Massachusetts. Perfect Harmony features the hit music of The Jackson 5, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, Marvin Gaye, Scandal, Tiffany, The Romantics, The Pretenders, The Temptations, The Contours, The Commodores, Tommy James & the Shondells and The Partridge Family, and has been compared to a cross between Altar Boyz and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee.
The fourth a cappella musical to appear Off-Broadway, In Transit, premiered October 5, 2010, and was produced by Primary Stages with book, music, and lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez, James-Allen Ford, Russ Kaplan, and Sara Wordsworth. Set primarily in the New York City subway system its score features an eclectic mix of musical genres (including jazz, hip hop, Latin, rock, and country). In Transit incorporates vocal beat boxing into its contemporary a cappella arrangements through the use of a subway beat boxer character. Beat boxer and actor Chesney Snow performed this role for the 2010 Primary Stages production. According to the show's website, it is scheduled to reopen for an open-ended commercial run in the Fall of 2011. In 2011, the production received four Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Musical, Outer Critics Circle and Drama League nominations, as well as five Drama Desk nominations including Outstanding Musical and won for Outstanding Ensemble Performance. In December 2016, In Transit became the first a cappella musical on Broadway.Barbershop style
Barbershop music is one of several uniquely American art forms. The earliest reports of this style of a cappella music involved African Americans. The earliest documented quartets all began in barber shops. In 1938, the first formal men's barbershop organization was formed, known as the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America (S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A), and in 2004 rebranded itself and officially changed its public name to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS). Today the BHS has about 22,000 members in approximately 800 chapters across the United States and Canada, and the barbershop style has spread around the world with organizations in many other countries. The Barbershop Harmony Society provides a highly organized competition structure for a cappella quartets and choruses singing in the barbershop style.
In 1945, the first formal women's barbershop organization, Sweet Adelines, was formed. In 1953, Sweet Adelines became an international organization, although it did not change its name to Sweet Adelines International until 1991. The membership of nearly 25,000 women, all singing in English, includes choruses in most of the fifty United States as well as in Australia, Canada, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the organization encompasses more than 1,200 registered quartets and 600 choruses.
In 1959, a second women's barbershop organization started as a break off from Sweet Adelines due to ideological differences. Based on democratic principles which continue to this day, [http://www.harmonyinc.org Harmony, Inc.] is smaller than its counterpart, but has an atmosphere of friendship and competition. With about 2,500 members in the United States and Canada, Harmony, Inc. uses the same rules in contest that the Barbershop Harmony Society uses. Harmony, Inc. is registered in Providence, Rhode Island.
Amateur and high school
The popularity of a cappella among high schools and amateurs was revived by television shows and movies such as Glee and Pitch Perfect. High school groups may have conductors or student leaders who keep the tempo for the group, or beatboxers/vocal percussionists.
Since 2013, summer training programs have appeared, such as A Cappella Academy in Los Angeles, California (founded by Ben Bram, Rob Dietz, and Avi Kaplan) and Camp A Cappella in Dayton, Ohio (founded by Deke Sharon and Brody McDonald). These programs teach about different aspects of a cappella music, including vocal performance, arranging, and beatboxing/vocal percussion.In other countries
Afghanistan
The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan has no official anthem because of views by the Taliban of music as un-Islamic. However, the de facto national anthem of Afghanistan is an a cappella nasheed, as musical instruments are virtually banned as corrupting and un-Islamic.
Iran
The first a cappella group in Iran is the Damour Vocal Band, which was able to perform on national television despite a ban on women singing.PakistanThe musical show Strepsils Stereo is credited for introducing the art of a cappella in Pakistan.
Sri Lanka
Composer Dinesh Subasinghe became the first Sri Lankan to write a cappella pieces for SATB choirs. He wrote "The Princes of the Lost Tribe" and "Ancient Queen of Somawathee" for Menaka De Sahabandu and Bridget Helpe's choirs, respectively, based on historical incidents in ancient Sri Lanka. Voice Print is also a professional a cappella music group in Sri Lanka.
Sweden
The European a cappella tradition is especially strong in the countries around the Baltic and perhaps most so in Sweden as described by Richard Sparks in his doctoral thesis The Swedish Choral Miracle in 2000.
Swedish a cappella choirs have over the last 25 years won around 25% of the annual prestigious European Grand Prix for Choral Singing (EGP) that despite its name is open to choirs from all over the world (see list of laureates in the Wikipedia article on the EGP competition).
The reasons for the strong Swedish dominance are as explained by Richard Sparks manifold; suffice to say here that there is a long-standing tradition, an unusually large proportion of the populations (5% is often cited) regularly sing in choirs, the Swedish choral director Eric Ericson had an enormous impact on a cappella choral development not only in Sweden but around the world, and finally there are a large number of very popular primary and secondary schools ('music schools') with high admission standards based on auditions that combine a rigid academic regimen with high level choral singing on every school day, a system that started with Adolf Fredrik's Music School in Stockholm in 1939 but has spread over the country.
United Kingdom
, the oldest a cappella group at the University of Oxford in the UK]]
A cappella has gained attention in the UK in recent years, with many groups forming at British universities by students seeking an alternative singing pursuit to traditional choral and chapel singing. This movement has been bolstered by organisations such as The Voice Festival UK and the integration of the United Kingdom into the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella.
Western collegiate
It is not clear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873 is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group. The longest continuously singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University, which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member.
Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups. In December 2009, a new television competition series called The Sing-Off aired on NBC. The show featured eight a cappella groups from the United States and Puerto Rico vying for the prize of $100,000 and a recording contract with Epic Records/Sony Music. The show was judged by Ben Folds, Shawn Stockman, and Nicole Scherzinger and was won by an all-male group from Puerto Rico called Nota. The show returned for a second, third, fourth, and fifth season, won by Committed, Pentatonix, Home Free, and The Melodores from Vanderbilt University respectively.
Each year, hundreds of collegiate a cappella groups submit their strongest songs in a competition to be on The Best of College A Cappella (BOCA), an album compilation of tracks from the best college a cappella groups around the world. The album is produced by Varsity Vocals –which also produces the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella – and Deke Sharon.). According to ethnomusicologist Joshua S. Dunchan, "BOCA carries considerable cache and respect within the field despite the appearance of other compilations in part, perhaps, because of its longevity and the prestige of the individuals behind it."
Collegiate a cappella groups may also submit their tracks to Voices Only, a two-disc series released at the beginning of each school year. A Voices Only album has been released every year since 2005.
In addition, from 2014 to 2019, female-identifying a cappella groups had the opportunity to send their strongest song tracks to the Women's A Cappella Association (WACA) for its annual best of women's a cappella album. WACA offered another medium for women's voices to receive recognition and released an album every year from 2014 to 2019, featuring female-identifying groups from across the United States. The Women's A Cappella Association hosted seven annual festivals in California before ending operations in 2019.
South Asian
South Asian a cappella features a fusion of music from the Indian subcontinent, which places it in the category of South Asian fusion music. A cappella is gaining popularity among South Asians with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English college groups. The first South Asian a cappella group was Penn Masala, an all-male group founded in 1996 at the University of Pennsylvania. The first co-ed South Asian a cappella was Anokha, from the University of Maryland, formed in 2001. The first South Asian A Cappella competition was "Anahat," hosted by the Indus student organization at UC Berkeley. Maize Mirchi, the co-ed a cappella group from the University of Michigan became the first South Asian group to advance to ICCA finals in 2023.
The South Asian a cappella competitive circuit is governed by the Association of South-Asian A Cappella (ASA), a non-profit organization formed in 2016. The competitive circuit consists of qualifier "bid" competitions all over the United States, as well as the national championship, All-American Awaaz. The first winner of the championship title was Swaram A Cappella at Texas A&M University, who won 1st place at All-American Awaaz in 2017 in New York City as well as in 2018 in Chicago. Dhamakapella currently holds the record for most All-American Awaaz championships, winning three consecutive championships in 2022, 2023, and 2024.
Emulating instruments
In addition to singing words, some a cappella singers also emulate instrumentation by reproducing instrumental sounds with their vocal cords and mouth, often pitched using specialised pitch pipes. One of the earliest 20th century practitioners of this method were The Mills Brothers whose early recordings of the 1930s clearly stated on the label that all instrumentation was done vocally. More recently, "Twilight Zone" by 2 Unlimited was sung a cappella to the instrumentation on the comedy television series Tompkins Square. Another famous example of emulating instrumentation instead of singing the words is the theme song for The New Addams Family series on Fox Family Channel (now Freeform). Groups such as Vocal Sampling and Undivided emulate Latin rhythms a cappella. In the 1960s, the Swingle Singers used their voices to emulate musical instruments to Baroque and Classical music. Vocal artist Bobby McFerrin is famous for his instrumental emulation. A cappella group Naturally Seven recreates entire songs using vocal tones for every instrument.
Beatboxing, more accurately known as vocal percussion, is a technique used in a cappella music popularized by the hip-hop community, where rap is often performed a cappella. The advent of vocal percussion added new dimensions to the a cappella genre and has become very prevalent in modern arrangements. Beatboxing is performed often by shaping the mouth, making pops and clicks as pseudo-drum sounds.
See also
* Lists of a cappella groups
** List of professional a cappella groups
** List of collegiate a cappella groups in the United States
** List of university a cappella groups in the United Kingdom
Notes
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External links
* [https://ACappellaMusicAwards.com A Cappella Music Awards]
Category:Singing
Category:Vocal music
Category:Musical terminology
Category:Medieval music genres
Category:16th-century music genres
Category:20th-century music genres
Category:21st-century music genres
Category:Italian words and phrases
Category:Choral music genres | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.853072 |
2414 | Arrangement | thumb|John Philip Sousa's manuscript arrangement of Richard Wagner's The Flying Dutchman overture (page 25 of 37).
In music, an arrangement is a musical adaptation of an existing composition. Differences from the original composition may include reharmonization, melodic paraphrasing, orchestration, or formal development. Arranging differs from orchestration in that the latter process is limited to the assignment of notes to instruments for performance by an orchestra, concert band, or other musical ensemble. Arranging "involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings. Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety". In jazz, a memorized (unwritten) arrangement of a new or pre-existing composition is known as a head arrangement.
Classical music
Arrangement and transcriptions of classical and serious music go back to the early history of classical music.
Eighteenth century
J. S. Bach frequently made arrangements of his own and other composers' pieces. One example is the arrangement that he made of the Prelude from his Partita No. 3 for solo violin, BWV 1006.thumb|Bach Partita 3 for Violin Prelude thumb|center|500px|Bach Partita 3 for Violin Prelude
Bach transformed this solo piece into an orchestral Sinfonia that introduces his Cantata BWV29. "The initial violin composition was in E major but both arranged versions are transposed down to D, the better to accommodate the wind instruments".thumb|Bach Cantata 29 Sinfonia thumb|center|600px|Bach Cantata 29 Sinfonia
"The transformation of material conceived for a single string instrument into a fully orchestrated concerto-type movement is so successful that it is unlikely that anyone hearing the latter for the first time would suspect the existence of the former".
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
Piano music
In particular, music written for the piano has frequently undergone this treatment, as it has been arranged for orchestra, chamber ensemble, or concert band. Beethoven made an arrangement of his Piano Sonata No. 9 for string quartet. Conversely, he also arranged his Grosse Fuge (one of his late string quartets) for piano duet. The American composer George Gershwin, due to his own lack of expertise in orchestration, had his Rhapsody in Blue arranged and orchestrated by Ferde Grofé.
Erik Satie wrote his three Gymnopédies for solo piano in 1888.thumb|Satie Gymnopedie No. 3 for piano solo thumb|center|500px|Satie Gymnopedie No. 3 for piano solo
Eight years later, Debussy arranged two of them, exploiting the range of instrumental timbres available in a late 19th-century orchestra. "It was Debussy whose 1896 orchestrations of the Gymnopédies put their composer on the map."thumb|Debussy Gymnopedie 1, arrangement of Satie's Gymnopedie 3. thumb|center|500px thumb|center|500px|Debussy Gymnopedie 1, arrangement of Satie's Gymnopedie 3
Pictures at an Exhibition, a suite of ten piano pieces by Modest Mussorgsky, has been arranged over twenty times, notably by Maurice Ravel. Ravel's arrangement demonstrates an "ability to create unexpected, memorable orchestral sonorities". In the second movement, "Gnomus", Mussorgsky's original piano piece simply repeats the following passage:thumb|Mussorgsky Gnomus original bars 19-24 thumb|center|500px|Mussorgsky "Gnomus", original bars 19–25Ravel initially orchestrates it as follows:thumb|Mussorgsky-Ravel "Gnomus", first orchestration thumb|center|500px|Mussorgsky-Ravel "Gnomus", first orchestration
Repeating the passage, Ravel provides a fresh orchestration "this time with the celesta (replacing the woodwinds) accompanied by string glissandos on the fingerboard".thumb|Schubert "Erlkönig", piano introduction thumb|center|500px|Schubert "Erlkönig", piano introduction
The arrangement of this song by Hector Berlioz uses strings to convey faithfully the driving urgency and threatening atmosphere of the original.thumb|"Erlkönig", arrangement by Berlioz thumb|center|500px
Berlioz adds colour in bars 6–8 through the addition of woodwind, horns, and a timpani. With typical flamboyance, Berlioz adds spice to the harmony in bar 6 with an E flat in the horn part, creating a half-diminished seventh chord which is not in Schubert's original piano part.thumb|center|500px|"Erlkönig", arrangement by Berlioz
There are subtle differences between this and the arrangement of the song by Franz Liszt. The upper string sound is thicker, with violins and violas playing the fierce repeated octaves in unison and bassoons compensating for this by doubling the cellos and basses. There are no timpani, but trumpets and horns add a small jolt to the rhythm of the opening bar, reinforcing the bare octaves of the strings by playing on the second main beat.thumb|Erl King - arrangement by Liszt opening bars thumb|center|500px|Erl King – arrangement by Liszt, bars 1–4
Unlike Berlioz, Liszt does not alter the harmony, but changes the emphasis somewhat in bar 6, with the note A in the oboes and clarinets grating against rather than blending with the G in the strings.thumb|center|500px|Erl King – arrangement by Liszt, bars 5–8
"Schubert has come in for his fair share of transcriptions and arrangements. Most, like Liszt's transcriptions of the Lieder or Berlioz's orchestration for Erlkönig, tell us more about the arranger that about the original composer, but they can be diverting so long as they are in no way a replacement for the original".
Gustav Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen ("Songs of a Wayfarer") were originally written for voice with piano accompaniment. The composer's later arrangement of the piano part shows a typical ear for clarity and transparency in rewriting for an ensemble. Below is the original piano version of the closing bars of the second song, "Gieng heit' Morgen über's Feld".thumb|Mahler Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld final bars of the piano version thumb|center|500px|Mahler "Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld", final bars of the piano version
The orchestration shows Mahler's attention to detail in bringing out differentiated orchestral colours supplied by woodwind, strings and horn. He uses a harp to convey the original arpeggios supplied by the left hand of the piano part. He also extracts a descending chromatic melodic line, implied by the left hand in bars 2–4 (above), and gives it to the horn.thumb|Mahler Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld final bars of the orchestral arrangement thumb|center|500px|Mahler "Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld", final bars of the orchestral arrangement
Popular music
Popular music recordings often include parts for brass horn sections, bowed strings, and other instruments that were added by arrangers and not composed by the original songwriters. Some pop arrangers even add sections using full orchestra, though this is less common due to the expense involved. Popular music arrangements may also be considered to include new releases of existing songs with a new musical treatment. These changes can include alterations to tempo, meter, key, instrumentation, and other musical elements.
Well known examples include Joe Cocker's version of the Beatles' "With a Little Help from My Friends", Cream's "Crossroads", and Ike and Tina Turner's version of Creedence Clearwater Revival's "Proud Mary". The American group Vanilla Fudge and the British group Yes based their early careers on radical rearrangements of contemporary hits. Bonnie Pointer performed disco and Motown-styled versions of "Heaven Must Have Sent You". Remixes, such as in dance music, can also be considered arrangements.
Jazz
Arrangements for small jazz combos are usually informal, minimal, and uncredited. Larger ensembles have generally had greater requirements for notated arrangements, though the early Count Basie big band is known for its many head arrangements, so called because they were worked out by the players themselves, memorized ("in the player's head"), and never written down. Most arrangements for big bands, however, were written down and credited to a specific arranger, as with arrangements by Sammy Nestico and Neal Hefti for Count Basie's later big bands.
Don Redman made innovations in jazz arranging as a part of Fletcher Henderson's orchestra in the 1920s. Redman's arrangements introduced a more intricate melodic presentation and soli performances for various sections of the big band. Benny Carter became Henderson's primary arranger in the early 1930s, becoming known for his arranging abilities in addition to his previous recognition as a performer. Duke Ellington's and Billy Strayhorn's arrangements for the Duke Ellington big band were usually new compositions, and some of Eddie Sauter's arrangements for the Benny Goodman band and Artie Shaw's arrangements for his own band were new compositions as well. It became more common to arrange sketchy jazz combo compositions for big band after the bop era.
After 1950, the big bands declined in number. However, several bands continued and arrangers provided renowned arrangements. Gil Evans wrote a number of large-ensemble arrangements in the late 1950s and early 1960s intended for recording sessions only. Other arrangers of note include Vic Schoen, Pete Rugolo, Oliver Nelson, Johnny Richards, Billy May, Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Brookmeyer, Lou Marini, Nelson Riddle, Ralph Burns, Billy Byers, Gordon Jenkins, Ray Conniff, Henry Mancini, Ray Reach, Vince Mendoza, and Claus Ogerman.
In the 21st century, the big-band arrangement has made a modest comeback. Gordon Goodwin, Roy Hargrove, and Christian McBride have all rolled out new big bands with both original compositions and new arrangements of standard tunes.
For instrumental groups
Strings
The string section is a body of instruments composed of various bowed stringed instruments. By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins (the same instrument as the first violins, but typically playing an accompaniment or harmony part to the first violins, and often at a lower pitch range), violas, cellos, and double basses. The string section in a multi-sectioned orchestra is sometimes referred to as the "string choir".
The harp is also a stringed instrument, but is not a member of nor homogeneous with the violin family, and is not considered part of the string choir. Samuel Adler classifies the harp as a plucked string instrument in the same category as the guitar (acoustic or electric), mandolin, banjo, or zither. Like the harp, these instruments do not belong to the violin family and are not homogeneous with the string choir. In modern arranging these instruments are considered part of the rhythm section. The electric bass and upright string bass—depending on the circumstance—can be treated by the arranger as either string section or rhythm section instruments.
A group of instruments in which each member plays a unique part—rather than playing in unison with other like instruments—is referred to as a chamber ensemble. A chamber ensemble made up entirely of strings of the violin family is referred to by its size. A string trio consists of three players, a string quartet four, a string quintet five, and so on.
In most circumstances the string section is treated by the arranger as one homogeneous unit and its members are required to play preconceived material rather than improvise.
A string section can be utilized on its own (this is referred to as a string orchestra) or in conjunction with any of the other instrumental sections. More than one string orchestra can be utilized.
A standard string section (vln., vln 2., vla., vcl, cb.) with each section playing unison allows the arranger to create a five-part texture. Often an arranger will divide each violin section in half or thirds to achieve a denser texture. It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part.
Size of the string section
Artistic, budgetary and logistical concerns, including the size of the orchestra pit or hall will determine the size and instrumentation of a string section. The Broadway musical West Side Story, in 1957, was booked into the Winter Garden theater; composer Leonard Bernstein disliked the playing of "house" viola players he would have to use there, and so he chose to leave them out of the show's instrumentation; a benefit was the creation of more space in the pit for an expanded percussion section.
George Martin, producer and arranger for the Beatles, warns arrangers about the intonation problems when only two like instruments play in unison: "After a string quartet, I do not think there is a satisfactory sound for strings until one has at least three players on each line . . . as a rule two stringed instruments together create a slight 'beat' which does not give a smooth sound." Different music directors may use different numbers of string players and different balances between the sections to create different musical effects.
While any combination and number of string instruments is possible in a section, a traditional string section sound is achieved with a violin-heavy balance of instruments.
+Suggested string section sizesReferenceAuthorSection sizeViolinsViolasCelliBasses"Arranged By Nelson Riddle"Nelson Riddle12 players822015 players933016 players1033020 players1244030 players18660"The Contemporary Arranger"Don Sebesky9 players702012 players822016 players1204020 players12440
Further reading
NameAuthorInside the score: A detailed analysis of 8 classic jazz ensemble charts by Sammy Nestico, Thad Jones and Bob BrookmeyerRayburn WrightSounds and Scores: A Practical Guide to Professional OrchestrationHenry ManciniThe Contemporary ArrangerDon SebeskyThe Study of OrchestrationSamuel AdlerArranged by Nelson RiddleNelson RiddleInstrumental Jazz Arranging: A Comprehensive and Practical GuideMike TomaroModern Jazz Voicings: Arranging for Small and Medium EnsembleTed Pease, Ken PulligArranging for Large Jazz EnsembleTed Pease, Dick LowellArranging concepts complete: the ultimate arranging course for today's musicDick GroveThe complete arrangerSammy NesticoArranging Songs: How to Put the Parts TogetherRikky Rooksby
See also
Transcription (music)
Instrumentation (music)
Orchestration
Reduction (music)
Musical notation
Musical setting
American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers
Electronic keyboard (or Electronic Music Arranger), which allows for live music arrangement
List of music arrangers
List of jazz arrangers
:Category:Music arrangers
References
Sources
Kers, Robert de (1944). Harmonie et orchestration pour orchestra de danse. Bruxelles: Éditions musicales C. Bens. vii, 126 p.
Kidd, Jim (1987). Unsung Heroes, the Jazz Arrangers, from Don Redman to Sy Oliver: [text with recorded examples for a presentation] Prepared on the Occasion of the 16th Annual Canadian Collectors' Congress, 25 April 1987, Toronto, Ont. Toronto: Canadian Collectors' Congress. Photo-reproduced text ([6] leaves) with audiocassette of recorded illustrative musical examples.
Randel, Don Michael (2002). The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians. .
External links
An oral history of pop music arranging, compiled by Richard Niles: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3
Category:Arrangement | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrangement | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.881790 |
2416 | Athanasian Creed | thumb|Athanasius of Alexandria was traditionally thought to be the author of the Athanasian Creed, and gives his name to its common title.
The Athanasian Creed—also called the Quicunque Vult (or Quicumque Vult), which is both its Latin name and its opening words, meaning "Whosoever wishes"—is a Christian statement of belief focused on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. Used by Christian churches since the early sixth century, it was the first creed to explicitly state the equality of the three hypostases of the Trinity. It differs from the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and the Apostles' Creed in that it includes anathemas condemning those who disagree with its statements, as does the original Nicene Creed.
Widely accepted in Western Christianity, including by the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches (it is part of the Lutheran confessions set out in the Book of Concord), Anglican Churches, Reformed Churches, and ancient liturgical churches, the Athanasian Creed has been used in public worship less frequently, with exception of Trinity Sunday. However, part of it can be found as an "Authorized Affirmation of Faith" in the main volume of the Common Worship liturgy of the Church of England published in 2000. Despite falling out of liturgical use, the creed's influence on current Protestant understanding of trinitarian doctrine is clear.
Designed to distinguish Nicene Christianity from Arianism, the Athanasian Creed traditionally was recited at the Sunday Office of Prime in the Western Church. It has not been commonly used in the Eastern Church.
Origin
thumb|The Shield of the Trinity, a visual representation of the doctrine of the Trinity, derived from the Athanasian Creed
There is a possible allusion to the Creed in Gregory Nazianzen's Oration in praise of Athanasius:
"For, when all the rest who sympathised with us were divided into three parties, and many were faltering in their conception of the Son, and still more in that of the Holy Ghost, (a point on which to be only slightly in error was to be orthodox) and few indeed were sound upon both points, he was the first and only one, or with the concurrence of but a few, to venture to confess in writing, with entire clearness and distinctness, the Unity of Godhead and Essence of the Three Persons, and thus to attain in later days, under the influence of inspiration, to the same faith in regard to the Holy Ghost, as had been bestowed at an earlier time on most of the Fathers in regard to the Son. This confession, a truly royal and magnificent gift, he presented to the Emperor, opposing to the unwritten innovation, a written account the orthodox faith, so that an emperor might be overcome by an emperor, reason by reason, treatise by treatise." (Oration 21, p. 33)
A medieval account credited Athanasius of Alexandria, the famous defender of Nicene theology, as the author of the Creed. According to that account, Athanasius composed it during his exile in Rome and presented it to Pope Julius I as a witness to his orthodoxy. The traditional attribution of the Creed to Athanasius was first called into question in 1642 by the Dutch Protestant theologian Gerhard Johann Vossius.
It has since been widely accepted by modern scholars that the creed was not authored by Athanasius, that it was not originally called a creed at all and that Athanasius's name was not originally attached to it. Athanasius's name seems to have become attached to the creed as a sign of its strong declaration of Trinitarian faith. The reasoning for rejecting Athanasius as the author usually relies on a combination of the following:
The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, but Athanasius composed in Greek.
Neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed.
It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils.
It appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died (including the filioque).
It was most widely circulated among Western Christians.
The use of the creed in a sermon by Caesarius of Arles, as well as a theological resemblance to works by Vincent of Lérins, point to Southern Gaul as its origin. In the late 19th century, there was a great deal of speculation about who might have authored the creed, with suggestions including Ambrose of Milan, Venantius Fortunatus and Hilary of Poitiers.
The 1940 discovery of a lost work by Vincent of Lérins, which bears a striking similarity to much of the language of the Athanasian Creed, has led many to conclude that the creed originated with Vincent or his students. For example, in the authoritative modern monograph about the creed, J. N. D. Kelly asserts that Vincent of Lérins was not its author but that it may have come from the same milieu, the area of Lérins in southern Gaul.
The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Athanasian Creed date from the late 8th century.
Content
The Athanasian Creed is usually divided into two sections: lines 1–28 address the doctrine of the Trinity, and lines 29–44 address the doctrine of Christology. Enumerating the three persons of the Trinity (Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the first section of the creed ascribes the divine attributes to each individually. Thus, each person of the Trinity is described as uncreated (increatus), limitless (Immensus), eternal (æternus), and omnipotent (omnipotens).
While ascribing the divine attributes and divinity to each person of the Trinity, thus avoiding subordinationism, the first half of the Athanasian Creed also stresses the unity of the three persons in the one Godhead, thus avoiding a theology of tritheism.
The text of the Athanasian Creed is as follows:
in Latin English translationWhosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith.
Which faith unless every one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.
And the catholic faith is this: that we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Essence.
For there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the Holy Ghost.
But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal.
Such as the Father is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost.
The Father uncreated; the Son uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated.
The Father infinite; the Son infinite; and the Holy Ghost infinite.
The Father eternal; the Son eternal; and the Holy Ghost eternal.
And yet they are not three eternals; but one eternal.
As also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one uncreated; and one infinite.
So likewise the Father is Almighty; the Son Almighty; and the Holy Ghost Almighty.
And yet they are not three Almighties; but one Almighty.
So the Father is God; the Son is God; and the Holy Ghost is God.
And yet they are not three Gods; but one God.
So likewise the Father is Lord; the Son Lord; and the Holy Ghost Lord.
And yet not three Lords; but one Lord.
For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity; to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord;
So are we forbidden by the catholic religion; to say, There are three Gods, or three Lords.
The Father is made of none; neither created, nor begotten.
The Son is of the Father alone; not made, nor created; but begotten.
The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten; but proceeding.
So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.
And in this Trinity none is before, or after another; none is greater, or less than another.
But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal.
So that in all things, as aforesaid; the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped.
He therefore that will be saved, let him thus think of the Trinity.
Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation; that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.
For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man;
God, of the Substance [Essence] of the Father; begotten before the worlds; and Man, of the Substance [Essence] of his mother, born in the world.
Perfect God; and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting.
Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead; and inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood.
Who although he is God and Man; yet he is not two, but one Christ.
One; not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh; but by assumption of the Manhood into God.
One altogether; not by confusion of Substance [Essence]; but by unity of Person.
For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so God and Man is one Christ;
Who suffered for our salvation; descended into hell; rose again the third day from the dead.
He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty, from whence he will come to judge the living and the dead.
At whose coming all men will rise again with their bodies; And shall give account for their own works.
And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; and they that have done evil, into everlasting fire.
This is the catholic faith; which except a man believe truly and firmly, he cannot be saved.
The Christology of the second section is more detailed than that of the Nicene Creed and reflects the teaching of the First Council of Ephesus in 431, and the creed of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Athanasian Creed uses the term substantia (a Latin translation of the Nicene ousia: 'being' or 'substance') with respect to the relation of the Son to the Father according to his divine nature, but it also says that the Son is substantia of his mother Mary according to his human nature.
The Creed's wording thus excludes Sabellianism and Arianism and the Christological heresies of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. A need for a clear confession against Arianism arose in Western Europe when the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, who had Arian beliefs, invaded at the beginning of the 5th century.
The final section of this Creed also moved beyond the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds in making negative statements about the people's fate: "They that have done good shall go into life everlasting: and they that have done evil into everlasting fire." That caused considerable debate in England in the mid-19th century, centred on the teaching of Frederick Denison Maurice.
Uses
thumb|Detail of a 13th century manuscript illustration for William Perault's Summa Vitiorum, depicting a knight carrying the "Shield of the Trinity"
Composed of 44 rhythmic lines, the Athanasian Creed appears to have been intended as a liturgical document, the original purpose of the creed being for it to be spoken or sung as a part of worship. The creed itself uses the language of public worship by speaking of the worship of God rather than the language of belief ("Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God"). In the medieval Catholic Church, the creed was recited following the Sunday sermon or at the Sunday Office of Prime. The creed was often set to music and used in the place of a Psalm.
Protestantism
Early Protestants inherited the late medieval devotion to the Athanasian Creed, and it is considered to be authoritative in many Protestant churches. The statements of Protestant belief (confessional documents) of various Reformers commend the Athanasian Creed to their followers, including the Augsburg Confession, the Formula of Concord, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Belgic Confession, the Bohemian Confession and the Thirty-nine Articles.
A metric version, "Quicumque vult", with a musical setting, was published in The Whole Booke of Psalmes printed by John Day in 1562. Among modern Lutheran and Reformed churches adherence to the Athanasian Creed is prescribed by the earlier confessional documents, but the creed does not receive much attention outside occasional use, especially on Trinity Sunday.
In the successive Books of Common Prayer of the reformed Church of England, from 1549 to 1662, its recitation was provided for on 19 occasions each year, a practice that continued until the 19th century, when vigorous controversy regarding its statement about 'eternal damnation' saw its use gradually decline. It remains one of the three Creeds approved in the Thirty-Nine Articles, and it is printed in several current Anglican prayer books, such as A Prayer Book for Australia (1995). As with Roman Catholic practice, its use is now generally only on Trinity Sunday or its octave. An Anglican devotional manual published by The Church Union, A Manual of Catholic Devotion: For Members of the Church of England, includes the Athanasian Creed with the prayers for Mattins, with the note: "Said on certain feasts at Mattins instead of the Apostles' Creed".
The Episcopal Church, based in the United States, has never provided for its use in worship, but added it to its Book of Common Prayer for the first time in 1979, where it is included in small print in a reference section, "Historical Documents of the Church". The Anglo-Catholic devotional manual Saint Augustine's Prayer Book, first published in 1947 and revised in 1967, includes the Athanasian Creed under "Devotions to the Holy Trinity".
Lutheranism
In Lutheranism, the Athanasian Creed is, along with the Apostles' and the Nicene Creed, one of the three ecumenical creeds and is placed at the beginning of the 1580 Book of Concord, the historic collection of authoritative doctrinal statements (confessions) of the Lutheran Church. It is still used in the liturgy on Trinity Sunday.
Catholicism
In Roman Catholic churches, it was traditionally said at Prime on Sundays when the Office was of the Sunday. The 1911 reforms reduced that to Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost and on Trinity Sunday, except when a commemoration of a double feast or a day within an Octave occurred. The 1960 reforms further reduced its use to once a year, on Trinity Sunday.
It has been effectively dropped from the Catholic liturgy since the Second Vatican Council. It is maintained in the rite of exorcism of the Roman Rite. Opus Dei members recite it on the third Sunday of every month. Consistent with its presence in Anglican prayer books, it is preserved in Divine Worship: Daily Office, the official breviary approved for use in the personal ordinariates for former Anglicans.
A common visualization of the first half of the Creed is the Shield of the Trinity.
References
Citations
Sources
Category:Book of Concord
Category:Ecumenical creeds
Category:5th-century Christian texts
Category:Texts in Latin
Category:Trinitarianism
Category:Christian statements of faith
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Western Christianity
Category:Nature of Jesus Christ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasian_Creed | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.916223 |
2417 | Alicante | <br />
| official_name = Alicante / Alacant
| settlement_type = Municipality
| image_skyline = Puerto de Alicante desde el Castillo de Santa Bárbara
| caption1 = View of the harbour with the Castle of Santa Bárbara in the foreground
| image2 = Explanada de España.jpgExplanada de España
| caption2 = Explanada de España
| image3 = Alacant 021.jpgEdificio Gran Sol Alicante
| caption3 = Gran Sol
| image4 = Alacant 043.jpgConcatedral de San Nicolás de Bari
| caption4 = Co-cathedral
| image5 = Alacant 231.jpgCasa Carbonell
| caption5 = Casa Carbonell
| image6= Alicante Stadhuis.JPGCasa Consistorial de Alicante
| caption6 = City hall
| image7 = Playa del Postiguet, Alicante, España, 2014-07-04, DD 47.JPGPlaya del Postiguet
| caption7 = Beach of El Postiguet
}}
| image_flag = Bandera d'Alacant.svg
| flag_alt | image_shield Coat of Arms of Alicante City.svg
| shield_alt | nickname
| motto | image_map |zoom4|typepoint|titleAlicante|markercity|type2shape|stroke-width22|stroke-color2#808080|textInteractive map of Alicante.}}
|map_caption = Location of Alicante
| pushpin_map = Spain Valencia#Spain#Europe
| pushpin_label_position = right
| coordinates
| coordinates_footnotes | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_name = Spain
| subdivision_type1 = Autonomous Community
| subdivision_name1 = Valencian Community
| subdivision_type2 = Province
| subdivision_name2 = Alicante / Alacant
| subdivision_type3 = Comarca
| subdivision_name3 = Alacantí
| established_title = Founded
| established_date = 324 BC
| leader_party = PP
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Luis Barcala
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2 201.27
| elevation_footnotes = (AMSL)
| elevation_m = 3
| population_as_of = 2022-1-1
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 348,901
| population_rank = 10
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonyms = • alicantino, -na (es) <br /> • alacantí, -ina (va)
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes
| demographics2_title1 = Metro
| demographics2_info1 = €34.014 billion (2020)
| timezone1 = CET
| utc_offset1 = +1
| timezone1_DST = CEST
| utc_offset1_DST = +2
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 03000–03016
| area_code = +34 (ES) + 96 (A)
| twin1 | twin1_country
| blank_name_sec1 = Administrative Divisions
| blank_info_sec1 = 12
| blank1_name_sec1 = Neighborhoods
| blank1_info_sec1 = 45
| blank2_name_sec1 = Climate
| blank2_info_sec1 = BSh
| website =
| module | footnotes
}}
Alicante (, , ; ; ; officially: / ) is a city and municipality in the Valencian Community, Spain. It is the capital of the province of Alicante and a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city was 337,482 , the second-largest in the Valencian Community.
Toponymy
The name of the city echoes the Arabic name Laqant (), al-Laqant (اللَّقَنْت) or Al-qant (), which in turn reflects the Latin Lucentum and Greek root Leuké (or Leuka), meaning "white".History
The area around Alicante has been inhabited for over 7,000 years. The first tribes of hunter-gatherers moved gradually from Central Europe between 5000 and 3000 BC. Some of the earlier settlements were made on the slopes of Mount Benacantil. By 1000 BC, Greek and Phoenician traders had begun to visit the eastern coast of Spain, establishing small trading ports and introducing the native Iberian tribes to the alphabet, iron, and the pottery wheel. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca established the fortified settlement of Akra Leuké (Greek: , meaning "White Mountain" or "White Point"), in the mid-230s BC, which is generally presumed to have been on the site of modern Alicante.
–Carthaginian–Roman city of Akra Leuké or Lucentum]]
Although the Carthaginians conquered much of the land around Alicante, the Romans eventually ruled Hispania Tarraconensis for over 700 years. By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline, and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum (Latin), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer and thereafter under Visigothic rule from 400 to 700 A.D. The Goths did not put up much resistance to the Arab conquest of Medina Laqant at the beginning of the 8th century. The Moors ruled southern and eastern Spain until the 13th century Reconquista (Reconquest). Alicante was conquered again in 1247 by the Castilian king Alfonso X, but later passed to the Crown of Aragon in 1296 with King James II of Aragon. It gained the status of Royal Village (Vila Reial) with representation in the medieval Valencian Parliament (Corts Valencianes).
After several decades of being the battlefield where the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon clashed, Alicante became a major Mediterranean trading station exporting rice, wine, olive oil, oranges, and wool. But between 1609 and 1614 King Felipe III expelled thousands of Moriscos who had remained in Valencia after the Reconquista, due to their cooperation with Barbary pirates who continually attacked coastal cities and caused much harm to trade. This act cost the region dearly; with so many skilled artisans and agricultural labourers gone, the feudal nobility found itself sliding into bankruptcy.
Conditions worsened in the early 18th century; after the War of Spanish Succession, Alicante went into a long, slow decline, surviving through the 18th and 19th centuries by making shoes and growing agricultural produce such as oranges and almonds, and thanks to its fisheries. The end of the 19th century witnessed a sharp recovery of the local economy with increasing international trade and the growth of the city harbour leading to increased exports of several products (particularly during World War I when Spain was a neutral country).
During the early 20th century, Alicante was a minor capital that took profit from the benefit of Spain's neutrality during World War I, and it provided new opportunities for local industry and agriculture. The Rif War in the 1920s saw numerous alicantinos drafted to fight in the long and bloody campaigns in the former Spanish protectorate (northern Morocco) against the Rif rebels. The political unrest of the late 1920s led to the victory of Republican candidates in local council elections throughout the country, and the abdication of King Alfonso XIII. The proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic was much celebrated in the city on 14 April 1931. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936. Alicante was the last city loyal to the Republican government to be occupied by General Franco's troops on 1 April 1939, and its harbour saw the last Republican government officials fleeing the country. Vicious air bombings were targeted on Alicante during the three years of civil conflict, most notably the bombing by the Italian Aviazione Legionaria of the Mercado on 25 May 1938 in which more than 300 civilians perished.
The port of Alicante was the site of the heroic episode of the British ship SS Stanbrook in 1939 at the end of the Spanish Civil War. Her captain Archibald Dickson decided to rescue thousands of Spanish Republicans families during the night of 28 March 1939 under the bombing of the Nazis.
From 1954 onward, many pied-noirs settled in the city (as many as 30,000, although other sources decrease the amount tenfold). Alicante had fostered strong links with Oran in the past, and a notable share of the population of the latter city during the French colonial period had ancestry in the province of Alicante. The immigration process accelerated after the independence of Algeria in 1962.
in 1957]]
The late 1950s and early 1960s saw the onset of a lasting transformation of the city by the tourist industry. Large buildings and complexes rose in nearby Albufereta, e.g. El Barco, and Playa de San Juan de Alicante, with the benign climate being the biggest draw to attract prospective buyers and tourists who kept the hotels reasonably busy. New construction benefited the whole economy, as the development of the tourism sector also spawned new businesses such as restaurants, bars, and other tourist-oriented enterprises. Also, the old airfield at Rabasa was closed and air traffic moved to the new El Altet Airport, which made a more convenient and modern facility for charter flights bringing tourists from northern European countries.
When Franco died in 1975, his successor Juan Carlos I played his part as the living symbol of the transition of Spain to a democratic constitutional monarchy. The governments of regional communities were given constitutional status as nationalities, and their governments were given more autonomy, including that of the Valencian region, the Generalitat Valenciana.
The Port of Alicante has been reinventing itself since the industrial decline the city suffered in the 1980s (with most mercantile traffic lost to Valencia's harbour). In recent years, the Port Authority has established it as one of the most important ports in Spain for cruises, with 72 calls to port made by cruise ships in 2007 bringing some 80,000 passengers and 30,000 crew to the city each year. The moves to develop the port for more tourism have been welcomed by the city and its residents, but the latest plans to develop an industrial estate in the port have caused great controversy. Geography
Alicante is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Some orographic features rise over the largely flat terrain where the city is built on including the Cabo de la Huerta, the Serra Grossa, the Tosal and the Benacantil hills.
Located in an arid territory, Alicante lacks any meaningful permanent water stream. There are however several stream beds correspondent to intermittent ramblas. There was a swamp area in the northeast of the municipality, ''l'Albufereta'', yet it was dried up in 1928.
The municipality has two exclaves in the mainland: Monnegre (between the municipalities of San Vicente del Raspeig, Mutxamel, Busot and Jijona), and Cabeçó d'Or; the latter comprises part of the namesake Cabeçó d'Or mountain (including the summit, 1209 metres above sea level). The small island of Tabarca, 8 nautical miles to the south of the city, also belongs to the municipality.
The foot of the main staircase of the City Hall Building (Ayuntamiento) is the zero point (cota cero), used as the point of reference for measuring the height above or below sea level of any point in Spain, due to the marginal tidal variations of the Mediterranean sea at Alicante.Economy
Until the Great Recession, Alicante was one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. The boom depended partly on tourism directed to the beaches of the Costa Blanca and particularly on the second residence-construction boom which started in the 1960s and revived again by the late 1990s. Services and public administration also play a major role in the city's economy. The construction boom has raised many environmental concerns and both the local autonomous government and city council are under scrutiny by the European Union. The construction surge was the subject of hot debates among politicians and citizens alike. The latest of many public battles concerns the plans of the Port Authority of Alicante to construct an industrial estate on reclaimed land in front of the city's coastal strip, in breach of local, national, and European regulations. (See Port of Alicante for details).
The city serves as the headquarters of the European Union Intellectual Property Office and a sizeable population of European public workers live there.
The campus of the University of Alicante lies in San Vicente del Raspeig, bordering the city of Alicante to the north. More than 25,000 students attend the university.
Between 2005 and 2012 Ciudad de la Luz (Ciutat de la Llum), one of the largest film studios in Europe, had its base in Alicante. The studio shot Spanish and international movies such as Asterix at the Olympic Games by Frédéric Forestier and Thomas Langmann, and Manolete by Menno Meyjes. It was shut down in 2012 for violating European competition law.
Government and administration
Luis Barcala of the People's Party has been the mayor of Alicante since 19 April 2018. He became mayor after the resignation of Gabriel Echávarri, when the councillor Nerea Belmonte defected from Guanyar Alacant and refused to support the Socialist Party replacement candidate Eva Montesinos.
Gabriel Echávarri of the Socialist Party (PSOE) was the mayor of the city from 13 June 2015 until April 2018, following the municipal elections on 24 May 2015. He was supported by the votes from his group (6), plus those from leftist parties Guanyar Alacant (6) and Compromís (3), as well as from the centre-right party Ciudadanos (6). The People's Party (Partido Popular, PP), with only 8 elected seats, lost the majority. On April he resigned due to various judicial issues and was temporarily substituted by the councillor Eva Montesinos.
In the previous municipal elections of May 2011, Sonia Castedo of People's Party won the elections with an absolute majority, but resigned in December 2014 due to her involvement in several corruption scandals, at present being under investigation. Her fellow party member Miguel Valor went on to become mayor up until Echávarri's election.
Climate
Alicante has mild winter temperatures, hot and sultry summers, and little rain, concentrated in equinoctial periods. Like the rest of the Province of Alicante itself, which has a range of dry climate types, the city has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) according to the Köppen climate classification. It is one of the driest cities in Europe. Daily variations in temperature are generally small because of the stabilising influence of the sea, although occasional periods of westerly wind can produce temperature changes of or more. Seasonal temperature variations are also relatively small, meaning that winters are mild and summers are hot. During the summer, due to the evaporation of warm Mediterranean waters, air humidity levels are high, making the day and night stuffy for much of the season. These high humidity levels increase the heat index.
The average rainfall is per year. The cold drop means that September and October are the wettest months. Rarely, the rainfall can be torrential, reaching over in a 24-hour period, leading to severe flooding. Because of this irregularity, only 35 rainy days are observed on average per year, and the annual number of sunshine hours is more than 3,000.
The record maximum temperature of was observed on 13 August 2022. The record minimum temperature of was recorded on 12 February 1956. The worst flooding in the city's modern history occurred on 30 September 1997 when of rain fell within six hours. Temperatures below are very rare; the last recorded snowfall occurred in 1926. Alicante enjoys one of the sunniest and warmest winter daytime temperatures in mainland Europe. Alicante also recorded the highest temperature ever recorded in peninsular Spain and one of the highest in Europe for a month of January, which was .
{| class"wikitable collapsible plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Climatological normals for Alicante (period 1981–2010)
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
! Parameter
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
|-
! Average number of Storm days
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.4
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.4
| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"|1.6
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.3
| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"|1.5
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.7
| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"|1.1
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.7
| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"|2.1
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"|0.4
|-
|-
! Mean number of days with fog
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.5
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.6
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.2
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"|0.1
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
|-
! Average number of frost days
| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"|0.4
| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"|0.3
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"|0.0
| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"|0.1
|-
! Average number of clear days
|8
|6.1
|6.5
|5.5
|5.4
|9.9
|15.2
|12.7
|6.5
|5.4
|5.7
|7
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+Average sea temperature:
|-
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
!Year
|-
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|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"|
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Demographics
The official population of Alicante in 2022 was 338,577 inhabitants and 768,194 in the metropolitan area "Alicante-Elche". Besides which, there is an estimation of additional thousands coming from countries outside the EU (mostly from the African continent) that are under illegal alien status and therefore are not accounted for in official population figures.
{|class"wikitable" style"float:right; text-align:right;"
|+Nationalities with more than 1000 inhabitants (2022) Long-range Renfe trains run frequently to Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia. In 2013, the Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network was extended to Alicante station, allowing AVE high-speed rail services to link to Madrid via Villena AV, Albacete-Los Llanos and Cuenca-Fernando Zóbel.
Alicante Metropolitan-Tram connects different parts within the city, its metropolitan area and with outlying settlements along Costa Blanca as well. , electric tram-trains run up to Benidorm, and diesel trains go further to Dénia.
The city has regular ferry services to the Balearic Islands and Algeria. The city is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbour.
Main sights
Amongst the most notable features of the city are the Castle of Santa Bárbara and the port of Alicante. The latter was the subject of bitter controversy in 2006–2007 as residents battled, successfully, to keep it from being changed into an industrial estate.
The Santa Bárbara castle is situated on Mount Benacantil, overlooking the city. The tower (La Torreta) at the top, is the oldest part of the castle, while part of the lowest zone and the walls were constructed later in the 18th century.
The promenade Explanada de España, lined by palm trees, is paved with 6.5 million marble floor tiles creating a wavy form. The Promenade extends from the Port of Alicante to the Gran Vía and ends at the famous statue of Mark Hersch. For the people of Alicante, the promenade is the meeting place for the traditional Spanish paseo, or stroll along the waterfront in the evenings, and a venue for outdoor musical concerts. At the end of the promenade is a monument by the artist Bañuls of the 19th century.
Barrio de la Santa Cruz is a colourful quarter of the old city, situated southwest of Santa Bárbara castle. Its small houses climb up the hill leading to the walls and the castle, through narrow streets decorated with flags and tubs of flowers.
''L'Ereta Park is situated on the foothills of Mount Benacantil. It runs from the Santa Bárbara castle down to the old part of Alicante and consists of several levels, routes, decks, and rest stops which offer a panoramic view overlooking the city.
El Palmeral Park'' is one of the favourite parks of Alicante's citizens. It includes walking trails, children's playgrounds, ponds and brooks, picnic tables, and an auditorium for concerts.
Just a few kilometers from Alicante on the Mediterranean Sea lies Tabarca island. What was once a haven for Barbary pirates is now a tourist attraction.
Other sights include:
* Basilica of Santa María (14th–16th centuries), built-in Gothic style over the former main mosque. Other features include the high altar, in Rococo style, and the portal, in Baroque style, both from the 18th century.
* Co-cathedral of St. Nicholas of Bari (15th–18th centuries), also built over a mosque. It is the main church of Alicante and the bishop's seat.
* Monastery of Santa Faz (15th century), located outside the city, in Baroque style.
* Defence towers of the Huerta de Alicante (15th–18th centuries), built to defend against the Barbary pirates. Today some 20 towers are still extant.
* Baroque Casa de La Asegurada (1685), the most ancient civil building in the city. (c. XVII). Today it is home to the Museum of Contemporary Art of Alicante.
* Casa consistorial de Alicante (18th century), also in Baroque style.
* Convent of the Canónigas de San Agustín (18th century).
* Gravina Palace (1748–1808), nowadays hosting Gravina Museum of Fine Arts.
* Castle of San Fernando.
There are a dozen museums in Alicante. On exhibition at the Archaeological Museum of Alicante (MARQ) are local artifacts dating from 100,000 years ago until the early 20th century. The collection is divided into different rooms representing three divisions of archaeological methodology: ground, urban and underwater archaeology, with dioramas, audiovisual and interactive zones. The archaeological museum won the European Museum of the Year Award in 2004. Gravina Museum of Fine Arts presents several paintings and sculptures from the 16th century to the 19th century. Asegurada Museum of Contemporary Art houses a major collection of twentieth-century art, composed mainly of works donated by Eusebio Sempere.
Festivals
The most important festival, the Bonfires of Saint John (Hogueras de San Juan / Fogueres de Sant Joan), takes place during the summer solstice. This is followed a week later by five nights of firework and pyrotechnic contests between companies on the urban beach Playa del Postiguet. Another well-known festival is Moors and Christians (Moros y Cristianos) in Altozano or San Blas district. Overall, the city boasts a year-round nightlife for the enjoyment of tourists, residents, and a large student population of the University of Alicante. The nightlife social scene tends to shift to nearby Playa de San Juan during the summer months.
Every summer in Alicante, a two-month-long programme of music, theatre and dance is staged in the Paseo del Puerto.
Sport
For the 2023/24 season Alicante has two football clubs in the top 4 levels of Spanish football; Hércules CF and CF Intercity. For the 2023/24 season Hércules compete in Segunda Federación, the 4th level and are well known as they played in La Liga (the Spanish Premier Division) during the 1996/1997 season and again in 2010/2011. They have had many famous players such as David Trezeguet, Royston Drenthe and Nelson Valdez. Hércules are also known for their victory over Barcelona in 1997 which led to Real Madrid winning the league. Home games are played at the 30,000-capacity José Rico Pérez Stadium.
The city's other club, Alicante CF, who played in the Third Division, was dissolved in 2014 due to economic problems. They were replaced the same year by newly formed club CFI Alicante.
Basketball club (HLA Alicante) Lucentum Alicante participates in the Spanish basketball league. It plays in the Centro de Tecnificación de Alicante.
Alicante serves as headquarters and the starting point of the Volvo Ocean Race, a yacht race around the world. The latest race sailed in January 2023.
Notable people
Twin towns – sister cities
Alicante is twinned with:
* Alexandria, Egypt
* Brighton and Hove, England, UK
* Carloforte, Italy
* Herzliya, Israel
* León, Nicaragua
* Matanzas, Cuba
* Nice, France
* Oran, Algeria
* Toyooka, Japan (1996)
* Wenzhou, China
See also
*Castrum Album
*Saint Nicholas Day
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
External links
*[http://www.ladipu.com/ Official website of the Diputación Provincial de Alicante]
*[https://www.postalcodigo.com/alicante Postal codes in Alicante]
<!--navigation boxes-->
}}
Category:Populated places in the Province of Alicante
Category:Mediterranean port cities and towns in Spain
Category:Municipalities in the Province of Alicante
Category:Seaside resorts in Spain
Category:Tourism in Spain
Category:Greek colonies in Iberia
Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Spain
Category:Populated coastal places in Spain
Category:Populated places established in the 4th century BC
Category:Roman sites in Spain
Category:324 BC
Category:320s BC establishments | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicante | 2025-04-05T18:26:03.955967 |
2418 | August 4 | Events
Pre-1600
* 598 – Goguryeo-Sui War: In response to a Goguryeo (Korean) incursion into Liaoxi, Emperor Wéndi of Sui orders his youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong), to conquer Goguryeo during the Manchurian rainy season, with a Chinese army and navy.
*1265 – Second Barons' War: Battle of Evesham: The army of Prince Edward (the future king Edward I of England) defeats the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, killing de Montfort and many of his allies.
*1327 – First War of Scottish Independence: James Douglas leads a raid into Weardale and almost kills Edward III of England.
*1578 – Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir: The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese. King Sebastian of Portugal is killed in the battle, leaving his elderly uncle, Cardinal Henry, as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.
1601–1900
*1693 – Date traditionally ascribed to Dom Perignon's invention of champagne; it is not clear whether he actually invented champagne, however he has been credited as an innovator who developed the techniques used to perfect sparkling wine.
*1701 – Great Peace of Montreal between New France and First Nations is signed.
*1704 – War of the Spanish Succession: Gibraltar is captured by an English and Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir George Rooke and allied with Archduke Charles.
*1781 – Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, a fleet of six East India Company ships sets sail from Fort Marlborough to raid the Dutch VOC factories on the West coast of Sumatra including the major port of Padang.
*1783 – Mount Asama erupts in Japan, killing about 1,400 people (Tenmei eruption). The eruption causes a famine, which results in an additional 20,000 deaths.
*1789 – France: abolition of feudalism by the National Constituent Assembly.
*1790 – A newly passed tariff act creates the Revenue Cutter Service (the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard).
*1791 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars.
*1796 – French Revolutionary Wars: Napoleon leads the French Army of Italy to victory in the Battle of Lonato.
*1821 – The Saturday Evening Post is published for the first time as a weekly newspaper.
*1854 – The Hinomaru is established as the official flag to be flown from Japanese ships.
*1863 – Matica slovenská, Slovakia's public-law cultural and scientific institution focusing on topics around the Slovak nation, is established in Martin.
*1873 – American Indian Wars: While protecting a railroad survey party in Montana, the United States 7th Cavalry, under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer clashes for the first time with the Cheyenne and Lakota people near the Tongue River; only one man on each side is killed.
*1887 – Granny, a sea anemone, died in Edinburgh after nearly 60 years in captivity. Her death was reported in The Scotsman and The New York Times.
*1889 – The Great Fire of Spokane, Washington destroys some 32 blocks of the city, prompting a mass rebuilding project.
*1892 – The father and stepmother of Lizzie Borden are found murdered in their Fall River, Massachusetts home. She will be tried and acquitted for the crimes a year later.
1901–present
*1914 – World War I: In response to the German invasion of Belgium, Belgium and the British Empire declare war on Germany. The United States declares its neutrality.
*1915 – World War I: The German 12th Army occupies Warsaw during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive and the Great Retreat of 1915.
*1921 – Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict: Mikhail Frunze declares victory over the Makhnovshchina.
*1924 – Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the Soviet Union are established.
*1936 – Prime Minister of Greece Ioannis Metaxas suspends parliament and the Constitution and establishes the 4th of August Regime.
*1944 – The Holocaust: A tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find and arrest Jewish diarist Anne Frank, her family, and four others.
* 1944 – Under the state of emergency law, the Finnish Parliament elects Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim as the President of Finland to replace the resigned Risto Ryti.
*1946 – An earthquake of magnitude 8.0 hits northern Dominican Republic. One hundred are killed and 20,000 are left homeless.
*1947 – The Supreme Court of Japan is established.
*1964 – Civil rights movement: Civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney are found dead in Mississippi after disappearing on June 21.
* 1964 – Second Gulf of Tonkin Incident: U.S. destroyers and mistakenly report coming under attack in the Gulf of Tonkin.
*1965 – The Constitution of the Cook Islands comes into force, giving the Cook Islands self-governing status within New Zealand.
*1969 – Vietnam War: At the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris, American representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuân Thuỷ begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail.
*1972 – Ugandan President Idi Amin announces that Uganda is no longer responsible for the care of British subjects of Asian origin, beginning the expulsions of Ugandan Asians.
*1974 – A bomb explodes in the Italicus Express train at San Benedetto Val di Sambro, Italy, killing 12 people and wounding 22.
*1975 – The Japanese Red Army takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA Building housing several embassies in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The hostages include the U.S. consul and the Swedish Chargé d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to Libya.
*1977 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter signs legislation creating the United States Department of Energy.
*1983 – Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo, president of the military government of Upper Volta, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Captain Thomas Sankara.
*1984 – The Republic of Upper Volta changes its name to Burkina Faso.
*1987 – The Federal Communications Commission rescinds the Fairness Doctrine which had required radio and television stations to give equal time to opposing views.
*1995 – Operation Storm begins in Croatia.
*2006 – A massacre is carried out by Sri Lankan government forces, killing 17 employees of the French INGO Action Against Hunger (known internationally as Action Contre la Faim, or ACF).
*2007 – NASA's Phoenix spacecraft is launched.
*2018 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) expel the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) from the Iraq–Syria border, concluding the second phase of the Deir ez-Zor campaign.
*2018 – Crisis in Venezuela: Seven people are injured when two drones detonate explosives on Avenida Bolívar, Caracas while president Nicolás Maduro is giving a speech to the Venezuelan National Guard.
*2019 – Nine people are killed and 26 injured in a shooting in Dayton, Ohio. This comes only 13 hours after another mass shooting in El Paso, Texas, where 23 people were killed.
*2020 – Beirut Port explosion: At least 220 people are killed and over 5,000 are wounded when 2,700 tons of ammonium nitrate explodes in Beirut, Lebanon.BirthsPre-1600
*1222 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (d. 1262)
*1281 – Külüg Khan, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (d. 1311)
*1290 – Leopold I, Duke of Austria (d. 1326)
*1463 – Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Florentine patron of the arts (d. 1503)
*1469 – Margaret of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1528)
*1470 – Bernardo Dovizi, Italian cardinal (d. 1520)
* 1470 – Lucrezia de' Medici, Italian noblewoman (d. 1553)
*1521 – Pope Urban VII (d. 1590)
*1522 – Udai Singh II, King of Mewar (d. 1572)1601–1900
*1604 – François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac, French cleric and author (d. 1676)
*1623 – Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1641–1680) and Hanau-Münzenberg (1642–1680) (d. 1685)
*1701 – Thomas Blackwell, Scottish historian and scholar (d. 1757)
*1704 – Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (d. 1752)
*1719 – Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German mineralogist and geologist (d. 1767)
*1721 – Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1803)
*1755 – Nicolas-Jacques Conté, French soldier, painter, balloonist, and inventor (d. 1805)
*1792 – Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet and playwright (d. 1822)
*1805 – William Rowan Hamilton, Irish physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1865)
*1821 – Louis Vuitton, French fashion designer, founded Louis Vuitton (d. 1892)
*1821 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (d. 1881)
*1834 – John Venn, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1923)
*1836 – Jens Vilhelm Dahlerup, Danish architect (d. 1907)
*1839 – Walter Pater, English author, critic, and academic (d. 1894)
*1844 – Henri Berger, German composer and bandleader (d. 1929)
*1853 – John Henry Twachtman, American painter, etcher, and academic (d. 1902)
*1859 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1952)
*1861 – Daniel Edward Howard, 16th president of Liberia (d. 1935)
*1867 – Jake Beckley, American baseball player and coach (d. 1918)
*1868 – Master C. V. V., Indian philosopher, yogi and guru (d. 1922)
*1870 – Harry Lauder, Scottish actor and singer (d. 1950)
*1871 – William Holman, English-Australian politician, 19th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1934)
*1876 – Giovanni Giuriati, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1970)
*1876 – John Scaddan, Australian politician, 10th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1934)
*1877 – Dame Laura Knight, English artist (d. 1970)
*1884 – Béla Balázs, Hungarian poet and critic (d. 1949)
*1884 – Henri Cornet, French cyclist (d. 1941)
*1887 – Albert M. Greenfield, Ukrainian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1967)
*1888 – Taher Saifuddin, Indian religious leader, 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq (d. 1965)
*1890 – Dolf Luque, Cuban baseball player and manager (d. 1957)
*1893 – Fritz Gause, German historian and curator (d. 1973)
*1898 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (d. 1975)
*1899 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1994)
*1900 – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (d. 2002)
1901–present
*1901 – Louis Armstrong, American trumpet player and singer (d. 1971)
*1902 – Bill Hallahan, American baseball player (d. 1981)
*1904 – Witold Gombrowicz, Polish author and playwright (d. 1969)
*1905 – Abeid Karume, 1st President of Zanzibar (d. 1972)
*1906 – Eugen Schuhmacher, German zoologist, director, and producer (d. 1973)
*1908 – Kurt Eichhorn, German conductor (d. 1994)
*1909 – Glenn Cunningham, American runner and academic (d. 1988)
*1910 – Anita Page, American actress (d. 2008)
* 1910 – William Schuman, American composer and educator (d. 1992)
* 1910 – Hedda Sterne, Romanian-American painter and photographer (d. 2011)
*1912 – Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Russian mathematician, physicist, and mountaineer (d. 1999)
* 1912 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (d. 2004)
* 1912 – Raoul Wallenberg, Swedish architect and diplomat (d. ~1947)
*1913 – Wesley Addy, American actor (d. 1996)
* 1913 – Robert Hayden, American poet and educator (d. 1980)
*1915 – Warren Avis, American businessman, founded Avis Rent a Car System (d. 2007)
*1917 – John Fitch, American race car driver and engineer (d. 2012)
*1918 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English historian and journalist (d. 2012)
*1919 – Michel Déon, French novelist, playwright, and critic (d. 2016)
*1920 – Helen Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 2013)
*1921 – Herb Ellis, American guitarist (d. 2010)
* 1921 – Maurice Richard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2000)
*1922 – Mayme Agnew Clayton, American librarian (d. 2006)
* 1922 – Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (d. 2012)
*1926 – George Irving Bell, American physicist, biologist, and mountaineer (d. 2000)
* 1926 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (d. 2014)
* 1928 – Gerard Damiano, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
*1928 – Nadežka Mosusova, Serbian composer
*1928 – Clarke Reed, American businessman and politician (d. 2024)
*1929 – Kishore Kumar, Indian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1987)
* 1929 – Vellore G. Ramabhadran, Mridangam artiste from Tamil Nadu, India (d. 2012)
*1930 – Ali al-Sistani, Iranian-Iraqi cleric and scholar
*1931 – Naren Tamhane, Indian cricketer (d. 2002)
*1932 – Frances E. Allen, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2020)
* 1932 – Liang Congjie, Chinese environmentalist, founded Friends of Nature (d. 2010)
*1934 – Dallas Green, American baseball player and manager (d. 2017)
*1935 – Carol Arthur, American actress and producer (d. 2020)
* 1935 – Hans-Walter Eigenbrodt, German footballer and coach (d. 1997)
* 1935 – Michael J. Noonan, Irish farmer and politician, 25th Minister of Defence for Ireland (d. 2013)
*1936 – Giorgos Zographos, Greek singer and actor (d. 2005)
*1937 – David Bedford, English keyboard player, composer, and conductor (d. 2011)
*1938 – Ellen Schrecker, American historian and academic
*1939 – Jack Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling, English politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office
* 1939 – Frankie Ford, American R&B/rock and roll singer (d. 2015)
*1940 – Coriún Aharonián, Uruguayan composer and musicologist (d. 2017)
* 1940 – Robin Harper, Scottish academic and politician
* 1940 – Larry Knechtel, American bass player and pianist (d. 2009)
* 1940 – Frances Stewart, English economist and academic
* 1940 – Timi Yuro, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)
*1941 – Martin Jarvis, English actor
* 1941 – Andy Smillie, English footballer
* 1941 – Cliff Nobles, American musician (d. 2008)
* 1941 – Ted Strickland, American psychologist and politician, 68th Governor of Ohio
*1942 – Don S. Davis, American actor (d. 2008)
* 1942 – Cleon Jones, American baseball player
* 1942 – David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 2005)
*1943 – Vicente Álvarez Areces, Spanish politician, 6th President of the Principality of Asturias (d. 2019)
* 1943 – Barbara Saß-Viehweger, German politician, lawyer and civil law notary
* 1943 – Bjørn Wirkola, Norwegian ski jumper and footballer
*1944 – Richard Belzer, American actor (d. 2023)
* 1944 – Doudou Ndoye, Senegalese lawyer and politician
*1945 – Paul McCarthy, American painter and sculptor
* 1945 – Alan Mulally, American engineer and businessman
*1946 – Aleksei Turovski, Estonian zoologist and ethologist
*1947 – Klaus Schulze, German keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2022)
*1948 – Johnny Grubb, American baseball player and coach
*1949 – John Riggins, American football player, sportscaster, and actor
*1950 – Caldwell Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)
* 1950 – N. Rangaswamy, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Chief Minister of Puducherry
*1951 – Peter Goodfellow, English geneticist and academic
*1952 – James Arbuthnot, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills
* 1952 – Moya Brennan, Irish singer-songwriter and harp player
* 1952 – Gábor Demszky, Hungarian sociologist, lawyer, and politician
*1953 – Hiroyuki Usui, Japanese footballer and manager
*1954 – Anatoliy Kinakh, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Ukraine
* 1954 – Steve Phillips, English footballer
* 1954 – François Valéry, Algerian-French singer-songwriter
*1955 – Alberto Gonzales, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 80th United States Attorney General
* 1955 – Billy Bob Thornton, American actor, director, and screenwriter
*1957 – Rupert Farley, British actor and voice actor
* 1957 – Brooks D. Simpson, American historian and author
* 1957 – Valdis Valters, Latvian basketball player and coach
* 1957 – John Wark, Scottish footballer and sportscaster
*1958 – Allison Hedge Coke, American-Canadian poet and academic
* 1958 – Mary Decker, American runner
* 1958 – Silvan Shalom, Tunisian-Israeli sergeant and politician, 30th Deputy Prime Minister of Israel
* 1958 – Brian Voss, American bowler
*1959 – Robbin Crosby, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2002)
* 1959 – John Gormley, Irish politician, Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government
*1960 – Chuck C. Lopez, American jockey
* 1960 – Dean Malenko, American wrestler
* 1960 – José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Spanish academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Spain
* 1960 – Bernard Rose, English director, screenwriter, and cinematographer
* 1960 – Tim Winton, Australian author and playwright
*1961 – Barack Obama, American lawyer and politician, 44th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate
*1962 – Roger Clemens, American baseball player and actor
* 1962 – Paul Reynolds, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1963 – Keith Maurice Ellison, 30th Attorney General of Minnesota
*1964 – Andrew Bartlett, Australian social worker and politician
*1965 – Vishal Bhardwaj, Indian film director, screenwriter, producer, music composer and playback singer
* 1965 – Adam Afriyie, English businessman and politician
* 1965 – Dennis Lehane, American author, screenwriter, and producer
* 1965 – Fredrik Reinfeldt, Swedish soldier and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Sweden
* 1965 – Michael Skibbe, German footballer and manager
*1967 – Michael Marsh, American sprinter
*1968 – Daniel Dae Kim, South Korean-American actor
* 1968 – Lee Mack, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter
*1969 – Max Cavalera, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1970 – John August, American director and screenwriter
* 1970 – Bret Baier, American journalist
* 1970 – Kate Silverton, English journalist
*1971 – Jeff Gordon, American race car driver and actor
*1972 – Stefan Brogren, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1973 – Eva Amaral, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1973 – Xavier Marchand, French swimmer
* 1973 – Marek Penksa, Slovak footballer
* 1973 – Marcos Roberto Silveira Reis, Brazilian footballer
*1974 – Kily González, Argentine footballer
*1975 – Andy Hallett, American actor and singer (d. 2009)
* 1975 – Nikos Liberopoulos, Greek footballer
* 1975 – Jutta Urpilainen, Finnish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Finland
* 1975 – Daniella van Graas, Dutch model and actress
*1976 – Paul Goldstein, American tennis player
* 1976 – Andrew McLeod, Australian footballer
* 1976 – Trevor Woodman, English rugby player and coach
*1977 – Frankie Kazarian, American wrestler
* 1977 – Luís Boa Morte, Portuguese footballer and manager
*1978 – Jeremy Adduono, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1978 – Luke Allen, American baseball player (d. 2022)
* 1978 – Kurt Busch, American race car driver
* 1978 – Agnė Eggerth, Lithuanian sprinter
* 1978 – Ricardo Serrano, Spanish cyclist
* 1978 – Per-Åge Skrøder, Norwegian ice hockey player
* 1978 – Satoshi Hino, Japanese voice actor
*1979 – Robin Peterson, South African cricketer
*1980 – Richard Dawson, English cricketer and coach
*1981 – Marques Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
* 1981 – Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, American member of British Royal Family, media personality and actress
*1983 – Greta Gerwig, American actress, producer, and screenwriter
*1984 – Terry Campese, Australian rugby league player
* 1984 – Mardy Collins, American basketball player
*1985 – Crystal Bowersox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1985 – Robbie Findley, American soccer player
* 1985 – Mark Milligan, Australian footballer
* 1985 – Ha Seung-jin, South Korean basketball player
* 1985 – Antonio Valencia, Ecuadorean footballer
*1986 – Nick Augusto, American drummer
* 1986 – Leon Camier, English motorcycle racer
* 1986 – Cicinho, Brazilian footballer
* 1986 – Iosia Soliola, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player
* 1986 – David Williams, Australian rugby league player
*1987 – Marreese Speights American basketball player
*1988 – Kelley O'Hara, American soccer player
*1989 – Jessica Mauboy, Australian singer-songwriter and actress
* 1989 – Wang Hao, Chinese chess grandmaster
*1992 – Daniele Garozzo, Italian fencer
* 1992 – Domingo Germán, Dominican baseball player
* 1992 – Cole Sprouse, American actor
* 1992 – Dylan Sprouse, American actor
*1995 – Bruna Marquezine, Brazilian actress
*1998 – Lil Skies, American rapper
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 221 – Lady Zhen, Chinese empress (b. 183)
* 966 – Berengar II of Italy (b. 900)
*1060 – Henry I of France (b. 1008)
*1113 – Gertrude of Saxony, countess and regent of Holland (b. c. 1030)
*1265 – Peter de Montfort, English politician (b. 1215)
* 1265 – Henry de Montfort (b. 1238)
* 1265 – Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, French-English soldier and politician, Lord High Steward (b. 1208)
* 1265 – Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer, English politician (b. 1223)
*1266 – Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (b. 1230)
*1306 – Wenceslaus III of Bohemia (b. 1289)
*1345 – As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt (b. 1326)
*1378 – Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. c. 1320)
*1430 – Philip I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1404)
*1526 – Juan Sebastián Elcano, Spanish explorer and navigator (b. 1476)
*1578 – Sebastian of Portugal (b. 1554)
*1598 – William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, English academic and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1520)
1601–1900
*1612 – Hugh Broughton, English scholar and theologian (b. 1549)
*1639 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican actor and playwright (b. 1581)
*1718 – René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian founder of Rimouski (b. 1656)
*1727 – Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie, French general (b. 1647)
*1741 – Andrew Hamilton, Scottish-American lawyer and politician (b. 1676)
*1778 – Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, Canadian-French politician, Governor General of New France (b. 1698)
*1792 – John Burgoyne, English general and politician (b. 1723)
*1795 – Timothy Ruggles, American lawyer, jurist, and politician (b. 1711)
*1804 – Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish admiral (b. 1731)
*1822 – Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet and author (b. 1801)
*1844 – Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist, historian, and politician (b. 1773)
*1859 – John Vianney, French priest and saint (b. 1786)
*1873 – Viktor Hartmann, Russian architect and painter (b. 1834)
*1875 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (b. 1805)
*1886 – Samuel J. Tilden, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of New York (b. 1814)
*1900 – Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and educator (b. 1860)
1901–present
*1914 – Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (b. 1853)
*1919 – Dave Gregory, Australian cricketer and umpire (b. 1845)
*1922 – Enver Pasha, Ottoman general and politician (b. 1881)
*1932 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (b. 1868)
*1938 – Pearl White, American actress (b. 1889)
*1940 – Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Ukrainian-American general, journalist, and activist (b. 1880)
*1941 – Mihály Babits, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1883)
*1942 – Alberto Franchetti, Italian composer and educator (b. 1860)
*1944 – Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Polish soldier and poet (b. 1921)
*1957 – John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (b. 1882)
* 1957 – Washington Luís, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 13th President of Brazil (b. 1869)
*1958 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (b. 1883)
*1959 – József Révai, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1898)
*1961 – Margarito Bautista, Nahua-Mexican evangelizer, theologian, and religious founder (b. 1878)
*1962 – Marilyn Monroe, American model and actress (b. 1926)
*1964 – Nätti-Jussi, Finnish lumberjack and forest laborer (b. 1890)
*1967 – Peter Smith, English cricketer (b. 1908)
*1976 – Enrique Angelelli, Argentinian bishop and martyr (b. 1923)
* 1976 – Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian-English publisher (b. 1894)
*1977 – Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1889)
*1981 – Melvyn Douglas, American actor (b. 1901)
*1982 – Bruce Goff, American architect, designed the Boston Avenue Methodist Church (b. 1904)
*1985 – Don Whillans, English rock climber and mountaineer (b. 1933)
*1990 – Ettore Maserati, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1894)
*1992 – Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese author (b. 1909)
*1996 – Geoff Hamilton, English gardener, author, and television host (b. 1936)
*1997 – Jeanne Calment, French super-centenarian; holds records for the world's substantiated longest-lived person (b. 1875)
*1998 – Yury Artyukhin, Russian colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930)
*1999 – Victor Mature, American actor (b. 1913)
*2003 – Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916)
*2004 – Mary Sherman Morgan, American chemist and engineer (b. 1921)
* 2004 – Hossein Panahi (Persian: حسین پناهی), Iranian actor and poet (b. 1956)
*2005 – Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and theorist (b. 1932)
* 2005 – Iván Szabó, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Finance of Hungary (b. 1934)
*2007 – Lee Hazlewood, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929)
* 2007 – Raul Hilberg, Austrian-American political scientist and historian (b. 1926)
*2008 – Craig Jones, English motorcycle racer (b. 1985)
*2009 – Blake Snyder, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1957)
*2011 – Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (b. 1977)
*2012 – Johnnie Bassett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1935)
* 2012 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English journalist and historian (b. 1918)
* 2012 – Bud Riley, American football player and coach (b. 1925)
*2013 – Keith H. Basso, American anthropologist and academic (b. 1940)
* 2013 – Art Donovan, American football player and radio host (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Olavi J. Mattila, Finnish engineer and politician, Finnish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1918)
* 2013 – Renato Ruggiero, Italian lawyer and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1930)
* 2013 – Tony Snell, English lieutenant and pilot (b. 1922)
* 2013 – Sandy Woodward, English admiral (b. 1932)
*2014 – James Brady, American activist and politician, 15th White House Press Secretary (b. 1940)
* 2014 – Chester Crandell, American lawyer and politician (b. 1946)
* 2014 – Jake Hooker, Israeli-American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1953)
*2015 – Elsie Hillman, American philanthropist and politician (b. 1925)
* 2015 – Les Munro, New Zealand soldier and pilot (b. 1919)
* 2015 – John Rudometkin, American basketball player (b. 1940)
* 2015 – Billy Sherrill, American songwriter and producer (b. 1936)
*2019 – Nuon Chea, Cambodian politician and theorist for the Khmer Rouge (b. 1926)
*2023 – Dalia Fadila, Israeli educator (b. 1971/1972)
*2024 – Charles Cyphers, American actor (b. 1939)
*2024 – Tsung-Dao Lee, Chinese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1926)
*2024 – Duane Thomas, American football player (b. 1947)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Aristarchus
** Euphronius
** Blessed Frédéric Janssoone
** John Vianney
** Molua (or Lua)
** Raynerius of Split
** Sithney, patron saint of mad dogs
** August 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Coast Guard Day (United States)
* Constitution Day (Cook Islands); first Monday in August
* Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia)
* Barack Obama Day in Illinois in the United States
*2020 Beirut explosion commemoration day in Lebanon
References
External links
*
*
*
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_4 | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.040563 |
2422 | Ann Widdecombe | | image = Annewidde.jpg
| caption = Widdecombe in 2009
| office = Minister of State for Prisons
| primeminister = John Major
| term_start = 28 February 1995
| term_end = 2 May 1997
| predecessor = Michael Forsyth
| successor = Joyce Quin
| office1 = Minister of State for Employment
| primeminister1 = John Major
| term_start1 = 27 May 1993
| term_end1 = 5 July 1995
| predecessor1 = Patrick McLoughlin
| successor1 = Lord Henley
| office2 = Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security
| primeminister2 = John Major
| term_start2 = 30 November 1990
| term_end2 = 27 May 1993
| predecessor2 = Gillian Shephard
| successor2 = William Hague
| office3 = Member of the European Parliament<br />for South West England
| term_start3 = 2 July 2019
| term_end3 = 31 January 2020
| predecessor3 = Julia Reid
| successor3 = Constituency abolished
| office4 = Member of Parliament<br />for Maidstone and The Weald<br />
| term_start4 = 11 June 1987
| term_end4 = 12 April 2010
| predecessor4 = John Wells
| successor4 = Helen Grant
| office5 = Shadow Cabinet offices
| suboffice5 = Shadow Secretary of State for Health
| subterm5 = 1998–1999
| suboffice6 = Shadow Home Secretary
| subterm6 = 1999–2001
| birth_name = Ann Noreen Widdecombe
| birth_date
| birth_place = Bath, Somerset, England
| residence = London, England<br />Sutton Valence, Kent, England<br />Haytor Vale, Dartmoor, Devon, England
| party Reform UK (2023–present)
| otherparty = Conservative (1976–2019)<br>Brexit Party (2019–2021)<br>Independent (2021–2023)
| alma_mater = University of Birmingham<br />Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
}}
Ann Noreen Widdecombe (born 4 October 1947) is a British politician and television personality who has been Reform UK's Immigration and Justice spokesperson since 2023. Originally a member of the Conservative Party, she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Maidstone and The Weald, and the former Maidstone constituency, from 1987 to 2010. She was a member of the Brexit Party from 2019 until it was renamed Reform UK in 2021, and served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South West England from 2019 to 2020; she rejoined Reform UK in 2023.
Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later studied philosophy, politics and economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She is a religious convert from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, and was a member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship. She served as Minister of State for Employment from 1994 to 1995 and Minister of State for Prisons from 1995 to 1997. She later served in the Shadow Cabinet of William Hague as Shadow Secretary of State for Health from 1998 to 1999 and Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001. She was appointed to the Privy Council in 1997.
Widdecombe stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election. Since 2002, she has made numerous television and radio appearances, including as a television presenter. A prominent Eurosceptic, in 2016 she supported the Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU). Widdecombe returned to politics as the lead candidate for the Brexit Party in South West England at the 2019 European Parliament election, winning the seat in line with results nationally, serving until the country left the EU on 31 January 2020. In the general election of December 2019 – as with all other candidates for the Commons fielded by the Brexit Party – she did not win the seat she contested (Plymouth Sutton and Devonport), but retained her deposit and came third.
Ideologically, Widdecombe identifies herself as a social conservative and stresses the importance of traditional values and conservatism. As a member of the House of Commons, she opposed the legality of abortion, opposed granting LGBT people legal rights such as the same age of consent as heterosexuals, and opposed the repeal of Section 28. She supported reintroduction of the death penalty for murder, though more narrowly applied than previously. She is opposed to all forms of assisted dying. She has a history of supporting rigorous laws on animal protection and opposition to fox hunting.
Early life
Ann Noreen Widdecombe was born in Bath, Somerset, the daughter of Rita Noreen (née Plummer; 1911–2007) and Ministry of Defence civil servant James Murray Widdecombe. Widdecombe's maternal grandfather, James Henry Plummer, was born to a Catholic family of English descent in Crosshaven, County Cork, Ireland in 1874.
She attended the Royal Naval School in Singapore, and La Sainte Union Convent School in Bath. She then read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, to read philosophy, politics and economics. In 1971, she was the secretary of the Oxford Union for one term, and became its treasurer for one term in 1972. She worked for Unilever (1973–75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975–87) before entering Parliament.
She contested the seat of Burnley in Lancashire in the 1979 general election and then, against David Owen, the Plymouth Devonport seat in the 1983 general election. In 1983 she, with Lady Olga Maitland and Virginia Bottomley, co-founded Women and Families for Defence, a group founded in opposition to the anti-nuclear Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp.
Widdecombe was first elected to the House of Commons, for the Conservatives, in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997).
In government
Widdecombe joined Prime Minister John Major's government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993, she was moved to the Department of Employment, and she was promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995, she joined the Home Office as Minister of State for Prisons and visited every prison in the UK.
In 1996, Widdecombe, as prisons minister, defended the Government's policy to shackle pregnant prisoners with handcuffs and chains when in hospital receiving prenatal care. Widdecombe told the Commons that the restrictions were needed to prevent prisoners from escaping the hospital. "Some MPs may like to think that a pregnant woman would not or could not escape. Unfortunately this is not true. The fact is that hospitals are not secure places in which to keep prisoners, and since 1990, 20 women have escaped from hospitals". Jack Straw, Labour's Home Affairs spokesman at the time, said it was "degrading and unnecessary" for a woman to be shackled at any stage.Shadow CabinetIn May 1997, in the context of an inquiry into a series of prison escapes, Widdecombe remarked of former Home Secretary Michael Howard, under whom she had served, that there was "something of the night about him".
This much-quoted comment is thought to have contributed to the failure of Howard's 1997 campaign for the Conservative Party leadership, a sentiment shared by both Howard himself and Widdecombe. It led to him being caricatured as a vampire, in part due to his Romanian ancestry. Howard became the official party leader in 2003, and Widdecombe then stated, "I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But ... we have to look to the future and not the past."
After the Conservative landslide defeat at the 1997 general election, she served as Shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later as Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001 under the leadership of William Hague.Leadership contest and backbenches
During the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient support amongst Conservative MPs for her leadership candidacy. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in Iain Duncan Smith's Shadow Cabinet (although she indicated on the television programme When Louis Met..., prior to the leadership contest, that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway).
In 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as "backbiters" due to his alleged destabilising influence under Hague. She went on to say that, should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance. At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of the television programme ''Dragons' Den'', in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal, which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown.
In an interview with Metro in September 2006 she stated that if Parliament were of a normal length, it was likely she would retire at the next general election. She confirmed her intention to stand down to The Observer's Pendennis diary in September 2007, and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an autumn 2007 general election.
In November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being "Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten."
In 2007 Widdecombe was one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret. When the expenses claims were leaked, however, Widdecombe was described by The Daily Telegraph as one of the "saints" amongst all MPs.
In May 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons, it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support for election as interim Speaker until the next general election. On 11 June 2009, she confirmed her bid to be the Speaker, but came last in the second ballot and was eliminated.
Widdecombe retired from politics at the 2010 general election. It was rumoured that she would be a Conservative candidate for Police and Crime Commissioner in 2012, but she refused. She since spoke about her opposition to the Coalition Government and her surprise at not being given a peerage by David Cameron.
In 2016, she supported Brexit during the 2016 EU referendum and, following the resignation of David Cameron, endorsed Andrea Leadsom in her candidacy for election for the leadership of the governing Conservative Party.
Return to politics – Brexit Party
In 2019 she returned to politics as a candidate for the Brexit Party in the European parliament elections in South West England, which were held on 23 May, though she maintained that she would still vote for the Conservatives in the local elections that took place three weeks before. She was expelled by the Conservative Party immediately after her announcement. Widdecombe had considered joining the Brexit Party in March 2019, but joined later, in May.
Widdecombe said that her decision to stand resulted from the Government's failure to deliver Britain's departure from the EU on schedule. "Both major parties need a seismic shock," she said, "to see the extent of public disgust."
Widdecombe became a member of the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE).
Widdecombe stood as a candidate for Plymouth Sutton and Devonport in the 2019 UK general election, coming a distant third but just retaining her deposit with 5.5% of the vote. Nigel Farage said that she was told by the Conservative Party that she would be part of their Brexit negotiations if she stood down as a candidate.Political viewsSocial issuesAs an MP, Widdecombe expressed socially conservative views, including opposition to abortion; it was understood during her time in frontline politics that she would not become Health Secretary as long as this involved responsibility for abortions. Although a committed Christian, she characterised the issue as one of life and death on which her view had been the same when she was agnostic and was a member of the Society for the Protection of Unborn Children<!-- source says "society for the protection of the unborn child", but most likely refers to SPUC --> while studying at Oxford. During Parliament, Widdecombe was a member of the Pro-Life All Party Parliamentary Group, which met with SPUC over concerns the organisation's more strident approach to abortion policy could alienate Protestant and atheist supporters.
She converted from the Church of England (CoE) to the Roman Catholic Church following the CoE decision to ordain women as priests.
She is an opponent of assisted dying in any form, saying that any such legislation would fail to "protect the mentally ill, disabled and the frail elderly". She further commented: "You cannot get to my age without having seen loved ones suffer [...] or having seen dear friends die in pain. And, yes, I too have thought 'We wouldn't do this to an animal'. But that emotional indignation has also to be extended to those whom any euthanasia law would threaten." LGBT rights Although not an MP at the time, Widdecombe did voice support for the partial decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1967 in England and Wales. In 1999, Widdecombe stated that "I do not think that [homosexuality] can be promoted as an equally valid lifestyle to [heterosexual] marriage, but I would say the same about irregular heterosexual arrangements." On the latter act, she wrote in The Mail on Sunday that "one of the sundry horrors for which this Government is likely to be remembered will be that it gave its imprimatur to sodomy at 16", She later said in 2000: "I do not believe that issues of equality should override the imperatives of protecting the young." In 2003, Widdecombe opposed the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988. In 2012, Widdecombe voiced support in the Daily Express for the practise of conversion therapy, which claims to change the orientation of homosexuals.
Widdecombe has also expressed her opposition to same-sex marriage, introduced by David Cameron's government in 2014, arguing that "the state must have a preferred model" which is "a union that is generally open to procreation". She also opposes gender self-identification for transgender people. In 2020, she expressed her opposition to same-sex dancing on Strictly Come Dancing, saying: "I don't think it is what viewers of Strictly, especially families, are looking for. But that's up to the audience and the programme."Criminal justiceIn her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, she called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, with the punishment of £100 fines for users of cannabis. This was well received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates.
Over the years, Widdecombe has expressed her support for a reintroduction of the death penalty, which was abolished in the UK in 1965. She notably spoke of her support for its reintroduction for the worst cases of murder in the aftermath of the murder of two 10-year-old girls from Soham, Cambridgeshire, in August 2002, arguing that in the five years up to 1970 when the death penalty was suspended, the national murder rate had more than doubled.
Environmental and science issues
She is a committed animal lover and one of the several Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on the hunting of foxes. Widdecombe was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose David Cameron's plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.
In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue of climate change, but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe. In 2008, she wrote that her doubts had been "crystalised" by Nigel Lawson's book An Appeal to Reason; in 2014, she likened Lawson's difficulty in getting the book published to the book-burnings in Nazi Germany. Later in 2008, Widdecombe claimed that the "science of climate change is robustly disputed", She was one of the five MPs who voted against the Climate Change Act 2008.
The previous year, she voted to support a parliamentary motion in favour of homeopathy, disagreeing with the Science and Technology Committee's Report on the subject.ControversiesIn 2009, she partially defended Carol Thatcher's use of the racial slur 'golliwog' on Any Questions?, saying: "There is a generation to whom a golliwog is merely a toy, a generation which was much endeared by its golliwogs which grew up with them on jam jars ... and there is a generation, a new generation for whom that word is deeply offensive and one does have to make I think some allowance for the fact." In December 2019, WhatsApp conversations between her and Brexit Party activists were leaked to the Plymouth Herald which showed Widdecombe using the term amid rumours party campaign funding was being diverted away from Plymouth ahead of the general election of that year. Widdecombe said: "Yes, I threw all my toys of the pram. Bears and gollywogs flying everywhere!!"
In 2019 Widdecombe defended the comments she made in a 2012 article that supported "gay conversion" therapy. She told Sky News that science may yet "provide an answer" to the question of whether people can "switch sexuality". Following Widdecombe's apparent endorsement of conversion therapy, at least one venue, the Landmark theatre in Ilfracombe, Devon, cancelled a performance of her one-woman show.
Widdecombe and two other Brexit Party figures were criticised for previous appearances on the David Icke-affiliated Richie Allen Show, which has been accused of promoting Holocaust denial and antisemitic conspiracy theories about the Rothschild family and Zionism. Widdecombe appeared three times between August 2017 and April 2019 and was described as an "old friend of the show" by the host during one appearance. Widdecombe told Jewish Chronicle that she agreed to appear to discuss Brexit, and that she "had never heard of the Richie Allen Show until I agreed to go on" and distanced herself from its antisemitic content by, among other things, pointing to her membership of the Conservative Friends of Israel, B'nai B'rith event speeches, and her novel An Act of Treachery, which she said is set during the Holocaust.
Widdecombe was elected as a Member of the European Parliament for the Brexit Party on 23 May 2019 in the European elections. On 3 July 2019 she used her maiden speech in Strasbourg to compare Brexit to slaves revolting against their owners and to a colonised country rising up against occupying forces, a stance which was criticised by members of both the European Parliament and the British House of Commons.
Media work and appearances
broadcast in 2016 at the Nexus Methodist Church, Bath]]
In 2002 she took part in the ITV programme Celebrity Fit Club. Also in 2002 she took part in a Louis Theroux television documentary, depicting her life, both in and out of politics. In March 2004 she briefly became The Guardian'' newspaper's agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview. In 2005, she appeared in a new series of Celebrity Fit Club, this time as an agony aunt. Also in 2005, she presented the show Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK.
She was the guest host of news quiz Have I Got News for You twice, in 2006 and 2007. Her first appearance as guest host, in 2006, was widely regarded as a success. Following her second appearance, Widdecombe said she would never appear on the show again because of comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr which she considered filth, though she called regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton "the fastest wits in showbusiness".
In 2007 she awarded the University Challenge trophy to the winners. In the same year, she appeared in "The Sound of Drums", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama Doctor Who, endorsing the Master's Prime Minister campaign. In 2007 and 2008 Widdecombe fronted a television series called Ann Widdecombe Versus, on ITV1, in which she spoke to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. In 2007 she talked about prostitution, social benefits, and truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which she travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs.
In 2009, Widdecombe appeared with Archbishop John Onaiyekan in an "Intelligence Squared" debate in which they defended the motion that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Arguing against the motion were Stephen Fry and Christopher Hitchens, who won the debate overall.
in Clapham, 2010]]
In October 2010, she appeared on BBC One's Strictly Come Dancing, partnered by Anton du Beke, winning the support of some viewers despite low marks from the judges. After nine weeks of routines strongly flavoured by comedy, the couple was eliminated, in the bottom two. In 2011 Widdecombe played the Lord Mayoress in an episode of Sooty.
In 2012, Widdecombe hosted the 30 one-hour episodes of Cleverdicks, a quiz show for the Sky Atlantic channel. In April 2012 Widdecombe presented an hour-long documentary for BBC Radio 5 Live, Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates, looking at how the British attitude to alcohol consumption had changed over the previous few years. Widdecombe was in a Strictly Come Dancing special in Children in Need's 2012 appeal night. On 4 November 2012, Widdecombe guest-hosted one episode of BBC's Songs of Praise programme about singleness.
In October 2014, she appeared in the BBC series Celebrity Antiques Road Trip with expert Mark Stacey.
Widdecombe took part in a four-part BBC One television series 24 Hours in the Past, along with Colin Jackson, Alistair McGowan, Miquita Oliver, Tyger Drew-Honey and Zoe Lucker in April and May 2015, involving experiencing life as workers in a dustyard, coachhouse, pottery, and as workhouse inmates in 1840s Britain. She took part in an episode of Tipping Point: Lucky Stars in 2016. In 2017, Widdecombe took part in ITV's Sugar Free Farm.
In January 2018, Widdecombe participated in the Celebrity Big Brother twenty-first series; she was criticised over her comments regarding the Harvey Weinstein controversy and comments perceived to be anti-LGBT to her fellow housemates, most notably to drag queen Courtney Act (Shane Jenek). She finished the competition in second place, behind Jenek.
In 2019 Widdecombe appeared on the new celebrity version of The Crystal Maze, where alongside Sunetra Sarker, Wes Nelson, Matthew Wright and Nikki Sanderson, she won money for Stand Up to Cancer.
In 2020 Widdecombe travelled to Norway for three days to visit Halden Prison, for the documentary ''The World's Most Luxurious Prison''.Stage acting careerFollowing her retirement, Widdecombe made her stage debut, on 9 December 2011, at the Orchard Theatre, Dartford in the Christmas pantomime Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, alongside Strictly Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood. In April 2012, she had a ten-minute non-singing cameo part in Gaetano Donizetti's comic opera La Fille du Regiment, playing the Duchesse de Crackentorp. Widdecombe reprised her pantomime performance, again with Horwood, at the Swan Theatre, High Wycombe in December 2012.
Widdecombe stepped in at short notice to play the Evil Queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which was published by the Brothers Grimm in 1812, at Bridlington Spa in December 2016. She replaced injured Lorraine Chase. This was Widdecombe's first appearance as a pantomime 'baddie'; a role she told the press she had always hoped for.
In December 2017 Widdecombe played the Empress of China in the pantomime Aladdin at the Marina Theatre in Lowestoft.Personal life and familyUntil her retirement following the 2010 general election, Widdecombe divided her time between her two homes – one in London and one in the countryside village of Sutton Valence, Kent, in her constituency. She sold both upon retiring at the next general election. She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita's death, on 25 April 2007, aged 95. In March 2008, she bought a house in Haytor Vale, on Dartmoor in Devon, where she retired. Her brother, Malcolm (1937–2010), who was an Anglican canon in Bristol, retired in May 2009 and died in October 2010. Her nephew, Roger Widdecombe, is an Anglican priest. She has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least "one sexual relationship", to which Widdecombe replied: "Be careful, that's the way you get sued". When interviewer Jenni Murray asked if she had ever had a sexual relationship, Widdecombe laughed "it's nobody else's business".
A 2001 report in The Guardian said that she had had a three-year romance while studying at the University of Oxford; Widdecombe confirmed this in January 2018 on the UK reality TV show Big Brother, explaining that she had ended the romance in order to prioritise her career.
Widdecombe has a fondness for cats and many other animals such as foxes; a section of her website, the Widdyweb, is about the pet cats she has lived with. Widdecombe adopted two goats at the Buttercups Goat Sanctuary in Boughton Monchelsea near Maidstone. In an interview, Widdecombe talked about her appreciation of music, despite describing herself as "pretty well tone-deaf".
Outside politics she writes novels, and a weekly column for the Daily Express.
In January 2011 Widdecombe was President of the North of England Education Conference in Blackpool, and gave a speech there supporting selective education and opposing the ban on new grammar schools being built. She also became a patron of The Grace Charity for M.E.
In April 2012 Widdecombe said that she was writing her autobiography, which she described as "rude about all and sundry, but an amount of truth is always necessary". Her autobiography Strictly Ann: The Autobiography, was published in 2013, and was variously described as "forthright", "candid", even "rude". explaining to reporters from the New Statesman:
:I left the Church of England because there was a huge bundle of straw. The ordination of women was the last straw, but it was only one of many. For years I had been disillusioned by the Church of England's compromising on everything. The Catholic Church doesn't care if something is unpopular.
In October 2006, she pledged to boycott British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her Christian cross, until the company reversed the suspension.
In 2010, Widdecombe turned down the offer to be Britain's next ambassador to the Holy See, being prevented from accepting by suffering a detached retina. She was made a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI for services to politics and public life on 31 January 2013.Honours
*Widdecombe was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony held at Canterbury Cathedral on 30 January 2009.
* She was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ) by the University of Birmingham on 5 July 2012.
*: Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (DSG) (2013)Selected publicationsFiction
* 2000: The Clematis Tree. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
* 2002: An Act of Treachery. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
* 2005: Father Figure. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
* 2005: An Act of Peace. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Non-fiction
* 1999: Inspired and Outspoken: the collected speeches of Ann Widdecombe; edited by John Simmons, with a biographical preface by Nick Kochan. London: Politico's Publishing
*2004: The Mass is a Mess, with Martin Kochanski. London: Catholic Writers' Guild
Further reading
* 2000: Kochan, Nicholas Ann Widdecombe: right from the beginning. London: Politico's Publishing
Notes
References
External links
* [http://www.annwiddecombe.com/ Official website]
* [https://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/ann_widdecombe/maidstone_and_the_weald TheyWorkForYou.com – Ann Widdecombe MP]
* [http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpnAnn_Widdecombe&mpcMaidstone+%26amp%3B+The+Weald The Public Whip – Ann Widdecombe MP] voting record
*
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Category:UK MPs 2005–2010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Widdecombe | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.092341 |
2425 | Aurangzeb | }}<br/><!--
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-->Shahenshah-e-Sultanat Al-Hindiyyah<br /><!--
-->(Emperor of the Sultanate of India)}} was the sixth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, with territory spanning nearly the entirety of the Indian subcontinent.
Aurangzeb and the Mughals belonged to a branch of the Timurid dynasty. He held administrative and military posts under his father Shah Jahan () and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636–1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645–1647. He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648–1652 and continued expeditions into the neighboring Safavid territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son Dara Shikoh as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the Kingdom of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat. Aurangzeb's decisive victory at the Battle of Samugarh in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort.
Aurangzeb's reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of the strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of Arabic calligraphy. He successfully imposed the Fatawa-i Alamgiri as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments.
Aurangzeb was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy. His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors.
Early life
, Shah Shuja, their father Shah Jahan (center), and maternal grandfather Asaf Khan IV (right) c.1628]]
Aurangzeb was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618. His father was Emperor Shah Jahan (), who hailed from the Mughal house of the Timurid dynasty. The latter was descended from Emir Timur (), the founder of the Timurid Empire. Aurangzeb's mother Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of the Persian nobleman Asaf Khan, who was the youngest son of vizier Mirza Ghiyas. Aurangzeb was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather Jahangir (), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire.
In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore as hostages of their grandfather Jahangir and his wife, Nur Jahan, as part of their father's pardon deal. After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in the ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in Agra.
As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature. Aurangzeb grew up fluent in the Hindustani language. He was also fluent in his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic, but similar to his predecessors, he preferred to use Persian.
On 28 May 1633, a war elephant stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of Bahadur (brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied:
Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance.
Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against the elephant was documented in Persian and Urdu verses. Career as prince
under the command of Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.|left]]
Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha, Jhujhar Singh, who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power.
depicts Prince Aurangzeb facing a maddened war elephant named Sudhakar.]]
Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III, the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu, posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai, whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Mahal. The latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shukoh.
In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, which he did with ease. In 1638, Aurangzeb married Nawab Bai, later known as Rahmat al-Nisa. That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to subdue the Portuguese coastal fortress of Daman, however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at the end of a long siege. At some point, Aurangzeb married Aurangabadi Mahal, who was a Circassian or Georgian.
Shah Jahan was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became a faqir.Governor of GujaratIn 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat. His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability.
Governor of Balkh
In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh, replacing a younger son, Murad Baksh, who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign, Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to the surprise of the opposing force commander. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to Kabul. By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at a late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain.Second Deccan governorateAurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were moved there as a consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation.
Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory. This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture, the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Historian Satish Chandra says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity [were] the real arbiters". There were ideological differences – Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative – but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects the fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology." Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, explains that "The loyalties of [officials and their armed contingents] seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of the family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides."
After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with strangury in 1657. He was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether the challengers were taking advantage of the situation.
Shah Shuja in Bengal, where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh.
Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in the Deccan.
After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, "After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara."
Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja the governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the battle of Khajwa, where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by the forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers.
With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi.
On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan. Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh. Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666. Ancestry ReignBureaucracy
Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors.
Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half to 31.6% due to an increased recruitment of Marathas for the purpose of Deccan campaign. In the second half of his rule, the Marathas outnumbered Rajputs in his administration. Nevertheless, he tried to decrease the number of non-Muslim nobles in his court and encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam. Economy Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing Qing China, making it the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled proto-industrialization.
Religious policy
law by introducing the Fatawa 'Alamgiri.|left]]
Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make Islam a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival. Aurangzeb was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint, Ahmad Sirhindi. He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him.
Sheikh Muhammad Ikram stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of Sati, a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away. Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree:
<blockquote><p>"in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt". As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of the Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar, although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions. Aurangzeb had also banned the celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported.
Yohanan Friedmann has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi inspired the religious orthodoxy policy of Aurangzeb.
Taxation policy
Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects.
In 1679, Aurangzeb chose to re-impose jizya, a military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials. The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted. The collectors were mandated to be Muslims.
Aurangzeb also enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among the masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats. The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed.
Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for the maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction. Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon.
Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several firmans in Aurangzeb's name, supporting temples, maths, chishti shrines, and gurudwaras, including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain, a gurudwara at Dehradun, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot, Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples, among others. Numerous new temples were built, as well. In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels.
In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located. Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign.]]
Aurangzeb's exchequer raised a record £100 million in annual revenue through various sources like taxes, customs and land revenue, et al. from 24 provinces. He had an annual yearly revenue of $450 million, more than ten times that of his contemporary Louis XIV of France.
Coins
<gallery>
File:Half rupee coin of Aurangzeb.jpg|Half rupee
File:Silver Rupee of Aurangazeb AH1096.jpg|Rupee coin showing full name
File:047aur13.jpg|Rupee with square area
File:074aur-12.JPG|A copper dam of Aurangzeb
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Aurangzeb felt that verses from the Quran should not be stamped on coins, as done in former times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feet of people. His coins had the name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other:
in the Durbar. Standing before him is his son, Azam Shah.]]
It is reported that Aurangzeb always inspected his cavalry contingents every day, while testing his cutlasses sheep carcass, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up, in one strike.
In 1663, during his visit to Ladakh, Aurangzeb established direct control over that part of the empire and loyal subjects such as Deldan Namgyal agreed to pledge tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also known to have constructed a Grand Mosque in Leh, which he dedicated to Mughal rule.
. Chester Beatty Library]]
In 1664, Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan subedar (governor) of Bengal. Shaista Khan eliminated Portuguese and Arakanese pirates from the region, and in 1666 recaptured the port of Chittagong from the Arakanese king, Sanda Thudhamma. Chittagong remained a key port throughout Mughal rule.
In 1685, Aurangzeb dispatched his son, Muhammad Azam Shah, with a force of nearly 50,000 men to capture Bijapur Fort and defeat Sikandar Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur) who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals could not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort, mainly because of the superior usage of cannon batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on 4 September 1686 and commanded the siege of Bijapur; after eight days of fighting, the Mughals were victorious.
Only one remaining ruler, Abul Hasan Qutb Shah (the Qutbshahi ruler of Golconda), refused to surrender. He and his servicemen fortified themselves at Golconda and fiercely protected the Kollur Mine, which was then probably the world's most productive diamond mine, and an important economic asset. In 1687, Aurangzeb led his grand Mughal army against the Deccan Qutbshahi fortress during the siege of Golconda. The Qutbshahis had constructed massive fortifications throughout successive generations on a granite hill over 400 ft high with an enormous eight-mile long wall enclosing the city. The main gates of Golconda had the ability to repulse any war elephant attack. Although the Qutbshahis maintained the impregnability of their walls, at night Aurangzeb and his infantry erected complex scaffolding that allowed them to scale the high walls. During the eight-month siege the Mughals faced many hardships including the death of their experienced commander Kilich Khan Bahadur. Eventually, Aurangzeb and his forces managed to penetrate the walls by capturing a gate, and their entry into the fort led Abul Hasan Qutb Shah to surrender; he died after twelve years of Mughal imprisonment.
Mughal cannon making skills advanced during the 17th century. One of the most impressive Mughal cannons is known as the Zafarbaksh, which is a very rare composite cannon, that required skills in both wrought-iron forge welding and bronze-casting technologies and the in-depth knowledge of the qualities of both metals. The Ibrahim Rauza was a famed cannon, which was well known for its multi-barrels. François Bernier, the personal physician to Aurangzeb, observed Mughal gun-carriages each drawn by two horses, an improvement over the bullock-drawn gun-carriages used elsewhere in India.
During the rule of Aurangzeb, In 1703, the Mughal commander at Coromandel, Daud Khan Panni spent 10,500 coins to purchase 30 to 50 war elephants from Ceylon.Art and cultureAurangzeb was noted for his religious piety; he memorized the entire Quran, studied hadiths and stringently observed the rituals of Islam, and "transcribe[d] copies of the Quran."
Aurangzeb had a more austere nature than his predecessors, and greatly reduced imperial patronage of the figurative Mughal miniature. This had the effect of dispersing the court atelier to other regional courts. Being religious he encouraged Islamic calligraphy. His reign also saw the building of the Lahore Badshahi Masjid and Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad for his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani. Aurangzeb was considered a Mujaddid by contemporary Muslims considered Aurangzeb.Calligraphy'', parts of which are believed to have been written in Aurangzeb's own hand.]]
The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to have patronised works of Islamic calligraphy; the demand for Quran manuscripts in the naskh style peaked during his reign. Having been instructed by Syed Ali Tabrizi, Aurangzeb was himself a talented calligrapher in naskh, evidenced by Quran manuscripts that he created.
Architecture
Aurangzeb was not as involved in architecture as his father. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the position of the Mughal Emperor as chief architectural patron began to diminish. However, Aurangzeb did endow some significant structures. Catherine Asher terms his architectural period as an "Islamization" of Mughal architecture. One of the earliest constructions after his accession was a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), built for his personal use in the Red Fort complex of Delhi. He later ordered the construction of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, which is today one of the largest mosques in the Indian subcontinent. The mosque he constructed in Srinagar is still the largest in Kashmir. Aurangzeb had a palace constructed for himself in Aurangabad, which was extant till a few years ago.
Most of Aurangzeb's building activity revolved around mosques, but secular structures were not neglected. The Mubarak Manzil in Agra served as his riverside residence after his victory at Samugarh. The Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, the mausoleum of Rabia-ud-Daurani, was constructed by his eldest son Azam Shah upon Aurangzeb's decree. Its architecture displays clear inspiration from the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb also provided and repaired urban structures like fortifications (for example a wall around Aurangabad, many of whose gates still survive), bridges, caravanserais, and gardens.
Aurangzeb was more heavily involved in the repair and maintenance of previously existing structures. The most important of these were mosques, both Mughal and pre-Mughal, which he repaired more of than any of his predecessors. He patronised the dargahs of Sufi saints such as Bakhtiyar Kaki, and strived to maintain royal tombs.
He also explains the different techniques employed to produce such complicated textiles as Himru (whose name is Persian for "brocade"), Paithani (whose pattern is identical on both sides), Mushru (satin weave) and how Kalamkari, in which fabrics are painted or block-printed, was a technique that originally came from Persia. Francois Bernier provided some of the first, impressive descriptions of the designs and the soft, delicate texture of Pashmina shawls also known as Kani, which were very valued for their warmth and comfort among the Mughals, and how these textiles and shawls eventually began to find their way to France and England.
<gallery>
File:Caspar David Friedrich - Frau mit Umschlagtuch (1804).jpg|Shawls manufactured in the Mughal Empire had highly influenced other cultures around the world.
File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|Shawl makers in the Mughal Empire.
File:Floorspread LACMA M.79.9.6 (1 of 3).jpg|Mughal imperial carpet
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Foreign relations
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Aurangzeb sent diplomatic missions to Mecca in 1659 and 1662, with money and gifts for the Sharif. He also sent alms in 1666 and 1672 to be distributed in Mecca and Medina. Historian Naimur Rahman Farooqi writes that, "By 1694, Aurangzeb's ardour for the Sharifs of Mecca had begun to wane; their greed and rapacity had thoroughly disillusioned the Emperor ... Aurangzeb expressed his disgust at the unethical behavior of the Sharif who appropriated all the money sent to the Hijaz for his own use, thus depriving the needy and the poor." According to English traveller named John Fryar, Aurangzeb also consider that despite his enormous power on land, it is cheaper to establish reciprocal relation with the naval forces of Portuguese empire to secure the sea interest of ships in Mughal territory, so he did not built an overtly massive naval forces.Relations with AcehFor decades, the Malabari Mappila Muslims which representing the Mughal empire are already patronized Aceh Sultanate. Aurangzeb, and his brother, Dara Shikoh, participated with Aceh trade and Aurangzeb himself also exchanging presents with the Sultan of Aceh in 1641.
When the VOC, or Dutch East India Company trying to disrupt the trade in Aceh to make their own Malaka trade lucrative, Aurangzeb threatened the Dutch with retaliation against any losses in Gujarat due to Dutch intervention. The Firman issued by Aurangzeb caused the VOC to back down and allowed Indian sailors to pass into Aceh, Perak, and Kedah, without any restrictions.
Relations with the Uzbek
Subhan Quli Khan, Balkh's Uzbek ruler was the first to recognise him in 1658 and requested for a general alliance, he worked alongside the new Mughal Emperor since 1647, when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh.Relations with the Safavid dynastySafavid Iran and the Mughal Empire had long clashed over Kandahar, an outpost on the distant frontier of their two empires. Control of the city swung back and forth. Aurangzeb led two unsuccessful campaigns to recapture it 1649 and 1652. Mughal attempts died down after 1653 amidst internal rivalries.
Upon ascending the throne, Aurangzeb was eager to obtain diplomatic recognition from the Safavids to bolster the legitimacy of his rule. Abbas II of Persia sent an embassy in 1661. Aurangzeb received the ambassador warmly and they exchanged gifts. A return embassy sent by Aurangzeb to Persia in 1664 was poorly treated. Tensions over Kandahar rose again. There were cross border raids, but hostilities subsided after Abbas II's death in 1666.
Aurangzeb's rebellious son, Prince Akbar, sought refuge with Suleiman I of Persia. Suleiman rescued him from the Imam of Musqat, but refused to assist him in any military adventures against Aurangzeb.Relations with the FrenchIn 1667, the French East India Company ambassadors Le Gouz and Bebert presented Louis XIV of France's letter which urged the protection of French merchants from various rebels in the Deccan. In response to the letter, Aurangzeb issued a firman allowing the French to open a factory in Surat.
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File:Pomp and Ceremony of the March of the Great Mogol.jpg|March of the Great Moghul (Aurangzeb)
File:Voyage de Francois Bernier by Paul Maret 1710.jpg|François Bernier, was a French physician and traveller, who for 12 years was the personal physician of Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in Travels in the Mughal Empire.
File:Indostan - a Map of India by Vincenzo Coronelli, Venice 1692.jpg|Map of the Mughal Empire by Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718) of Venice, who served as Royal Geographer to Louis XIV of France.
File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg|French map of the Deccan.
</gallery>
Relations with the Sultanate of Maldives
In the 1660s, the Sultan of the Maldives, Ibrahim Iskandar I, requested help from Aurangzeb's representative, the Faujdar of Balasore. The Sultan wished to gain his support in possible future expulsions of Dutch and English trading ships, as he was concerned with how they might impact the economy of the Maldives. However, as Aurangzeb did not possess a powerful navy and had no interest in providing support to Ibrahim in a possible future war with the Dutch or English, the request came to nothing.
Relations with the Ottoman Empire
Like his father, Aurangzeb was not willing to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the caliphate. He often supported the Ottoman Empire's enemies, extending cordial welcome to two rebel Governors of Basra, and granting them and their families a high status in the imperial service. Sultan Suleiman II's friendly postures were ignored by Aurangzeb. The Sultan urged Aurangzeb to wage holy war against Christians. However, Aurangzeb were granted as patron of Sharif of Mecca, and sending the Sherif at that time with richly laden mission, which at that time were under the jurisdiction of Ottoman.
Relations with the English and the Anglo-Mughal War
requests a pardon from Aurangzeb during the Anglo-Mughal War.]]
In 1686, the East India Company, which had unsuccessfully tried to obtain a firman that would grant them regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire, initiated the Anglo-Mughal War. This war ended in disaster for the English after Aurangzeb in 1689 dispatched a large fleet from Janjira that blockaded Bombay. The ships, commanded by Sidi Yaqub, were manned by Indians and Mappilas. In 1690, realising the war was not going favourably for them, the Company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys prostrated themselves before the emperor, agreed pay a large indemnity, and promise to refrain from such actions in the future.
In September 1695, English pirate Henry Every conducted one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal grab convoy near Surat. The Indian ships had been returning home from their annual pilgrimage to Mecca when the pirate struck, capturing the Ganj-i-Sawai, reportedly the largest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process. When news of the capture reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armed attack against the English-governed city of Bombay, though he finally agreed to compromise after the Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at £600,000 by the Mughal authorities. Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the English East India Company's factories, imprisoned the workers and captains (who were nearly lynched by a rioting mob), and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured.
In 1702, Aurangzeb sent Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the Carnatic region, to besiege and blockade Fort St. George for more than three months. The governor of the fort Thomas Pitt was instructed by the East India Company to sue for peace.
Relations with the Ethiopian Empire
Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatched an embassy to India in 1664–65 to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire. The delegation reportedly presented several valuable offerings to the Mughal Emperor, such as slaves, ivory, horses, a set of intricately adorned silver pocket pistols, a zebra and various other exotic gifts. François Bernier, describes the presents as consisting of:
Relations with the Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Dzungars
After 1679, the Tibetans invaded Ladakh, which was in the Mughal sphere of influence. Aurangzeb intervened on Ladakh's behalf in 1683, but his troops retreated before Dzungar reinforcements arrived to bolster the Tibetan position. At the same time, however, a letter was sent from the governor of Kashmir claiming the Mughals had defeated the Dalai Lama and conquered all of Tibet, a cause for celebration in Aurangzeb's court.
Aurangzeb received an embassy from Muhammad Amin Khan of Chagatai Moghulistan in 1690, seeking assistance in driving out "Qirkhiz infidels" (meaning the Buddhist Dzungars), who "had acquired dominance over the country".
Relations with the Czardom of Russia
Russian Czar Peter the Great requested Aurangzeb to open Russo-Mughal trade relations in the late 17th century. In 1696 Aurangzeb received his envoy, Semyon Malenkiy, and allowed him to conduct free trade. After staying for six years in India, and visiting Surat, Burhanpur, Agra, Delhi and other cities, Russian merchants returned to Moscow with valuable Indian goods.RebellionsTraditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs, Hindu Jats, Pashtuns, and Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or opposition, gave them both recognition and military experience.
* In 1669, the Hindu Jat peasants of Bharatpur around Mathura rebelled and created Bharatpur State but were defeated.
* In 1659, Maratha leader Shivaji, launched a surprise attack on the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan and, while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji and his forces attacked the Deccan, Janjira and Surat and tried to gain control of vast territories. In 1689, Aurangzeb's armies captured Shivaji's son Sambhaji and executed him. But the Marathas continued the fight.
* In 1679, the Rathore clan under the command of Durgadas Rathore of Marwar rebelled when Aurangzeb did not give permission to make the young Rathore prince the king and took direct command of Jodhpur. This incident caused great unrest among the Hindu Rajput rulers under Aurangzeb and led to many rebellions in Rajputana, resulting in the loss of Mughal power in the region and religious bitterness over the destruction of temples.
* In 1672, the Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping alive.
Jat rebellion
was pillaged by Jat rebels during the reign of Aurangzeb.]]
In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula, a rebel landholder from Tilpat. By the year 1670 20,000 Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat, Gokula's personal fortune amounted to 93,000 gold coins and hundreds of thousands of silver coins.
Gokula was caught and executed. But the Jats once again attempted rebellion. Raja Ram Jat, in order to avenge his father Gokula's death, plundered Akbar's tomb of its gold, silver and fine carpets, opened Akbar's grave and dragged his bones and burned them in retaliation. Jats also shot off the tops of the minarets on the gateway to Akbar's Tomb and melted down two silver doors from the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb appointed Mohammad Bidar Bakht as commander to crush the Jat rebellion. On 4 July 1688, Raja Ram Jat was captured and beheaded. His head was sent to Aurangzeb as proof of his beheading.
However, after Aurangeb's death, Jats under Badan Singh later established their independent state of Bharatpur.
Due to the Jat rebellion, the temples of Pushtimarg, Gaudiya, and Radha vallabh Vaishnavs in Braj were abandoned and their icons were taken to different regions or into hiding.
Mughal–Maratha Wars
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In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu Maratha warrior, Shivaji, used guerrilla tactics to take control of three Adil Shahi forts formerly under his father's command. With these victories, Shivaji assumed de facto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Adil Shahis, gaining weapons, forts, and territory. Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Adil Shahi attack, and Shivaji personally killed the Adil Shahi general, Afzal Khan. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Adil Shahi territories. Shivaji went on to neutralise Mughal power in the region.
In 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan, the Wali in Golconda to recover forts lost to the Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in Pune. But in a daring raid on the governor's palace in Pune during a midnight wedding celebration, led by Shivaji himself, the Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son and Shivaji maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off three fingers of his hand. Shaista Khan, however, survived and was re-appointed the administrator of Bengal going on to become a key commander in the war against the Ahoms.
Aurangzeb next sent general Raja Jai Singh to vanquish the Marathas. Jai Singh besieged the fort of Purandar and fought off all attempts to relieve it. Foreseeing defeat, Shivaji agreed to terms. Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit Aurangzeb at Agra, giving him a personal guarantee of safety. Their meeting at the Mughal court did not go well, however. Shivaji felt slighted at the way he was received, and insulted Aurangzeb by refusing imperial service. For this affront he was detained, but managed to effect a daring escape.
Shivaji returned to the Deccan, and crowned himself Chhatrapati or the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom in 1674. Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son, Sambhaji. Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail.
Aurangzeb's third son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji, Shivaji's successor. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia and never returned.
In 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed Sambhaji. His successor Rajaram, later Rajaram's widow Tarabai and their Maratha forces fought individual battles against the forces of the Mughal Empire. Territory changed hands repeatedly during the years (1689–1707) of interminable warfare. As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and money. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory – notably conquering Satara – the Marathas expanded eastwards into Mughal lands – Malwa and Hyderabad. The Marathas also expanded further South into Southern India defeating the independent local rulers there capturing Jinji in Tamil Nadu. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution. He thus lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in Deccan India. He travelled a long distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and eventually died at the age of 88, still fighting the Marathas.
Aurangzeb's shift from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency in the Deccan region shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. There were conflicts between Marathas and Mughals in Pune, Jinji, Malwa and Vadodara. The Mughal Empire's port city of Surat was sacked twice by the Marathas during the reign of Aurangzeb and the valuable port was in ruins.
Matthew White estimates that about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, plague and famine.
<gallery>
File:A portrait probably made by a Mughal artist, in the Deccan, during Aurangzeb's military campaigns there.jpg|A Mughal trooper in the Deccan.
File:Bhavanidas. The Emperor Aurangzeb Carried on a Palanquin ca. 1705–20 Metripolitan Museum of Art..jpg|Aurangzeb leads his final expedition (1705), leading an army of 500,000 troops.
File:Prince with rifle.jpg|Mughal-era aristocrat armed with a matchlock musket.
File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 1067.1 crop.jpg|Aurangzeb, in later life, hunting with hounds and falconers
</gallery>
Ahom campaign
.]]
In 1660 Mir Jumla II, the viceroy of Bengal, was ordered to recover the lost territories.
The Mughals set out in November 1661. Within weeks they occupied the capital of Kuch Behar, which they annexed. Leaving a detachment to garrison it, the Mughal army began to retake their territories in Assam. Mir Jumla II advanced on Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, and reached it on 17 March 1662. The ruler, Raja Sutamla, had fled before his approach. The Mughals captured 82 elephants, 300,000 rupees in cash, 1000 ships, and 173 stores of rice.
On his way back to Dacca, in March 1663, Mir Jumla II died of natural causes.
The battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule.
Satnami opposition
In May 1672, the Satnami sect, obeying the commands of an old toothless woman (according to Mughal accounts), organised a revolt in the agricultural heartlands of the Mughal Empire. The Satnamis were known to have shaved off their heads and even eyebrows and had temples in many regions of Northern India. They began a large-scale rebellion 75 miles southwest of Delhi.
The Satnamis believed they were invulnerable to Mughal bullets and believed they could multiply in any region they entered. The Satnamis initiated their march upon Delhi and overran small-scale Mughal infantry units.
Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. Aurangzeb wrote Islamic prayers and drew designs that were sewn into the army's flags. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion.]]
The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, like his predecessors was opposed to forced conversion of the local population as he considered it wrong. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits to help them retain their faith and avoid forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bagadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim.
is the name given to the letter sent by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh in 1705 to Aurangzeb. The letter is written in Persian script.]]
In response, Guru Tegh Bahadur's son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh, further militarised his followers, starting with the establishment of Khalsa in 1699, eight years before Aurangzeb's death. In 1705, Guru Gobind Singh sent a letter entitled Zafarnamah, which accused Aurangzeb of cruelty and betraying Islam. Guru Gobind Singh's formation of Khalsa in 1699 led to the establishment of the Sikh Confederacy and later Sikh Empire.
Pashtun opposition
The Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet Khushal Khan Khattak of Kabul, was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan allegedly molested a Parachi woman affiliated with the Safi in modern-day Kunar Province of Afghanistan. The Safi tribes retaliated against the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber Pass, where the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape.
Aurangzeb's incursions into the Pashtun areas were described by Khushal Khan Khattak as "Black is the Mughal's heart towards all of us Pathans". Aurangzeb employed the scorched earth policy, sending soldiers who massacred, looted and burnt many villages. Aurangzeb also proceeded to use bribery to turn the Pashtun tribes against each other, with the aim that they would distract a unified Pashtun challenge to Mughal authority, and the impact of this was to leave a lasting legacy of mistrust among the tribes.
After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority in the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly disastrous. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebels and partially suppressed the revolt, although they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route.Rathore rebellion
and Ajit Singh]]
Described as the Rathore rebellion (1679-1707), the conflict between Rajputs of Marwar and the Mughals started after the death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar, due to Aurangzeb's attempt to interfere in the succession of Marwar.
On 23 July 1679, Aurangzeb made attempts to divide Marwar into two Rathore principalities, one held by Inder Singh Rathore and other by Ajit Singh. Aurangzeb also proposed that Ajit Singh should be raised as a Muslim and offered Jodhpur in return. The resistance to Mughal interference was started by the Rajput nobles under Durgadas Rathore and erupted into an all-out war between the Mughal empire and Rajputs of Marwar supported by Mewar Rajputs. It lasted for almost thirty years. The rebellion reached a climax after the death of Aurangzeb on 3 March 1707 and the capture of Jodhpur by the Rathores on 12 March 1707.
Death
, the mausoleum of Aurangzeb's wife Dilras Banu Begum, was commissioned by him]]
, Maharashtra.]]
By 1689, the conquest of Golconda and Mughal victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, with a population estimated to be over 158 million. Historian Jos Gommans says that "... the highpoint of imperial centralisation under emperor Aurangzeb coincided with the start of the imperial downfall."
Aurangzeb constructed a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi. However, his constant warfare, especially with the Marathas, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful personal spending and opulence of his predecessors.
The Indologist Stanley Wolpert says that:
, Maharashtra. Painting by William Carpenter, 1850s]]
Even when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely. He died at his military camp in Bhingar near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. He had only 300 rupees with him which were later given to charity as per his instructions and he prior to his death requested not to spend extravagantly on his funeral but to keep it simple. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.
Brown writes that after his death, "a string of weak emperors, wars of succession, and coups by noblemen heralded the irrevocable weakening of Mughal power". She notes that the populist but "fairly old-fashioned" explanation for the decline is that there was a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppression. Although Aurangzeb died without appointing a successor, he instructed his three sons to divide the empire among themselves. His sons failed to reach a satisfactory agreement and fought against each other in a war of succession. Aurangzeb's immediate successor was his third son Azam Shah, who was defeated and killed in June 1707 at the battle of Jajau by the army of Bahadur Shah I, the second son of Aurangzeb. Both because of Aurangzeb's over-extension and because of Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a period of terminal decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah occupied the throne, the Maratha Empire – which Aurangzeb had held at bay, inflicting high human and monetary costs even on his own empire – consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, seizing power from the weak emperor. Within decades of Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Emperor had little power beyond the walls of Delhi.Assessments and legacyAurangzeb's rule has been the subject of both praise and controversy. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, G. N. Moin Shakir and Sarma Festschrift argue that he often used political opposition as pretext for religious persecution,
Multiple interpretations of Aurangzeb's life and reign over the years by critics have led to a very complicated legacy. Some argue that his policies abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his introduction of the jizya tax and other policies based on Islamic ethics; his demolition of Hindu temples; the executions of his elder brother Dara Shikoh, King Sambhaji of Maratha and Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur and the prohibition and supervision of behaviour and activities that are forbidden in Islam such as gambling, fornication, and consumption of alcohol and narcotics. At the same time, some historians question the historical authenticity of the claims of his critics, arguing that his destruction of temples has been exaggerated, and noting that he built more temples than he destroyed, Professor Muhammad al-Munajjid on his online correspondence has answered that he based his opinion ''Silk ad-Durar fi A'yaan al-Qarn ath-Thaani 'Ashar (4/113)'' and Aurangzeb biography by Professor 'Abd al-Mun'im an-Nimr in his book ''Tareekh al-Islam fi'l-Hind''.
|group"Notes"}} Apparently this view of Aurangzeb were influenced by Muhammad Saleh Kamboh, who acted as his teacher.
In Pakistan, author Haroon Khalid writes that, "Aurangzeb is presented as a hero who fought and expanded the frontiers of the Islamic empire" and "is imagined to be a true believer who removed corrupt practices from religion and the court, and once again purified the empire." The academic Munis Faruqui also opines that the "Pakistani state and its allies in the religious and political establishments include him in the pantheon of premodern Muslim heroes, especially lauding him for his militarism, personal piety, and seeming willingness to accommodate Islamic morality within state goals."
Muhammad Iqbal, considered the spiritual founder of Pakistan, admired Aurangzeb. Iqbal Singh Sevea, in his book on the political philosophy of the thinker, says that "Iqbal considered that the life and activities of Aurangzeb constituted the starting point of Muslim nationality in India". Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, hailed M.A. Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, to be the greatest Muslim since Aurangzeb. Pakistani-American academic Akbar Ahmed described President Zia-ul-Haq, known for his Islamization drive, as "conceptually ... a spiritual descendent of Aurangzeb" because Zia had an orthodox, legalistic view of Islam.
Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, a grand mufti of Egypt, once called Aurangzeb as "A remnant of the Rightly-Guided Rashidun Caliphs", as appreciation of Aurangzeb commitment to Islam teaching.
Beyond the individual appreciations, Aurangzeb is seminal to Pakistan's national self-consciousness, as historian Ayesha Jalal, while referring to the Pakistani textbooks controversy, mentions M. D. Zafar's A Text Book of Pakistan Studies where we can read that, under Aurangzeb, "Pakistan spirit gathered in strength", while his death "weakened the Pakistan spirit." Another historian from Pakistan, Mubarak Ali, also looking at the textbooks, and while noting that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation", contrasts him with Aurangzeb, who "appears in different textbooks of Social Studies and Urdu language as an orthodox and pious Muslim copying the Holy Quran and sewing caps for his livelihood." This image of Aurangzeb is not limited to Pakistan's official historiography.
As of 2015, about 177 towns and villages of India have been named after Aurangzeb. Historian Audrey Truschke points out that Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP), Hindutva proponents and some others outside Hindutva ideology regard Aurangzeb as Muslim zealot in India. Jawaharlal Nehru wrote that, due to his reversal of the cultural and religious syncretism of the previous Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb acted "more as a Moslem than an Indian ruler", while Mahatma Gandhi was of the view that there was greater degree of freedom under Mughal rule than the British rule and asks that "in Aurangzeb's time a Shivaji could flourish. Has one hundred and fifty years of the British rule produced any Pratap and Shivaji?" Other historians also noting that there are Hindu temples built during Aurangzeb reign, while he also employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.
Literatures
Aurangzeb has prominently featured in the following books
* 1675 – Aureng-zebe, play by John Dryden, written and performed on the London stage during the Emperor's lifetime.
* 1688 – Alamgirnama by Mirza Mohammed Qasim official biographer at Aurangzeb's court
* 19?? – Hindi fiction novel by Acharya Chatursen Shastri
* 1970 – Shahenshah (), the Marathi fictional biography by N S Inamdar; translated into English in 2017 by Vikrant Pande as Shahenshah – The Life of Aurangzeb
* 2017 – 1636: Mission to the Mughals, by Eric Flint and Griffin Barber
* 2018 – Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth, by Audrey Truschke
Personal life
Full title
and seal of Aurangzeb, on an imperial firman'']]The epithet Aurangzeb means 'Ornament of the Throne'.
Aurangzeb's full imperial title was:
Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I,
Badshah Ghazi,
Shahanshah-e-Sultanat-ul-Hindiya Wal Mughaliya.
Aurangzeb had also been attributed various other titles including Caliph of The Merciful, Monarch of Islam, and Living Custodian of God. Family Consorts
Aurangzeb had at least 4 consorts in his harem, from which he fathered 6 sons and 6 daughters:
*Dilras Banu Begum. Safavid Princess, daughter of Prince Mirza Badi-uz-Zaman Safavi, Aurangzeb's first wife.
*Nawab Bai. Secondary's wife of Aurangzeb, daughter of Raja Tajuddin Khan
*Aurangabadi Mahal. First Concubine of Aurangzeb
*Udaipuri Mahal. Second concubine of Aurangzeb; She was a dancing girl before entering the harem
Issues
Sons
*Shahzada Mirza Muhammad Sultan (30 December 1639 – 14 December 1676). Imprisoned by his father; With Nawab Bai
*Bahadur Shah I (14 October 1643 – 27 February 1712). Mughal Emperor, conspired to overthrow his younger brother; With Nawab Bai
*Muhammad Azam Shah (28 June 1653 – 20 June 1707). Overthrowen by his elder half-brother; With Dilras Banu Begum
*Shahzade Mirza Muhammad Akbar (11 September 1657 – 31 March 1706). Exiled to Safavid empire; With Dilras Banu Begum
*Shahzada Mirza Muhammad Kam Bakhsh (7 March 1667 – 14 January 1709). Ruler of Bijapur; With Udaipuri Mahal
Daughters
*Shahzadi Zeb-un-Nissa (15 February 1638 – 26 May 1702). She poet and was imprisoned by her father. She never married or had children; With Dilras Banu Begum
*Shahzadi Zinat-un-Nissa Begum ( 5 October 1643 – 7 May 1721). She became Mughal Empress (Padshah Begum) .With Dilras Banu Begum
*Shahzadi Badr-un-Nissa Begum (17 November 1647 – 9 April 1670). Never married or had any children; With Nawab Bai
*Shahzadi Zubdat-un-Nissa Begum (2 September 1651 – 17 February 1707). Married once and had a son; With Dilras Banu Begum
*Shahzadi Mihr-un-Nissa Begum (Persian: مهرالنسا بیگم; 28 September 1661 – 2 April 1706). Married once and had 2 sons; With Aurangabadi Mahal
See also
* Flags of the Mughal Empire
* Mughal architecture
* Mughal weapons
* List of largest empires
Notes
Citations Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
**
External links
* [http://www.aurangzeb.info/ Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20000712183224/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html Article on Aurganzeb] from MANAS group page, UCLA
* [https://aeon.co/essays/the-great-aurangzeb-is-everybodys-least-favourite-mughal The great Aurangzeb is everybody's least favourite Mughal – Audrey Truschke | Aeon Essays] by Audrey Truschke, published on AEON
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050829192151/http://web.nwe.ufl.edu/~esull/restoration/aurengzebe.htm The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe] Text of John Dryden's drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, 1675
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-aurangzeb.html Coins of Aurangzeb]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180918091133/https://www.urdulibraryonline.com/aurangzeb-alamgir-aslam-rahi-ma/ Life of Auranzeb in Urdu (ebook)]
||3 March 1707|name=Aurangzeb}}
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Category:Subahdars of Thatta | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.206222 |
2427 | Alexandrine | in a diving bell: a scene from the line's namesake, the ''Roman d'Alexandre''.]]
Alexandrine is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line's name derives from its use in the Medieval French ''Roman d'Alexandre of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a metrical pause or word break, which may or may not be realized as a stronger syntactic break):
o o o o o o | o o o o o o
oany syllable; |caesura
However, no tradition remains this simple. Each applies additional constraints (such as obligatory stress or nonstress on certain syllables) and options (such as a permitted or required additional syllable at the end of one or both hemistichs). Thus a line that is metrical in one tradition may be unmetrical in another.
Where the alexandrine has been adopted, it has frequently served as the heroic verse form of that language or culture, English being a notable exception.
Scope of the term
The term "alexandrine" may be used with greater or lesser rigour. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine. Preminger et al''. allow a broader scope: "Strictly speaking, the term 'alexandrine' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French." Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae.
French
Although alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century, they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the décasyllabe and octosyllabe for cultural prominence and use in various genres. "The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century." It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy. The structure of the classical French alexandrine is
o o o o o S | o o o o o S (e)
Sstressed syllable; (e)optional mute e
Classical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes, though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common.
Victor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure. While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (alexandrin ternaire) with this structure:
o o o S | o o ¦ o S | o o o S (e)
|strong caesura; ¦word break
The Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae. However, at no point did the newer line replace the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem. This loosening process eventually led to vers libéré and finally to vers libre.
English
In English verse, "alexandrine" is typically used to mean "iambic hexameter":
× / × / × / ¦ × / × / × / (×)
/ictus, a strong syllabic position; ×nonictus
¦=often a mandatory or predominant caesura, but depends upon the author
Whereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English.
Though English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Philip Sidney, and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton's Poly-Olbion and Robert Browning's Fifine at the Fair, they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness. Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter's measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line.
The strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from Poly-Olbion, which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized <code>¦</code>) in the first line:
<poem style="margin-left:2em">
Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps' melodious strings
Sung Heroes' deeds (the monuments of Kings)
And in your dreadful verse the prophecies,
The agèd world's descents, and genealogies; (lines 31-34)
</poem>
The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare's blank verse). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet. In his Essay on Criticism, Alexander Pope denounced (and parodied) the excessive and unskillful use of this practice:
<poem style="margin-left:2em">
Then at the last and only couplet fraught
With some unmeaning thing they call a thought,
A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. (lines 354-357)
</poem>
Other languages
Spanish
The Spanish verso alejandrino is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine. Its structure is:
o o o o o S o | o o o o o S o
It was used beginning about 1200 for mester de clerecía (clerical verse), typically occurring in the cuaderna vía, a stanza of four alejandrinos all with a single end-rhyme.
The alejandrino was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible arte mayor. Juan Ruiz's Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of cuaderna vía, though other verse forms also appear in the work.
Dutch
The mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot. From the Low Countries the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures.
|attr1Daniel Heinsius|
Whenas I am in love, in fetters am I bound,
When I in love am not, shame doth me quite confound.
Say then, what shall I do? My freedom would I gain,
But when I freedom get the greater is my pain.|attr2Translated by Leofranc Holford-Strevens}}
German
Similarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice — and German poets followed Opitz. The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque.
Polish
Unlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line:
Latin goliardic: o o o s S s s | o o o s S s
Polish alexandrine: o o o o o S s | o o o s S s
s=unstressed syllable
Though looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works.Czech
The Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactylic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures:
iambic hexameter: s S <u>s S s</u> S | s S <u>s S s</u> S <u>(s)</u>
dactylic tetrameter: S s <u>s S s</u> s | S s <u>s S s</u> s <u>(s)</u>
Czech alexandrine: o o <u>s S s</u> o | o o <u>s S s</u> o <u>(s)</u>
Hungarian
Hungarian metrical verse may be written either syllabically (the older and more traditional style, known as "national") or quantitatively. One of the national lines has a 6+6 structure:
o o o o o o | o o o o o o
Although deriving from native folk versification, it is possible that this line, and the related 6-syllable line, were influenced by Latin or Romance examples. When employed in 4-line or 8-line stanzas and riming in couplets, this is called the Hungarian alexandrine; it is the Hungarian heroic verse form. Beginning with the 16th-century verse of Bálint Balassi, this became the dominant Hungarian verseform.Modern referencesIn the comic book Asterix and Cleopatra, the author Goscinny inserted a pun about alexandrines: when the Druid Panoramix ("Getafix" in the English translation) meets his Alexandrian (Egyptian) friend the latter exclaims Je suis, mon cher ami, || très heureux de te voir at which Panoramix observes ''C'est un Alexandrin'' ("That's an alexandrine!"/"He's an Alexandrian!"). The pun can also be heard in the theatrical adaptations. The English translation renders this as "My dear old Getafix || I hope I find you well", with the reply "An Alexandrine".NotesReferences
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Category:Sonnet studies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrine | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.226408 |
2428 | Analog computer | thumb|A page from the Bombardier's Information File (BIF) that describes the components and controls of the Norden bombsight, a highly sophisticated optical/mechanical analog computer used by the United States Army Air Force during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War to aid the pilot of a bomber aircraft in dropping bombs accurately.|alt=|356x356px
thumb|TR-10 desktop analog computer of the late 1960s and early 1970s|alt=|347x347px
An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computation machine (computer) that uses physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities behaving according to the mathematical principles in question (analog signals) to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and amplitude (digital signals).
Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most complicated. Complex mechanisms for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions.
Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the advent of digital computers, because at the time they were typically much faster, but they started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although they remained in use in some specific applications, such as aircraft flight simulators, the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. Perhaps the most relatable example of analog computers are mechanical watches where the continuous and periodic rotation of interlinked gears drives the second, minute and hour needles in the clock. More complex applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task.
Timeline of analog computers
Precursors
This is a list of examples of early computation devices considered precursors of the modern computers. Some of them may even have been dubbed 'computers' by the press, though they may fail to fit modern definitions.
thumb|The Antikythera mechanism, dating between 150 and 100 BC, was an early analog computer.|alt=|260x260px
The Antikythera mechanism, a type of device used to determine the positions of heavenly bodies known as an orrery, was described as an early mechanical analog computer by British physicist, information scientist, and historian of science Derek J. de Solla Price. It was discovered in 1901, in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to , during the Hellenistic period. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.
The planisphere was first described by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
thumb|A slide rule. The sliding central slip is set to 1.3, the cursor to 2.0 and points to the multiplied result of 2.6.|alt=|260x260px
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft.
In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a perpetual-calendar machine, which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 (that is, 1 BC) to AD 4000, keeping track of leap years and varying day length.
The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 James Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. Several systems followed, notably those of Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo, who built various analog machines for solving real and complex roots of polynomials; and Michelson and Stratton, whose Harmonic Analyser performed Fourier analysis, but using an array of 80 springs rather than Kelvin integrators. This work led to the mathematical understanding of the Gibbs phenomenon of overshoot in Fourier representation near discontinuities. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
Modern era
thumb| Analog computing machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory .|alt=|260x260px
thumb|Heathkit EC-1 educational analog computer|alt=|260x260px
The Dumaresq was a mechanical calculating device invented around 1902 by Lieutenant John Dumaresq of the Royal Navy. It was an analog computer that related vital variables of the fire control problem to the movement of one's own ship and that of a target ship. It was often used with other devices, such as a Vickers range clock to generate range and deflection data so the gun sights of the ship could be continuously set. A number of versions of the Dumaresq were produced of increasing complexity as development proceeded.
By 1912, Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control systems, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I.
Starting in 1929, AC network analyzers were constructed to solve calculation problems related to electrical power systems that were too large to solve with numerical methods at the time. These were essentially scale models of the electrical properties of the full-size system. Since network analyzers could handle problems too large for analytic methods or hand computation, they were also used to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were built by the end of the 1950s.
World War II era gun directors, gun data computers, and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. In 1942 Helmut Hölzer built a fully electronic analog computer at Peenemünde Army Research Center as an embedded control system (mixing device) to calculate V-2 rocket trajectories from the accelerations and orientations (measured by gyroscopes) and to stabilize and guide the missile. Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War II, the Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant numbers.
In the period 1930–1945 in the Netherlands, Johan van Veen developed an analogue computer to calculate and predict tidal currents when the geometry of the channels are changed. Around 1950, this idea was developed into the Deltar, a hydraulic analogy computer supporting the closure of estuaries in the southwest of the Netherlands (the Delta Works).
The FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of neutron transport. Project Cyclone was an analog computer developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and design of dynamic systems. Project Typhoon was an analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted of over 4,000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6,000 plug-in connectors to program. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic analogy of a national economy first unveiled in 1949.
Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer" ("the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi.
Educational analog computers illustrated the principles of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC-1, a $199 educational analog computer, was made by the Heath Company, US . It was programmed using patch cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other components. General Electric also marketed an "educational" analog computer kit of a simple design in the early 1960s consisting of two transistor tone generators and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The relative resistance of the potentiometer was then equivalent to the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication or division could be performed, depending on which dials were inputs and which was the output. Accuracy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule was more accurate. However, the unit did demonstrate the basic principle.
Analog computer designs were published in electronics magazines. One example is the PEAC (Practical Electronics analogue computer), published in Practical Electronics in the January 1968 edition. Another more modern hybrid computer design was published in Everyday Practical Electronics in 2002. An example described in the EPE hybrid computer was the flight of a VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier jump jet. Its challenger was Applied Dynamics of Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Although the basic technology for analog computers is usually operational amplifiers (also called "continuous current amplifiers" because they have no low frequency limitation), in the 1960s an attempt was made in the French ANALAC computer to use an alternative technology: medium frequency carrier and non dissipative reversible circuits.
In the 1970s, every large company and administration concerned with problems in dynamics had an analog computing center, such as:
In the US: NASA (Huntsville, Houston), Martin Marietta (Orlando), Lockheed, Westinghouse, Hughes Aircraft
In Europe: CEA (French Atomic Energy Commission), MATRA, Aérospatiale, BAC (British Aircraft Corporation).
Construction
An analog computing machine consists of several main components:
Signal sources: These are blocks that generate analog signals, such as voltage or current, to represent input data and operations.
Amplifiers: Amplifiers are used to boost analog signals and maintain their amplitudes throughout the system. They amplify weak input signals and compensate for signal losses during transmission.
Filters: Filters are used to modify the spectrum of signals by suppressing or amplifying specific frequencies. They allow the isolation or suppression of certain signal components depending on the computational requirements.
Modulators and demodulators: Modulators convert information into analog signals that can be transmitted through a communication channel, and demodulators perform the reverse transformation, recovering the original data from modulated signals.
Adders, multipliers, log converters, and other calculation stages: These perform arithmetic operations on analog signals. They can be used for mathematical operations such as addition, multiplication, exponentiation, integration, and differentiation.
Storage and memory: Analog computing machines can use various forms of information storage, such as capacitors or inductors, to store intermediate results and memory.
Feedback and control: Feedback and control blocks are used to maintain the stability and accuracy of the analog computing machine. They may include regulation systems and error correction.
Patch panel: Analog computing machines also feature a patch panel or patch field. A patch panel is a physical structure on which connectors or contacts are placed to interconnect various components and modules within the system.
On the patch panel, various connections and routes can be set and switched to configure the machine and determine signal flows. This allows users to flexibly configure and reconfigure the analog computing system to perform specific tasks.
Patch panels are used to control data flows, connect and disconnect connections between various blocks of the system, including signal sources, amplifiers, filters, and other components. They provide convenience and flexibility in configuring and experimenting with analog computations.
Patch panels can be presented as a physical panel with connectors or, in more modern systems, as a software interface that allows virtual management of signal connections and routes.
Hardware interfaces: Interfaces provide means of interaction with the machine, for example, for parameter control or data transmission.
Output device: this device is designed to present the results of analog computations in a convenient form for the user or to transmit the obtained data to other systems.
Output devices in analog machines can vary depending on the specific goals of the system. For example, they could be graphical indicators, oscilloscopes, graphic recording devices, TV connection module, voltmeter, etc. These devices allow for the visualization of analog signals and the representation of the results of measurements or mathematical operations.
Power source and stabilizers.
These are just general blocks that can be found in a typical analog computing machine. The actual configuration and components may vary depending on the specific implementation and the intended use of the machine.
Analog–digital hybrids
Analog computing devices are fast; digital computing devices are more versatile and accurate. The idea behind an analog-digital hybrid is to combine the two processes for the best efficiency. An example of such hybrid elementary device is the hybrid multiplier, where one input is an analog signal, the other input is a digital signal and the output is analog. It acts as an analog potentiometer, upgradable digitally. This kind of hybrid technique is mainly used for fast dedicated real time computation when computing time is very critical, as signal processing for radars and generally for controllers in embedded systems.
In the early 1970s, analog computer manufacturers tried to tie together their analog computers with a digital computers to get the advantages of the two techniques. In such systems, the digital computer controlled the analog computer, providing initial set-up, initiating multiple analog runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The digital computer may also participate to the calculation itself using analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters.
The largest manufacturer of hybrid computers was Electronic Associates. Their hybrid computer model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or more analog consoles. These systems were mainly dedicated to large projects such as the Apollo program and Space Shuttle at NASA, or Ariane in Europe, especially during the integration step where at the beginning everything is simulated, and progressively real components replace their simulated parts.
Only one company was known as offering general commercial computing services on its hybrid computers, CISI of France, in the 1970s.
The best reference in this field is the 100,000 simulation runs for each certification of the automatic landing systems of Airbus and Concorde aircraft.
After 1980, purely digital computers progressed more and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with analog computers.
One key to the speed of analog computers was their fully parallel computation, but this was also a limitation. The more equations required for a problem, the more analog components were needed, even when the problem wasn't time critical. "Programming" a problem meant interconnecting the analog operators; even with a removable wiring panel this was not very versatile.
Implementations
Mechanical analog computers
thumb|William Ferrel's tide-predicting machine of 1881–1882
Throughout history, many types of mechanical analog computers have been invented. These ranged from simple devices (like planimeters) to complex fire-control systems that guided WWII naval guns.
Practical mechanical analog computers of any significant complexity used rotating shafts to carry variables from one mechanism to another. Cables and pulleys were used in a Fourier synthesizer, a tide-predicting machine, which summed the individual harmonic components. Another category, not nearly as well known, used rotating shafts only for input and output, with precision racks and pinions. The racks were connected to linkages that performed the computation. At least one U.S. Naval sonar fire control computer of the later 1950s, made by Librascope, was of this type, as was the principal computer in the Mk. 56 Gun Fire Control System.
These computers often employed precision miter-gear differentials (pairs of bevel gears arranged to produce the sum or difference of two shaft rotations) to transmit variables between computing elements. The Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control Computer, for example, contained approximately 160 miter-gear differentials.
Integration with respect to another variable was done by a rotating disc driven by one variable. Output came from a pick-off device (such as a wheel) positioned at a radius on the disc proportional to the second variable. (A carrier with a pair of steel balls supported by small rollers worked especially well. A roller, its axis parallel to the disc's surface, provided the output. It was held against the pair of balls by a spring.)
Arbitrary functions of one variable were provided by cams, with gearing to convert follower movement to shaft rotation.
Functions of two variables were provided by three-dimensional cams. In one good design, one of the variables rotated the cam. A hemispherical follower moved its carrier on a pivot axis parallel to that of the cam's rotating axis. Pivoting motion was the output. The second variable moved the follower along the axis of the cam. One practical application was ballistics in gunnery.
Coordinate conversion from polar to rectangular was done by a mechanical resolver (called a "component solver" in US Navy fire control computers). Two discs on a common axis positioned a sliding block with pin (stubby shaft) on it. One disc was a face cam, and a follower on the block in the face cam's groove set the radius. The other disc, closer to the pin, contained a straight slot in which the block moved. The input angle rotated the latter disc (the face cam disc, for an unchanging radius, rotated with the other (angle) disc; a differential and a few gears did this correction).
Referring to the mechanism's frame, the location of the pin corresponded to the tip of the vector represented by the angle and magnitude inputs. Mounted on that pin was a square block.
Rectilinear-coordinate outputs (both sine and cosine, typically) came from two slotted plates, each slot fitting on the block just mentioned. The plates moved in straight lines, the movement of one plate at right angles to that of the other. The slots were at right angles to the direction of movement. Each plate, by itself, was like a Scotch yoke, known to steam engine enthusiasts.
During World War II, a similar mechanism converted rectilinear to polar coordinates, but it was not particularly successful and was eliminated in a significant redesign (USN, Mk. 1 to Mk. 1A).
Multiplication was done by mechanisms based on the geometry of similar right triangles. Using the trigonometric terms for a right triangle, specifically opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse, the adjacent side was fixed by construction. One variable changed the magnitude of the opposite side. In many cases, this variable changed sign; the hypotenuse could coincide with the adjacent side (a zero input), or move beyond the adjacent side, representing a sign change.
Typically, a pinion-operated rack moving parallel to the (trig.-defined) opposite side would position a slide with a slot coincident with the hypotenuse. A pivot on the rack let the slide's angle change freely. At the other end of the slide (the angle, in trig. terms), a block on a pin fixed to the frame defined the vertex between the hypotenuse and the adjacent side.
At any distance along the adjacent side, a line perpendicular to it intersects the hypotenuse at a particular point. The distance between that point and the adjacent side is some fraction that is the product of 1 the distance from the vertex, and 2 the magnitude of the opposite side.
The second input variable in this type of multiplier positions a slotted plate perpendicular to the adjacent side. That slot contains a block, and that block's position in its slot is determined by another block right next to it. The latter slides along the hypotenuse, so the two blocks are positioned at a distance from the (trig.) adjacent side by an amount proportional to the product.
To provide the product as an output, a third element, another slotted plate, also moves parallel to the (trig.) opposite side of the theoretical triangle. As usual, the slot is perpendicular to the direction of movement. A block in its slot, pivoted to the hypotenuse block positions it.
A special type of integrator, used at a point where only moderate accuracy was needed, was based on a steel ball, instead of a disc. It had two inputs, one to rotate the ball, and the other to define the angle of the ball's rotating axis. That axis was always in a plane that contained the axes of two movement pick-off rollers, quite similar to the mechanism of a rolling-ball computer mouse (in that mechanism, the pick-off rollers were roughly the same diameter as the ball). The pick-off roller axes were at right angles.
A pair of rollers "above" and "below" the pick-off plane were mounted in rotating holders that were geared together. That gearing was driven by the angle input, and established the rotating axis of the ball. The other input rotated the "bottom" roller to make the ball rotate.
Essentially, the whole mechanism, called a component integrator, was a variable-speed drive with one motion input and two outputs, as well as an angle input. The angle input varied the ratio (and direction) of coupling between the "motion" input and the outputs according to the sine and cosine of the input angle.
Although they did not accomplish any computation, electromechanical position servos (aka. torque amplifiers) were essential in mechanical analog computers of the "rotating-shaft" type for providing operating torque to the inputs of subsequent computing mechanisms, as well as driving output data-transmission devices such as large torque-transmitter synchros in naval computers.
Other readout mechanisms, not directly part of the computation, included internal odometer-like counters with interpolating drum dials for indicating internal variables, and mechanical multi-turn limit stops.
Considering that accurately controlled rotational speed in analog fire-control computers was a basic element of their accuracy, there was a motor with its average speed controlled by a balance wheel, hairspring, jeweled-bearing differential, a twin-lobe cam, and spring-loaded contacts (ship's AC power frequency was not necessarily accurate, nor dependable enough, when these computers were designed).
Electronic analog computers
thumb|Switching board of EAI 8800 analog computer (front view)
Electronic analog computers typically have front panels with numerous jacks (single-contact sockets) that permit patch cords (flexible wires with plugs at both ends) to create the interconnections that define the problem setup. In addition, there are precision high-resolution potentiometers (variable resistors) for setting up (and, when needed, varying) scale factors. In addition, there is usually a zero-center analog pointer-type meter for modest-accuracy voltage measurement. Stable, accurate voltage sources provide known magnitudes.
Typical electronic analog computers contain anywhere from a few to a hundred or more operational amplifiers ("op amps"), named because they perform mathematical operations. Op amps are a particular type of feedback amplifier with very high gain and stable input (low and stable offset). They are always used with precision feedback components that, in operation, all but cancel out the currents arriving from input components. The majority of op amps in a representative setup are summing amplifiers, which add and subtract analog voltages, providing the result at their output jacks. As well, op amps with capacitor feedback are usually included in a setup; they integrate the sum of their inputs with respect to time.
Integrating with respect to another variable is the nearly exclusive province of mechanical analog integrators; it is almost never done in electronic analog computers. However, given that a problem solution does not change with time, time can serve as one of the variables.
Other computing elements include analog multipliers, nonlinear function generators, and analog comparators.
Electrical elements such as inductors and capacitors used in electrical analog computers had to be carefully manufactured to reduce non-ideal effects. For example, in the construction of AC power network analyzers, one motive for using higher frequencies for the calculator (instead of the actual power frequency) was that higher-quality inductors could be more easily made. Many general-purpose analog computers avoided the use of inductors entirely, re-casting the problem in a form that could be solved using only resistive and capacitive elements, since high-quality capacitors are relatively easy to make.
The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in real time (or faster), at a speed determined mostly by the frequency response of the operational amplifiers and other computing elements. In the history of electronic analog computers, there were some special high-speed types.
Nonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing function generators—special circuits of various combinations of resistors and diodes to provide the nonlinearity. Typically, as the input voltage increases, progressively more diodes conduct.
When compensated for temperature, the forward voltage drop of a transistor's base-emitter junction can provide a usably accurate logarithmic or exponential function. Op amps scale the output voltage so that it is usable with the rest of the computer.
Any physical process that models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points; and strings tied together as a model of finding the shortest path in a network. These are all described in Dewdney (1984).
Components
thumb|A 1960 Newmark analogue computer, made up of five units. This computer was used to solve differential equations and is currently housed at the Cambridge Museum of Technology.
Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key components that perform the calculations. The operator manipulates these through the computer's framework.
Key hydraulic components might include pipes, valves and containers.
Key mechanical components might include rotating shafts for carrying data within the computer, miter gear differentials, disc/ball/roller integrators, cams (2-D and 3-D), mechanical resolvers and multipliers, and torque servos.
Key electrical/electronic components might include:
precision resistors and capacitors
operational amplifiers
multipliers
potentiometers
fixed-function generators
The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are:
addition
integration with respect to time
inversion
multiplication
exponentiation
logarithm
division
In some analog computer designs, multiplication is much preferred to division. Division is carried out with a multiplier in the feedback path of an Operational Amplifier.
Differentiation with respect to time is not frequently used, and in practice is avoided by redefining the problem when possible. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified; differentiation also risks instability.
Limitations
In general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.
Decline
In the 1950s to 1970s, digital computers based on first vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then micro-processors became more economical and precise. This led digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Even so, some research in analog computation is still being done. A few universities still use analog computers to teach control system theory. The American company Comdyna manufactured small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still used as flight computers in flight training.
Resurgence
thumb|alt=Modern analog computer: THE ANALOG THING|Modern analog computer: THE ANALOG THING
With the development of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technology, Yannis Tsividis' group at Columbia University has been revisiting analog/hybrid computers design in standard CMOS process. Two VLSI chips have been developed, an 80th-order analog computer (250 nm) by Glenn Cowan in 2005 and a 4th-order hybrid computer (65 nm) developed by Ning Guo in 2015, both targeting at energy-efficient ODE/PDE applications. Glenn's chip contains 16 macros, in which there are 25 analog computing blocks, namely integrators, multipliers, fanouts, few nonlinear blocks. Ning's chip contains one macro block, in which there are 26 computing blocks including integrators, multipliers, fanouts, ADCs, SRAMs and DACs. Arbitrary nonlinear function generation is made possible by the ADC+SRAM+DAC chain, where the SRAM block stores the nonlinear function data. The experiments from the related publications revealed that VLSI analog/hybrid computers demonstrated about 1–2 orders magnitude of advantage in both solution time and energy while achieving accuracy within 5%, which points to the promise of using analog/hybrid computing techniques in the area of energy-efficient approximate computing. In 2016, a team of researchers developed a compiler to solve differential equations using analog circuits.
Analog computers are also used in neuromorphic computing, and in 2021 a group of researchers have shown that a specific type of artificial neural network called a spiking neural network was able to work with analog neuromorphic computers.
In 2021, the German company anabrid GmbH began to produce THE ANALOG THING (abbreviated THAT), a small low-cost analog computer mainly for educational and scientific use. The company is also constructing analog mainframes and hybrid computers.
Practical examples
thumb|X-15 simulator analog computer|alt=|260x260px
These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
Analog Paradim, a modular analog computer produced by anabrid
Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central Fire Control System
Deltar
E6B flight computer
Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer
Kerrison Predictor
Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's Analogue Calculating Machines based on "fusee sans fin"
Librascope, aircraft weight and balance computer
Mechanical computer
Mechanical watch
Mechanical integrators, for example, the planimeter
Mischgerät (V-2 guidance computer)
MONIAC, economic modelling
Nomogram
Norden bombsight
Rangekeeper, and related fire control computers
Scanimate
SR-71 inlet control system (fast adjustment of inlet geometry to prevent super-sonic shock waves from causing engine flame-out at high mach numbers)
THE ANALOG THING, a small analog computer by anabrid
Torpedo Data Computer
Torquetum
Water integrator
Analog (audio) synthesizers can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based in part on electronic analog computer technology. The ARP 2600's Ring Modulator was actually a moderate-accuracy analog multiplier.
The Simulation Council (or Simulations Council) was an association of analog computer users in US. It is now known as The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. The Simulation Council newsletters from 1952 to 1963 are available online and show the concerns and technologies at the time, and the common use of analog computers for missilry.
See also
Analog neural network
Analogical models
Chaos theory
Differential equation
Dynamical system
Field-programmable analog array
Fluidics
General purpose analog computer
Lotfernrohr 7 series of WW II German bombsights
Signal (electrical engineering)
Voskhod Spacecraft "Globus" IMP navigation instrument
XY-writer
Notes
References
A.K. Dewdney. "On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving", Scientific American, 250(6):19–26, June 1984. Reprinted in The Armchair Universe, by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman & Company (1988), .
Universiteit van Amsterdam Computer Museum. (2007). Analog Computers.
Jackson, Albert S., "Analog Computation". London & New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
External links
Biruni's eight-geared lunisolar calendar in "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece", François Charette, Nature 444, 551–552(30 November 2006),
The first computers
Large collection of electronic analog computers with lots of pictures, documentation and samples of implementations (some in German)
Large collection of old analog and digital computers at Old Computer Museum
A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue computer Chris Bissell, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Accessed February 2007
German computer museum with still runnable analog computers
Analog computer basics
Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation
The Enns Power Network Computer – an analog computer for the analysis of electric power systems (advertisement from 1955)
Librascope Development Company – Type LC-1 WWII Navy PV-1 "Balance Computor"
Category:History of computing hardware
Category:Greek inventions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computer | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.267463 |
2429 | Audio | Audio most commonly refers to sound, as it is transmitted in signal form. It may also refer to:
Sound
Audio signal, an electrical representation of sound
Audio frequency, a frequency in the audio spectrum
Digital audio, representation of sound in a form processed and/or stored by computers or digital electronics
Audio, audible content (media) in audio production and publishing
Semantic audio, extraction of symbols or meaning from audio
Stereophonic audio, method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective
Audio equipment
Entertainment
AUDIO (group), an American R&B band of 5 brothers formerly known as TNT Boyz and as B5
Audio (album), an album by the Blue Man Group
Audio (magazine), a magazine published from 1947 to 2000
Audio (musician), British drum and bass artist
"Audio" (song), a song by LSD
Computing
HTML audio, identified by the tag
See also
Acoustic (disambiguation)
Audible (disambiguation)
Audiobook
Radio broadcasting
Sound recording and reproduction
Sound reinforcement | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.270644 |
2431 | Minute and second of arc | ) subtends an angle of 1 arcminute at a distance of approximately .
| standard = Non-SI units mentioned in the SI
| quantity = Angle
| symbol = ′
| symbol2 = arcmin
| namedafter | extralabel In units
| extradata = Dimensionless with an arc length of approx. ≈ of the radius, i.e. 0.2909
| units1 = degrees
| inunits1 ° 0.01°
| units2 = arcseconds
| inunits2 = 60″
| units3 = radians
| inunits3 = |10800}} ≈ 0.000290888 rad
| units4 = milliradians
| inunits4 = |54}} ≈ 0.2909 mrad
| units5 = gradians
| inunits5 <sup>g</sup> 0.015<sup>g</sup>
| units6 = turns
| inunits6 = turn
}}
A minute of arc, arcminute (abbreviated as arcmin), arc minute, or minute arc, denoted by the symbol , is a unit of angular measurement equal to of a degree.<!-- DO NOT USE THIS SITE TO SUPPORT THE DESIGNATION OF SYMBOLS FOR THE ARCMINUTE AND ARCSECOND. It uses the apostrophe for the arcminute and two apostrophes for the arcsecond rather than the prime and double prime. --> Since one degree is of a turn, or complete rotation, one arcminute is }} of a turn. The nautical mile (nmi) was originally defined as the arc length of a minute of latitude on a spherical Earth, so the actual Earth's circumference is very near . A minute of arc is |}} of a radian.
A second of arc, arcsecond (abbreviated as arcsec), or arc second, denoted by the symbol , is a unit of angular measurement equal to of a minute of arc, }} of a degree, This notation has been carried over into marine GPS and aviation GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and longitude in the latter format by default.
Common examples
In general, by simple trigonometry, it can be derived that the angle subtended by an object of diameter or length at a distance is given by the following expression:
: <math>\theta = 2\arctan\left(\frac{d}{2D}\right)</math>
One arcminute () is the approximate distance two contours can be separated by, and still be distinguished by, a person with 20/20 vision. The average apparent diameter of the full Moon is about , or .
One arcsecond () is the angle subtended by:
* a U.S. dime coin () at a distance of
* an object of diameter at a distance of one astronomical unit ()
* an object of diameter at one light-year ()
* an object of diameter one astronomical unit at a distance of one parsec, per the definition of the latter.
Also notable examples of size in arcseconds are:
* Hubble Space Telescope has calculational resolution of 0.05 arcseconds and actual resolution of almost 0.1 arcseconds, which is close to the diffraction limit.
* At crescent phase, Venus measures between 60.2 and 66 seconds of arc. Each degree was subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. Thus, one Babylonian degree was equal to four minutes in modern terminology, one Babylonian minute to four modern seconds, and one Babylonian second to (approximately 0.067) of a modern second.UsesAstronomy
Since antiquity, the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy: in the ecliptic coordinate system as latitude (β) and longitude (λ); in the horizon system as altitude (Alt) and azimuth (Az); and in the equatorial coordinate system as declination (δ). All are measured in degrees, arcminutes, and arcseconds. The principal exception is right ascension (RA) in equatorial coordinates, which is measured in time units of hours, minutes, and seconds.
Contrary to what one might assume, minutes and seconds of arc do not directly relate to minutes and seconds of time, in either the rotational frame of the Earth around its own axis (day), or the Earth's rotational frame around the Sun (year). The Earth's rotational rate around its own axis is 15 minutes of arc per minute of time (360 degrees / 24 hours in day); the Earth's rotational rate around the Sun (not entirely constant) is roughly 24 minutes of time per minute of arc (from 24 hours in day), which tracks the annual progression of the Zodiac. Both of these factor in what astronomical objects you can see from surface telescopes (time of year) and when you can best see them (time of day), but neither are in unit correspondence. For simplicity, the explanations given assume a degree/day in the Earth's annual rotation around the Sun, which is off by roughly 1%. The same ratios hold for seconds, due to the consistent factor of 60 on both sides.
The arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″); the proper motion of stars; the separation of components of binary star systems; and parallax, the small change of position of a star or Solar System body as the Earth revolves about the Sun. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance called the parsec, abbreviated from the parallax angle of one arc second, was developed for such parallax measurements. The distance from the Sun to a celestial object is the reciprocal of the angle, measured in arcseconds, of the object's apparent movement caused by parallax.
The European Space Agency's astrometric satellite Gaia, launched in 2013, can approximate star positions to 7 microarcseconds (μas).
Apart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red giant with a diameter of 0.05″. Because of the effects of atmospheric blurring, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5″; in poor conditions this increases to 1.5″ or even more. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05″ on a 10 m class telescope.
Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″.
Cartography
Minutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc along the equator equals exactly one geographical mile (not to be confused with international mile or statute mile) along the Earth's equator or approximately . A second of arc, one sixtieth of this amount, is roughly . The exact distance varies along meridian arcs or any other great circle arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the equator).
Positions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places (}} of a degree) have about the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds (}} of a degree) and specify locations within about . For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes, for instance, the Needles Lighthouse is at 50°39′44.2″N 1°35′30.5″W.Property cadastral surveyingRelated to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system and cadastral surveying relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west.Firearms
load. Bullet drop and wind drift are shown both in mrad and minute of angle.]]
The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly concerning the precision of rifles, though the industry refers to it as minute of angle (MOA). It is especially popular as a unit of measurement with shooters familiar with the imperial measurement system because 1 MOA subtends a circle with a diameter of 1.047 inches (which is often rounded to just 1 inch) at 100 yards ( at or 2.908 cm at 100 m), a traditional distance on American target ranges. The subtension is linear with the distance, for example, at 500 yards, 1 MOA subtends 5.235 inches, and at 1000 yards 1 MOA subtends 10.47 inches.
Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half (), quarter () or eighth () MOA increments, also known as clicks, zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8 clicks per MOA respectively.
For example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle, or a target delineated for such purposes), the scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes that click in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier:
* To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 × 2 6 clicks down and 1.5 x 2 3 clicks right
* To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 4 12 clicks down and 1.5 × 4 6 clicks right
* To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 8 24 clicks down and 1.5 × 8 12 clicks right
(mrad).]]
Another common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian (mrad). Zeroing an mrad based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment value in mrad based scopes is mrad (which approximates MOA).
* To adjust a mrad scope 0.9 mrad down and 0.4 mrad right, the scope needs to be adjusted 9 clicks down and 4 clicks right (which equals approximately 3 and 1.5 MOA respectively).
One thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047 inches. This is commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards, this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20–30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting, this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss.
The physical group size equivalent to m minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan() × distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600 inches for 100 yards, 3,600 tan() ≈ 1.047 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 metres ≈ 2.908 centimetres.
Sometimes, a precision-oriented firearm's performance will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions (i.e. no wind, high-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a stable mounting platform such as a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error), the gun is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a 1 MOA rifle should be capable, under ideal conditions, of repeatably shooting 1-inch groups at 100 yards. Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold (typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example, Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected from sale by quality control.
Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as sub-MOA, meaning a gun consistently shooting groups under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group) then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1 MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5-shot groups, based on 95% confidence, a rifle that normally shoots 1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches, this is not statistically abnormal.
The metric system counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian (mrad or 'mil'), being equal to of the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The number of milliradians on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × × 1000, regardless the target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2909 mrad. This means that an object which spans 1 mrad on the reticle is at a range that is in metres equal to the object's linear size in millimetres (e.g. an object of 100 mm subtending 1 mrad is 100 metres away). So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mrad apart (or a fraction of a mrad) are collectively called a mrad reticle. If the markings are round they are called mil-dots.
In the table below conversions from mrad to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1 mrad equals exactly 10 mm at 100 metres), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are approximate.
* 1′ at 100 yards is about 1.047 inches
* 1′ ≈ 0.291 mrad (or 29.1 mm at 100 m, approximately 30 mm at 100 m)
* 1 mrad ≈ 3.44′, so mrad ≈ ′
* 0.1 mrad equals exactly 1 cm at 100 m, or exactly 0.36 inches at 100 yards
Human vision
In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc, from a distance of twenty feet.
A 20/20 letter subtends 5 minutes of arc total.
Materials
The deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually measured in arcminutes or arcseconds.
In addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve (ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films.
Manufacturing
Some measurement devices make use of arcminutes and arcseconds to measure angles when the object being measured is too small for direct visual inspection. For instance, a toolmaker's optical comparator will often include an option to measure in "minutes and seconds".
See also
* Gradian
*
*
* Square minute
* Square second
* Steradian
* Milliradian
* Nautical mile
References
External links
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/251836084/Mils-MOA-and-the-Range-Estimation-Equations MOA/ mils] By Robert Simeone
*A Guide to [https://binoscopes.com/blog/how-to-range-a-target-using-moa/ calculate distance using MOA Scope] by Steve Coffman
Arcminute | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.288082 |
2433 | Alberto Giacometti | | birth_place = Borgonovo, Stampa, Graubünden, Switzerland
| death_date
| death_place = Chur, Graubünden, Switzerland
| spouse =
| field = Sculpture, painting, drawing
| training = The School of Fine Arts, Geneva
| movement = Surrealism, Expressionism, Cubism, Formalism
| notable_works =
| patrons | awards "Grand Prize for Sculpture" at 1962 Venice Biennale
| website =
}}
Alberto Giacometti (, , ; 10 October 1901 – 11 January 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman and printmaker, who was one of the most important sculptors of the 20th century. His work was particularly influenced by artistic styles such as Cubism and Surrealism. Philosophical questions about the human condition, as well as existential and phenomenological debates played a significant role in his work.
Beginning in 1922, he lived and worked mainly in Paris but regularly visited his hometown Borgonovo to see his family and work on his art. Around 1935, he gave up on his Surrealist influences to pursue a more deepened analysis of figurative compositions.
Giacometti wrote texts for periodicals and exhibition catalogues and recorded his thoughts and memories in notebooks and diaries. His critical nature led to self-doubt about his own work and his self-perceived inability to do justice to his own artistic vision. His insecurities nevertheless remained a powerful motivating artistic force throughout his entire life.
Between 1938 and 1944 Giacometti's sculptures had a maximum height of seven centimeters (2.75 inches). Their small size reflected the actual distance between the artist's position and his model. In this context he self-critically stated: "But wanting to create from memory what I had seen, to my terror the sculptures became smaller and smaller".
After World War II, Giacometti created his most famous sculptures: his extremely tall and slender figurines. These sculptures were subject to his individual viewing experience—between an imaginary yet real, a tangible yet inaccessible space.
In Giacometti's whole body of work, his painting constitutes only a small part. After 1957, however, his figurative paintings were equally as present as his sculptures. The almost monochrome paintings of his late work do not refer to any other artistic styles of modernity.
Early life
]]
Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, Switzerland, the eldest of four children of Giovanni Giacometti, a well-known post-Impressionist painter, and Annetta Giacometti-Stampa. He was a descendant of Protestant refugees escaping the inquisition. Coming from an artistic background, he was interested in art from an early age and was encouraged by his father and godfather.
Alberto attended the Geneva School of Fine Arts. His brothers Diego (1902–1985) and Bruno (1907–2012) would go on to become artists and architects as well. Additionally, his cousin Zaccaria Giacometti, later professor of constitutional law and chancellor of the University of Zurich, grew up together with them, having been orphaned at the age of 12 in 1905.
Career
In 1922, he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with Cubism and Surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading Surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Miró, Max Ernst, Picasso, Bror Hjorth, and Balthus.
Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the sitter's gaze. He preferred models he was close to—his sister and the artist Isabel Rawsthorne (then known as Isabel Delmer). This was followed by a phase in which his statues of Isabel became stretched out; her limbs elongated.
Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, "he would make your head look like the blade of a knife".
During World War II, Giacometti took refuge in Switzerland. There, in 1946, he met Annette Arm, a secretary for the Red Cross. They married in 1949.
After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. For the remainder of Giacometti's life, Annette was his main female model. Later years
In 1958 Giacometti was asked to create a monumental sculpture for the Chase Manhattan Bank building in New York, which was beginning construction. Although he had for many years "harbored an ambition to create work for a public square", he "had never set foot in New York, and knew nothing about life in a rapidly evolving metropolis. Nor had he ever laid eyes on an actual skyscraper", according to his biographer James Lord. Giacometti's work on the project resulted in the four figures of standing women—his largest sculptures—entitled Grande femme debout I through IV (1960). The commission was never completed, however, because Giacometti was unsatisfied by the relationship between the sculpture and the site, and abandoned the project.
In 1962, Giacometti was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame.
<gallery mode"packed" widths200 heights200 caption"Artworks by Giacometti at the 31st Venice Biennale in 1962, photographed by Paolo Monti">
Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328561.jpg
Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328562.jpg
</gallery>
Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, Giacometti – The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970.
In his later years Giacometti's works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. As his last work he prepared the text for the book Paris sans fin, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived.
Artistic analysis
]]
Regarding Giacometti's sculptural technique and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: "The rough, eroded, heavily worked surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique. Reduced, as they are, to their very core, these figures evoke lone trees in winter that have lost their foliage. Within this style, Giacometti would rarely deviate from the three themes that preoccupied him—the walking man; the standing, nude woman; and the bust—or all three, combined in various groupings."
In a letter to Pierre Matisse, Giacometti wrote: "Figures were never a compact mass but like a transparent construction". In the letter, Giacometti writes about how he looked back at the realist, classical busts of his youth with nostalgia, and tells the story of the existential crisis which precipitated the style he became known for.
"[I rediscovered] the wish to make compositions with figures. For this I had to make (quickly I thought; in passing), one or two studies from nature, just enough to understand the construction of a head, of a whole figure, and in 1935 I took a model. This study should take, I thought, two weeks and then I could realize my compositions...I worked with the model all day from 1935 to 1940...Nothing was as I imagined. A head, became for me an object completely unknown and without dimensions."
]]
Walking Man and other human figures
Giacometti is best known for the bronze sculptures of tall, thin human figures, made in the years 1945 to 1960. Giacometti was influenced by the impressions he took from the people hurrying in the big city. People in motion he saw as "a succession of moments of stillness".
The emaciated figures are often interpreted as an expression of the existential fear, insignificance and loneliness of mankind. The mood of fear in the period of the 1940s and the Cold War is reflected in this figure. It feels sad, lonely and difficult to relate to.
Death
Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents.
With no children, Annette Giacometti became the sole holder of his property rights. Legacy Exhibitions
]]
Giacometti's work has been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta (1970); Centre Pompidou, Paris (2007–2008); Pushkin Museum, Moscow "The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti" (2008); Kunsthal Rotterdam (2008); Fondation Beyeler, Basel (2009); Buenos Aires (2012); Kunsthalle Hamburg (2013); Pera Museum, Istanbul (2015); Tate Modern, London (2017); Vancouver Art Gallery, "Alberto Giacometti: A Line Through Time" (2019); National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin (2022).
The National Portrait Gallery, London's first solo exhibition of Giacometti's work, Pure Presence opened to five star reviews on 13 October 2015 (to 10 January 2016, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of the artist's death).
From April 2019, the Prado Museum in Madrid, has been highlighting Giacometti in an exhibition.
Public collections
Giacometti's work is displayed in numerous public collections, including:
* Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo
* Art Institute of Chicago
* Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland
* Bechtler Museum of Modern Art, Charlotte, North Carolina
* Berggruen Museum, Berlin
* Botero Museum, Bogotá, Colombia
* Bündner Kunstmuseum Chur, Switzerland
* Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh
* Detroit Institute of Arts
* Fondation Beyeler, Basel
* Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.
* Holstebro, Denmark
* J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California
* Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University
* Kunsthaus Zürich
* Kunstmuseum Basel
* Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, South Korea
* Los Angeles County Museum of Art
* Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark
* Minneapolis Institute of Art
* Museum of Modern Art, New York
* Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
* National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
* National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
* North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina
* Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia
* Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona
* Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
* Tate, London
* Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Iran
* University of Michigan Museum of Art
* Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford
* Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
*Vancouver Art Gallery
*Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven
Art foundations
The Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, having received a bequest from Alberto Giacometti's widow Annette, holds a collection of circa 5,000 works, frequently displayed around the world through exhibitions and long-term loans. A public interest institution, the Foundation was created in 2003 and aims at promoting, disseminating, preserving and protecting Alberto Giacometti's work.
The Alberto-Giacometti-Stiftung established in Zürich in 1965, holds a smaller collection of works acquired from the collection of the Pittsburgh industrialist G. David Thompson.
Notable sales
According to record Giacometti has sold the two most expensive sculptures in history.
In November 2000 a Giacometti bronze, Grande Femme Debout I, sold for $14.3 million. Grande Femme Debout II was bought by the Gagosian Gallery for $27.4 million at Christie's auction in New York City on 6 May 2008.
''L'Homme qui marche I'', a life-sized bronze sculpture of a man, became one of the most expensive works of art, and at the time was the most expensive sculpture ever sold at auction. It was in February 2010, when it sold for £65 million (US$104.3 million) at Sotheby's, London. Grande tête mince, a large bronze bust, sold for $53.3 million just three months later.
''L'Homme au doigt (Pointing Man'') sold for $126 million (£81,314,455.32), or $141.3 million with fees, in Christie's May 2015, "Looking Forward to the Past" sale in New York City. The work had been in the same private collection for 45 years. As of now it is the most expensive sculpture sold at auction.
After being showcased on the BBC programme Fake or Fortune, a plaster sculpture, titled Gazing Head, sold in 2019 for half a million pounds.
In April 2021, Giacometti's small-scale bronze sculpture, Nu debout II (1953), was sold from a Japanese private collection and went for £1.5 million ($2 million), against an estimate of £800,000 ($1.1 million).
Other legacy
Giacometti created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
According to a lecture by Michael Peppiatt at Cambridge University on 8 July 2010, Giacometti, who had a friendship with author/playwright Samuel Beckett, created a tree for the set of a 1961 Paris production of Waiting for Godot.
Giacometti and his sculpture ''L'Homme qui marche I'' appear on the former 100 Swiss franc banknote.
In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Giacometti's sculptural style has featured in advertisements for various financial institutions, starting in 1987 with the Shoes ad for Royal Bank of Scotland directed by Gerry Anderson.
The 2017 movie Final Portrait retells the story of his friendship with the biographer James Lord. Giacometti is played by Geoffrey Rush.
References
Citations
General sources
* Jacques Dupin (1962). Alberto Giacometti, Paris, Maeght
* Reinhold Hohl (1971). Alberto Giacometti, Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje
* Die Sammlung der Alberto Giacometti-Stiftung (1990), Zürich, Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft
* Alberto Giacometti (1991–92). ''Sculptures – peintures – dessins. Paris, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris,.
* Jean Soldini (1993). Alberto Giacometti. Le colossal, la mère, le sacré, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme
* David Sylvester (1996) Looking at Giacometti, Henry Holt & Co.
* Alberto Giacometti 1901–1966. Kunsthalle Wien, 1996
* James Lord (1997). Giacometti: A Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux
* Alberto Giacometti. Kunsthaus Zürich, 2001. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2001–2002.
* Yves Bonnefoy (2006). Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, New edition, Flammarion
*
* Further reading
* ''Alberto Giacometti. L'espace et la force, Jean Soldini, Kimé (2016).
* [https://www.academia.edu/42888775/La_Cage_de_Giacometti La Cage de Giacometti], Hisato Kuriwaki, Université de Tokyo, via Academia.edu (2012), in French
* Alberto Giacometti, Yves Bonnefoy, Assouline Publishing (22 February 2011)
* In Giacometti's Studio, Michael Peppiatt, Yale University Press (14 December 2010)
* Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, Yves Bonnefoy, New edition, Flammarion (2006)
* Giacometti: A Biography, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1997)
* Looking at Giacometti, David Sylvester, Henry Holt & Co. (1996)
* Alberto Giacometti, Herbert Matter & Mercedes Matter, Harry N Abrams (September 1987)
* A Giacometti Portrait, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1 July 1980)
* Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, H. N. Abrams (1972)
* Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje (1971)
* Alberto Giacometti, Jacques Dupin, Paris, Maeght (1962)
* The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, Véronique Wiesinger (ed.), exh. cat., Paris: Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti/Centre Pompidou (2007)
* "The Dream, the Sphinx, and the Death of T", Alberto Giacometti, X magazine, Vol. 1, No. 1 (November 1959); An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988).
* Jacobi, Carol. [https://www.francis-bacon.com/outofthecage Out of the Cage: The Art of Isabel Rawsthorne]'', London: The Estate of Francis Bacon Publishing, Feb 2021
*
* The Cube and the Face: Around a Sculpture by Alberto Giacometti, Didi-Huberman, Georges (2015).
External links
* [http://www.fondation-giacometti.fr The Giacometti Foundation website] (www.fondation-giacometti.fr) (in English and French)
* [https://www.giacometti-stiftung.ch/ Alberto Giacometti Stiftung] (giacometti-stiftung.ch) (in English and German)
*
*
* Works of Alberto Giacometti:
** [http://www.unesco.org/artcollection/DetailAction.do?&idOeuvre1550&nouvelleLangueen The UNESCO Works of Art Collection]
**
** [http://smarthistory.org/blog/53/giacometti-city-square-1948-moma/ smARThistory: Giacometti's City Square]
* Life of Alberto Giacometti:
** [https://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2001/giacometti/start/pdfs/Giacometti_Chronology.pdf Chronology of his life with illustrations] from the Museum of Modern Art
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090425143453/http://www.kunsthaus.ch/en/exhibitions/current/giacometti/?redirect_url=title%3DCy Exhibition at Kunsthaus Zürich from 27 February until 24 May 2009]
* [http://nga.gov.au/internationalprints/tyler/Default.cfm?MnuID3&ArtistIRN11719&ListTrue&CREIRN11719&ORDER_SELECT13&VIEW_SELECT5&GrpNam12&TNOTESTRUE Alberto Giacometti in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection]
*
Category:1901 births
Category:1966 deaths
Category:20th-century Swiss male artists
Category:20th-century Swiss sculptors
Category:Swiss modern sculptors
Category:People from Maloja District
Category:Sibling artists
Category:Swiss Protestants
Category:Swiss surrealist artists
Category:Swiss-Italian people | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.317286 |
2439 | Anthem | An anthem is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work (still frequently seen in Sacred Harp and other types of shape note singing) and still more particularly to a specific form of liturgical music. In this sense, its use began in English-speaking churches; it uses English language words, in contrast to the originally Roman Catholic 'motet' which sets a Latin text.
Etymology
Anthem is derived from the Greek (antíphōna) via Old English . Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of the singing. The adjectival form is "anthemic".
History
Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form. Anthems may be described as "verse", "full", or "full with verse", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both. Another way of describing an anthem is that it is a piece of music written specifically to fit a certain accompanying text, and it is often difficult to make any other text fit that same melodic arrangement. It also often changes melody and/or meter, frequently multiple times within a single song, and is sung straight through from start to finish, without repeating the melody for following verses like a normal song (although certain sections may be repeated when marked). An example of an anthem with multiple meter shifts, fuguing, and repeated sections is "Claremont", or "Vital Spark of Heav'nly Flame". also known as "The Lord Is Risen Indeed!" after the opening lines. This anthem is still one of the more popular songs in the Sacred Harp tune book.
The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints.
Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context
During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric "In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow, with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration. In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold. In the 19th century, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been written since then, generally by specialists in organ music rather than composers, and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually written anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions: for instance Edward Elgar's 1912 "Great is the Lord" and 1914 "Give unto the Lord" (both with orchestral accompaniment); Benjamin Britten's 1943 "Rejoice in the Lamb" (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece); and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams's 1952 "O Taste and See" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should only be in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.TypesThe word "anthem" is commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson's "Irresponsible Hate Anthem", Silverchair's "Anthem for the Year 2000", and Toto's "Child's Anthem".National anthem
A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of a country's people, recognized either by that state's government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America, Central Asia, and Europe tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a simpler fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states.
Flag anthem
A flag anthem is generally a patriotic musical composition that extols and praises a flag, typically one of a country, in which case it is sometimes called a national flag anthem. It is often either sung or performed during or immediately before the raising or lowering of a flag during a ceremony. Most countries use their respective national anthems or some other patriotic song for this purpose. However, some countries, particularly in South America, use a separate flag anthem for such purposes. Not all countries have flag anthems. Some used them in the past but no longer do so, such as Iran, China, and South Africa. Flag anthems can be officially codified in law, or unofficially recognized by custom and convention. In some countries, the flag anthem may be just another song, and in others, it may be an official symbol of the state akin to a second national anthem, such as in Taiwan. Sports anthem
Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen's "We Are the Champions" and "We Will Rock You", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League.
Shared anthems
Although anthems are used to distinguish states and territories, there are instances of shared anthems. "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" became a pan-African liberation anthem and was later adopted as the national anthem of five countries in Africa including Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe after independence. Zimbabwe and Namibia have since adopted new national anthems. Since 1997, the South African national anthem has been a hybrid song combining new English lyrics with extracts of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" and the former state anthem "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika".
For North and South Korea, the folk song Arirang is considered a shared anthem for both countries. For example, it was played when the two Koreas marched together during the 2018 Winter Olympics.
"Hymn to Liberty" is the longest national anthem in the world by length of text. In 1865, the first three stanzas and later the first two officially became the national anthem of Greece and later also that of the Republic of Cyprus.
"Forged from the Love of Liberty" was composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958–1962) and was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962.
"Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada" is the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau and was also the national anthem of Cape Verde until 1996.
"Oben am jungen Rhein", the national anthem of Liechtenstein, is set to the tune of "God Save the King/Queen". Other anthems that have used the same melody include "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" (Germany), "Kongesangen" (Norway), "My Country, 'Tis of Thee" (United States), "Rufst du, mein Vaterland" (Switzerland), "E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua" (Hawaii), and "The Prayer of Russians".
The Estonian anthem "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" is set to a melody composed in 1848 by Fredrik (Friedrich) Pacius which is also that of the national anthem of Finland: "" ("" in Swedish). It is also considered to be the ethnic anthem for the Livonian people with lyrics "Min izāmō, min sindimō" ("My Fatherland, my native land").
"Hey, Slavs" is dedicated to Slavic peoples. Its first lyrics were written in 1834 under the title "Hey, Slovaks" ("Hej, Slováci") by Samuel Tomášik and it has since served as the ethnic anthem of the Pan-Slavic movement, the organizational anthem of the Sokol physical education and political movement, the national anthem of Yugoslavia and the transitional anthem of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The song is also considered to be the second, unofficial anthem of the Slovaks. Its melody is based on Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which has also been the anthem of Poland since 1926, but the Yugoslav variation is much slower and more accentuated.
Between 1991 and 1994 "Deșteaptă-te, române!" was the national anthem of both Romania (which adopted it in 1990) and Moldova, but in the case of the latter it was replaced by the current Moldovan national anthem, "Limba noastră". Between 1975 and 1977, the national anthem of Romania "E scris pe tricolor Unire" shared the same melody as the national anthem of Albania "Himni i Flamurit", which is the melody of a Romanian patriotic song "Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire".
The modern national anthem of Germany, "Das Lied der Deutschen", uses the same tune as the 19th- and early 20th-century Austro-Hungarian imperial anthem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser".
The "Hymn of the Soviet Union", was used until its dissolution in 1991, and was given new words and adopted by the Russian Federation in 2000 to replace an instrumental national anthem that had been introduced in 1990.
"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", the regional anthem of Brittany and, "Bro Goth Agan Tasow", the Cornish regional anthem, are sung to the same tune as that of the Welsh regional anthem "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau", with similar words.
For parts of states
Some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among others, are held to be unions of several "nations" by various definitions. Each of the different "nations" may have their own anthem and these songs may or may not be officially recognized; these compositions are typically referred to as regional anthems though may be known by other names as well (e.g. "state songs" in the United States).AustriaIn Austria, the situation is similar to that in Germany. The regional anthem of Upper Austria, the "Hoamatgsang" (), is notable as the only (official) German-language anthem written – and sung – entirely in dialect.BelgiumIn Belgium, Wallonia uses "Le Chant des Wallons" and Flanders uses "De Vlaamse Leeuw".BrazilMost of the Brazilian states have official anthems. Minas Gerais uses an adapted version of the traditional Italian song "Vieni sul mar" as its unofficial anthem. During the Vargas Era (1937–1945) all regional symbols including anthems were banned, but they were legalized again by the Eurico Gaspar Dutra government.CanadaThe Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, having been the independent Dominion of Newfoundland before 1949, also has its own regional anthem from its days as a dominion and colony of the UK, the "Ode to Newfoundland". It was the only Canadian province with its own anthem until 2010, when Prince Edward Island adopted the 1908 song "The Island Hymn" as its provincial anthem.CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia had a national anthem composed of two parts, the Czech anthem followed by one verse of the Slovak one. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic adopted its own regional anthem as its national one, whereas Slovakia did so with slightly changed lyrics and an additional stanza.GermanyIn Germany, many of the Länder (states) have their own anthems, some of which predate the unification of Germany in 1871. A prominent example is the Hymn of Bavaria, which also has the status of an official anthem (and thus enjoys legal protection). There are also several unofficial regional anthems, like the "Badnerlied" and the "Niedersachsenlied".IndiaSome of the states and union territories of India have officially adopted their own state anthem for use during state government functions.MalaysiaAll the individual states of Malaysia have their own anthems.MexicoIn Mexico, after the national anthem was established in 1854, most of the states of the federation adopted their own regional anthems, which often emphasize heroes, virtues or particular landscapes. In particular, the regional anthem of Zacatecas, the "Marcha de Zacatecas", is one of the more well-known of Mexico's various regional anthems.Serbia and MontenegroIn 2004 and 2005 respectively, the Montenegrin and Serbian regions of Serbia and Montenegro adopted their own regional anthems. When the two regions both became independent sovereign states in mid-2006, their regional anthems became their national anthems.Soviet Union
Fourteen of the fifteen constituent states of the Soviet Union had their own official song which was used at events connected to that region, and also written and sung in that region's own language. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic used the Soviet Union's national anthem as its regional anthem ("The Internationale" from 1917 to 1944 and the "National Anthem of the Soviet Union" from 1944 to 1990) until 1990, the last of the Soviet constituent states to do so. After the Soviet Union disbanded in the early 1990s, some of its former constituent states, now sovereign nations in their own right, retained the melodies of their old Soviet-era regional anthems until replacing them or, in some cases, still use them today.
Unlike most national anthems, few of which were composed by renowned composers, the Soviet Union's various regional anthems were composed by some of the best Soviet composers, including world-renowned Gustav Ernesaks (Estonia), Aram Khachaturian (Armenia), Otar Taktakishvili (Georgia), and Uzeyir Hajibeyov (Azerbaijan).
The lyrics present great similarities, all having mentions to Vladimir Lenin (and most, in their initial versions, to Joseph Stalin, the Armenian and Uzbek anthems being exceptions), to the guiding role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and to the brotherhood of the Soviet peoples, including a specific reference to the friendship of the Russian people (the Estonian, Georgian and Karelo-Finnish anthems were apparently an exception to this last rule).
Some of the Soviet regional anthems' melodies can be sung in the Soviet Union anthem lyrics (Ukrainian and Belarus are the most fitted in this case).
Most of these regional anthems were replaced with new national ones during or after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; Belarus, Kazakhstan (until 2006), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (until 1997), and Uzbekistan kept the melodies, but with different lyrics. Russia itself had abandoned the Soviet hymn, replacing it with a tune by Glinka. However, with Vladimir Putin coming to power, the old Soviet tune was restored, with new lyrics written to it.
Like the hammer and sickle and red star, the public performance of the anthems of the Soviet Union's various regional anthems the national anthem of the Soviet Union itself are considered as occupation symbols as well as symbols of totalitarianism and state terror by several countries formerly either members of or occupied by the Soviet Union. Accordingly, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, and Ukraine have banned those anthems amongst other things deemed to be symbols of fascism, socialism, communism, and the Soviet Union and its republics. In Poland, dissemination of items which are “media of fascist, communist, or other totalitarian symbolism” was criminalized in 1997. However, in 2011 the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional. In contrast to this treatment of the symbolism, promotion of fascist, communist and other totalitarian ideology remains illegal. Those laws do not apply to the anthems of Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan which used the melody with different lyrics.Spain
In Spain, the situation is similar to that in Austria and Germany. Unlike the national anthem, most of the anthems of the autonomous communities have words. All are official. Three prominent examples are "Els Segadors" of Catalonia, "Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia" of the Basque Country, and "Os Pinos" of Galicia, all written and sung in the local languages.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's national anthem is "God Save the King" but its constituent countries and Crown Dependencies also have their own equivalent songs which have varying degrees of official recognition. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have anthems which are played at occasions such as sports matches and official events.
* England - "God Save the King" is usually presumed to be, and often played as, the English regional anthem; but "Jerusalem", "I Vow To Thee, My Country" and "Land of Hope and Glory" are also sung. "Jerusalem" is used as England's anthem at the Commonwealth Games.
* Scotland variously uses "Flower of Scotland", "Auld Lang Syne", and "Scotland the Brave" as its unofficial national anthems. "Flower of Scotland" is used as Scotland's anthem at the Commonwealth Games and international football and rugby matches.
* Wales has sung "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" since 1856 when it was written by father and son Evan and James James. The music and a Breton translation, "Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", were adopted by Brittany as its anthem; and there is also a Cornish version, "Bro Goth agan Tasow", sung alongside "Trelawney" as an unofficial Cornish anthem. In Wales, "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" is sometimes accompanied by the hymn, "Guide Me, O thou Great Redeemer" (also referred to as "Bread of Heaven" from repeated words in its first verse), especially at rugby matches.
* Northern Ireland currently uses "God Save the King" as its anthem at international football matches and uses "Danny Boy/Londonderry Air" at the Commonwealth Games.
The Isle of Man, a Crown dependency, uses "God Save the King" as a Royal anthem, but also has its own local anthem, "O Land of Our Birth" (Manx: "O Halloo Nyn Ghooie").
United States
Although the United States has "The Star-Spangled Banner" as its official national anthem, all except two of its constituent states and territories also have their own regional anthem (referred to by most US states as a "state song"), along with Washington, DC. The two exceptions are New Jersey, which has never had an official state song, and Maryland, which rescinded
"Maryland, My Maryland" in 2021 due to its racist language and has yet to adopt a replacement.
The state songs are selected by each state legislature, and/or state governor, as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular US state.
Some US states have more than one official state song, and may refer to some of their official songs by other names; for example, Arkansas officially has two state songs, plus a state anthem, and a state historical song. Tennessee has the most state songs, with 12 official state songs and an official bicentennial rap.
Arizona has a song that was written specifically as a state anthem in 1915, as well as the 1981 country hit "Arizona", which it adopted as the alternate state anthem in 1982. On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make Denver's "Take Me Home, Country Roads" one of four official state songs of West Virginia. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014.
Additionally, Woody Guthrie wrote or co-wrote two state folk songs – Roll On, Columbia, Roll On and Oklahoma Hills – but they have separate status from the official state songs of Washington and Oklahoma, respectively. Other well-known state songs include "Yankee Doodle", "You Are My Sunshine", "Rocky Top", and "Home on the Range"; a number of others are popular standards, including "Oklahoma" (from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical), Hoagy Carmichael's "Georgia on My Mind", "Tennessee Waltz", "Missouri Waltz", and "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away". Many of the others are much less well-known, especially outside the state.
New Jersey has no official state song, while Virginia's previous state song, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny", adopted in 1940, was later rescinded in 1997 due to its racist language by the Virginia General Assembly. In 2015, "Our Great Virginia" was made the new state song of Virginia.
Iowa ("The Song of Iowa") uses the tune from the song "O Tannenbaum" as the melody to its official state song.
Yugoslavia
In Yugoslavia, each of the country's constituent states (except for Bosnia and Herzegovina) had the right to have its own anthem, but only the Croatian one actually did so initially, later joined by the Slovene one on the brink of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Before 1989, Macedonia did not officially use a regional anthem, even though one was proclaimed during the World War II by the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM).
International organizations
Larger entities also sometimes have anthems, in some cases known as 'international anthems'. Lullaby is the official anthem of UNICEF composed by Steve Barakatt. "The Internationale" is the organizational anthem of various socialist movements. Before March 1944, it was also the anthem of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. ASEAN Way is the official anthem of ASEAN. The tune of the "Ode to Joy" from Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is the official anthem of the European Union and of the Council of Europe. Let's All Unite and Celebrate is the official anthem of the African Union ("Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together").
The Olympic Movement also has its own organizational anthem. Esperanto speakers at meetings often use the song "La Espero" as their linguistic anthem. The first South Asian Anthem by poet-diplomat Abhay K may inspire SAARC to come up with an official SAARC Anthem.
"Ireland's Call" was commissioned as the sporting anthem of both the Ireland national rugby union team and the Ireland national rugby league team, which are composed of players from both jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, in response to dissatisfaction among Northern Ireland unionists with the use of the Irish national anthem. "Ireland's Call" has since been used by some other all-island bodies.
An international anthem also unifies a group of organizations sharing the same appellation such as the International Anthem of the Royal Golf Clubs composed by Steve Barakatt. Same applies to the European Broadcasting Union: the prelude of Te Deum in D Major by Marc-Antoine Charpentier is played before each official Eurovision and Euroradio broadcast. The prelude's first bars are heavily associated with the Eurovision Song Contest.Global anthem
Various artists have created "Earth anthems" for the entire planet, typically extolling the ideas of planetary consciousness. Though UNESCO have praised the idea of a global anthem, the United Nations has never adopted an official song.
See also
*Antiphon
*List of national anthems
*Motet
*Stadium anthems
*Verse anthem
Notes
References
Bibliography
* |page=102 }}
* |page=93 }}
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Category:Song forms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.369942 |
2440 | Albrecht Altdorfer | | birth_place = Regensburg or Altdorf
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Albrecht Altdorfer (12 February 1538) was a German painter, engraver and architect of the Renaissance working in Regensburg, Bavaria. Along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Wolf Huber he is regarded to be the main representative of the Danube School, setting biblical and historical subjects against landscape backgrounds of expressive colours. He is remarkable as one of the first artists to take an interest in landscape as an independent subject. As an artist also making small intricate engravings he is seen to belong to the Nuremberg Little Masters.
Biography
Altdorfer was born in Regensburg or Altdorf around 1480.
He acquired an interest in art from his father, Ulrich Altdorfer, who was a painter and miniaturist. At the start of his career, he won public attention by creating small, intimate modestly scaled works in unconventional media and with eccentric subject matter. He settled in the free imperial city of Regensburg, a town located on the Danube River in 1505, eventually becoming the town architect and a town councillor. His first signed works date to , including engravings and drawings such the Stygmata of St. Francis and St. Jerome. His models were niellos and copper engravings from the workshops of Jacopo de Barbari and Albrecht Dürer.
Around 1511 or earlier, he travelled down the river and south into the Alps, where the scenery moved him so deeply that he became the first landscape painter in the modern sense, making him the leader of the Danube School, a circle that pioneered landscape as an independent genre, in southern Germany. From 1513 he was at the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck, where he received several commissions from the imperial court. During the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, he dedicated mostly to architecture; paintings of the period, showing his increasing attention to architecture, include the Nativity of the Virgin.
In 1529, he executed The Battle of Alexander at Issus for Duke William IV of Bavaria. In the 1520s he returned to Regensburg as a wealthy man, and became a member of the city's council. He was also responsible for the fortifications of Regensburg.
In that period his works are influenced by artists such as Giorgione and Lucas Cranach, as shown by his Crucifixion. In 1535, he was in Vienna. He died at Regensburg in 1538.
The remains of Altdorfer's surviving work comprises 55 panels, 120 drawings, 125 woodcuts, 78 engravings, 36 etchings, 24 paintings on parchment, and fragments from a mural for the bathhouse of the Kaiserhof in Regensburg. This production extends at least over the period 1504–1537. He signed and dated each one of his works.
Painting
Altdorfer was the pioneer painter of pure landscape, making them the subject of the painting, as well as compositions dominated by their landscape; these comprise much of his oeuvre. He believed that the human figure should not disrupt nature, but rather participate in it or imitate its natural processes. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His Landscape with Footbridge (National Gallery, London) of 1518–1520 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. In this painting, Altdorfer places a large tree that is cut off by the margins at the center of the landscape, making it the central axis and focus within the piece. Some viewers perceive anthropomorphic stylisation—the tree supposedly exhibiting human qualities such as the drapery of its limbs. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour such as the Landscape with the Woodcutter in 1522. The drawing opens at ground level on a clearing surrounding an enormous tree that is placed in the center, dominating the picture. Some see the tree pose and gesticulate as if it was human, splaying its branches out in every corner. Halfway up the tree trunk, hangs a gabled shrine. At the time, a shrine like this might shelter an image of the Crucifixion or the Virgin Mary, but since it is turned away from the viewer, we are not sure what it truly is. At the bottom of the tree, a tiny figure of a seated man, crossed legged, holds a knife and axe, declaring his status in society/occupation.
Also, he often painted scenes of historical and biblical subjects, set in atmospheric landscapes. His best religious scenes are intense, with their glistening lights and glowing colours sometimes verging on the expressionistic. They often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or various saints. His sacral masterpiece and one of the most famous religious works of art of the later Middle Ages is The Legend of St. Sebastian and The Passion of Christ of the so-called Sebastian Altar in ''St. Florian's Priory (Stift Sankt Florian'') near Linz, Upper Austria. When closed the altarpiece displayed the four panels of the legend of St. Sebastian's Martyrdom, while the opened wings displayed the Stations of the Cross. Today the altarpiece is dismantled and the predellas depicting the two final scenes, Entombment and Resurrection were sold to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna in 1923 and 1930. Both these paintings share a similar formal structure that consists of an open landscape that is seen beyond and through the opening of a dark grotto. The date of completion on the resurrection panel is 1518.
Altdorfer often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. In his later works, Altdorfer moved more towards mannerism and began to depict the human form to the conformity of the Italian model, as well as dominate the picture with frank colors.
Paintings in Munich
, 1529, <br />Wood, 158.4 × 120.3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich]]
His rather atypical Battle of Issus (or of Alexander'') of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as part of a series of eight historical battle scenes destined to hang in the Residenz in Munich. Albrecht Altdorfer's depiction of the moment in 333 BCE when Alexander the Great routed Darius III for supremacy in Asia Minor is vast in ambition, sweeping in scope, vivid in imagery, rich in symbols, and obviously heroic—the Iliad of painting, as literary critic Friedrich Schlegel suggested In the painting, a swarming cast of thousands of soldiers surround the central action: Alexander on his white steed, leading two rows of charging cavalrymen, dashes after a fleeing Darius, who looks anxiously over his shoulder from a chariot. The opposing armies are distinguished by the colors of their uniforms: Darius' army in red and Alexander's in blue. The upper half of The Battle of Alexander expands with unreal rapidity into an arcing panorama comprehending vast coiling tracts of globe and sky. The victory also lies on the planar surface; The sun outshone the moon just as the Imperial and allied army successfully repel the Turks. A Susanna in the Bath and the Stoning of the Elders (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth (c. 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries.
Printmaking
in Warsaw]]
Altdorfer was a significant printmaker, with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the Triumphs of Maximilian, where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style. He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Many of Altdorfer's prints are quite small in size, and he is considered to be of the main members of the group of artists known as the Little Masters. Arthur Mayger Hind considers his graphical work to be somewhat lacking in technical skill but with an "intimate personal touch", and notes his characteristic feeling for landscape.Public lifeAs the superintendent of the municipal buildings Altdorfer had overseen the construction of several commercial structures, such as a slaughterhouse and a building for wine storage, possibly even designing them. He was considered to be an outstanding politician of his day. In 1517 he was a member of the "Ausseren Rates", the council on external affairs, and in this capacity was involved in the expulsion of the Jews, the destruction of the synagogue and in its place the construction of a church and shrine to the Schöne Maria that occurred in 1519. Altdorfer made etchings of the interior of the synagogue and designed a woodcut of the cult image of the Schöne Maria. In 1529–1530 he was also charged with reinforcing certain city fortifications in response to the Turkish threat.
Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder.
See also
* 8121 Altdorfer, asteroid named after Altdorfer
* Danube school
* Early Renaissance painting
* List of landscapes by Albrecht Altdorfer
References
Further reading
*Alte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp,
*Christopher S. Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London,
*Christoph Wagner, Oliver Jehle (eds.), Albrecht Altdorfer. Kunst als zweite Natur, 2012, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg (= Regensburger Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, Vol. 17),
*Jochen Sander, Stefan Roller, Sabine Haag, Guido Messling (eds.), Fantastische Welten. Albrecht Altdorfer und das Expressive in der Kunst um 1500, 2014, Hirmer, Munich, (<small>exhibition catalogue Städel Museum, Frankfort, November 5, 2014 - February 2015 and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, March 17 - June 14, 2015</small>)
External links
*[https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/64 Works by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]
*
*[http://www.zeno.org/Kunstwerke/A/Altdorfer,+Albrecht Works by Altdorfer at Zeno.org]
*[http://www.all-art.org/history230-10-2.html Albrecht Altdorfer in the "History of Art"]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080407202234/http://www.art-wallpaper.com/Wallpapers/Altdorfer+Albrecht Albrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers]
*[http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/altdorfer_albrecht.html Page at artcyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/altdorfer/ Page at ibiblio.org]
* Artvibrations Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20110211004452/http://www.artvibrations.com/AlbrechtAltdorfer/
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160323182351/http://art.onilm.com/index.php?%2Fcategory%2F13 Albrecht Altdorfer Paintings Gallery] (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)
*[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/94303/rec/1 Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Albrecht Altdorfer (see index)
Category:1480s births
Category:1538 deaths
Category:16th-century German painters
Category:German male painters
Category:German Renaissance painters
Category:Artists from Regensburg
Category:16th-century German architects
Category:German printmakers
Category:16th-century German engravers
Category:German Lutherans
Category:Manuscript illuminators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Altdorfer | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.379677 |
2441 | House of Ascania | }}
The House of Ascania () was a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the House of Anhalt, which refers to its longest-held possession, Anhalt.
The Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, known as Schloss Askanien in German, which was located near and named after Aschersleben. The castle was the seat of the County of Ascania, a title that was later subsumed into the titles of the princes of Anhalt.History
<gallery>
File:Schloss Ballenstedt, Hofseite.JPG|Ballenstedt Castle
File:Arms of the house of Ascania (ancient).svg|First coat of arms of the family
Map of Anhalt (1747-1793).svg|Map of Anhalt (1747–1793)
</gallery>
The earliest known member of the house, Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt, first appears in a document of 1036. Genealogists assume him to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark (). From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March.
Esiko's grandson Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony.
Otto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. However, he soon lost control of Saxony to the rival House of Guelph.
Albert inherited the area of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav (died 1150), Albert's son's godfather. Albert became the first Ascanian margrave; he and his descendants of the House of Ascania then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the Brandenburg lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march ().
In 1237 and 1244, two towns, Cölln and Berlin, were founded during the joint rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear. (Later, in 1710, the two centres united into one city, Berlin. Emblems of the House of Ascania, a red eagle (for Brandenburg) and a bear, became heraldic emblems of Berlin.) In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.
After the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed Henry the Lion, the Guelph Duke of Saxony, in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe.
In 1212 the County of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy of Saxony, and the remaining Duchy was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in these two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until the abolition of monarchy in 1918.
Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, was a member of the House of Ascania as the daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.
Rulers of the House of Ascania
House of Ascania
Partitions of the House of Ascania
{|align"center" style"border-spacing: 0px; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"
|+
|-
| colspan23 style"background: #fff;" | <!---Ballenstedt--->
|-
| colspan4 rowspan"2" style="background: #aee;" |County of Weimar-Orlamunde<br/>(1113–1247)
| colspan19 style"background: #fff;" |County of Ballenstedt<br/>(1030–1170)
|-
| colspan4 rowspan"3" style="background: #fea;" |Duchy of Saxony<br/>(1180–1296)
| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #ceb;" |Margraviate of Brandenburg<br>(1157-1266/67)
| colspan7 style"background: #fde;" |County of Anhalt<br>(1123–1212)<br><small>Raised to:</small><br>Principality of Anhalt<br>(1212–1252)
|-
| colspan3 rowspan"2" style="background: #adf;" |Weimar<br/>(1247–1372)
| colspan1 rowspan"7" style="background: #aee;" |Orlamunde<br><small>(from 1354 in Schauenforst and Droyssig)</small><br/>(1247–1420)
| colspan4 rowspan"6" style="background: #ecd;" |Zerbst<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1252–1396)
| colspan1 rowspan"7" style="background: #ecf;" |Bernburg<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1252–1468)
| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #fde;" |Aschersleben<br>(1252–1315)
|-
| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #cfc;" |Stendal<br>(1266–1318)
| colspan1 rowspan"2" style"background: #ada;" |Salzwedel<br>(1267–1317)
|-
| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #adf;" | <!---Weimar--->
| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #bee;" |Plassenburg<br/>(1285–1340)
| colspan1 style"background: #adf;" | <!---Weimar--->
| colspan1 rowspan"5" style="background: #fea;" |Wittenberg<br/>(1296–1356)<br><small>Raised to:</small><br>Electorate of Saxe-Wittenberg<br/>(1356–1422)
| colspan3 style"background: #fedf;" |Lauenburg<br/>(1296–1303)
|-
| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #cef;" |Lauenstein<br/>(1319–1460)
| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #ec6;" |Mölln<br/>(1303–1401)
| colspan1 style"background: #fc9;" | <!---Bergdorf--->
| colspan1 style"background: #ffc;" |Ratzeburg<br/>(1303–15)
| colspan2 style"background: #ceb;" |Margraviate of Brandenburg<br><small>(<span style="background-color:#cfc;">Stendal</span> line)</small><br>(1318–20)
|-
| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #fc9;" | Bergdorf<br/>(1303–15)<br><small>Renamed as</small><br>Ratzeburg<br/>(1315–1401)
| colspan2 rowspan"13" style="background: #eee;" |<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Wittelsbach</small>
| colspan1 rowspan"13" style="background: #eee;" |<small>Annexed to <br>Bishopric of Halberstadt</small>
|-
| colspan2 rowspan"12" style="background: #eee;" |<small>Annexed to the <br>House of Wettin</small>
|-
| colspan3 rowspan"7" style"background: #fedf;" |Lauenburg<br><small>(<span style"background:#fc9;">Ratzeburg</span> line)</small><br>(1401–1689)
| colspan3 rowspan"5" style="background: #ccf;" |Köthen<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1396–1562)
| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" | <!---Dessau--->
|-
| colspan3 rowspan"10" style="background: #eee;" |<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Wettin</small>
| colspan2 style"background: #fde;" | <!---Dessau--->
|-
| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" |Dessau<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1396–1561)
| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #ecd;" |Zerbst<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1544–62)
|-
| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" | <!---Dessau--->
|-
| colspan2 style"background: #ecd;" | <!---Zerbst--->
|-
| colspan5 style"background: #fde;" |Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(<span style="background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> line)</small><br>(1562–1603)
|-
| colspan1 style"background: #fbd;" |Plötzkau<br>(1603–1665)
| colspan1 style"background: #ccf;" |Köthen<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1847)
| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #fde;" |Dessau<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1863)
| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #ecd;" |Zerbst<br><small>(3rd creation)</small><br>(1603–1793)
| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #ecf;" |Bernburg<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1863)
|-
| colspan3 rowspan"4" style="background: #eee;" |<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Welf</small>
| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #ccf;" | <!---Kothen--->
|-
| colspan2 style"background: #fde;" | <!---Dessau--->
|-
| colspan4 style"background: #fde;" | <!---Dessau--->
|-
| colspan5 style"background: #fde;" |Duchy of Anhalt<br><small>(Dessau line)</small><br>(1863–1918)
|}
Table of rulers
{| class="wikitable sticky-header"
|- style="background:#cccccc"
! colspan=2 | Ruler!!Born!!Reign!!Ruling part!!Consort!!Death!!Notes
|- style="background:#fff"
|Adalbert I||
|align="center"|c.970<br><small>?</small>
|align="center"|c.1000–1036||County of Ballenstedt||Hidda<br>four children
|align="center"|1036<br><small>aged 65–66</small>||First documented member of the family.
|- style="background:#fff"
|Esico||
|align="center"|c.1000<br><small>Son of Adalbert I and Hidda</small>
|align="center"|1036–1060||County of Ballenstedt||Matilda of Swabia<br>1026<br>three children
|align="center"|1060<br><small>aged 59–60</small>||
|- style="background:#fff"
|Adalbert II||
|align="center"|c.1030<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Esico and Matilda of Swabia</small>
|align="center"|1060–1080||County of Ballenstedt||Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde<br>c.1070<br>two children
|align="center"|c.1080<br>Westdorf<br><small>aged c.49-50</small>||
|- style="background:#fff"
|Otto I the Rich||
|align="center"|c.1065<br><small>First son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde</small>
|align="center"|1080 – 9 February 1123||County of Ballenstedt||Eilika of Saxony<br>c.1095<br>two children
|align="center"|9 February 1123<br><small>aged 57–58?</small>
|rowspan="2"|Children of Adalbert II, divided their inheritance.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Siegfried I||
|align="center"|c.1070<br><small>Second son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde</small>
|align="center"|1080 – 9 March 1113||County of Weimar-Orlamünde||Gertrude of Northeim<br>1026<br>three children
|align="center"|9 March 1113<br><small>aged 42–43?</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|colspan7 style"text-align:center"|<small>Regencies of Gertrude of Northeim (1113–1115) and Otto I, Count of Salm (1115–1121)</small>
|rowspan=2|Left no descendants. The county went to his brother.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Siegfried II||
|align="center"|1107<br><small>First son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim</small>
|align="center"|9 March 1113 – 19 March 1124||County of Weimar-Orlamünde||Irmgard of Henneberg<br>no children
|align="center"|19 March 1124<br><small>aged 16–17</small>
|- style="background:#fff"
|| Albert I the Bear ||
|align="center"|c.1100<br><small>Son of Otto I and Eilika of Saxony</small>
|align="center"|9 February 1123 – 18 November 1170||County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(with Brandenburg from 1157)</small>||Sophie of Winzenburg<br/>1124<br/>thirteen children
|align="center"|18 November 1170<br>Stendal (possibly)<br><small>aged 69–70</small>||Besides count of Ballenstedt, he was also the first Margrave of Brandenburg (1157). Ruler of the Northern March from 1134, and the county of Weimar-Orlamünde since 1140.
|- style="background:#aee"
|colspan7 style"text-align:center"|<small>Regency of Otto I, Count of Salm (1124-1126)</small>
|rowspan=2|Also ascended as a minor Left no descendants. The county went to his cousin, Albert the Bear, from Ballenstedt.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Wilhelm von Ballenstedt||
|align="center"|1112<br>Worms<br><small>Second son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim</small>
|align="center"|19 March 1124 – 13 February 1140||County of Weimar-Orlamünde||Adelaide<br>no children
|align="center"|13 February 1140<br>Cochem<br><small>aged 27–28</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|align"center" colspan"8"|Weimar-Orlamünde briefly annexed to Ballenstedt (1140-70)
|- style="background:#ceb"
| Otto I ||
|align="center"|1128<br><small>First son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small>
|align="center"|18 November 1170 – 8 July 1184||Margraviate of Brandenburg||Judith of Poland<br/>1148<br/>two children<br/><br/>Ada of Holland<br/>1175<br/>one child
|align="center"|8 July 1184<br><small>aged 55–56</small>
|rowspan"5" style"background:#fff"| Children of Albert I, divided their inheritance. After Adalbert and Dietrich's childless deaths, their possessions were inherited by the younger brother, Bernard.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Herman I||
|align="center"|1130<br><small>Second son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small>
|align="center"|18 November 1170 – 19 October 1176||County of Weimar-Orlamünde||Irmgard<br>two children
|align="center"|19 October 1176<br><small>aged 45–46</small>
|- style="background:#fff"
|Adalbert (III)||
|align="center"|1136<br><small>Fourth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small>
|align="center"|18 November 1170 – 1171||County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(at Aschersleben)</small>
|rowspan="2"|Unmarried
|align="center"|1171<br><small>aged 34–35</small>
|- style="background:#fff"
|Theodoric||
|align="center"|1137<br><small>Fifth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small>
|align="center"|18 November 1170 – 1183||County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(at Burgwerben)</small>
|align="center"|1183<br><small>aged 45–46</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Bernard (I)||
|align="center"|1140<br><small>Sixth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small>
|align="center"|18 November 1170 – 2 February 1212||County of Anhalt<br><small>(with Ballenstedt and Saxony)</small> || Brigitte of Denmark<br>one child<br><br>Judith of Greater Poland<br>c.1173<br>five children<br><br>Sophia of Thuringia<br>one child
|align="center"|2 February 1212<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 71–72</small>
|- style="background:#fff"
|align"center" colspan"8"|Aschersleben and Burgwerben annexed to Anhalt
|- style="background:#aee"
|Siegfried III||
|align="center"|1155<br><small>Son of Herman I and Irmgard</small>
|align="center"|19 October 1176 – 1206||County of Weimar-Orlamünde||Sophia of Denmark<br>c.1180<br>three children
|align="center"|1206<br><small>aged 50–51</small>||
|- style="background:#ceb"
| Otto II the Generous ||
|align="center"|c.1150<br><small>First son of Otto I and Judith of Poland</small>
|align="center"|8 July 1184 – 4 July 1205||Margraviate of Brandenburg||Unmarried
|align="center"|4 July 1205<br><small>aged 54–55</small>
|rowspan="2"|Elder children of Otto I, both left no descendants. The patrimony was inherited by their half-brother, Albert II.
|- style="background:#ceb"
| Henry ||
|align="center"|c.1150?<br><small>Second son of Otto I and Judith of Poland</small>
|align="center"|8 July 1184 – 1192||Margraviate of Brandenburg<br><small>(at Gardelegen)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|1192<br><small>aged 41–42?</small>
|- style="background:#ceb"
| Albert II ||
|align="center"|1177<br><small>Son of Otto I and Ada of Holland</small>
|align="center"|4 July 1205 – 25 February 1220||Margraviate of Brandenburg||Matilda of Lusatia<br>1205<br>four children
|align="center"|25 February 1220<br><small>aged 42–43</small>||
|- style="background:#aee"
|Albert II||
|align="center"|1182<br><small>First son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|1206 – 22 October 1245||County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Nordhalben)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|22 October 1245<br><small>aged 62–63</small>
|rowspan="3"| Children of Siegfried III, divided their inheritance, which was soon reunited by Herman II.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Herman II||
|align="center"|1184<br><small>Second son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|1206 – 27 December 1247||County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Orlamünde)</small>||Beatrix of Andechs-Merania<br>c.1230<br>six children
|align="center"|27 December 1247<br><small>aged 62–63</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|Otto II||
|align="center"|c.1185<br><small>Third son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|1206–1211||County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Weimar)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|1211<br><small>aged 25–26</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|align"center" colspan"8"|Nordhalben and Weimar rejoined Orlamünde
|-style="background:#fde"
|Henry I||
|align="center"|c.1173<br><small>First son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland</small>
|align="center"|2 February 1212 – 1252||County of Anhalt<br><small>(until 1218)</small><br><br>Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(from 1218)</small> ||Irmgard of Thuringia<br>1211<br>eleven children
|align="center"|1252<br><small>aged 78–79</small>
|rowspan"2" style"background:#fff"| Children of Bernard, divided their inheritance. In 1218 Henry becomes Prince of Anhalt, which after his death is divided by his sons.
|- style="background:#fea;"
|Albert I||
|align="center"|c.1175<br><small>Second son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland</small>
|align="center"|2 February 1212 – 7 October 1260||Duchy of Saxony || Agnes of Austria<br/>1222<br/>five children<br/><br/>Agnes of Thuringia<br/>1238<br/>three children<br/><br/>Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br/>1247<br/>five children
|align="center"|7 October 1260<br><small>aged 84–85</small>
|- style="background:#ceb"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"|<small>Regencies of Henry I, Count of Anhalt (1220–1225), Albert I, Archbishop of Magdeburg (1220–1221) and Matilda of Lusatia (1221–1225)</small>
|rowspan="3"|Children of Albert II, ruled jointly, but their children divided the margraviate.
|- style="background:#ceb"
| John I
|rowspan="2"|
|align="center"|1213<br><small>First son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia</small>
|align="center"|25 February 1220 – 4 April 1266
|rowspan="2"|Margraviate of Brandenburg||Sophie of Denmark<br>1230<br>six children<br><br>Judith of Saxony<br>1255<br>four children
|align="center"|4 April 1266<br>Stendal<br><small>aged 52–53</small>
|- style="background:#ceb"
| Otto III the Pious
|align="center"|1215<br><small>Second son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia</small>
|align="center"|25 February 1220 – 9 October 1267||Beatrice of Bohemia<br>1243<br>six children
|align="center"|9 October 1267<br>Brandenburg an der Havel<br><small>aged 51–52</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|Herman III the Popular||
|align="center"|c.1230<br><small>Second son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small>
|align="center"|27 December 1247 – 1283||County of Orlamünde||Unknown<br>four children
|align="center"|1283<br><small>aged 52–23</small>
|rowspan"4" style"background:#aee"| Children of Herman II, divided their inheritance.
|- style="background:#adf"
|Otto III the Magnificent||
|align="center"|1236<br><small>Third son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small>
|align="center"|27 December 1247 – 13 May 1285||County of Weimar||Agnes of Leiningen<br><small>(c. 1230/40-13 May 1285)</small><br>1266<br>four children
|align="center"|13 May 1285<br><small>aged 48–49</small>
|- style="background:#adf"
|Albert III||
|align="center"|c.1240<br><small>Fourth son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small>
|align="center"|27 December 1247 – 1283||County of Weimar||Unmarried
|align="center"|1283<br><small>aged 42–43</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|Sophia||
|align="center"|c.1240<br><small>Daughter of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small>
|align="center"|27 December 1247 – 1270||County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Regnitzland)</small>||Henry VIII Reuss, Lord of Weida<br>19 July 1258<br>three children
|align="center"|c.1270<br><small>aged 29–30</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Henry II the Fat||
|align="center"|1215<br><small>First son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small>
|align="center"|1252 – 12 June 1266||Principality of Aschersleben||Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br>1245<br>two children
|align="center"|12 June 1266<br><small>aged 50–51</small>
|rowspan="3"| Children of Henry I, divided their inheritance.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Bernard I||
|align="center"|1218<br><small>Second son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small>
|align="center"|1252–1287||Principality of Bernburg||Sophia of Denmark<br>3 February 1258<br>Hamburg<br>six children
|align="center"|1287<br><small>aged 68–69</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
|Siegfried I||
|align="center"|1230<br><small>Seventh son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small>
|align="center"|1252 – 25 March 1298||Principality of Zerbst ||Catherine of Sweden<br>17 October 1259<br>ten children
|align="center"|25 March 1298<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 67–68</small>
|- style="background:#fea;"
|John I||
|align="center"|1249<br>Wittenberg<br><small>First son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|7 October 1260 – 1282
|rowspan="2"|Duchy of Saxony<br><small>(Since 1296 in Saxe-Wittenberg)</small>|| Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden<br/>1270<br/>eight children
|align="center"|30 July 1285<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 35–36</small>
|rowspan="2"| Ruled jointly; and associated his nephews to the joint rulership after his brothers death. However, these three nephews divided the land with him. Albert II retained Saxe-Wittenberg, and became the head of the Elder Saxon Line; Albert III, Eric I and John II ruled together in Saxe-Lauenburg, becoming the founders of the Younger Saxon Line.
|- style="background:#fea;"
||Albert II||
|align="center"|1250<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Second son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|7 October 1260 – 25 August 1298|| Agnes-Gertrude of Austria<br/>1282<br/>six children
|align="center"|25 August 1298<br>Aken<br><small>aged 35–36</small>
|- style="background:#fea;"
| style"text-align:center" colspan8 | In 1296 Albert II and his nephews (Albert III, Eric I, and John II) ended their joint rule and divided Saxony into the Lauenburg line, where Albert III, Eric I, and John II continued to rule jointly until 1303, and the Wittenberg line, where Albert II continued as sole ruler until 1298. Since the Duke of Saxony was considered one of the prince-electors electing a new Holy Roman Emperor, conflict arose between the lines of Lauenburg and Wittenberg over the issue of who should cast Saxony's vote. In 1314 both lines found themselves on different sides in a double election. Eventually, the Dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg succeeded in 1356 after the promulgation of the Golden Bull. To distinguish him from other rulers bearing the title Duke of Saxony, he was commonly called Elector of Saxony.
|- style="background:#fde"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1266–1270)</small>
|rowspan="3"| Children of Henry II, ruled jointly, first under their mother, who was elected Abbess of Gernrode in 1275. In 1283, Henry renounced his rights in Otto's favor, and later became Archbishop of Magdeburg.
|-style="background:#fde"
|Otto I
|rowspan="2"|
|align="center"|c.1245<br><small>First son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|12 June 1266 – 25 June 1304
|rowspan="2"|Principality of Aschersleben ||Hedwig of Wrocław<br>1283<br>three children
|align="center"|25 June 1304<br><small>aged 58–59</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Henry III
|align="center"|c.1245<br><small>Second son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|12 June 1266 – 1283||Unmarried
|align="center"|9 November 1307<br><small>aged 61–62</small>
|- style="background:#cfc"
| John II ||
|align="center"|1237<br><small>First son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 10 September 1281||Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Krossen)</small>||Hedwig of Werle<br><small>(1243–1287)</small><br>1249<br>two children
|align="center"|10 September 1281<br><small>aged 43–44</small>
|rowspan"4" style"background:#ceb"|Children of John I. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership):
* John II received seat at Krossen;
* Otto IV received seat at Stendal;
* Conrad received seat at Neumark, and associated his sons in 1291.
|- style="background:#cfc"
| Otto IV of the Arrow ||
|align="center"|1238<br><small>Second son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 27 November 1308||Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Stendal)</small>||Heilwig of Holstein-Kiel<br><small>(d.1305)</small><br>1279<br>no children<br><br>Judith of Henneberg-Schleusingen<br><small>(d.1315)</small><br>1308<br>no children
|align="center"|27 November 1308<br><small>aged 69–70</small>
|- style="background:#cfc"
| Conrad I ||
|align="center"|1240<br><small>Third son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 1304
|rowspan="2"|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Neumark)</small>||Constance of Greater Poland<br>1260<br>Santok<br>three children
|align="center"|1304<br>Chorin<br><small>aged 63–64</small>
|- style="background:#cfc"
| Otto VII ||
|align="center"|c.1265<br><small>Second son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland</small>
|align="center"|1291–1297||Unmarried
|align="center"|1297<br><small>aged 31–32</small>
|- style="background:#ada"
| John III of Prague ||
|align="center"|6 April 1244<br>Prague<br><small>First son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 8 April 1268
|rowspan="3"|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Salzwedel)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|8 April 1268<br>Merseburg<br><small>aged 24</small>
|rowspan"4" style"background:#ceb"|Children of Otto III. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership):
* John III (and then Otto V with Otto VI) received the seat at Salzwedel, from which Otto VI abdicated in 1286;
* Albert III received a seat in Stargard (which he ruled alone at least from 1284.
|- style="background:#ada"
| Otto V the Tall ||
|align="center"|1246<br>Prague<br><small>Second son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – July 1299||Judith of Henneberg-Coburg<br>22 October 1268<br>Freiburg<br>four children
|align="center"|July 1299<br><small>aged 52–53</small>
|- style="background:#ada"
| Otto VI the Short ||
|align="center"|3/17 November 1264<br><small>Fourth son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 1286||Hedwig of Austria<br>February 1279<br>Vienna<br>no children
|align="center"|6 July 1303<br>Lehnin<br><small>aged 38</small>
|- style="background:#ada"
| Albert III ||
|align="center"|c.1250<br><small>Third son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small>
|align="center"|9 October 1267 – 1300||Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Stargard)</small>||Matilda of Denmark<br>1268<br>four children
|align="center"|1300<br><small>aged 49–50</small>
|- style="background:#cfc"
| Conrad II ||
|align="center"|1261<br><small>Son of John II and Hedwig of Werle</small>
|align="center"|10 September 1281 – 1308||Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Krossen)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|1308<br><small>aged 46–47</small>||With his childless death his land reverted to Stendal.
|- style="background:#cfc"
|colspan"8" align"center"|Krossen re-annexed to Stendal
|- style="background:#aee"
|Henry I||
|align="center"|<br><small>First son of Herman III</small>
|align="center"|1283 – 26 March 1354
|rowspan="2"|County of Orlamünde||Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg<br>26 July 1313<br>two children
|align="center"|26 March 1354<br><small>aged 83–84?</small>
|rowspan="3"|Children of Herman III, divided their inheritance.
|- style="background:#aee"
|Herman V||
|align="center"|<br><small>Second son of Herman III</small>
|align="center"|1283–1312||Unmarried
|align="center"|1312<br><small>aged 41–42?</small>
|- style="background:#aee"
|Elisabeth (I) the Elder||
|align="center"|1265<br><small>Daughter of Herman III</small>
|align="center"|1283–1327||County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Nordhalben)</small>||Hartmann XI, Count of Lobdeburg-Arnshaugk<br>one child<br><br>Albert II, Margrave of Meissen<br>1 October 1290<br>no children
|align="center"|1327<br><small>aged 56–57</small>
|- style="background:#adf"
|Herman IV||
|align="center"|1297<br><small>Son of Otto IV and Adelaide of Kafernburg</small>
|align="center"|1318 – 28 July 1340||County of Plassenburg||Kunigunde of Leuchtenberg<br>1321<br>no children
|align="center"|28 July 1340<br><small>aged 42–43</small>||Left no descendants. After his death his possessions were annexed by the House of Hohenzollern.
|-style="background:#bee"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Plassenburg annexed to the House of Hohenzollern
|- style="background:#adf"
|Frederick I the Elder||
|align="center"|c.1290<br><small>First son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald</small>
|align="center"|1319 – 25 July 1365||County of Weimar||Elisabeth of Meissen<br><small>(d. 2 May 1347)</small><br>1322<br>three children
|align="center"|25 July 1365<br><small>aged 74–75</small>
|rowspan="2"|Children of Herman IV, divided their inheritance.
|- style="background:#cef"
|Otto V||
|align="center"|c.1375<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Second son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|21 June 1412 – 1414||Unmarried
|align="center"|1414<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 38–39</small>
|- style="background:#fea;"
|Albert III||
|align="center"|1380<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Second son of Wenceslaus and Cecilia da Carrara</small>
|align="center"|11 June 1419 – 1422|| Electorate of Saxony ||Euphemia of Oleśnica<br/>14 January 1420<br/>no children
|align="center"|1422<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 41–42</small>|| Left no male descendants, which led the Ascanian Saxe-Wittenberg line to extinction.
|- style="background:#fea;"
|style"text-align:center" colspan8|The Ascanian Dynasty became extinct in Wittenberg in 1422. However, the dynasty's presence in Saxony continued, through the Duchy of Lauenburg, until 1689. After losing the Saxon Electorate to the Wittenberg line in 1356, and failing to obtain it again in 1422, the recognition of power of this Lauenburg line as Dukes of Saxony weakened. To follow the remnant House of Ascania in Saxe-Lauenburg, follow this table. For the following Electors of Saxony, see Rulers of Saxony.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Bernard VI||
|align="center"|c.1390?<br><small>Second son of Otto III</small>
|align="center"|24 June 1420 – 2 February 1468||Principality of Bernburg ||Matilda of Querfurt-Burgscheidungen<br>21 October 1419<br>two children<br><br>Hedwig of Żagań<br>11 March 1434<br>no children
|align="center"|2 February 1468<br><small>aged 77–78?</small>||His children predeceased him, which left him with no heirs at his death in 1468. Bernburg was inherited by the Dessau line.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"|Anhalt-Bernburg was annexed to Anhalt-Dessau
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Adolph I||
|align="center"|c.1400<br><small>First son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)</small>
|align="center"|24 November 1423 – 28 August 1473
|rowspan="3"|Principality of Köthen||Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin<br/>2 November 1442<br/>Ruppin<br>seven children
|align="center"|28 August 1473<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 72–73?</small>
|rowspan="3"| Ruled jointly. Adolph ruled with his brother Valdemar V until 1436 and then with Valdemar's son John. In 1436, shortly after his father's death, John III renounced his rights to the principality. In 1471, Adolph concluded a succession contract with George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, which would put the latter's youngest son in Köthen's throne as Valdemar VI.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Valdemar V||
|align="center"|c.1400<br><small>Second son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)</small>
|align="center"|24 November 1423 – 1436||Sophie of Hadmersleben<br/>1420<br>no children
|align="center"|1436<br><small>aged 35–36?</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|John III||
|align="center"|c.1415?<br><small>Son of Valdemar V and Sophie of Hadmersleben</small>
|align="center"|1436||Unmarried
|align="center"|1463<br><small>aged 47–48?</small>
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Bernard II||
|align="center"|1385<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Third son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small>
|align="center"|1436 – 16 July 1463||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp<br/>2 February 1429<br/>two children
|align="center"|16 July 1463<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 77–78</small>||
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|John V||
|align="center"|18 July 1439<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Bernard II and Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp</small>
|align="center"|16 July 1463 – 15 August 1507||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Dorothea of Brandenburg<br/>12 February 1464<br/>twelve children
|align="center"|15 August 1507<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 68</small>||
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Valdemar VI||
|align"center"|1450<br><small>Son of <span style"background-color:#fde;">George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau</span> and Sophia of Hohnstein</small>
|align="center"|28 August 1473 – 1 November 1508
|rowspan="5"|Principality of Köthen ||Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt<br/>24 January 1485<br/>Köthen<br>four children
|align="center"|1 November 1508<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 57–58</small>
|rowspan="5"| After the contract established with Dessau, this line of princes dominated in Köthen. After the death of Adolph in 1473, George I of Dessau's sons, Valdemar VI and Albert VI, ascended to the principality. After Albert's death, Valdemar co-ruled with his nephews. In 1508, all his co-rulers abdicated to him.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Albert VI||
|align="center"|c.1420<br><small>Son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Querfurt</small>
|align="center"|28 August 1473 – 9 January 1475||Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)<br/>27 March 1454<br/>Alsleben<br>seven children
|align="center"|9 January 1475<br><small>aged 54–55</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Philip||
|align="center"|31 May 1468<br><small>Son of Albert VI and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)</small>
|align="center"|9 January 1475 – 13 November 1500
|rowspan="3"|Unmarried
|align="center"|13 November 1500<br><small>aged 32</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Magnus||
|align="center"|1455<br><small>Third son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align"center" rowspan"2"|28 August 1473 – 1508
|align="center"|29 October 1524<br><small>aged 68–69</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Adolph II||
|align="center"|16 October 1458<br><small>Fifth son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align="center"|24 March 1526<br>Merseburg<br><small>aged 67</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Ernest I||
|align="center"|1454<br><small>First son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align="center"|21 September 1474 – 12 June 1516
|rowspan="4"|Principality of Dessau||Margaret of Münsterberg<br/>20 January 1494<br/>Cottbus<br/>four children
|align="center"|12 June 1516<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 61–62</small>
|rowspan="4"| Sons of George I, co-ruled jointly with their father since 1471, and continued the joint rule after his death.
|-style="background:#fde"
|George II the Strong||
|align="center"|1454<small>Second son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align="center"|1474 – 25 April 1509||Agnes of Pomerania-Barth<br/>1478<br/>no children
|align="center"|25 April 1509<br><small>aged 54–55</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Sigismund III||
|align="center"|1456<br><small>Third son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align="center"|21 September 1474 – 27 November 1487
|rowspan="2"|Unmarried
|align="center"|27 November 1487<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 30–31</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Rudolph the Valiant||
|align="center"|1466<br><small>Fourth son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small>
|align="center"|21 September 1474 – 7 September 1510
|align="center"|7 September 1510<br><small>aged 43–44</small>
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Magnus I||
|align="center"|1 January 1470<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of John V and Dorothea of Brandenburg</small>
|align="center"|15 August 1507 – 1 August 1543||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>20 November 1509<br/>Wolfenbüttel<br/>six children
|align="center"|1 August 1543<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 73</small>||
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Wolfgang the Confessor||
|align="center"|1 August 1492<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Valdemar VI and Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt</small>
|align="center"|1 November 1508 – 23 March 1566||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Coswig only, since 1562)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|23 March 1566<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 73</small>|| Sole ruler of Köthen. In 1562, without descendants, he abdicated of all his territories, with the sole exception of Coswig (which he kept until his death) to the recreated Principality of Zerbst.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|align"center" colspan"8"|Köthen (and later Coswig) annexed to Zerbst
|- style="background:#fde"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Margaret of Münsterberg (1516–1524)</small>
|rowspan="4"|Children of Ernest I, ruled jointly, firstly under their mother. In 1544, the brothers divided the land. Joachim mainteined Dessau to himself; John took Zerbst and refounded Anhalt-Zerbst; George took Plotzkau. After George and Joachim's deaths without descendants, their lands were inherited by their nephews, sons of John III.
|-style="background:#ecd"
||John V||
|align="center"|4 September 1504<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small>
|align"center"|12 June 1516 – 4 February 1551||Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#fde;">Dessau</span> until 1544)</small>)||Margaret of Brandenburg<br/>15 February 1534<br>Dessau<br/>six children
|align="center"|4 February 1551<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 46</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
||George III the God-Blessed||
|align="center"|15 August 1507<br>Dessau<br><small>Third son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small>
|align="center"|12 June 1516 – 17 October 1553||Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership until 1544; at Plotzkau since 1544)</small>
|rowspan="2"|Unmarried
|align="center"|17 October 1553<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 46</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|Joachim I||
|align="center"|7 August 1509<br>Dessau<br><small>Fourth son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small>
|align="center"|12 June 1516 – 6 December 1561||Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership until 1544)</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1561<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 52</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|align"center" colspan"8"|Dessau and Plotzkau annexed to Zerbst
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Francis I||
|align="center"|1510<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Magnus I and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</small>
|align="center"|1 August 1543 – 1571<br><br>1573 – 19 March 1581||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Sibylle of Saxony<br/>8 February 1540<br/>Dresden<br/>nine children
|align="center"|19 March 1581<br>Buxtehude<br><small>aged 70–71</small>|| In 1571 – highly indebted – Francis I resigned in favour of his eldest son Magnus II, who had promised to redeem the pawned ducal demesnes with funds he gained as Swedish military commander and by his marriage to a Swedish princess. However, after warring with his son and pushing him back, he regained the title.
|-style="background:#ecd"
||Charles I||
|align="center" |17 November 1534<br>Dessau<br><small>First son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small>
|align="center" |4 February 1551 – 4 May 1561||Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership)</small>||Anna of Pomerania-Stettin<br/>16 May 1557<br>Zerbst<br/>no children
|align="center" |4 May 1561<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 26</small>
|rowspan"3" style"background:#fde"| Children of John V, ruled jointly. In 1553 inherited Plotzkau from their uncle George III. In 1561 inherited Dessau and Bernburg from their uncle Joachim. In the next year inherited Kothen. From 1570 Joachim Ernest was the sole owner of all Anhalt.
|-style="background:#fde"
||Joachim Ernest||
|align="center"|21 October 1536<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small>
|align="center"|4 February 1551 – 6 December 1586
|rowspan"2"|Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> until 1562)</small>||Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen<br/>3 March 1560<br>Barby<br/>six children<br><br>Eleonore of Württemberg<br/>9 January 1571<br>Stuttgart<br/>ten children
|align="center" |6 December 1586<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 50</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
||Bernard VII||
|align="center"|17 March 1540<br>Dessau<br><small>Third son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small>
|align="center"|4 February 1551 – 1 March 1570||Clara of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br/>28 May 1565<br>Dessau<br/>one child
|align="center"|1 March 1570<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 29</small>
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Magnus II||
|align="center"|1543<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Second son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small>
|align="center"|1571–1573||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Sophia of Sweden<br/>4 July 1568<br/>Stockholm<br/>one child
|align="center"|14 March 1603<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 59–60</small>|| Eldest son of Francis I. He didn't pay the debts he promised to pay and led to war with his father and brothers. Two years later they deposed Magnus II and Francis I re-ascended. Magnus' violent and judicial attempts to regain the duchy failed. In 1588 he was imprisoned for the remainder of his life.
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Francis II||
|align="center"|10 August 1547<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Third son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small>
|align="center"|19 March 1581 – 2 July 1619
|rowspan="2"|Duchy of Lauenburg|| Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast<br/>26 December 1574<br/>Wolgast<br/>four children<br/><br/>Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>10 November 1582<br/>Wolfenbüttel<br/>fourteen children
|align="center"|2 July 1619<br>Lauenburg<br><small>aged 71</small>
|rowspan="2"| Brothers of Magnus II, ruled jointly. Francis was vice-regent from 1578, and administrator from 1581.
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Maurice||
|align="center"|1551<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Fifth son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small>
|align="center"|19 March 1581 – 2 November 1612|| Katharina von Spörck<br/>1581<br/><small>(annulled 1582)</small><br/>no children
|align="center"|2 November 1612<br>Buxtehude<br><small>aged 60–61</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
||John George I||
|align="center"|9 May 1567<br>Harzgerode<br><small>First son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1586 – 24 May 1618||Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>||Dorothea of Mansfeld-Arnstein<br/>22 February 1588<br>Hedersleben<br/>five children<br><br>Dorothea of Palatinate-Simmern<br/>21 February 1595<br>Heidelberg<br/>eleven children
|align="center"|24 May 1618<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 51</small>
|rowspan="5"|Sons of Joachim Ernest, ruled jointly. In 1603 divided their inheritance.
|-style="background:#ecf"
||Christian I||
|align="center"|11 May 1568<br>Bernburg<br><small>Second son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1586 – 17 April 1630||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>||Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg<br/>2 July 1595<br>Lorbach<br/>sixteen children
|align="center"|17 April 1630<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 61</small>
|-style="background:#fbd"
||Augustus||
|align="center"|14 July 1575<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1586 – 22 August 1653||Principality of Plötzkau<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>||Sibylle of Solms-Laubach<br/>25 January 1618<br>Ansbach<br/>eight children
|align="center"|22 August 1653<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 78</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
||Rudolph||
|align="center"|28 October 1576<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Third son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1586 – 30 July 1621||Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>||Dorothea Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>29 December 1605<br>Wolfenbüttel<br/>four children<br><br>Magdalena of Oldenburg<br>31 August 1612<br>Oldenburg<br>two children
|align="center"|30 July 1621<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 44</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
||Louis I||
|align="center"|17 June 1579<br>Dessau<br><small>Fifth son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small>
|align="center"|6 December 1586 – 7 January 1650||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>||Amöena Amalie of Bentheim-Tecklenburg<br/>31 October 1606<br>Rheda<br/>two children<br><br>Sophia of Lippe<br/>12 September 1626<br>Detmold<br/>two children
|align="center"|7 January 1650<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 70</small>
|-style="background:#fde"
|John Casimir||
|align="center"|17 December 1596<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John George I and Dorothea of Palatinate-Simmern</small>
|align="center"|24 May 1618 – 15 September 1660||Principality of Dessau||Agnes of Hesse-Kassel<br/>18 May 1623<br>Dessau<br/>six children<br><br>Sophie Margaret of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>14 July 1651<br>Dessau<br/>no children
|align="center"|15 September 1660<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 63</small>||
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Augustus||
|align="center"|17 February 1577<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Francis II and Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast</small>
|align="center"|2 July 1619 – 18 January 1656||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Elisabeth Sophie of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>5 March 1621<br/>Husum<br/>six children<br/><br/>Catherina of Oldenburg<br/>4 June 1633<br/>no children
|align="center"|18 January 1656<br>Lauenburg<br><small>aged 78</small>|| Left no male descendants; he was succeeded by his half-brother Julius Henry.
|- style="background:#ecd"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau (1621–1642)</small>
|rowspan="2"|
|-style="background:#ecd"
|John VI||
|align="center"|24 March 1621<br>Zerbst<br><small>Son of Rudolph and Magdalena of Oldenburg</small>
|align="center"|30 July 1621 – 4 July 1667||Principality of Zerbst||Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>16 September 1649<br>Gottorp<br/>fourteen children
|align="center"|4 July 1667<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 46</small>
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Christian II||
|align="center"|11 August 1599<br>Amberg<br><small>Second son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg</small>
|align="center"|17 April 1630 – 22 September 1656||Principality of Bernburg||Eleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg<br/>28 February 1625<br>Ahrensbök<br/>fifteen children
|align="center"|22 September 1656<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 57</small>
|rowspan="2"|Children of Christian I, divided their inheritance.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Frederick||
|align="center"|16 November 1613<br>Ensdorf<br><small>Fourth son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg</small>
|align="center"|17 April 1630 – 30 June 1670||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(at Harzgerode)</small>||Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar<br/>10 August 1642<br>Bückeburg<br/>three children<br><br>Anna Catharina of Lippe-Detmold<br/><small>(31 July 1612 – 15 October 1659)</small><br>26 May 1657<br>Harzgerode<br/>no children
|align="center"|30 June 1670<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 56</small>
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau, Lebrecht, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Emmanuel, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen (1650–1653)</small>
|rowspan="2"|After his death without descendants, his previous regents took over the principality for themselves.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|William Louis||
|align="center"|3 August 1638<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Louis I and Sophia of Lippe</small>
|align="center"|7 January 1650 – 13 April 1665||Principality of Köthen||Elisabeth Charlotte of Anhalt-Harzgerode<br/>25 August 1663<br>Köthen<br/>no children
|align="center"|13 April 1665<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 26</small>
|-style="background:#fbd"
||Ernest Gottlieb||
|align="center"|4 September 1620<br>Plötzkau<br><small>First son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small>
|align="center"|22 August 1653 – 7 March 1654||Principality of Plötzkau||Unmarried
|align="center"|7 March 1654<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 33</small>||
|-style="background:#ccf"
|rowspan="2"|Lebrecht I
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan"2" align"center"|8 April 1622<br>Plötzkau<br><small>Second son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small>
|style"background:#fbd" align"center"|7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665
|style="background:#fbd"|Principality of Plötzkau
|rowspan="2"|Sophie Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>18 January 1655<br>Plötzkau<br/>no children
|rowspan"2" align"center"|7 November 1669<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 47</small>
|rowspan="4"| Cousins of William Louis, and princes of Anhalt-Plötzkau, they served as regents for their cousin alongside their uncle, Augustus. After William Louis' death in 1665, they took the principality of Köthen for themselves, giving away their inheritance in Plötzkau to Anhalt-Bernburg.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|align="center"|13 April 1665 – 7 November 1669||Principality of Köthen
|-style="background:#ccf"
|rowspan="2"|Emmanuel
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan"2" align"center"|6 October 1631<br>Plötzkau<br><small>Third son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small>
|align"center" style"background:#fbd"|7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665
|style="background:#fbd"|Principality of Plötzkau
|rowspan="2"|Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>23 March 1670<br>Ilsenburg<br>one child
|rowspan"2" align"center"|8 November 1670<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 39</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|align="center"|13 April 1665 – 8 November 1670||Principality of Köthen
|-style="background:#fbd"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Plotzkau definitively annexed to the Principality of Bernburg
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Victor Amadeus||
|align="center"|6 October 1634<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Son of Christian II and Eleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg</small>
|align="center"|22 September 1656 – 14 February 1718||Principality of Bernburg||Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken<br/>16 October 1667<br>Meisenheim<br/>six children
|align="center"|14 February 1718<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 83</small>|| Annexed Anhalt-Plötzkau in 1665.
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Julius Henry||
|align="center"|9 April 1586<br>Wolfenbüttel<br><small>Son of Francis II and Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</small>
|align="center"|18 January 1656 – 20 November 1665||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Anna of East Frisia<br/>17 March 1617<br/>Grabow<br/>no children<br/><br/>Elisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg<br/>4 June 1633<br/>Toužim<br/>one son<br/><br/>Anna Magdalena of Lobkowicz<br/>18 August 1632<br/>Vienna<br/>six children
|align="center"|20 November 1665<br>Prague<br><small>aged 79</small>||
|-style="background:#fde"
||John George II||
|align="center"|17 November 1627<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John Casimir and Agnes of Hesse-Kassel</small>
|align="center"|15 September 1660 – 7 August 1693||Principality of Dessau||Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau<br/>9 September 1659<br>Groningen<br/>five children
|align="center"|7 August 1693<br>Berlin<br><small>aged 65</small>|| Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, he also served as regent for his cousin, Emmanuel Lebrecht of Anhalt-Kothen, together with the prince's mother, Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode.
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Francis Erdmann||
|align="center"|25 February 1629<br>Toužim<br><small>Son of Julius Henry and Elisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg</small>
|align="center"|20 November 1665 – 30 July 1666||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Sibylle Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg<br/>1654<br/>no children
|align="center"|30 July 1666<br>Schwarzenbek<br><small>aged 37</small>||Left no descendants; He was succeeded by his brother Julius Francis.
|- style="background:#fedf;"
|Julius Francis||
|align="center"|16 September 1641<br>Prague<br><small>Son of Julius Henry and Anna Magdalena of Lobkowicz</small>
|align="center"|30 July 1666 – 30 September 1689||Duchy of Lauenburg|| Hedwig of the Palatinate-Sulzbach<br/>9 April 1668<br/>Sulzbach<br/>two children
|align="center"|30 September 1689<br>Zákupy<br><small>aged 48</small>||
|-style="background:#fedf"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Definitively annexed to the House of Welf
|- style="background:#ecd"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp (1667–1674)</small>
|rowspan="4"| Children of John VI, divided their inheritance.
|-style="background:#ecd"
|Charles William||
|align="center"|16 October 1652<br>Zerbst<br><small>Third son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small>
|align="center"|4 July 1667 – 3 November 1718||Principality of Zerbst||Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels<br/>18 June 1676<br>Halle<br/>three children
|align="center"|3 November 1718<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 66</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
|Anton Günther||
|align="center"|11 November 1653<br>Zerbst<br><small>Fourth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small>
|align="center"|4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704||Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(at Mühlingen)</small>||Auguste Antonie Marschall of Bieberstein<br><small>(3 March 1659 – 28 December 1736)</small><br/>1 January 1705<br>Zerbst<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>seven children
|align="center"|10 December 1714<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 61</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
|John Louis I||
|align="center"|4 May 1656<br>Zerbst<br><small>Sixth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small>
|align="center"|4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704||Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(at Dornburg)</small>||Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch<br><small>(5 June 1666 – 17 May 1699)</small><br/>23 July 1687<br>Halle<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>seven children
|align="center"|1 November 1704<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 48</small>
|- style="background:#ecd"
|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"|Mühlingen reannexed to Zerbst
|-style="background:#ecf"
|William Louis||
|align="center"|18 August 1643<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Son of Frederick and Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar</small>
|align="center"|30 June 1670 – 14 October 1709||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(at Harzgerode)</small>||Elisabeth Juliana of Solms-Laubach<br/><small>(6 March 1631 – 2 January 1693)</small><br>25 July 1671<br>Laubach<br/>no children<br><br>Sophie Auguste of Nassau-Dillenburg<br/><small>(28 April 1666 – 14 January 1733)</small><br>20 October 1695<br>Frederiksborg<br/>no children
|align="center"|14 October 1709<br>Harzgerode<br><small>aged 66</small>|| After his death, Harzgerode merged again in Bernburg.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"|Harzgerode reannexed to Bernburg
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regencies of Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1670–1690) and John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (1690–1692)</small>
|rowspan="2"|
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Emmanuel Lebrecht||
|align="center"|20 May 1671<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Emmanuel and Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small>
|align="center"|20 May 1671 – 30 May 1704||Principality of Köthen||Gisela Agnes of Rath<br/>30 September 1692<br>Nienburg<br/><small>(morganatic)</small><br>ten children
|align="center"|30 May 1704<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 33</small>
|- style="background:#fde"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau (1693–1698)</small>
|rowspan="2"|
|-style="background:#fde"
|Leopold I||
|align="center"|3 July 1676<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John George II and Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau</small>
|align="center"|7 August 1693 – 7 April 1747||Principality of Dessau||Anna Louise Föhse<br/>8 September 1698<br>Dessau<br/><small>(morganatic)</small><br>ten children
|align="center"|7 April 1747<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 70</small>
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Gisela Agnes of Rath (1704–1715)</small>
|rowspan="2"| With no male heirs, he was succeeded by his brother.
|-style="background:#CCCCFF"
|Leopold||
|align="center"|29 November 1694<br>Köthen<br><small>Second son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath</small>
|align="center"|30 May 1704 – 19 November 1728||Principality of Köthen||Frederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>11 December 1721<br>Bernburg<br>one child<br><br>Charlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen<br/> 27 June 1725<br>Weimar<br>two children
|align="center"|19 November 1728<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 33</small>
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Charles Frederick||
|align="center"|13 July 1668<br>Bernburg<br><small>First son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</small>
|align="center"|14 February 1718 – 22 April 1721||Principality of Bernburg||Sophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde<br/>25 June 1692<br>Bernburg<br/>six children<br><br>Wilhelmine Charlotte Nüssler<br/>1 May 1715<br>Bernburg<br>two children
|align="center"|22 April 1721<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 52</small>
|rowspan="2"| Children of Victor Amadeus, divided their rule.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Lebrecht||
|align="center"|28 June 1669<br><small>Second son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</small>
|align="center"|14 February 1718 – 17 May 1727||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Zeitz and Hoym)</small>||Charlotte of Nassau-Schaumburg<br/>Schaumburg Castle<br>12 April 1692<br>five children<br><br>Eberhardine of Weede<br>27 June 1702<br>Grave<br>six children<br/><br>Sophie Sibylla of Ingersleben<br><small>(18 March 1684 – 31 March 1726)</small><br>14 September 1725<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>no children
|align="center"|17 May 1727<br>Bad Ems<br><small>aged 57</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
|John Augustus||
|align="center"|29 July 1677<br>Zerbst<br><small>Son of Charles William and Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels</small>
|align="center"|3 November 1718 – 7 November 1742||Principality of Zerbst||Frederica of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg<br/>25 May 1702<br>Zerbst<br/>no children
|align="center"|7 November 1742<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 65</small>|| Died without issue. Zerbst was inherited by his cousins from Dornburg.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Victor Frederick||
|align="center"|20 September 1700<br>Bernburg<br><small>Son of Charles Frederick and Sophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde</small>
|align="center"|22 April 1721 – 18 May 1765||Principality of Bernburg||Louise of Anhalt-Dessau<br/>25 November 1724<br>Dessau<br/>one child<br><br>Sophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt<br/>22 May 1733<br>Potsdam<br/>five children<br><br>Konstanze Fredericka Schmidt<br/>13 November 1750<br>Bernburg<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>one child
|align="center"|18 May 1765<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 64</small>||
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Victor I Amadeus||
|align="center"|7 September 1693<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Son of Lebrecht and Charlotte of Nassau-Schaumburg</small>
|align="center"|17 May 1727 – 15 April 1772||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Zeitz, Hoym and Schaumburg)</small>||Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein<br/>22 November 1714<br>Birstein<br/>six children<br><br>Hedwig Sophie Henckel of Donnersmarck<br/>14 February 1740<br>Pölzig<br>six children
|align="center"|15 April 1772<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 78</small>||
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Augustus Louis||
|align="center"|9 June 1697<br>Köthen<br><small>Third son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath</small>
|align="center"|19 November 1728 – 6 August 1755||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Güsten until 1737; at Köthen proper since 1737)</small>||Agnes Wilhelmine von Wuthenau<br/>23 January 1722<br>Dresden<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>two children<br><br>Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless<br/>14 January 1726<br>Sorau<br>five children<br><br>Anna Fredericka of Promnitz-Pless<br/>21 November 1732<br>Sorau<br>two children
|align="center"|6 August 1755<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 58</small>
|rowspan="3"| Inheritors of Leopold, "fought" (legally) for the inheritance. Heiress of her father, Gisela Agnes claimed her allodial inheritance (possibly, while Augustus Louis, brother of the deceased Leopold, should keep the main principality. According to the Reichskammergericht final decision, she kept her father's collections, and eventually gave up her inheritance (which included the main capital, Köthen, and other estates) when she married (1737), being compensated by her uncle with great sums of money that highly indebted the principality.
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Charlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen (1728-1734)</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Gisela Agnes||
|align="center"|21 September 1722<br>Köthen<br><small>Daughter of Leopold and Frederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg</small>
|align="center"|19 November 1728 – 25 May 1737||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Köthen, Prosigk and Klepzig)</small>||Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau<br/>25 May 1737<br>Bernburg<br>seven children
|align="center"|20 April 1751<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 22</small>
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"| The property of the Principality of Köthen was reunited in 1737
|-style="background:#ecd"
|John Louis II||
|align="center"|23 June 1688<br>Dornburg<br><small>First son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch</small>
|align="center"|7 November 1742 – 5 November 1746
|rowspan="2"|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in Dornburg 1704–1742; in Zerbst proper since 1742)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|5 November 1746<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 58</small>
|rowspan="2"| First cousins of John Augustus I, they were Princes of Dornburg, until its ending by joining it with the inherited Principality of Zerbst.
|-style="background:#ecd"
|Christian August||
|align="center"|29 November 1690<br>Dornburg<br><small>Third son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch</small>
|align="center"|7 November 1742 – 16 March 1747||Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>8 November 1727<br>Vechelde<br>five children
|align="center"|16 March 1747<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 56</small>
|- style="background:#ecd"
|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"|Dornburg reannexed to Zerbst
|-style="background:#fde
|Leopold II Maximilian||
|align="center"|25 December 1700<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold I and Anna Louise Föhse</small>
|align="center"|7 April 1747 – 16 December 1751||Principality of Dessau||Gisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen<br/>25 May 1737<br>Bernburg<br/>seven children
|align="center"|16 December 1751<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 50</small>||
|- style="background:#ecd"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp (1747–1752)</small>
|rowspan="2"| Left no descendants; after his death, his property was annexed by his cousins from Dessau.
|-style="background:#ecd"
|Frederick August||
|align="center"|8 August 1734<br>Stettin<br><small>Son of Christian August and Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp</small>
|align="center"|16 March 1747 – 3 March 1793||Principality of Zerbst||Caroline Wilhelmina Sophia of Hesse-Kassel<br/>17 November 1753<br>Zerbst<br>no children<br><br>Friederike Auguste Sophie of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>22 May 1764<br>Ballenstedt<br>no children
|align="center"|3 March 1793<br>Luxembourg<br><small>aged 58</small>
|-style="background:#ecd"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Definitively annexed by the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau
|- style="background:#fde"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regency of Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (1751–1758)</small>
|rowspan="2"|Initially under regency, Leopold III himself also served later as regent for his cousin, Louis Augustus Karl Frederick Emil from Anhalt-Kothen. After his death the regency in Anhalt-Kothen passed together with the principality of Anhalt-Dessau to his grandson.
|-style="background:#fde"
||Leopold III Frederick Franz||
|align="center"|10 August 1740<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold II Maximilian and Gisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen</small>
|align="center"|16 December 1751 – 9 August 1817||Principality of Dessau<br><small>(until 1807)</small><br><br>Duchy of Dessau<br><small>(from 1807)</small>||Louise Henriette of Brandenburg-Schwedt<br/>25 July 1767<br>Charlottenburg<br/>two children
|align="center"|9 August 1817<br>Luisium Castle<br><small>aged 76</small>
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Charles George Lebrecht||
|align="center"|15 August 1730<br>Köthen<br><small>Second son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless</small>
|align="center"|6 August 1755 – 17 October 1789||Principality of Köthen||Louise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg<br/>26 July 1763<br>Glücksburg<br>six children
|align="center"|17 October 1789<br>Zemun<br><small>aged 59</small>
|rowspan="2"|Children of Augustus Louis, divided their inheritance.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Frederick Erdmann||
|align="center"|27 October 1731<br>Köthen<br><small>Third son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless</small>
|align="center"|6 August 1755 – 12 December 1797||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Pless)</small>||Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>13 June 1766<br>Wernigerode<br>nine children
|align="center"|12 December 1797<br>Pless<br><small>aged 66</small>
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Frederick Albert||
|align="center"|15 August 1735<br>Bernburg<br><small>Son of Victor Frederick and Sophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt</small>
|align="center"|18 May 1765 – 9 April 1796||Principality of Bernburg||Louise Albertine of Holstein-Plön<br/>25 November 1724<br>Augustenburg<br/>two children
|align="center"|9 April 1796<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 60</small>||
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Charles Louis||
|align="center"|16 May 1723<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Third son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein</small>
|align="center"|15 April 1772 – 20 August 1806||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>||Benjamine Gertrude Keiser<br><small>(1 January 1729 – 6 January 1787)</small><br>25 March 1748<br>Stevensweert<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br><br>Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels<br/>12 December 1765<br>Braunfels<br/>five children
|align="center"|20 August 1806<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 83</small>||
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Augustus Christian Frederick||
|align="center"|18 November 1769<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Charles George Lebrecht and Louise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg</small>
|align="center"|17 October 1789 – 5 May 1812||Principality of Köthen<br><small>(until 1806)</small><br><br>Duchy of Köthen<br><small>(from 1806)</small>||Frederica of Nassau-Usingen<br/>9 February 1792<br>Frankfurt-am-Main<br>no children
|align="center"|5 May 1812<br>Geuz<br><small>aged 42</small>|| In 1806 became Duke of Anhalt-Köthen. Left no descendants, and was succeeded by his nephew.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Alexius Frederick Christian||
|align="center"|12 June 1767<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Frederick Albert and Louise Albertine of Holstein-Plön</small>
|align="center"|9 April 1796 – 24 March 1834||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(until 1803)</small><br><br>Duchy of Bernburg<br><small>(from 1803)</small>||Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel<br/>29 November 1794<br>Kassel<br><small>(annulled 1817)</small><br/>four children<br><br>Dorothea Fredericka of Sonnenberg<br/>11 January 1818<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>no children<br><br>Ernestine Charlotte of Sonnenberg<br/>2 May 1819<br>Bernburg<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>no children
|align="center"|24 March 1834<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 66</small>|| In 1803 became Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Victor II Charles||
|align="center"|2 November 1767<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Son of Charles Louis and Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels</small>
|align="center"|20 August 1806 – 22 April 1812||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>||Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg<br/>29 October 1793<br>Weilburg<br>four children
|align="center"|22 April 1812<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 44</small>||
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Frederick||
|align="center"|29 November 1741<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Fifth son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein</small>
|align="center"|22 April – 24 December 1812||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>||Unmarried
|align="center"|24 December 1812|| After his childless death, Hoym and Holzappel were inherited by his niece Hermine (daughter of Victor II), while Hoym merged in Bernburg again.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|colspan"8" align"center"|Hoym reannexed to Bernburg
|- style="background:#ccf"
|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"| <small>Regencies of Leopold III, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau (1812–1817) and Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt (1817–1818)</small>
|rowspan="2"|Nephew of Augustus Christian Frederick. Died as a minor, never ruled by his own.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Louis Augustus Karl||
|align="center"|20 September 1802<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Louis of Anhalt-Köthen and Louise Caroline of Hesse-Darmstadt</small>
|align="center"|5 May 1812 – 18 December 1818||Duchy of Köthen||Louise Charlotte of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg<br/>26 July 1763<br>Glücksburg<br>six children
|align="center"|18 December 1818<br>Leipzig<br><small>aged 16</small>
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Hermine||
|align="center"|2 December 1797<br>Hoym<br><small>Daughter of Victor II Charles and Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg</small>
|align="center"|24 December 1812 – 14 September 1817||Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Holzappel)</small>||Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary<br>30 August 1815<br>Schaumburg Castle<br>two children
|align="center"|14 September 1817<br>Budapest<br><small>aged 19</small>||After her death her lands probably merged again in Bernburg.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|colspan"8" align"center"|Schaumburg and Holzappel reannexed to Bernburg
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Frederick Ferdinand||
|align="center"|25 June 1769<br>Pless<br><small>Second son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small>
|align="center"|18 December 1818 – 23 August 1830||Duchy of Köthen<br><small>(in Pless 1797–1818; in Köthen proper since 1818)</small>||Maria Dorothea of Holstein-Beck<br/>26 July 1763<br>Lindenau bei Heiligenbeil<br>no children<br><br>Julie of Brandenburg<br/>20 May 1816<br>Berlin<br>no children
|align="center"|23 August 1830<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 61</small>|| From the Anhalt-Pless line, cousin of his predecessor. Attempted, with no success, to reinstall Catholicism in his duchy. Left no descendants; he was succeeded by his brother.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|Henry||
|align="center"|30 July 1778<br>Pless<br><small>Fourth son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small>
|align="center"|23 August 1830 – 23 November 1847||Duchy of Köthen||Augusta Reuss of Middle Köstritz<br/>18 May 1819<br>Trebschen<br>no children
|align="center"|23 November 1847<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 69</small>|| Left no descendants. His lands were inherited by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau.
|-style="background:#ccf"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau
|-style="background:#ecf"
|Alexander Charles||
|align="center"|2 March 1805<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Alexius Frederick Christian and Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel</small>
|align="center"|24 March 1834 – 19 August 1863||Duchy of Bernburg||Frederica of Holstein-Glücksburg<br/>30 October 1834<br>Gottorp<br/>no children
|align="center"|19 August 1863<br>Hoym<br><small>aged 58</small>|| Left no male descendants. Bernburg reverted to Anhalt-Dessau.
|-style="background:#ecf"
|colspan8 style"text-align:center"|Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau
|-style="background:#fde"
||Leopold IV Frederick||
|align="center"|1 October 1794<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Amalie of Hesse-Homburg</small>
|align="center"|9 August 1817 – 22 May 1871||Duchy of Dessau<br><small>(until 1863)</small><br><br>Duchy of Anhalt<br><small>(from 1863)</small>||Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia<br/>18 April 1818<br>Berlin<br/>six children
|align="center"|22 May 1871<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 76</small>||Grandson of Leopold III. Ended the regency in Kothen after his cousin's death (1818). In 1863 he reunited Anhalt under his rule, and becomes its first duke.
|-style="background:#fde"
|Frederick I||
|align="center"|29 April 1831<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold IV Frederick and Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia</small>
|align="center"|22 May 1871 – 24 January 1904||Duchy of Anhalt||Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg<br/>22 April 1854<br>Altenburg<br/>six children
|align="center"|24 January 1904<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 72</small>||
|-style="background:#fde"
|Frederick II||
|align="center"|19 August 1856<br>Dessau<br><small>First son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg</small>
|align="center"|24 January 1904 – 21 April 1918||Duchy of Anhalt||Marie of Baden<br/>2 July 1889<br>Karlsruhe<br/>no children
|align="center"|21 April 1918<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 61</small>|| Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother.
|-style="background:#fde"
|Edward||
|align="center"|18 April 1861<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg</small>
|align="center"|21 April – 13 September 1918||Duchy of Anhalt||Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg<br/> 6 February 1895<br>Altenburg<br/><small>(annulled 26 January 1918)</small><br>six children
|align="center"|13 September 1918<br>Berchtesgaden<br><small>aged 57</small>||
|-style="background:#fde"
|Joachim Ernest||
|align="center"|11 January 1901<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Edward and Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg</small>
|align="center"|13 September – 12 November 1918||Duchy of Anhalt||Elisabeth Strickrodt<br>3 March 1927<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic, annulled 1929)</small><br>no children<br><br>Edda-Charlotte von Stephani-Marwitz<br>15 October 1929<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>five children
|align="center"|18 February 1947<br>Weimar<br><small>aged 46</small>|| Monarchy abolished in that year.
|}
Heads of the House of Ascania since 1918
*Duke Joachim Ernest II 1918–1947
*Prince Frederick 1947–1963
*Prince Edward 1963–present
Family trees
(genealogical list of the dynasty in German)
Armorial
The original arms of the house of Ascania, from their ancestors the Saxon counts of Ballenstedt, were "Barry of ten sable and or".
The Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear was invested with the Saxon ducal title in 1138; when he succeeded the Welf's Henry the Lion, who was deposed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1180, Albert's son Bernhard, Count of Anhalt received the remaining Saxon territories around Wittenberg and Lauenburg, and the ducal title. Legend, so unlikely to be true, goes that when he rode in front of the emperor, at the occasion of his investiture, he carried a shield with his escutcheon of the Ballenstedt coat of arms (barry sable and or). Barbarossa took the rue wreath he wore against the heat of the sun from his head, hanging it over Bernhard's shield and thus creating the Saxonian crancelin vert ("Barry of ten sable and or, a crancelin vert"). A more likely explanation is that it probably symbolized the waiver of the Lauenburg lands.
From about 1260, the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg emerged under the Ascanian duke Albert II, who adopted the tradition of the Saxon stem duchy and was granted the Saxon electoral dignity, against the fierce protest of his Ascanian Saxe-Lauenburg cousins. This was confirmed by the Golden Bull of 1356. As the Ascanian Electors of Saxony also held the High office of an Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire, they added the ensign Per fess sable and argent two swords in saltire gules (the swords later featuring as the trademark of the Meissen china factory) to their coat of arms. When the line became extinct in 1422, the arms and electoral dignity were adopted by the Wettin by margrave Frederick IV of Meissen as it had become synonymous with the Saxon ducal title.
When upon German reunification the Free State of Saxony was re-established, the coat of arms was formally confirmed in 1991.
<gallery class="center">
File:Arms of the house of Ascania (ancient).svg|Original Arms of counts of Ballenstedt
File:Arms of Heinrich I, Prince of Anhalt.svg|Arms of Ascania impaled with the Mark of Brandenburg
File:Arms of the house of Anhalt (13th century).svg|Arms of Ascania impaled with the Mark of Brandenburg
</gallery>
<gallery class="center">
File:HRE Arch-Marshal Arms.svg|Arms of the Arch-Marshal/prince elector of the Saxons of the Holy Roman Empire
File:Blason Jean-Georges IV de Saxe.svg|Arms of the Elector/Duke of Saxony (Saxe-Wittenburg)
</gallery>
<gallery class="center">
File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt (XVe siècle).svg|Principality of Anhalt in the 15th century
File:Blason Principautés d'Anhalt (XVIIe siècle).svg|Principalities of Anhalt in the 17th century
File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt-Köthen (XVIIIe siècle).svg|Principality of Anhalt-Köthen in the 18th century
File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt-Zerbst (XVIIIe siècle).svg|Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in the 19th century
File:Shield of the Duchy of Anhalt.svg|Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Anhalt
File:Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Anhalt.svg|Achievement of the Duchy of Anhalt
</gallery>
The chivalric order was the House Order of Albert the Bear (German: Hausorden Albrechts des Bären or Der Herzoglich Anhaltische Hausorden Albrechts des Bären) which was founded in 1836 as a joint House Order by three dukes of Anhalt from separate branches of the family: Henry, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, and Alexander Karl, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg.
The namesake of the order, Albert the Bear, was the first Margrave of Brandenburg from the House of Ascania. The origin of his nickname "the Bear" is unknown.
<gallery class="center">
File:Order of Albert the Bear.svg|Collar of the Order of Albert the Bear
File:Зірка ордену Альбрехта Ведмедя.JPG|Star of the Order of Albert the Bear
File:Huisorde van Albrecht de Beer.jpg|House Order of Albert the Bear
</gallery>
List of states ruled by the House of Ascania
<gallery>
File:Sächsische-Herzogtümer 1235.png|Saxony in 1180 with the Ascanian duchies in Saxony around 1235 (green). The former stem Duchy of Saxony is in gold with the official electorate duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in green in the South East. Also shown is Saxe-Lauenburg in North West and the Welf Duchies of Brunswick-Luneburg in orange.
File:Herzogtum Sachsen Lauenburg 1400.PNG|The Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg in 1400
File:Mark Lausitz, Karte Anno 1200.jpg|Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg (dark green, centred on the town of Wittenberg)
FIle:Karte Mark Brandenburg 1320.png|Brandenburg in 1320 under the Ascanians
File:Herzogtum anhalt 1863-1918.svg|The Duchy of Anhalt, bordered by Prussia und Duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg
File:TeilfürstentümerAnhalt1789.png|Anhalt Principalities in 1789: Anhalt-Bernburg (AB), Anhalt-Köthen (AK), Anhalt-Dessau (AD) and Anhalt-Zerbst (AZ); on the rightside of the map: the Electorate of Brandenburg (blue) und Electorate of Saxony (orange)
</gallery>
* County, Principality, and Duchy of Anhalt: c. 1100–1918
* Duchy and Electorate of Saxony: 1112, 1139–1142, 1180–1422
* County of Weimar-Orlamünde: 1112–1486
* Margravate of Brandenburg: 1157–1320
* Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg: 1269–1689
* Principality of Lüneburg: 1369–1388
* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg: 1252–1468 and 1603–1863
* Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst: 1252–1396 and 1544–1796
* Principality of Anhalt-Aschersleben: 1252–1315
* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen: 1396–1561 and 1603–1847
* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau 1396–1561 and 1603–1863
* Principality of Anhalt-Plötzkau 1544–1553 and 1603–1665
* Principality of Anhalt-Harzgerode 1635–1709
* Principality of Anhalt-Mühlingen: 1667–1714
* Principality of Anhalt-Dornburg: 1667–1742
* Lordship of Jever: 1667–1796
* Principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym: 1718–1812
* Russian Empire: 1762–1796
References
* [http://susi.e-technik.uni-ulm.de:8080/Meyers2/seite/werk/brockhaus/band/50/seite/0992/brockhaus_b50_s0992.html Askanien, Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888]
* Trillmich, Werner, Kaiser Konrad II. und seine Zeit, Bonn, 1991
External links
*[https://houseofascania.com/index.html House of Ascania] – official website
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20171110120605/http://www.europeanheraldry.org/germany/princely-houses/house-ascania/ European Heraldry page]
* (first page of a series)
*[http://www.stirnet.com/genie/data/continent/bb/brandenburg1.php#top Stirnet: Brandenburg1] (genealogy of the Houses of Ascania and Brandenburg, including the most likely ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)
*[http://www.stirnet.com/genie/data/ancient/ae/ascania1.php#top Stirnet: Ascania1] (an alternate possible ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)
Category:Saxon nobility | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ascania | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.586393 |
2443 | Acceleration | | symbols = a
| unit = m/s, m·s, m s
| derivations <math qidQ11376>\mathbf{a} \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}</math>
| dimension = wikidata
}}
is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.]]
In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's Second Law, is the combined effect of two causes:
* the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force;
* that object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass.
The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (, <math>\mathrm{\tfrac{m}{s^2}}</math>).
For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralised in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed. Definition and properties Average acceleration
of .]]
An object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, <math>\Delta \mathbf{v}</math>, divided by the duration of the period, <math>\Delta t</math>. Mathematically,
<math display"block">\bar{\mathbf{a}} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t}.</math>
Instantaneous acceleration
thumb|right|From bottom to top: ;
| the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function ;
| and the integral of the velocity is the distance function .
}}
Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time:
<math display"block">\mathbf{a} \lim_{{\Delta t} \to 0} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}.</math>
As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, , with respect to time and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, , with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of with respect to :
<math display"block">\mathbf{a} \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}.</math>
(Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.)
By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function is the velocity function ; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time ( vs. ) graph corresponds to the change of velocity.
<math display"block" qidQ11465>\mathbf{\Delta v} = \int \mathbf{a} \, dt.</math>
Likewise, the integral of the jerk function , the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time:
<math display"block">\mathbf{\Delta a} \int \mathbf{j} \, dt.</math>
Units
Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T<sup>−2</sup>. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s<sup>−2</sup>); or "metre per second per second", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second.
Other forms
An object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration.
Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer.
In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law):
<math display"block" qidQ2397319>\mathbf{F} m\mathbf{a} \quad \implies \quad \mathbf{a} \frac{\mathbf{F}}{m},</math>
where is the net force acting on the body, is the mass of the body, and is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large.
Tangential and centripetal acceleration
The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:
<math display"block">\mathbf{v}(t) v(t) \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} = v(t) \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(t) , </math>
with equal to the speed of travel along the path, and
<math display"block">\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} \, , </math>
a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed and the changing direction of , the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as:
<math display="block">\begin{alignat}{3}
\mathbf{a} & = \frac{d \mathbf{v}}{dt} \\
& = \frac{dv}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} +v(t)\frac{d \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}}{dt} \\
& = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} + \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}\ ,
\end{alignat}</math>
where is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called the principal normal), and is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time . The components
:<math>\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{t} \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \quad\text{and}\quad \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{c} \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}</math>
are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively.
Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas.
Special cases
Uniform acceleration
Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period.
A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton's Second Law the force <math> \mathbf{F_g}</math> acting on a body is given by:
<math display"block"> \mathbf{F_g} m \mathbf{g}.</math>
Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{s}(t) &\mathbf{s}_0 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{a}t^2 \mathbf{s}_0 + \tfrac{1}{2} \left(\mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{v}(t)\right) t \\
\mathbf{v}(t) &= \mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{a} t \\
{v^2}(t) &= {v_0}^2 + 2\mathbf{a \cdot}[\mathbf{s}(t)-\mathbf{s}_0],
\end{align}</math>
where
* <math>t</math> is the elapsed time,
* <math>\mathbf{s}_0</math> is the initial displacement from the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{s}(t)</math> is the displacement from the origin at time <math>t</math>,
* <math>\mathbf{v}_0</math> is the initial velocity,
* <math>\mathbf{v}(t)</math> is the velocity at time <math>t</math>, and
* <math>\mathbf{a}</math> is the uniform rate of acceleration.
In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth.
Circular motion
In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighbouring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle.
* For a given speed <math>v</math>, the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius <math>r</math> of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: <math qidQ2248131 display"block"> a_c = \frac {v^2} {r}\,.</math>
* For a given angular velocity <math>\omega</math>, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius <math>r</math>. This is due to the dependence of velocity <math>v</math> on the radius <math>r</math>. <math display"block"> v \omega r.</math>
Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where <math>\mathbf{r} </math> is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields
<math display"block"> \mathbf {a_c} -\frac{v^2}{|\mathbf {r}|}\cdot \frac{\mathbf {r}}{|\mathbf {r}|}\,. </math>
As usual in rotations, the speed <math>v</math> of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance <math>r</math> as
<math display"block" qidQ161635>\omega = \frac {v}{r}.</math>
Thus <math> \mathbf {a_c}= -\omega^2 \mathbf {r}\,. </math>
This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called 'centrifugal force', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion.
In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius <math>r</math> for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration <math>\alpha</math>, i.e., the rate of change <math>\alpha = \dot\omega</math> of the angular speed <math>\omega</math> times the radius <math>r</math>. That is,
<math display"block"> a_t r \alpha.</math>
The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration (<math>\alpha</math>), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector.
Coordinate systems
In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as<math display"block">a_xdv_x/dtd^2x/dt^2,</math> <math display"block">a_ydv_y/dtd^2y/dt^2.</math>The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as <math>\textbf{a}<a_x, a_y></math>. The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula as<math display"block">|a|\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2}.</math>In three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined as<math display"block">a_zdv_z/dtd^2z/dt^2.</math>The three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as <math>\textbf{a}<a_x, a_y, a_z></math> with its magnitude being determined by<math display"block">|a|\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2+a_z^2}.</math> Relation to relativity Special relativity
The special theory of relativity describes the behaviour of objects travelling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.
As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.
General relativity
Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.
Conversions
See also
* Acceleration (differential geometry)
* Four-vector: making the connection between space and time explicit
* Gravitational acceleration
* Inertia
* Orders of magnitude (acceleration)
* Shock (mechanics)
* Shock and vibration data logger measuring 3-axis acceleration
* Space travel using constant acceleration
* Specific force
References
External links
* [http://www.unitjuggler.com/convert-acceleration-from-ms2-to-fts2.html Acceleration Calculator] Simple acceleration unit converter
Category:Dynamics (mechanics)
Category:Kinematic properties
Category:Vector physical quantities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.602451 |
2444 | Conservation and restoration of cultural property | , burial chamber, in Suceava, Romania]]
(Venice)]]
<span lang"ab" dir"ltr">The</span> conservation and restoration of cultural property focuses on protection and care of cultural property (tangible cultural heritage), including artworks, architecture, archaeology, and museum collections. Conservation activities include preventive conservation, examination, documentation, research, treatment, and education. This field is closely allied with conservation science, curators and registrars.
Definition
(Czech Republic) in 2006]]
Conservation of cultural property involves protection and restoration using "any methods that prove effective in keeping that property in as close to its original condition as possible for as long as possible." Conservation of cultural heritage is often associated with art collections and museums and involves collection care and management through tracking, examination, documentation, exhibition, storage, preventive conservation, and restoration.
The scope has widened from art conservation, involving protection and care of artwork and architecture, to conservation of cultural heritage, also including protection and care of a broad set of other cultural and historical works. Conservation of cultural heritage can be described as a type of ethical stewardship.
It may broadly be divided into:
*Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property
*Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property
Conservation of cultural property applies simple ethical guidelines:
* Minimal intervention;
* Appropriate materials and reversible methods;
* Full documentation of all work undertaken.
Often there are compromises between preserving appearance, maintaining original design and material properties, and ability to reverse changes. Reversibility is now emphasized so as to reduce problems with future treatment, investigation, and use.
In order for conservators to decide upon an appropriate conservation strategy and apply their professional expertise accordingly, they must take into account views of the stakeholder, the values, artist's intent, meaning of the work, and the physical needs of the material.
Cesare Brandi in his Theory of Restoration, describes restoration as "the methodological moment in which the work of art is appreciated in its material form and in its historical and aesthetic duality, with a view to transmitting it to the future".
History and science
Key dates
Some consider the tradition of conservation of cultural heritage in Europe to have begun in 1565 with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes, but more ancient examples include the work of Cassiodorus.Brief history
]]
]]
The care of cultural heritage has a long history, one that was primarily aimed at fixing and mending objects for their continued use and aesthetic enjoyment. Until the early 20th century, artists were normally the ones called upon to repair damaged artworks. During the 19th century, however, the fields of science and art became increasingly intertwined as scientists such as Michael Faraday began to study the damaging effects of the environment to works of art. Louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint as well. However, perhaps the first organized attempt to apply a theoretical framework to the conservation of cultural heritage came with the founding in the United Kingdom of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in 1877. The society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb, both of whom were deeply influenced by the writings of John Ruskin. During the same period, a French movement with similar aims was being developed under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, an architect and theorist, famous for his restorations of medieval buildings.
wraps some of the valuable statues on its campus, such as this "Chinese stele", with waterproof covers every winter, in order to protect them from erosion caused by acid rain.]]
Conservation of cultural heritage as a distinct field of study initially developed in Germany, where in 1888 Friedrich Rathgen became the first chemist to be employed by a Museum, the Koniglichen Museen, Berlin (Royal Museums of Berlin). He not only developed a scientific approach to the care of objects in the collections, but disseminated this approach by publishing a Handbook of Conservation in 1898. The early development of conservation of cultural heritage in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for chemists within museums. In British archaeology, key research and technical experimentation in conservation was undertaken by women such as Ione Gedye both in the field and in archaeological collections, particularly those of the Institute of Archaeology, London.
In the United Kingdom, pioneering research into painting materials and conservation, ceramics, and stone conservation was conducted by Arthur Pillans Laurie, academic chemist and Principal of Heriot-Watt University from 1900. Laurie's interests were fostered by William Holman Hunt. In 1924 the chemist Harold Plenderleith began to work at the British Museum with Alexander Scott in the recently created Research Laboratory, although he was actually employed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the early years. Plenderleith's appointment may be said to have given birth to the conservation profession in the UK, although there had been craftsmen in many museums and in the commercial art world for generations. This department was created by the museum to address the deteriorating condition of objects in the collection, damages which were a result of their being stored in the London Underground tunnels during the First World War. The creation of this department moved the focus for the development of conservation theory and practice from Germany to Britain, and made the latter a prime force in this fledgling field. In 1956 Plenderleith wrote a significant handbook called The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, which supplanted Rathgen's earlier tome and set new standards for the development of art and conservation science.
In the United States, the development of conservation of cultural heritage can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum, and Edward Waldo Forbes, its director from 1909 to 1944. He encouraged technical investigation, and was Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the first technical journal, Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, published by the Fogg from 1932 to 1942. Importantly he also brought onto the museum staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first of such in the US to be permanently employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies. Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia in 1942, reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly. Only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens' and Stout's book are now outdated.
George T. Oliver, of Oliver Brothers Art Restoration and Art Conservation-Boston
(Est. 1850 in New York City) invented the vacuum hot table for relining paintings in 1920s; he filed a patent for the table in 1937. Taylor's prototype table, which he designed and constructed, is still in operation. Oliver Brothers is believed to be the first and the oldest continuously operating art restoration company in the United States.
The focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, and it was in Britain that the first International Conservation Organisations developed. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was incorporated under British law in 1950 as "a permanent organization to co-ordinate and improve the knowledge, methods, and working standards needed to protect and preserve precious materials of all kinds." Thomson was associated with the National Gallery in London; it was here that he established a set of guidelines or environmental controls for the best conditions in which objects could be stored and displayed within the museum environment. Although his exact guidelines are no longer rigidly followed, they did inspire this field of conservation.Conservation laboratories
and the National Portrait Gallery are visible to the public through floor-to-ceiling glass walls that allow visitors to see firsthand all the techniques that conservators use to examine, treat and preserve artworks within a functioning conservation Laboratory.]]
Conservators routinely use chemical and scientific analysis for the examination and treatment of cultural works. The modern conservation laboratory uses equipment such as microscopes, spectrometers, and various x-ray regime instruments to better understand objects and their components. The data thus collected helps in deciding the conservation treatments to be provided to the object.
Ethics
The conservator's work is guided by ethical standards. These take the form of applied ethics. Ethical standards have been established across the world, and national and international ethical guidelines have been written. One such example is:
* American Institute for Conservation Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice
Conservation OnLine provides resources on ethical issues in conservation, including examples of codes of ethics and guidelines for professional conduct in conservation and allied fields; and charters and treaties pertaining to ethical issues involving the preservation of cultural property.
As well as standards of practice conservators deal with wider ethical concerns, such as the debates as to whether all art is worth preserving.
Keeping up with the international contemporary scenario, recent concerns with sustainability in conservation have emerged. The common understanding that "the care of an artifact should not come at the undue expense of the environment" is generally well accepted within the community and is already contemplated in guidelines of diverse institutions related to the field.
]]
Practice
Preventive conservation
Many cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to visible light and ultraviolet radiation. These works must be protected in controlled environments where such variables are maintained within a range of damage-limiting levels. For example, watercolour paintings usually require shielding from sunlight to prevent fading of pigments.
Collections care is an important element of museum policy. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an artifact requires conservation work and the services of a qualified conservator.
. The work consists of filling the cracks to prevent the fragmentation of the wall.]]
Interventive conservation and restoration
A teaching programme of interventive conservation was established in the UK at the Institute of Archaeology by Ione Gedye, which is still teaching interventive conservators today.
A principal aim of a cultural conservator is to reduce the rate of deterioration of an object. Both non-interventive and interventive methodologies may be employed in pursuit of this goal. Interventive conservation refers to any direct interaction between the conservator and the material fabric of the object. Interventive actions are carried out for a variety of reasons, including aesthetic choices, stabilization needs for structural integrity, or cultural requirements for intangible continuity. Examples of interventive treatments include the removal of discolored varnish from a painting, the application of wax to a sculpture, and the washing and rebinding of a book. Ethical standards within the field require that the conservator fully justify interventive actions and carry out documentation before, during, and after the treatment.
One of the guiding principles of conservation of cultural heritage has traditionally been the idea of reversibility, that all interventions with the object should be fully reversible and that the object should be able to be returned to the state in which it was prior to the conservator's intervention. Although this concept remains a guiding principle of the profession, it has been widely critiqued within the conservation profession and is now considered by many to be "a fuzzy concept." Another important principle of conservation is that all alterations should be well documented and should be clearly distinguishable from the original object. working groups, and other initiatives have explored how conservation can become a more environmentally sustainable profession. [https://www.siconserve.org/ Sustainable conservation practices] apply both to work within cultural institutions Choice of materials Conservators and restorers use a wide variety of materials - in conservation treatments, and those used to safely transport, display and store cultural heritage items. These materials can include solvents, papers and boards, fabrics, adhesives and consolidants, plastics and foams, wood products, and many others. Stability and longevity are two important factors conservators consider when selecting materials; sustainability is becoming an increasingly important third. Examples of sustainable material choices and practices include:
* Using biodegradable products or those with less environmental impact where possible;
* Using 'green solvents' instead of more toxic alternatives, or treatment strategies that use much smaller amounts of solvents - for example, semi-rigid aqueous gels, emulsions or nano materials;
* Preparing smaller amounts of material (e.g. adhesives) to avoid waste;
* Observing recommended disposal protocols for chemicals, recyclable materials and compostable materials, particularly to avoid contamination of waterways;
* Choosing protective work wear that can be washed or cleaned and reused, rather than disposable options;
* Tracking stock quantities to avoid over-buying, especially for materials with expiration dates;
* Using durable materials for packing that may be washed and re-used, such as Tyvek or Mylar;
* Repurposing consumables such as blotting paper, non-woven fabrics, and polyester film when they are no longer fit for their original purpose;
* Using locally produced products whenever possible, to reduce carbon footprints;
* Reusing packaging materials such as cardboard boxes, plastic wrap and wooden crates;
* Using standard sizes of packaging and package designs that reduce waste;
These decisions are not always straightforward - for example, installing deionised or distilled water filters in laboratories reduces waste associated with purchasing bottled products, but increases energy consumption. Similarly, locally-made papers and boards may reduce inherent carbon miles but they may be made with pulp sourced from old growth forests.
Another dilemma is that many conservation-grade materials are chosen because they do not biodegrade. For example, when selecting a plastic with which to make storage enclosures, conservators prefer to use relatively long-lived plastics because they have better ageing properties - they are less likely to become yellow, leach plasticisers, or lose structural integrity and crumble (examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyester). These plastics will also take longer to degrade in landfill.
Energy use
Many conservators and cultural organisations have sought to reduce the energy costs associated with controlling indoor storage and display environments (temperature, relative humidity, air filtration, and lighting levels) as well as those associated with the transport of cultural heritage items for exhibitions and loans.
In general, lowering the temperature reduces the rate at which damaging chemical reactions occur within materials. For example, storing cellulose acetate film at 10 °C instead of 21 °C is estimated to increase its usable life by over 100 years. Controlling the relative humidity of air helps to reduce hydrolysis reactions and minimises cracking, distortion and other physical changes in hygroscopic materials. Changes in temperature will also bring about changes in relative humidity. Therefore, the conservation profession has placed great importance on controlling indoor environments. Temperature and humidity can be controlled through passive means (e.g. insulation, building design) or active means (air conditioning). Active controls typically require much higher energy use. Energy use increases with specificity - e.g. in will require more energy to maintain a quantity of air to a narrow temperature range (20-22 °C) than to a broad range (18-25 °C). In the past, conservation recommendations have often called for very tight, inflexible temperature and relative humidity set points. In other cases, conservators have recommended strict environmental conditions for buildings that could not reasonably be expected to achieve them, due to the quality of build, local environmental conditions (e.g. recommending temperate conditions for a building located in the tropics) or the financial circumstances of the organisation. This has been an area of particular debate for cultural heritage organisations who lend and borrow cultural items to each other - often, the lender will specify strict environmental conditions as part of the loan agreement, which may be very expensive for the borrowing organisation to achieve, or impossible.
The energy costs associated with cold storage and digital storage are also gaining more attention. Cold storage is a very effective strategy to preserve at-risk collections such as cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate film, which can deteriorate beyond use within decades at ambient conditions. Digital storage costs are rising for both born-digital cultural heritage (photographs, audiovisual, time-based media) and to store digital preservation and access copies of cultural heritage. Digital storage capacity is a major factor in the complexity of preserving digital heritage such as video games, social media, messaging services, and email.
Other areas where energy use can be reduced within conservation and restoration include:
* Exhibition lighting - e.g. using lower-energy LED lighting systems and light sensors that switch lights on only when visitors are present;
* Installation of green energy capture systems in cultural organisations, such as solar photovoltaic plates, wind energy systems, and heat pumps;
* Improving the energy performance of cultural buildings by installing insulation, sealing gaps, reducing the number of windows and installing double-glazing:
* Institutions must give priority to providing safe conditions for the collections they hold in trust.
* Every collecting institution must develop an emergency plan to protect its collections and train staff to carry it out.
* Every institution must assign responsibility for caring for collections to members of its staff.
* Individuals at all levels of government and in the private sector must assume responsibility for providing the support that will allow these collections to survive. This document was based on several years of consultation aimed to lay out the government's priorities for museums in the 21st century.
The document listed the following as priorities for the next decade:
# Museums will fulfil their potential as learning resources (pp 7–10).
#* Museums will be embedded into the delivery of education in every school in the country.
#* Understanding of the effectiveness of museum education will be improved further and best practice built into education programmes.
#* The value of museums' collections as a research resource will be well understood and better links built between the academic community and museums.
# Museums will embrace their role in fostering, exploring, celebrating and questioning the identities of diverse communities (pp 11–14).
#* The sector needs to work with partners in academia and beyond to create an intellectual framework supporting museums' capacity to tackle issues of identity.
#* The museum sector must continue to develop improved practical techniques for engaging communities of all sorts.
# Museums' collections will be more dynamic and better used (pp 15–18).
#* Government and the sector will find new ways to encourage museums to collect actively and strategically, especially the record of contemporary society.
#* The sector will develop new collaborative approaches to sharing and developing collections and related expertise.
# Museums' workforce will be dynamic, highly skilled and representative (pp 17–22).
#* Museums' governing bodies and workforce will be representative of the communities they serve.
#* Find more varied ways for a broader range of skills to come into museums.
#* Improve continuing professional development.
# Museums will work more closely with each other and partners outside the sector (pp 23–26).
#* A consistent evidence base of the contribution of all kinds of museums to the full range of public service agendas will be developed.
#* There will be deeper and longer lasting partnerships between the national museums and a broader range of regional partners.
#* Museums' international roles will be strengthened to improve museum programmes in this country and Britain's image, reputation and relationships abroad.
The conservation profession response to this report was on the whole less than favourable, the Institute of Conservation (ICON) published their response under the title "A Failure of Vision". lists the following specific recommendations:
* A national survey to find out what the public want from museums, what motivates them to visit them and what makes for a rewarding visit.
* A review of survey results and prioritisation of the various intrinsic, instrumental and institutional values to provide a clear basis for a 10-year strategy
* HR consultants to be brought in from the commercial sector to review recruitment, career development and working practices in the national and regional museums.
* A commitment to examine the potential for using Museum Accreditation as a more effective driver for improving recruitment, diversity, and career development across the sector.
* DCMS to take full account of the eventual findings of the current Commons Select Committee enquiry into Care of Collections in the final version of this document
* The adoption of those recommendations of the recent House of Lords inquiry into Science and Heritage which might affect the future of museums.
In November 2008, the UK-based think tank Demos published an influential pamphlet entitled ''It's a material world: caring for the public realm'', in which they argue for integrating the public directly into efforts to conserve material culture, particularly that which is in the public, their argument, as stated on page 16, demonstrates their belief that society can benefit from conservation as a paradigm as well as a profession:
Training
Training in conservation of cultural heritage for many years took the form of an apprenticeship, whereby an apprentice slowly developed the necessary skills to undertake their job. For some specializations within conservation this is still the case. However, it is more common in the field of conservation today that the training required to become a practicing conservator comes from a recognized university course in conservation of cultural heritage.
The university can rarely provide all the necessary training in first hand experience that an apprenticeship can, and therefore in addition to graduate level training the profession also tends towards encouraging conservation students to spend time as an intern.
Conservation of cultural heritage is an interdisciplinary field as conservators have backgrounds in the fine arts, sciences (including chemistry, biology, and materials science), and closely related disciplines, such as art history, archaeology, and anthropology. They also have design, fabrication, artistic, and other special skills necessary for the practical application of that knowledge.
Within the various schools that teach conservation of cultural heritage, the approach differs according to the educational and vocational system within the country, and the focus of the school itself. This is acknowledged by the American Institute for Conservation who advise "Specific admission requirements differ and potential candidates are encouraged to contact the programs directly for details on prerequisites, application procedures, and program curriculum".
Associations and professional organizations
Societies devoted to the care of cultural heritage have been in existence around the world for many years. One early example is the founding in 1877 of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in Britain to protect the built heritage, this society continues to be active today. The 14th Dalai Lama and the Tibetan people work to preserve their cultural heritage with organizations including the Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts and an international network of eight Tibet Houses.
The built heritage was at the forefront of the growth of member based organizations in the United States. Preservation Virginia, founded in Richmond in 1889 as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group.
Today, professional conservators join and take part in the activities of numerous conservation associations and professional organizations with the wider field, and within their area of specialization. In Europe, E.C.C.O. European Confederation of Conservator-Restorers Organisations was established in 1991 by 14 European Conservator-Restorers' Organisations. Currently representing close to 6.000 professionals within 23 countries and 26 members organisations, including one international body (IADA), E.C.C.O. embodies the field of preservation of cultural heritage, both movable and immovable.
These organizations exist to "support the conservation professionals who preserve our cultural heritage".
This involves upholding professional standards, promoting research and publications, providing educational opportunities, and fostering the exchange of knowledge among cultural conservators, allied professionals, and the public.
International cultural property documents
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Document
! Sponsor
! Text (English where available)
|-
|1931
|Athens Charter
|International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments
|[http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/167-the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments text]
|-
|1931
|Carta Di Atene
|Conferenza Internazionale di Atene
|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#atene text] (Italian)
|-
|1932
|Carta Italiana del restauro
|Consiglio Superiore Per Le Antichità e Belle Arti
|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#consiglio text] (Italian)
|-
|1933
|Charter of Athens
|IV CIAM
|[http://www.getty.edu/conservation/research_resources/charters/charter04.html text]
|-
|1956
|New Delhi Recommendation
|IX UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080514192929/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/delhi56.html text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153039/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/planning56.html text]
|-
|1962
|Paris Recommendation
|XII UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153320/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/landscapes62.html text]
|-
|1964
|Venice Charter
|II International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090706213642/http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.htm text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090706210448/http://www.international.icomos.org/e_venice.htm text]
|-
|1964
|Paris Recommendation
|XIII UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153221/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/illicit64.html text]
|-
|1967
|Norms of Quito
|OAS
|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/quito.htm text] (Spanish), [https://web.archive.org/web/20080807125302/http://www.icomos.org/docs/quito67.html text]
|-
|1968
|Paris Recommendation
|XV UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153203/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/works68.html text]
|-
|1972
|Paris Convention
|XVII UNESCO
|[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf text]
|-
|1972
|Paris Recommendation
|XVII UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080514015843/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/national72.html text]
|-
|1972
|Carta Italiana del Restauro
|
|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#cartaitaliana text] (Italian)
|-
|1972
|Stockholm Declaration
|UNEP
|[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20150314024203/http%3A//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid%3D97%26articleid%3D1503 text]
|-
|1974
|Santo Domingo Resolution, Dominican Republic
|Interamerican Seminar on the Conservation and Restoration of the Architectural Heritage of the Colonial and Republican Periods – OAS
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706160026/http://portal.iphan.gov.br/portal/baixaFcdAnexo.do?id245 text] (Portuguese), [http://www.unisc.br/universidade/estrutura_administrativa/nucleos/npu/npu_patrimonio/legislacao/internacional/patr_cultural/resolucoes/sao_domingos_1974.pdf text] (Portuguese)
|-
|1975
|Declaration of Amsterdam
|Congress on the European Architectural Heritage
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045522/http://www.icomos.org/docs/amsterdam.html text]
|-
|1975
|European Charter of the Architectural Heritage
|Council of Europe
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045101/http://www.icomos.org/docs/euroch_e.html text]
|-
|1976
|Charter on Cultural Tourism, Brussels
|International Seminar on Contemporary Tourism and Humanism
|[http://www.international.icomos.org/e_touris.htm text]
|-
|1976
|Nairobi Recommendation
|XIX UNESCO
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153016/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/areas76.html text]
|-
|1977
|Machu Picchu Charter
|
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706160039/http://portal.iphan.gov.br/portal/baixaFcdAnexo.do?id250 text] (Portuguese), [http://www.unisc.br/universidade/estrutura_administrativa/nucleos/npu/npu_patrimonio/legislacao/internacional/patr_cultural/cartas/machu_picchu_1977.pdf text] (Portuguese), [https://web.archive.org/web/20090824012407/http://www.cubaarqueologica.org/document/carta12.pdf text] (Spanish), [https://archive.today/20120311132628/http://148.201.96.14/dc/ver.aspx?ns=000188854 ref] (Spanish)
|-
|1981
|Burra Charter
|ICOMOS
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512200233/http://www.icomos.org/australia/burra.html text]
|-
|1982
|Florence Charter
|ICOMOS: Historic Gardens
|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/gardens_e.htm text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928085255/http://www.international.icomos.org/e_floren.htm text]
|-
|1982
|Nairobi Declaration
|UNEP
|[http://www.unep.org/Law/PDF/NairobiDeclaration1982.pdf text]
|-
|1982
|Tlaxcala Declaration
|ICOMOS
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025503/http://www.icomos.org/docs/tlaxcala.html text]
|-
|1982
|México Declaration
|World Conference on Cultural Policies – MONDIACULT
|[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID12762&URL_DODO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090401072239/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/12762/11295421661mexico_en.pdf/mexico_en.pdf text]
|-
|1983
|Declaration of Rome
|ICOMOS
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025658/http://www.icomos.org/docs/rome.html text]
|-
|1987
|Carta della conservazione e del restauro degli oggetti d'arte e di cultura
|
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090805180841/http://www.inforestauro.org/carta-del-restauro-1987.html text] (Italian)
|-
|1987
|Washington Charter
|ICOMOS
|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/towns_e.htm text], [http://www.international.icomos.org/e_towns.htm text]
|-
|1989
|Paris Recommendation
|XXV UNESCO
|[http://www.un-documents.net/folklore.htm text]
|-
|1990
|Lausanne Charter
|ICOMOS / ICAHM
|[http://www.international.icomos.org/e_archae.htm text], [http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/arch_e.pdf text]
|-
|1994
|Nara Document
|UNESCO / ICCROM / ICOMOS
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* Art discovery
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* Wikipedia:WikiProject Collections Care
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References
Further reading
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010625083251/http://www.bcin.ca/ BCIN, the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation Information Network]
* [http://cameo.mfa.org/ CAMEO: Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia OnLine]
* [https://cool.culturalheritage.org/ Conservation OnLine (CoOL) Resources for Conservation Professionals]
* [http://www.docam.ca/ DOCAM — Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage]
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2447 | Anton Chekhov | }}
| pseudonym | image Anton Chekhov 1889.jpg
| caption = Chekhov in 1889
| alt = Chekhov seated at a desk
| birth_date
| birth_place = Taganrog, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, Russian Empire
| death_date
| death_place = Badenweiler, Grand Duchy of Baden, German Empire
| resting_place = Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow
| occupation = Writer, physician, philanthropist
| alma_mater = First Moscow State Medical University
| years_active = 1876-1904
| genres =
| movement = Realism
| notableworks =
| awards = Pushkin Prize
| spouse =
| relatives = Alexander Chekhov (brother)<br /> Nikolai Chekhov (brother)<br />Maria Chekhova (sister)<br /> Mikhail Chekhov (brother)<br />Michael Chekhov (nephew)<br />Olga Chekhova (niece-in-law)<br />Ada Tschechowa (great-niece)<br />Vera Tschechowa (great-great niece)<br/>Hartmut Reck (great-great nephew-in-law)<br/>Vadim Glowna (great-great nephew-in-law)<br/>Lev Knipper (nephew)<br />Marina Ried (great-niece)<br />Rudolf Platte (great-nephew-in-law)
| signature = Подпись Антон Чехов.png
}}
(1886)]]
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (; . See, for instance, [ Антонъ Павловичъ Чеховъ. 1898. Мужики и Моя жизнь.]}}||ɐnˈton ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ ˈtɕexəf}}; 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer, widely considered to be one of the greatest writers of all times. His career as a playwright produced four classics, and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics.}} Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov was a physician by profession.<!--article is in British English--> "Medicine is my lawful wife," he once said, "and literature is my mistress."
Chekhov renounced the theatre after the reception of The Seagull in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and premiered his last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble}} as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a "theatre of mood" and a "submerged life in the text."}} The plays that Chekhov wrote were not complex, but easy to follow, and created a somewhat haunting atmosphere for the audience.
Chekhov began writing stories to earn money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations that influenced the evolution of the modern short story.}} He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.BiographyChildhood
in Taganrog, Chekhova street, Russia]]
in the late 19th century. The cross on top is no longer present.]]
Anton Chekhov was born into a Russian family on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great (17 January Old Style) 29 January 1860 in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov – on Politseyskaya (Police) street, later renamed Chekhova street – in southern Russia. He was the third of six surviving children; he had two older brothers, Alexander and Nikolai, and three younger siblings, Ivan, Maria, and Mikhail. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf and his wife, was from the village Olkhovatka (Voronezh Governorate) and ran a grocery store. He was a director of the parish choir, a devout Orthodox Christian, and a physically abusive father. Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrisy. As Chekhov's paternal grandmother was Ukrainian, the Ukrainian language was likely present in his household. Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya (Morozova), was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels all over Russia with her cloth-merchant father. "Our talents we got from our father," Chekhov recalled, "but our soul from our mother."
In adulthood, Chekhov criticised his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel's tyranny: "Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother's youth. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it's sickening and frightening to think about it. Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool."}}
Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog Gymnasium (since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium), where he was held back for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word "suffering" to describe his childhood and recalled:
In 1876, Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, having been cheated by a contractor named Mironov. To avoid debtor's prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow. Chekhov's mother was physically and emotionally broken by the experience.
Chekhov was left behind to sell the family's possessions and finish his education. He remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man by the name of Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers, among other jobs. He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up.
During this time, he read widely and analytically, including the works of Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer, and wrote a full-length comic drama, Fatherless, which his brother Alexander dismissed as "an inexcusable though innocent fabrication." Chekhov also experienced a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University.Early writingsChekhov then assumed responsibility for the whole family. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as "Antosha Chekhonte" (Антоша Чехонте) and "Man Without Spleen" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki (Fragments), owned by Nikolai Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction.
In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge.
In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened, but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends. He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations.
Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, Novoye Vremya (New Times), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid a rate per line double Leykin's and allowed Chekhov three times the space. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest.
Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story "The Huntsman" that "You have real talent, a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation." He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality.
Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him "like a thunderbolt" and confessed, "I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires—mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself." The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1888, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection At Dusk (V Sumerkakh) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize "for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth."Turning pointsIn 1887, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine, which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. On his return, he began the novella-length short story "The Steppe", which he called "something rather odd and much too original", and which was eventually published in Severny Vestnik (The Northern Herald). In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, and his companions, a priest and a merchant. "The Steppe" has been called a "dictionary of Chekhov's poetics", and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.
In autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being Ivanov, written in a fortnight and produced that November. Though Chekhov found the experience "sickening" and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality.
Although Chekhov did not fully realise it at the time, Chekhov's plays, such as The Seagull (written in 1895), Uncle Vanya (written in 1897), The Three Sisters (written in 1900), and The Cherry Orchard (written in 1903) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day: an effort to recreate and express the realism of how people truly act and speak with each other. This realistic manifestation of the human condition may engender in audiences reflection upon what it means to be human.
This philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast, but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day. Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career.
The death of Chekhov's brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose. Mikhail Chekhov recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolai's death. Mikhail was researching prisons at that time as part of his law studies. Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform. Chekhov found literary expression for the "Hell of Sakhalin" in his long short story "The Murder", the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home. Chekhov's writing on Sakhalin, especially the traditions and habits of the Gilyak people, is the subject of a sustained meditation and analysis in Haruki Murakami's novel 1Q84. It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney, "Chekhov on Sakhalin" (collected in the volume Station Island). Rebecca Gould has compared Chekhov's book on Sakhalin to Katherine Mansfield's Urewera Notebook (1907). In 2013, the Wellcome Trust-funded play 'A Russian Doctor', performed by Andrew Dawson and researched by Professor Jonathan Cole, explored Chekhov's experiences on Sakhalin Island.Melikhovo
, now a museum]]
Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments:
Chekhov's expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. However, Chekhov's work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story "Peasants". Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: "Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women." In 1893/1894 he worked as a Zemstvo doctor in Zvenigorod, which has numerous sanatoriums and rest homes. A local hospital is named after him.
In 1894, Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since he had moved to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended the orchard and the pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he "looked after ... as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years." Stanislavski's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text, and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya, which Chekhov had completed in 1896. In the last decades of his life he became an atheist.YaltaIn March 1897, Chekhov suffered a major haemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow. With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic, where doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.
at Yalta, 1900]]
After his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa (The White Dacha), into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his "hot Siberia" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he "wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now". He took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard.
On 25 May 1901, Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly, owing to his horror of weddings. She was a former protégée and sometime lover of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull. Up to that point, Chekhov, known as "Russia's most elusive literary bachelor", had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment. He had once written to Suvorin:
, 1901, on their honeymoon]]
The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although other Russian scholars have rejected that claim. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays.
In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, "The Lady with the Dog" (also translated from the Russian as "Lady with Lapdog"), which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a cynical married man and an unhappy married woman who meet while holidaying in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter. Unexpectedly though, they gradually fall deeply in love and end up risking scandal and the security of their family lives. The story masterfully captures their feelings for each other, the inner transformation undergone by the disillusioned male protagonist as a result of falling deeply in love, and their inability to resolve the matter by either letting go of their families or of each other.
Death
In May 1903, Chekhov visited Moscow; the prominent lawyer Vasily Maklakov visited him almost every day. Maklakov signed Chekhov's will. By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that "everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer [he] was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it". Chekhov died on 15 July 1904 at the age of 44 after a long fight with tuberculosis, the same disease that killed his brother.
Chekhov's death has become one of "the great set pieces of literary history"retold, embroidered, and fictionalized many times since, notably in the 1987 short story "Errand" by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband's last moments:
Chekhov's body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway-car meant for oysters, a detail that offended Gorky. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.
Legacy
, Russia. It is the house where he stayed in Sakhalin during 1890.]]
A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin that he thought people might go on reading his writings for seven years. "Why seven?", asked Bunin. "Well, seven and a half", Chekhov replied. "That's not bad. I've got six years to live."
Chekhov's posthumous reputation greatly exceeded his expectations. The ovations for the play The Cherry Orchard in the year of his death served to demonstrate the Russian public's acclaim for the writer, which placed him second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years. Tolstoy was an early admirer of Chekhov's short stories and had a series that he deemed "first quality" and "second quality" bound into a book. In the first category were: Children, The Chorus Girl, A Play, Home, Misery, The Runaway, In Court, Vanka, Ladies, A Malefactor, The Boys, Darkness, Sleepy, The Helpmate, and The Darling; in the second: A Transgression, Sorrow, The Witch, Verochka, In a Strange Land, ''The Cook's Wedding, A Tedious Business, An Upheaval, Oh! The Public!, The Mask, A Woman's Luck, Nerves, The Wedding, A Defenceless Creature, and Peasant Wives.''
Chekhov's work also found praise from several of Russia's most influential radical political thinkers. If anyone doubted the gloom and miserable poverty of Russia in the 1880s, the anarchist theorist Peter Kropotkin responded, "read only Chekhov's novels!" Raymond Tallis further recounts that Vladimir Lenin believed his reading of the short story Ward No. 6 "made him a revolutionary". Upon finishing the story, Lenin is said to have remarked: "I absolutely had the feeling that I was shut up in Ward 6 myself!"
In Chekhov's lifetime, British and Irish critics generally did not find his work pleasing; E. J. Dillon thought "the effect on the reader of Chekhov's tales was repulsion at the gallery of human waste represented by his fickle, spineless, drifting people" and R. E. C. Long said "Chekhov's characters were repugnant, and that Chekhov revelled in stripping the last rags of dignity from the human soul". After his death, Chekhov was reappraised. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, whose story "The Child Who Was Tired" is similar to Chekhov's "Sleepy". The Russian critic D. S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his "unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values". In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution, but it was later incorporated into the Soviet canon. The character of Lopakhin, for example, was reinvented as a hero of the new order, rising from a modest background so as eventually to possess the gentry's estates.
, Anton Chekhov, 1898, oil on canvas; Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow]]
Despite Chekhov's reputation as a playwright, William Boyd asserts that his short stories represent the greater achievement. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story "Errand" about Chekhov's death, believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers:
According to literary critic Daniel S. Burt, Chekhov was one of the greatest and most influential writers of all time.
Style
One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his Heartbreak House "A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes", and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: "the same nice people, the same utter futility".
Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: "Chekhov wrote about six good stories. But he was an amateur writer." Comparing Chekhov to Tolstoy, Vladimir Nabokov wrote, "I do love Chekhov dearly. I fail, however, to rationalize my feeling for him: I can easily do so in regard to the greater artist, Tolstoy, with the flash of this or that unforgettable passage […], but when I imagine Chekhov with the same detachment all I can make out is a medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions, doctors, unconvincing vamps, and so forth; yet it is his works which I would take on a trip to another planet." Nabokov called "The Lady with the Dog" "one of the greatest stories ever written" in its depiction of a problematic relationship, and described Chekhov as writing "the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice".
For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the "event plot" for something more "blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life".
Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader (1925):
Michael Goldman has said of the elusive quality of Chekhov's comedies: "Having learned that Chekhov is comic ... Chekhov is comic in a very special, paradoxical way. His plays depend, as comedy does, on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward—inappropriate speeches, missed connections, faux pas, stumbles, childishness—but as part of a deeper pathos; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized, graceful dissolution of purpose."
Influence on dramatic arts
In the United States, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski's system of acting, with its notion of subtext: "Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches", wrote Stanislavski, "but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word ... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak." The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and the "Method" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin. One of Anton's nephews, Michael Chekhov, would also contribute heavily to modern theatre, particularly through his unique acting methods which developed Stanislavski's ideas further.
Alan Twigg, the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine B.C. BookWorld wrote:
Chekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio, Yōji Sakate, and Ai Nagai. Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humour as well as an intense depictions of longing. Sakate adapted several of Chekhov's plays and transformed them in the general style of nō. Nagai also adapted Chekhov's plays, including Three Sisters, and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai's style of satirical realism while emphasising the social issues depicted in the play.
Nuri Bilge Ceylan's Palme d'Or winner Winter Sleep was adapted from the short story "The Wife" by Anton Chekhov.
Publications
See also
* Chekhov's gun
* Chekhov Library
* Chekhov Monument in Rostov-on-Don
* Ann Dunnigan, English-language translator
* Jean-Claude van Itallie, English-language translator
Explanatory notes
Citations
General and cited sources
*
* }}
* }}
*
* Benedetti, Jean, Stanislavski: An Introduction, Methuen Drama, 1989 edition,
*
* Borny, Geoffrey, Interpreting Chekhov, ANU Press, 2006, , [https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/interpreting-chekhov/download free download]
* }}
* Chekhov, Anton, The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories, translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001,
* }} ebooks also available at
* Chekhov, Anton, Easter Week, translated by Michael Henry Heim, engravings by Barry Moser, Shackman Press, 2010
* }}
* Chekhov, Anton, Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch, translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Full text at Gutenberg.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
* Chekhov, Anton, Note-Book of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Huebsch, 1921. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12494 Full text at Gutenberg.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
* Chekhov, Anton, The Other Chekhov, edited by Okla Elliott and Kyle Minor, with story introductions by Pinckney Benedict, Fred Chappell, Christopher Coake, Paul Crenshaw, Dorothy Gambrell, Steven Gillis, Michelle Herman, Jeff Parker, Benjamin Percy, and David R. Slavitt. New American Press, 2008 edition,
* Chekhov, Anton, Seven Short Novels, translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W. W. Norton & Company, 2003 edition,
* Clyman, T. W. (Ed.). A Chekhov companion. Westport, Ct: Greenwood Press, (1985).
* Finke, Michael C., ''Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey, an essay in Anton Chekhov Rediscovered, ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988,
* Finke, Michael C., Seeing Chekhov: Life and Art, Cornell UP, 2005,
* Gerhardie, William, Anton Chekhov, Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition,
* Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. [http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm Read at eldritchpress.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
* Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
* Jackson, Robert Louis, Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden – 'Because of Little Apples', in Dialogues with Dostoevsky, Stanford University Press, 1993,
* Klawans, Harold L., Chekhov's Lie, 1997, . About the challenges of combining writing with the medical life.
*
*
* Nabokov, Vladimir, Anton Chekhov, in Lectures on Russian Literature, Harvest/HBJ Books, [1981] 2002 edition, .
* Pitcher, Harvey, Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper, J Murray, 1979,
* Republished in 2012 as an ebook:
* Prose, Francine, Learning from Chekhov, in Writers on Writing, ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991,
* |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/antonchekhovlife0000rayf }}
* Sekirin, Peter. "Memories of Chekhov: Accounts of the Writer from His Family, Friends and Contemporaries," MacFarland Publishers, 2011,
*
* Speirs, L. Tolstoy and Chekhov. Cambridge, England: University Press, (1971),
* Stanislavski, Constantin, My Life in Art, Methuen Drama, 1980 edition,
*
* Troyat, Henri, Chekhov, London: Macmillan, 1987,
*
* Zeiger, Arthur, The Plays of Anton Chekhov, Claxton House, Inc., New York, NY, 1945.
* Tufarulo, G, M., La Luna è morta e lo specchio infranto. Miti letterari del Novecento, vol.1 – G. Laterza, Bari, 2009– .
External links
; Biographical
*
* [http://www.online-literature.com/anton_chekhov/ Biography] at The Literature Network''
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3845755 "Chekhov's Legacy"] by Cornel West at NPR, 2004
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090414073007/http://tgpi.ttn.ru/ The International competition of philological, culture and film studies works dedicated to Anton Chekhov's life and creative work]
; Documentary
* 2010: [https://www.srf.ch/sendungen/sternstunde-kunst/tschechow-lieben Tschechow lieben] (Tschechow and Women) – Director: Marina Rumjanzewa – Language: German
; Works
*
* . All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the Note-book translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf – see the "References" section for print publication details of all of these. Site also has translations of all the plays.
*
*
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/eldritch/ac/jr/index.htm 201 Stories by Anton Chekhov], translated by Constance Garnett presented in chronological order of Russian publication with annotations.
* [http://public-library.ru/Chekhov.Anton/ Антон Павлович Чехов. Указатель] Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian, listed in chronological order, and also alphabetically by title. Retrieved June 2013.
* [http://ilibrary.ru/author/chekhov/ Антон Павлович Чехов] Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
*
}}
Category:1860 births
Category:1904 deaths
Category:19th-century dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire
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<!-- Category:Literary realism --> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.681304 |
2448 | Action Against Hunger | | extinction | type Non-profit
| purpose = To end child hunger whilst providing communities with access to safe water and amazing solutions to hunger.
| headquarters = New York, USA; Toronto, Canada; London, UK; Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; Mumbai, India; Milan, Italy
| location | region_served Over 51 countries around the world
| membership | language
| leader_title | leader_name
| main_organ | parent_organization
| affiliations | num_staff Over 7000
| website = [https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/ www.actioncontrelafaim.org (FR)]
[http://www.actionagainsthunger.org www.actionagainsthunger.org (US)] [http://www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk (UK)] [http://www.actioncontrelafaim.ca www.actioncontrelafaim.ca (CA)] [https://www.accioncontraelhambre.org www.accioncontraelhambre.org (ES)] [https://www.actionagainsthunger.in www.actionagainsthunger.in (IN)] [https://www.azionecontrolafame.it www.azionecontrolafame.it (IT)]
| remarks =
}}
Action Against Hunger () is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children and provides communities with access to safe water and sustainable solutions to hunger.
Pakistan's situation has significant ramifications for food security, particularly with the ongoing high levels of inflation. The added impact of climate change intensifies security concerns, leaving an increasing number of individuals without viable means to provide food and shelter for themselves and their families.
In 2022, Action Against Hunger worked in 56 countries around the world with more than 8,990 employees helping 28 million people in need.
Action Against Hunger was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Alfred Kastler served as the organization's first chairman. Currently, Mumbai-based businessman and philanthropist Ashwini Kakkar serves as International President of Action Against Hunger network.
The group initially provided assistance to Afghan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. It expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans, and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. Action Against Hunger's Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. Early results showed that treatment with F100 has the capacity to reduce the mortality rate of severely malnourished children to below 5%, with a median hospital fatality rate quoted of 23.5%. A few years later, the therapeutic milk was repackaged as ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs), a peanut-based paste packaged like a power bar. These bars allow for the treatment of malnutrition at home and do not require any preparation or refrigeration.
The international network currently has headquarters in eight countries – France, Germany, Spain, the United States, Canada, Italy, India, and the UK. Its four main areas of work include nutrition, food security, water and sanitation, and advocacy.
The integrated approaches with various sectors of intervention are:
* Nutrition and Health
* Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
* Food Security & Livelihoods
* Emergency Response
In 2022, Action Against Hunger USA is leading a USAID-funded project to address health and nutrition challenges associated with policy, advocacy, financing, and governance in communities around the world, and will work in partnership with leading organizations such as Pathfinder International, Amref Health Africa, Global Communities, Humanity & Inclusion, Kupenda for the Children, and Results for Development. Restaurants against hunger Action Against Hunger partners with leaders from the food and beverage industry to bring attention to global hunger. Each year, several campaigns are run by the network to raise funds and support the organisation's programs : Restaurants Against Hunger and Love Food Give Food. Countries of intervention In 2022, Action Against Hunger International Network is present in 56 countries: Africa Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Chad, Zimbabwe, Zambia Asia Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, South Caucasus Caribbean Haïti Europe Turkey, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Poland Middle East Afghanistan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestinian Occupied Territories, Yemen, Jordan, Iraq Latin America Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Honduras, Venezuela Action Against Hunger international network
Since 1995 Action Against Hunger developed an international network to have a bigger global impact.
The Network has headquarters around the world: France, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, and Italy.
Action Against Hunger has also a West Africa Regional Office (WARO) located in Dakar, a Horn and Eastern Africa Regional Office in Nairobi, and five logistic platforms (Lyon, Paris, Barcelona, Dubai, Panama).
This network increases the human and financial capacities and enables specialisation per headquarter.
* Action Against Hunger in France, Spain and the USA are the operational headquarters. They manage the interventions directly on the field. In order to maximize efficiency and coherence, these three operational headquarters work under the principle of one headquarter per country of intervention.
* Action Against Hunger UK focuses on research, monitoring and evaluation, notably with Hunger Watch. The UK headquarters also plays an intermediary role with DFID.
* Action Against Hunger Canada raises public and private funds in North America and plays an increasing role on the national level.
* Action Against Hunger / Azione contro la Fame Italia raises private funds and promotes important campaigns in order to sensitize the Italian public opinion on hunger and malnutrition.
See also
*2006 Trincomalee massacre of NGO workers
References
Further reading
* Michelle Jurkovich. 2020. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvrxk1j8 Feeding the Hungry: Advocacy and Blame in the Global Fight against Hunger.] Cornell University Press.
External links
*[http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/ Action Against Hunger US website]
*[http://www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk/ Action Against Hunger UK website]
*[http://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/ Action Contre la Faim France website]
*[http://www.accioncontraelhambre.org/ Acción Contra el Hambre Spain website]
*[http://www.actioncontrelafaim.ca/ Action Contre la Faim Canada website]
*[http://www.aktiongegendenhunger.de/ Aktion gegen den Hunger Germany website]
*[http://www.azionecontrolafame.it/ Azione contro la Fame Italy website]
Category:Development charities based in France
Category:Hunger relief organizations
Category:International charities
Category:Organizations based in Paris
Category:Organizations established in 1979
Category:1979 establishments in France | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Against_Hunger | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.689019 |
2452 | AW | A&W, AW, Aw, aW or aw may refer to:
Companies
A&W Restaurants
A&W Root Beer
A&W (Canada)
Addison-Wesley, publishers
Africa World Airlines, IATA code
Prefix for helicopters made by AgustaWestland
Alienware
Allied Waste Industries, Inc, stock symbol on NYSE
Armstrong Whitworth, a British manufacturing company
Media and entertainment
Accel World, a Japanese light novel series
Active Worlds, a 3D virtual reality platform
Another World (TV series), an American soap opera
Athletics Weekly, a monthly track and field magazine published in the United Kingdom
Aviation Week, magazine
Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, an action video game
People
A. H. Weiler (1908 – 2002), The New York Times film critic whose early reviews were signed with his initials A. W.
A. W. (poet), anonymous 16th century poet
Abraham Washington (A. W.), American professional wrestler and wrestling commentator
Alan Walker (born 1997), English-Norwegian music producer and DJ
Aw (father), honorific title in the Harari and Somali languages
Aw (surname), a Cantonese surname
John-Allison Weiss, an American singer-songwriter formerly known as A. W.
Andy Warhol, a leading figure in the pop art movement.
Places
Ahrweiler (district), Germany, vehicle registration code
Aruba (ISO 3166-1 2-letter country code AW)
Science and technology
.aw, the internet top level domain country code for Aruba
Airwatt, a unit of the effectiveness of vacuum cleaners
Aw, categorization for tropical savanna climate in the Köppen classification system
AW, in German email subject line, equivalent to Re:
aw, or attowatt, an SI unit of power
aw, or water activity, the relative availability of water in a substance
Other uses
Agencja Wywiadu, the Polish foreign intelligence service
Ahnapee and Western Railway, A&W
Arctic Warfare, a sniper rifle
Anthony Wayne Local School District, an American school district in Ohio
Aviation Warfare Systems Operator, a rating in the United States Navy
Aw, a digraph in Latin-script
A US Navy hull classification symbol: Distilling ship (AW)
See also
Av | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.693722 |
2457 | Apoptosis | Apoptosis (from ) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and mRNA decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 billion cells each day due to apoptosis.), of which at most only 70 billion () die per day. That is, about 5 out of every 1,000 cells (0.5%) die each day due to apoptosis.}} For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells.
In contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytes are able to engulf and remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to them.
Because apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a highly regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways. In the intrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because it senses cell stress, while in the extrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Weak external signals may also activate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Both pathways induce cell death by activating caspases, which are proteases, or enzymes that degrade proteins. The two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately.
In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer. Some factors like Fas receptors and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit apoptosis.
Discovery and etymology
German scientist Carl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Kerr at the University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, who was Currie's graduate student, at the University of Aberdeen. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called apoptosis. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist H. Robert Horvitz.
For many years, neither "apoptosis" nor "programmed cell death" was a highly cited term. Two discoveries brought cell death from obscurity to a major field of research: identification of the first component of the cell death control and effector mechanisms, and linkage of abnormalities in cell death to human disease, in particular cancer. This occurred in 1988 when it was shown that BCL2, the gene responsible for follicular lymphoma, encoded a protein that inhibited cell death.
The 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode C. elegans and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis.
won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis.]]
In Greek, apoptosis translates to the "falling off" of leaves from a tree. Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before. Hippocrates used the term to mean "the falling off of the bones". Galen extended its meaning to "the dropping of the scabs". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second p silent ( ) and the second p pronounced (). In English, the p of the Greek -pt- consonant cluster is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g. pterodactyl, Ptolemy), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in helicopter or the orders of insects: diptera, lepidoptera, etc.
In the original Kerr, Wyllie & Currie paper, which may bring about cell death. The binding of nuclear receptors by glucocorticoids, heat, and increased intracellular calcium concentration, for example, by damage to the membrane, can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as poly ADP ribose polymerase, may also help regulate apoptosis. Single cell fluctuations have been observed in experimental studies of stress induced apoptosis.
Before the actual process of cell death is precipitated by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to initiate the apoptosis pathway. This step allows those signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: the targeting of mitochondria functionality, or directly transducing the signal via adaptor proteins to the apoptotic mechanisms. An extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain.Intrinsic pathwayThe intrinsic pathway is also known as the mitochondrial pathway. Mitochondria are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to respire aerobically and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and cause apoptotic effectors to leak out. There is also a growing body of evidence indicating that nitric oxide is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the membrane potential of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable. Nitric oxide has been implicated in initiating and inhibiting apoptosis through its possible action as a signal molecule of subsequent pathways that activate apoptosis.
During apoptosis, cytochrome c is released from mitochondria through the actions of the proteins Bax and Bak. The mechanism of this release is enigmatic, but appears to stem from a multitude of Bax/Bak homo- and hetero-dimers of Bax/Bak inserted into the outer membrane. Once cytochrome c is released it binds with Apoptotic protease activating factor – 1 (Apaf-1) and ATP, which then bind to pro-caspase-9 to create a protein complex known as an apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of caspase-9, which in turn cleaves and activates pro-caspase into the effector caspase-3.
Mitochondria also release proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases) into the cell's cytosol following the increase in permeability of the mitochondria membranes. SMAC binds to proteins that inhibit apoptosis (IAPs) thereby deactivating them, and preventing the IAPs from arresting the process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of cysteine proteases called caspases, which carry out the degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability.
Extrinsic pathway
Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the TNF-induced (tumor necrosis factor) model and the Fas-Fas ligand-mediated model, both involving receptors of the TNF receptor (TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals.
TNF pathway
TNF-alpha is a cytokine produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF-alpha: TNFR1 and TNFR2. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain (TRADD) and Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD). cIAP1/2 can inhibit TNF-α signaling by binding to TRAF2. FLIP inhibits the activation of caspase-8. Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of transcription factors involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses. However, signalling through TNFR1 might also induce apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner. The link between TNF-alpha and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF-alpha plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases. The TNF-alpha receptor superfamily also includes death receptors (DRs), such as DR4 and DR5. These receptors bind to the protein TRAIL and mediate apoptosis. Apoptosis is known to be one of the primary mechanisms of targeted cancer therapy. Luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrids (IPHs) have recently been designed, which mimic TRAIL and bind to death receptors on cancer cells, thereby inducing their apoptosis. Fas pathway
The fas receptor (First apoptosis signal) – (also known as Apo-1 or CD95) is a transmembrane protein of the TNF family which binds the Fas ligand (FasL).
Common components
Following TNF-R1 and Fas activation in mammalian cells a balance between proapoptotic (BAX, BID, BAK, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-Xl and Bcl-2) members of the Bcl-2 family are established. This balance is the proportion of proapoptotic homodimers that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The proapoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the Bcl-2 family.
Caspases
Caspases play the central role in the transduction of ER apoptotic signals. Caspases are proteins that are highly conserved, cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific proteases. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases (caspases 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12) and effector caspases (caspases 3, 6, and 7). The activation of initiator caspases requires binding to specific oligomeric activator protein. Effector caspases are then activated by these active initiator caspases through proteolytic cleavage. The active effector caspases then proteolytically degrade a host of intracellular proteins to carry out the cell death program. Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor).
Apoptosis model in amphibians
The frog Xenopus laevis serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian's metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog.
Negative regulators of apoptosis
Negative regulation of apoptosis inhibits cell death signaling pathways, helping tumors to evade cell death and developing drug resistance. The ratio between anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) and pro-apoptotic (Bax) proteins determines whether a cell lives or dies. Many families of proteins act as negative regulators categorized into either antiapoptotic factors, such as IAPs and Bcl-2 proteins or prosurvival factors like cFLIP, BNIP3, FADD, Akt, and NF-κB.
Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell
Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but these converge on a single mechanism that actually causes the death of the cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic caspases. In addition to the destruction of cellular organelles, mRNA is rapidly and globally degraded by a mechanism that is not yet fully characterized. mRNA decay is triggered very early in apoptosis.
A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes. Early alterations include:
# Cell shrinkage and rounding occur because of the retraction of lamellipodia and the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.
# The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed.
# Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the nuclear envelope (also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as pyknosis, a hallmark of apoptosis.
# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis. The nucleus breaks into several discrete chromatin bodies or nucleosomal units due to the degradation of DNA.
Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic "laddered" appearance on agar gel after electrophoresis. Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from ischemic or toxic cell death.
Apoptotic cell disassembly
Before the apoptotic cell is disposed of, there is a process of disassembly. There are three recognized steps in apoptotic cell disassembly:
# Membrane blebbing: The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as blebs. Initially these are smaller surface blebs. Later these can grow into larger so-called dynamic membrane blebs.
# Formation of membrane protrusions: Some cell types, under specific conditions, may develop different types of long, thin extensions of the cell membrane called membrane protrusions. Three types have been described: microtubule spikes, apoptopodia (feet of death), and beaded apoptopodia (the latter having a beads-on-a-string appearance). Pannexin 1 is an important component of membrane channels involved in the formation of apoptopodia and beaded apoptopodia.
Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as phosphatidylserine, on their cell surface. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as scramblase. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response. During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation.Pathway knock-outsMany knock-outs have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins. Several caspases, in addition to APAF1 and FADD, have been mutated to determine the new phenotype. In order to create a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) knockout, an exon containing the nucleotides 3704–5364 was removed from the gene. This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain, as well as the leader sequence, which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing. TNF-/- mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities. However, upon immunization with SRBC (sheep red blood cells), these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM, but could not develop specific IgG levels. Apaf-1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis. Since a -/- mutation in the APAF-1 gene is embryonic lethal, a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF-1 -/- mouse. This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion. When an APAF-1 gene trap is introduced into cells, many morphological changes occur, such as spina bifida, the persistence of interdigital webs, and open brain. In addition, after embryonic day 12.5, the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes. APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation. A BAX-1 knock-out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons. (flow cytometry), caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and cytochrome c release (Western blotting). Supernatant screening for caspases, HMGB1, and cytokeratin 18 release can identify primary from secondary necrotic cells. However, no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization). A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references.Implication in diseaseto show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange)]]Defective pathwaysThe many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood. As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism, this can have disastrous effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: The normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its "use-by date" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell's becoming cancerous or diseased.
A recently described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called NCI-H460. The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in cells of the H460 cell line. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9 and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the number of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of transcriptional regulation and the response to apoptotic signals, to curtail dependence on the tissue that the cell belongs. This degree of independence from external survival signals, can enable cancer metastasis.Dysregulation of p53The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors. Part of this pathway includes alpha-interferon and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the p53 gene, resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the cell cycle at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair; however, it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail. Any disruption to the regulation of the p53 or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.InhibitionInhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation, but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death. The most common of these diseases is cancer, the disease of excessive cellular proliferation, which is often characterized by an overexpression of IAP family members. As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: Cycle-regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the "Warburg hypothesis".HeLa cellApoptosis in HeLa cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins. HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive. HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division.
Treatments
The main method of treatment for potential death from signaling-related diseases involves either increasing or decreasing the susceptibility of apoptosis in diseased cells, depending on whether the disease is caused by either the inhibition of or excess apoptosis. For instance, treatments aim to restore apoptosis to treat diseases with deficient cell death and to increase the apoptotic threshold to treat diseases involved with excessive cell death. To stimulate apoptosis, one can increase the number of death receptor ligands (such as TNF or TRAIL), antagonize the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 pathway, or introduce Smac mimetics to inhibit the inhibitor (IAPs). The addition of agents such as Herceptin, Iressa, or Gleevec works to stop cells from cycling and causes apoptosis activation by blocking growth and survival signaling further upstream. Finally, adding p53-MDM2 complexes displaces p53 and activates the p53 pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.
Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.
Hyperactive apoptosis
On the other hand, loss of control of cell death (resulting in excess apoptosis) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Neurons that rely on mitochondrial respiration undergo apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. (an observation known as the "Inverse Warburg hypothesis"). Moreover, there is an inverse epidemiological comorbidity between neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The progression of HIV is directly linked to excess, unregulated apoptosis. In a healthy individual, the number of CD4+ lymphocytes is in balance with the cells generated by the bone marrow; however, in HIV-positive patients, this balance is lost due to an inability of the bone marrow to regenerate CD4+ cells. In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated.
At the molecular level, hyperactive apoptosis can be caused by defects in signaling pathways that regulate the Bcl-2 family proteins. Increased expression of apoptotic proteins such as BIM, or their decreased proteolysis, leads to cell death and can cause a number of pathologies, depending on the cells where excessive activity of BIM occurs. Cancer cells can escape apoptosis through mechanisms that suppress BIM expression or by increased proteolysis of BIM.
Treatments
Treatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases. Finally, the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways. Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bad (a Bcl-2 family member), causing Bad to interact with the 14-3-3 scaffold, resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.HIV progressionThe progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection into AIDS is due primarily to the depletion of CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:
# HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic procaspase-8, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis.
# HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis.
# HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane.
# Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby "bystander" T helper cells.
# HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue.
# The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell.
Cells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis. The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's CD4+ cell count falls below 200.
Researchers from Kumamoto University in Japan have developed a new method to eradicate HIV in viral reservoir cells, named "Lock-in and apoptosis." Using the synthesized compound Heptanoylphosphatidyl L-Inositol Pentakisphophate (or L-Hippo) to bind strongly to the HIV protein PR55Gag, they were able to suppress viral budding. By suppressing viral budding, the researchers were able to trap the HIV virus in the cell and allow for the cell to undergo apoptosis (natural cell death). Associate Professor Mikako Fujita has stated that the approach is not yet available to HIV patients because the research team has to conduct further research on combining the drug therapy that currently exists with this "Lock-in and apoptosis" approach to lead to complete recovery from HIV.
Viral infection
Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are<!--plural predicate to agree with "cells"--> infected with a virus, leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells.
Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including:
* Receptor binding
* Activation of protein kinase R (PKR)
* Interaction with p53
* Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as natural killer and cytotoxic T cells) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis.
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro.
Apoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the extrinsic pathway, which activates caspases that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death. In normal cells, CDV activates caspase-8 first, which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3.
OROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (Culicoides paraensis). It is referred to as a zoonotic arbovirus and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.
The Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells – cells that are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in HeLa cells, whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected. Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit proapoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the Epstein-Barr virus BHRF1 protein and the adenovirus E1B 19K protein. Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF receptor and inducing a response. Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. As a consequence, p53 cannot induce apoptosis, since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the hepatitis B virus HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function.
Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the apoptotic bodies that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell, and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name apoptosis (as opposed to the more general programmed cell death) is unclear.
Caspase-independent apoptosis
The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase activation. Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS (nuclear localization signal). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent calpain protease.
See also
* Anoikis
* Apaf-1
* Apo2.7
* Apoptotic DNA fragmentation
* Atromentin induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells.
* Autolysis
* Autophagy
* Cisplatin
* Cytotoxicity
* Entosis
* Ferroptosis
* Homeostasis
* Immunology
* Necrobiosis
* Necrosis
* Necrotaxis
* Nemosis
* Mitotic catastrophe
* p53
* Paraptosis
* Pseudoapoptosis
* PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
Explanatory footnotes
Citations
General bibliography
* }}
External links
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4D0YxGi5Ec Apoptosis & Caspase 3], The Proteolysis Map – animation
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29AMumxsEo0 Apoptosis & Caspase 8], The Proteolysis Map – animation
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YYboqiol_w Apoptosis & Caspase 7], The Proteolysis Map – animation
* [http://www.copewithcytokines.de/cope.cgi?key=Apoptosis%20MiniCOPE%20Dictionary Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary – list of apoptosis terms and acronyms]
* [http://www.biochemweb.net/apoptosis.shtml Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140825065034/http://www.caspases.org/ Apoptosis Research Portal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070111132934/http://apoptosisinfo.com/ Apoptosis Info] Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070111190837/http://www.apoptosis-db.org/welcome.html Database of proteins involved in apoptosis]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630103651/http://stke.sciencemag.org/content/vol2007/issue380/images/data/tr1/DC1/Apoptosis_WEHI.mov Apoptosis Video]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DR80Huxp4y8 Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube )]
* [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Apoptosis.html#The_Mechanisms_of_Apoptosis The Mechanisms of Apoptosis] Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007.
* WikiPathways – [http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:Homo_sapiens:Apoptosis Apoptosis pathway]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141227072014/http://www.crmagazine.org/archive/Spring2007/Pages/FindingCancersSelf-DestructButton.aspx "Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button"]. CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer.
* [http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/cell-biology/xiaodong-wang-part-1.html Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis]
* [https://www.ibiology.org/cell-biology/programmed-cell-death/ Robert Horvitz's Short Clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death]
* [http://bcl2db.ibcp.fr/BCL2DB/ The Bcl-2 Database]
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515224643/http://www.deathbase.org/ DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts]
* [http://www.ecdo.eu European Cell Death Organization]
* [https://www.cusabio.com/Apoptosis/ Apoptosis signaling pathway] created by Cusabio
Category:Cell signaling
Category:Cellular senescence
Category:Immunology
Category:Medical aspects of death
Category:Programmed cell death | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.759490 |
2459 | Appomattox | Appomattox, shorthand for the surrender of Robert E. Lee to Ulysses S. Grant in the American Civil War, may refer to:
Battle of Appomattox Court House, a battle of the American Civil War that was a culmination of the Appomattox Campaign and resulted in the surrender of Robert E. Lee
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, a National Historical Park in Virginia at the site of the surrender
Appomattox may also refer to:
Appomattox County, Virginia, in the United States
Appomattox, Virginia, a town and the seat of that county
Appomattox Court House (disambiguation), several courthouses in Appomattox, Virginia
Appomattox River, a tributary of the James River in Virginia
Appomattox Basin, a name for the Tri-Cities, Virginia region
Appomattox Manor, a manor in City Point, Hopewell, Virginia
Battle of Appomattox Station, a battle of the American Civil War in Appomattox, Virginia, a day before the Battle of Appomattox Court House
SS Appomattox, a large American wooden steamship operated mainly on the Great Lakes
SS Appomattox (1893), a British steamship of the early 20th century
Appomattox (opera), a 2007 opera in based on the American Civil War, composed by Philip Glass
Appomattox (statue), a bronze Confederate soldier memorial in Alexandria, Virginia
See also
Appomattoc (people) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appomattox | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.763470 |
2460 | Anal sex | anal sex]]
Anal sex or anal intercourse is generally the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum,<!-- NOTE: "Anus and rectum" is used instead of "anus or rectum" because one cannot sexually enter the rectum without sexually penetrating the anus. Additionally, using "and/or" is against the WP:ANDOR guideline. --> for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include anal fingering, the use of sex toys, anilingus, and pegging. Although anal sex most commonly means penileanal penetration, sources sometimes use anal intercourse to exclusively denote penileanal penetration, and anal sex to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.
While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all homosexual men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be a part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration – by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area of the vagina (sometimes called the G-spot)<!-- NOTE: Worded this way because the existence of the G-spot, especially as a distinct structure, is highly debated. --> in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be due to psychological factors in some cases. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.
Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, often because of religious prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in anal fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation, figging or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.
General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris (which has many nerve endings specifically intended for orgasm), and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women. The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head). The vagina, for example, is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal legs of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused. Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.
Stimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity. By contrast, each person's sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum, unlike the vagina, do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum. Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.Male to female Behaviors and views
by Paul Avril depicting male-to-female anal sex.]]
The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis.
In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, anal intercourse is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and anal sex is used to denote any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that "for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex".
Some couples may practice anal sex as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; this has been reported in Christian communities in the United States. A person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse may be regarded as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes called technical virginity.
Heterosexuals may view anal sex as "fooling around" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view "dates to the late 1600s, with explicit 'rules' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as 'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse.'"
Prevalence
Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride's 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n1,299) and women (n1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral–anal sex, manual–anal sex, or anal sex toy use.
With regard to adolescents, limited data also exists. Seidman et al. argued that "cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography", and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men. Oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the top and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the bottom. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as versatile. Though some men who have sex with men may find that being a receptive partner during anal sex makes them question their masculinity, playing bottom in sexual intercourse is at least as common as playing top among western gay and bisexual men and, among committed male couples, anal intercourse is rated as providing the most satisfying orgasms.PrevalenceReports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among men who have sex with men vary. According to 2011 research from the Journal of Sexual Medicine, in the most recent sexual intercourse between homosexual men, the most common behavior was kissing the partner on the mouth, followed by oral sex, and mutual masturbation. Anal sex occurred in less than half of the sexual relationships between homosexual men.
According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is more popular among homosexual male couples than among heterosexual couples, but "it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation" among both sexual orientations in prevalence. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used.
Reece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that "an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse".
The BMJ stated in 1999:Female to female
on another woman]]
With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes anal fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus.
There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo). Anilingus is also less often practiced among female same-sex couples.Health risksGeneral risks
]]
Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers: infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.
There are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier than vaginal intercourse for women, including the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse. The risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is also significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues. Additionally, if a man moves from anal intercourse immediately to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina (or urinary tract) due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys.
Pain during receptive anal sex is formally known as anodyspareunia. Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention.
Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence). Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence. Anal cancer is significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society estimates that in 2023 there were approximately 9,760 new cases (6,580 in women and 3,180 in men) and approximately 1,870 deaths (860 women and 1,010 men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, "with an average age being in the early 60s" and it "affects women somewhat more often than men." Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation. For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran's Penal Code states in Article 109 that "both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished" and "Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge". and did not regard anal sex as taboo. and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. The Sumerian sign for was a ligature of the signs for 'penis' and 'anus'. Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, "Most citizens are ('wide-arsed') now." The terms , , and were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a "clean" act. Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the ) did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being 'feminine'.
males on the Warren Cup, British Museum]]
In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with "eligible" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.
A male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse ( in Latin) was condemned in Rome as an act of ('immodesty' or 'unchastity'); free men, however, could take the active role with a young male slave, known as a or . The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to "take it like a woman" ( 'to undergo womanly things') when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy's role. Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo.
Culture. 300 C.E. Larco Museum Collection.]]
In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males. Evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased.Religion
, Sodomites provoking divine wrath, from Le pot-pourri (1781)]]
Judaism
The Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects, states "since a man's wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally [traditionally, unnaturally refers to anal and oral sex], provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse."
Christianity
Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the ('the sin against nature', after Thomas Aquinas) or ('sodomitical lusts', in one of Charlemagne's ordinances), or ('that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named').
Islam
illustration depicting two young men having sex (from Sawaqub al-Manaquib)]]
, or the sin of Lot's people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to "unnatural" sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. Same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called luti or lutiyin in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.Other animalsAs a form of non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals, anal sex has been observed in a few other primates, both in captivity and in the wild.See also
* Anal eroticism
* Ass to mouth
* Autosodomy
* Coprophilia
* Creampie (sexual act)
* Felching
* Gay bowel syndrome
* Klismaphilia
* Sodomy law
References
Further reading
* Brent, Bill Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Men, Cleis Press, 2002.
* DeCitore, David Arouse Her Anal Ecstasy (2008)
* Houser, Ward Anal Sex, Encyclopedia of Homosexuality Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48–50.
* Morin, Jack Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women, Down There Press, 1998.
* Sanderson, Terry ''The Gay Man's Kama Sutra, Thomas Dunne Books, 2004.
* Tristan Taormino The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women, Cleis Press, 1997, 2006.
* Underwood, Steven G. Gay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles'', Harrington Park Press, 2003
External links
Category:Anal eroticism
Category:Sexology
Category:Sexual acts | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_sex | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.846279 |
2466 | Aarau | |postal_code = 5000, 5004 Aarau, 5032 Aarau Rohr
|municipality_code = 4001
|area = 12.34
|elevation 381 |elevation_description |highestHungerberg |highest_m471 |lowestAar |lowest_m365|
|population |populationof |popofyear =
|website = www.aarau.ch
|mayor Hanspeter Hilfiker |mayor_asofFebruary 2018 |mayor_party=FDP
|mayor_title = Stadtpräsident
|executive_name Stadtrat |executive_number_of_members 7
|parliament_name Einwohnerrat|parliament_number_of_members 50
|list_of_mayors = List of mayors of Aarau
|places = Aarau
|demonym =
|neighboring_municipalities= Buchs, Suhr, Unterentfelden, Eppenberg-Wöschnau, Erlinsbach
|twintowns = Neuchâtel (Switzerland), Delft (Netherlands), Reutlingen (Germany)
}}
Aarau (, ) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The town is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aare, on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains, and is west of Zürich, The municipality borders directly on the canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the largest town in Aargau. At the beginning of 2010 Rohr became a district of Aarau.
The official language of Aarau is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
Geography and geology
The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcrop at a narrowing of the Aare river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains.
|source 2 MeteoSwiss
}}
History
Prehistory
]]
A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aare found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times.
Middle Ages
Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg. The town was ruled from the "Rore" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall.
In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family's lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283. Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city's favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for educational reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau.
1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic
On 27 December 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops.
On 22 March 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic.
The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the "suburb" date from this time.
The "Schlössli" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The "Schlössli" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515.
The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was installed in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau.
The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The "Justice fountain" (Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of French limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic.
Economy
, Aarau had an unemployment rate of 2.35%. , there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 4,181 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 164 businesses in this sector. 20,186 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,461 businesses in this sector.
The largest employer in Aarau is the cantonal government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. One of the two head offices of the Aargauer Zeitung, Switzerland's fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations.
Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991.
The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the "Golden Triangle" between Zürich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in the hope of arresting the slowly progressing losses.
Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, cutlery, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Aarau is famous for the quality of their instruments, cutlery and their bells.
Markets and fairs
Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the Graben at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, with regional companies selling their products. The "Rüeblimärt" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring.
Transport
Aarau railway station is a terminus of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11.
The town is also served with public transport provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG.
Routes
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Start point
! End point
|-
| 1
| Küttigen
| Buchs
|-
| 2
| Barmelweid
| Rohr
|-
| 3
| Gretzenbach
| Aarau
|-
| 4
| Biberstein
| Suhr
|-
| 5
| Goldern
| Aarau
|-
| 6
| Damm
| Suhr
|-
| 7
| Zelgli
| Aarau
|}
Population
The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Thirdly, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the 21st century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty.
Aarau has a population (as of ) of . , 19.8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1%. Most of the population () speaks German (84.5%), with Italian being second most common ( 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 2.9%).
The age distribution, , in Aarau is; 1,296 children or 8.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,334 teenagers or 8.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,520 people or 15.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,518 people or 15.8% are between 30 and 39, 2,320 people or 14.6% are between 40 and 49, and 1,987 people or 12.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,588 people or 10.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,219 people or 7.7% are between 70 and 79, there are 942 people or 5.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 180 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older.
, there were 1,365 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 3,845 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 2,119 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 1.99 individuals.
In Aarau about 74.2% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a ).
|- bgcolor="#E3E3E3"
! year
! population
! Swiss<br /> Nationals
! % German<br /> Speaking
! % French<br /> Speaking
! % Italian<br /> Speaking
! % Protestant
! % Roman<br /> Catholic
|-
| 1558 || align="center" | ca. 1,200|| || || || || ||
|-
| 1764 || align="center" | 1, 868|| || || || || ||
|-
| 1798 || align="center" | 2, 458|| || || || || ||
|-
| 1850 || align"center" | 4,657 || align"center" | 4,299|| align"center" | 0.0% || align"center" | 0.0% || align"center" | 0.0% || align"center" | 0.0% || align="center" | 0.0%
|-
| 1880a || align"center" | 5,914 || align"center" | 5,381|| align"center" | 99.2% || align"center" | 0.7% || align"center" | 0.2% || align"center" | 81.9% || align="center" | 17.4%
|-
| 1910 || align"center" | 9,593 || align"center" | 7,986|| align"center" | 90.6% || align"center" | 2.2% || align"center" | 6.7% || align"center" | 71.7% || align="center" | 26.6%
|-
| 1930 || align"center" | 11,666 || align"center" | 10,472|| align"center" | 95.3% || align"center" | 1.7% || align"center" | 2.3% || align"center" | 72.7% || align="center" | 25.4%
|-
| 1950 || align"center" | 14,280 || align"center" | 13,373|| align"center" | 93.8% || align"center" | 2.2% || align"center" | 3.2% || align"center" | 70.4% || align="center" | 27.9%
|-
| 1970 || align"center" | 16,881 || align"center" | 13,782|| align"center" | 82.4% || align"center" | 1.6% || align"center" | 11.2% || align"center" | 60.1% || align="center" | 37.6%
|-
| 1987 || align"center" | 15,750 || align"center" | || align"center" | || align"center"| ||align"center"| ||align"center" | 75% || align="center"|
|-
| 1990 || align"center" | 16,481 || align"center" | 13,146|| align"center" | 81.7% || align"center" | 1.0% || align"center" | 5.3% || align"center" | 49.7% || align="center" | 33.0%
|-
| 1993 || align"center" | 15,900 || | || | || | || | || | || |
|-
| 2010 || align"center" | 19,497 || align"center" | 15,695|| align"center" | 85.0% || align"center" | 1.0% || align"center" | 3.3% || align"center" | 44.4% || align="center" | 28.8%
|-
| 2016 || align"center" | 21,036 || align"center" | 16,534|| align"center" | || align"center" | || align"center" | || align"center" | || align="center" |
|}
Sport
The football club FC Aarau play in the Stadion Brügglifeld. From 1981 until 2010 they played in the top tier of the Swiss football league system when they were relegated to the Swiss Challenge League. In the 2013/2014 they climbed back to the highest tier only to be relegated again. In the 2016/17 season they will play in the Swiss Challenge League. They won the Swiss Cup in 1985 and were three times Swiss football champions, in 1912, in 1914 and in 1993.
The Argovia Stars play in the MySports League, the third highest league of Swiss ice hockey. They play their home games in the 3,000-seat KeBa Aarau Arena.
BC Alte Kanti Aarau plays in the Swiss Women's Basketball Championship, the country's top division.
Sites
Heritage sites of national significance
Aarau is home to a number of sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. The list includes three churches; the Christian Catholic parish house, the Roman Catholic parish house, and the Reformed City Church. There are five government buildings on the list; the Cantonal Library, which contains many pieces important to the nation's history, and Art Gallery, the old Cantonal School, the Legislature, the Cantonal Administration building, and the archives. Three gardens or parks are on the list; Garten Schmidlin, Naturama Aargau and the Schlossgarten. The remaining four buildings on the list are; the former Rickenbach Factory, the Crematorium, the Haus zum Erker at Rathausgasse 10 and the Restaurant Zunftstube at Pelzgasse.GovernmentLegislative
In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (Einwohnerrat) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation:
{| class="wikitable"
! Party
! 2001
! 2018
|-
| FDP || 13 || 11
|-
| SP || 12 || 14
|-
| SVP || 11 || 10
|-
| Die Mitte (Formerly Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland, CVP) || 4 || 3
|-
| Pro Aarau || 4 || 3
|-
| Green || 2 || 5
|-
| EVP || 3 || 2
|-
| GLP || 0 || 2
|}
At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative.
Executive
The executive authority is the town council (Stadtrat). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments.
The seven members (and their party) are:
* Hanspeter Hilfiker (FDP) (City President)
* Werner Schib (Die Mitte) (City Vice President)
* Angelica Cavegn Leitner (Pro Aarau)
* Franziska Graf (SP)
* Daniel Siegenthaler (SP)
* Hanspeter Thür (Grüne)
* Suzanne Marclay-Merz (FDP)
National elections
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (22.1%), the FDP (17.5%) and the Green Party (11.8%). Notable people Born in Aarau * Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey
* Hans Herzog (1819–1894), Swiss army General.
* Carl Feer-Herzog (1820–1880), politician, President of the Swiss National Council 1874
* Friedrich Mühlberg (1840–1915), a Swiss geologist
* Hans Renold (1852–1943), a Swiss/British engineer, inventor and industrialist in Britain
* Friedrich Zschokke (1860–1936), zoologist and parasitologist, grandson of Heinrich Zschokke
* Emil Hassler (1864–1937), physician, ethnographer, naturalist and botanist
* Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939), physician, pioneer nutritionist popularised muesli
* Frederick Sutermeister (1873–1934), a Swiss theologian and pastor
* Martha Burkhardt (1874–1956), painter and photographer
* Otto Hunziker (1879–1940), politician and author
* Eugen Bircher (1882–1956), politician
* Edmund Heuberger (1883–1962), art director, screenwriter and film director
* Karl Ballmer (1891–1958), painter, anthroposophical philosopher and writer
* Felix Hoffmann (1911–1975), graphic designer, illustrator and stained glass artist
* Erika Burkart (1922–2010), writer and poet
* Fritz Vogelsang (born 1932), decathlete, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
* Hansruedi Jost (1934–2016), hammer thrower, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
* Klaus Merz (born 1945), writer
* Martin Schlumpf (born 1947), musician, composer, conductor, improviser and academic teacher
* (born 1947), author
* Charlotte Walter (born 1951), figure skater, competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics
* Jürg Frey (born 1953), composer and clarinettist
* Jörg Müller (born 1961), retired track cyclist and road bicycle racer, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics
* Christian Reich (born 1967), bobsledder, competed in four Winter Olympics, winning silver
* Andreas Hilfiker (born 1969), former international footballer, 376 club caps
* Daniel Wermelinger (born 1971), football referee, president of the Swiss Referees Union
* Ivan Benito (born 1976), retired professional football goalkeeper, 327 club caps
* Marisa Brunner (born 1982), retired football goalkeeper, 75 caps for Switzerland women's national football team
* Stefan Eichenberger (born 1984), film director and film producer
* Ricardo Feller (born 2000), racing driver and ADAC GT Masters champion
Lived in Aarau
* (1753–1807), politician
* (1754–1786), author and actor
* (1768–1841), politician, physician
* Heinrich Zschokke (1771–1848), German, later Swiss, author and reformer
* Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780–1866), physician, politician, philosopher
* Johann Rudolph Rengger (1795–1832), naturalist and doctor
* Albert Einstein (1879–1955), scientist, professor, physicist, and technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office
* (1899–1982), writer
* Bruno Hunziker (1930–2000), a Swiss attorney and politician
* Sylvia Flückiger-Bäni (born 1952), politician
* David Hönigsberg (1959–2005), a South African classical composer, conductor and musicologist
* Nicolas Müller (born 1982), a Swiss snowboarder
* Nivin Pauly (born 1984), an Indian actor
* Alexander Estis (born 1986), a Swiss author, translator and journalist
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Aarau is twinned with:
{| class="wikitable"
|- valign="top"
|
* Delft, Netherlands
||
* Neuchâtel, Switzerland
||
* Reutlingen, Germany
|}
See also
*Lenzburg (boasts a historical museum)
*History of the Canton of Aargau
Footnotes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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*
*
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*
*
*
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*
* External links
*[http://www.aarau.ch Aarau.ch]
*
Sister projects
*
**
}}
Category:Cities in Switzerland
Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland
Category:Municipalities of Aargau
Category:Aargau
Category:Cultural property of national significance in Aargau
Category:Populated places on the Aare
Category:Former national capitals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarau | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.891791 |
2467 | Aargau | | settlement_type = Canton
| image_flag = Flag of Canton of Aargau.svg
| image_shield = CHE Aargau COA.svg
| shield_size = 80x80px
| shield_link | image_map
| map_alt = Map of Switzerland, location of Aargau highlighted
| map_caption = Location in Switzerland
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Switzerland
| seat_type = Capital and largest city
| seat = Aarau
| parts_type = Subdivisions
| parts_style = para
| p1 = 198 municipalities
| p2 = 11 districts
| leader_title = Executive
| leader_name = Executive Council (5)
| leader_title1 = Legislative
| leader_name1 = Grand Council (140)
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2
| population_footnotes =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = GDP
| demographics1_footnotes
| demographics1_title1 = Total
| demographics1_info1 = CHF 43.590 billion (2020)
| demographics1_title2 = Per capita
| demographics1_info2 = CHF 63,177 (2020)
| iso_code = CH-AG
| blank_name_sec1 = Highest point
| blank_info_sec1 : Geissfluegrat
| blank1_name_sec1 = Lowest point
| blank1_info_sec1 : Rhine at Kaiseraugst
| blank_name_sec2 = Joined
| blank_info_sec2 = 1803
| blank1_name_sec2 = Languages
| blank1_info_sec2 = German
| website =
| image_blank_emblem = Aargau.svg
| blank_emblem_type = Brandmark
| blank_emblem_size = 120px
}}
Aargau ( ; ), more formally the Canton of Aargau (; ; ; ), is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of eleven districts and its capital is Aarau.
Aargau is one of the most northerly cantons of Switzerland, by the lower course of the Aare River, which is why it is called Aar-gau ("Aare province"). It is one of the most densely populated regions of Switzerland.
History
Early history
The area of Aargau and the surrounding areas were controlled by the Helvetians, a tribe of Celts, as far back as 200 BC.
Medieval Aargau
The reconstructed Old High German name of Aargau is Argowe, first unambiguously attested (in the spelling Argue) in 795. The term described a territory only loosely equivalent to that of the modern canton, including the region between Aare and Reuss rivers, including Pilatus and Napf, i.e. including parts of the modern cantons of Bern (Bernese Aargau, Emmental, parts of the Bernese Oberland), Solothurn, Basel-Landschaft, Lucerne, Obwalden and Nidwalden, but not the parts of the modern canton east of the Reuss (Baden District), which were part of Zürichgau.
Within the Frankish Empire (8th to 10th centuries), the area was a disputed border region between the duchies of Alamannia and Burgundy. A line of the von Wetterau (Conradines) intermittently held the countship of Aargau from 750 until about 1030, when they lost it (having in the meantime taken the name von Tegerfelden). This division became the ill-defined (and sparsely settled) outer border of the early Holy Roman Empire at its formation in the second half of the 10th century. Most of the region came under the control of the ducal house of Zähringen and the comital houses of Habsburg and Kyburg by about 1200.
In the second half of the 13th century, the territory became divided between the territories claimed by the imperial cities of Bern, Lucerne and Solothurn and the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. The remaining portion, largely corresponding to the modern canton of Aargau, remained under the control of the Habsburgs until the "conquest of Aargau" by the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1415. Habsburg Castle itself, the original seat of the House of Habsburg, was taken by Bern in April 1415. The Habsburgs had founded a number of monasteries (with some structures enduring, e.g., in Wettingen and Muri), the closing of which by the government in 1841 was a contributing factor to the outbreak of the Swiss civil war – the "Sonderbund War" – in 1847.Under the Swiss ConfederationWhen Frederick IV of Habsburg sided with Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, Emperor Sigismund placed him under the Imperial ban. In July 1414, the Pope visited Bern and received assurances from them, that they would move against the Habsburgs.Unteraargau or Berner AargauBern's portion of the Aargau came to be known as the Unteraargau, though can also be called the Berner or Bernese Aargau. In 1514 Bern expanded north into the Jura and so came into possession of several strategically important mountain passes into the Austrian Fricktal. This land was added to the Unteraargau and was directly ruled from Bern. It was divided into seven rural bailiwicks and four administrative cities, Aarau, Zofingen, Lenzburg and Brugg. While the Habsburgs were driven out, many of their minor nobles were allowed to keep their lands and offices, though over time they lost power to the Bernese government. The bailiwick administration was based on a very small staff of officials, mostly made up of Bernese citizens, but with a few locals.
When Bern converted during the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the Unteraargau also converted. At the beginning of the 16th century a number of anabaptists migrated into the upper Wynen and Rueder valleys from Zürich. Despite pressure from the Bernese authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries anabaptism never entirely disappeared from the Unteraargau. The four Ämter were then consolidated under a single Confederation bailiff into what was known in the 15th century as the Waggental Bailiwick (). In the 16th century, it came to be known as the Vogtei der Freien Ämter. While the Freien Ämter often had independent lower courts, they were forced to accept the Confederation's sovereignty. Finally, in 1532, the canton of Uri became part of the collective administration of the Freien Ämter.
At the time of the Protestant Reformation, the majority of the Ämter converted to the new faith. In 1529, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zürich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism.
The chaotic legal structure and fragmented land ownership combined with a tradition of dividing the land among all the heirs in an inheritance prevented any large scale reforms. The governor tried in the 18th century to reform and standardize laws and ownership across the county, but with limited success. With an ever-changing administration, the County lacked a coherent long-term economic policy or support for reforms. By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zürich. Road construction first became a priority after 1750, when Zürich and Bern began appointing a governor for seven years. which was then admitted as a full member of the reconstituted Confederation following the Act of Mediation. Some parts of the canton of Baden at this point were transferred to other cantons: the Amt of Hitzkirch to Lucerne, whilst Hüttikon, Oetwil an der Limmat, Dietikon and Schlieren went to Zürich. In return, Lucerne's Amt of Merenschwand was transferred to Aargau (district of Muri).
The Fricktal, ceded in 1802 by Austria via Napoleonic France to the Helvetic Republic, was briefly a separate canton of the Helvetic Republic (the canton of Fricktal) under a Statthalter ('Lieutenant'), but on 19 March 1803 (following the Act of Mediation) was incorporated into the canton of Aargau.
The former cantons of Baden and Fricktal can still be identified with the contemporary districts – the canton of Baden is covered by the districts of Zurzach, Baden, Bremgarten, and Muri (albeit with the gains and losses of 1803 detailed above); the canton of Fricktal by the districts of Rheinfelden and Laufenburg (except for Hottwil which was transferred to that district in 2010).
Chief magistracy
The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly:
* first two consecutive Regierungsstatthalter :
** April 1798 – November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (1754–1833)
** 1802–1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (1766–1833)
* Presidents of the Government Commission
** 10 March 1803 – 26 April 1803 Johann Rudolf Dolder (1753–1807)
** 26 April 1803 – 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly)
* annual Amtsbürgermeister 1815–1831
* annual Landammänner since 1815
Jewish history in Aargau
’s collection. ]]
In the 17th century, Aargau was the only federal condominium where Jews were tolerated. In 1774, they were restricted to just two towns, Endingen and Lengnau. While the rural upper class pressed incessantly for the expulsion the Jews, the financial interests of the authorities prevented it. They imposed special taxes on peddling and cattle trading, the primary Jewish professions. The Protestant occupiers also enjoyed the discomfort of the local Catholics by the presence of the Jewish community. The Jews were directly subordinate to the governor; from 1696, they were compelled to renew a letter of protection from him every 16 years. The Swiss Jewish Kulturverein was instrumental in this fight from its founding in 1862 until it was dissolved 20 years later.Geography
from Bözberg]]
The capital of the canton is Aarau, which is located on its western border, on the Aare. The canton borders Germany (Baden-Württemberg) to the north, the Rhine forming the border. To the west lie the Swiss cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn and Bern; the canton of Lucerne lies south, and Zürich and Zug to the east. Its total area is . Besides the Rhine, it contains two large rivers, the Aare and the Reuss.
The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is diversified with undulating tracts and well-wooded hills, alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aare and its tributaries.
It contains the hot sulphur springs of Baden and Schinznach-Bad, while at Rheinfelden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Königsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa (Windisch).
Fahr Monastery forms a small exclave of the canton, otherwise surrounded by the canton of Zürich, and since 2008 is part of the Aargau municipality of Würenlos.
Political subdivisions
Districts
Aargau is divided into 11 districts:
*Aarau with capital Aarau
*Baden with capital Baden
*Bremgarten with capital Bremgarten
*Brugg with capital Brugg
*Kulm with capital Unterkulm
*Laufenburg with capital Laufenburg
*Lenzburg with capital Lenzburg
*Muri with capital Muri
*Rheinfelden with capital Rheinfelden
*Zofingen with capital Zofingen
*Zurzach with capital Zurzach
The most recent change in district boundaries occurred in 2010 when Hottwil transferred from Brugg to Laufenburg, following its merger with other municipalities, all of which were in Laufenburg.
Municipalities
There are (as of 2014) 213 municipalities in the canton of Aargau. As with most Swiss cantons there has been a trend since the early 2000s for municipalities to merge, though mergers in Aargau have so far been less radical than in other cantons.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the coat of arms is Per pale, dexter: sable, a fess wavy argent, charged with two cotises wavy azure; sinister: sky blue, three mullets of five argent.
The flag and arms of the canton of Aargau date to 1803 and are an original design by Samuel Ringier-Seelmatter; the current official design, specifying the stars as five-pointed, dates to 1930.
Demographics
Aargau has a population (|lcon}}) of . , 21.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11%. Migration accounted for 8.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.8%. Most of the population () speaks German (477,093 or 87.1%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (17,847 or 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (10,645 or 1.9%). There are 4,151 people who speak French and 618 people who speak Romansh.
, there were 224,128 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.4 persons per household.
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{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan"12" | Historic Population Data
The SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (36.2% in 2007 vs 34.7% in 2011). The SPS retained about the same popularity (17.9% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (13.6% in 2007) and the CVP retained about the same popularity (13.5% in 2007).
Federal election results
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: center"
|-
! colspan"17"| Percentage of the total vote per party in the canton in the National Council Elections 1971-2023
|-
! colspan"2" | Party !! class"unsortable" | Ideology !! 1971 !! 1975 !! 1979 !! 1983 !! 1987 !! 1991 !! 1995 !! 1999 !! 2003 !! 2007 !! 2011 !! 2015 !! 2019 !! 2023
|-
! SVP/UDC
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Swiss nationalism || 12.5 || 12.8 || 13.9 || 14.1 || 15.7 || 17.9 || 19.8 || 31.8 || 34.6 || 36.2 || 34.7 || 38.0 || 31.5 || 35.5
|-
! SP/PS
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Social democracy || 23.9 || 24.2 || 27.6 || 27.5 || 18.5 || 17.4 || 19.4 || 18.7 || 21.2 || 17.9 || 18.0 || 16.1 || 16.5 || 16.4
|-
! FDP.The Liberals
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Classical liberalism || 15.9 || 17.7 || 20.5 || 20.2 || 20.3 || 16.4 || 15.8 || 17.2 || 15.3 || 13.6 || 11.5 || 15.1 || 13.6 || 13.1
|-
! The Centre
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Christian democracy || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || 12.0
|-
! GLP/PVL
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Green liberalism || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || 5.7 || 5.2 || 8.5 || 8.5
|-
! GPS/PES
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Green politics || * || * || * || * || * || 6.8 || 5.3 || 4.4 || 5.1 || 8.1 || 7.3 || 5.5 || 9.8 || 7.1
|-
! EVP/PEV
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Christian democracy || 3.8 || 4.6 || 5.0 || 5.0 || 3.4 || 3.3 || 3.0 || 3.8 || 5.2 || 4.2 || 3.2 || 3.3 || 3.6 || 4.5
|-
! EDU/UDF
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Christian right || * || * || * || * || 1.0 || 1.4 || 1.3 || 1.4 || * || 1.2 || 1.2 || 1.1 || 1.0 || 1.0
|-
! CVP/PDC/PPD/PCD
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Christian democracy || 20.0 || 20.6 || 22.5 || 21.5 || 18.9 || 14.5 || 14.2 || 16.3 || 15.6 || 13.5 || 10.6 || 8.6 || 9.9 || *
|-
! BDP/PBD
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Conservatism || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || 6.1 || 5.1 || 3.1 || *
|-
! SD/DS
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || National conservatism || 3.4 || 3.5 || 1.6 || 4.0 || 4.5 || 4.5 || 4.5 || 2.7 || 1.4 || 0.7 || 0.4 || * || * || *
|-
! FPS/PSL
| style="color:inherit;background:"| || Right-wing populism || * || * || * || * || 5.3 || 13.2 || 11.3 || 1.4 || 0.2 || * || * || * || * || *
|-
! FGA
| || Feminist || * || * || * || * || 6.9 || * || 0.1 || * || 0.8 || * || * || * || * || *
|-
! Ring of Independents
| || Social liberalism || 9.4 || 6.6 || 5.5 || 5.9 || 4.7 || 4.3 || 3.3 || 2.0 || * || * || * || * || * || *
|-
! Rep.
| || Right-wing populism || 5.8 || 6.5 || 2.1 || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || *
|-
! POCH
| || Progressivism || * || 0.6 || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || * || *
|-
! Other
| || || 5.2 || 2.9 || 1.1 || 1.8 || 0.9 || 0.4 || 1.1 || 0.1 || 0.4 || 4.7 || 1.3 || 2.0 || 2.5 || 1.9
|-
! Voter participation % || || || 62.5 || 50.7 || 45.6 || 44.9 || 43.1 || 42.3 || 42.1 || 42.0 || 42.3 || 47.9 || 48.5 || 48.3 || ||
|-
|}
: FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
: "*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
: Part of the GPS
: CVP and BDP merged to form The Centre party.
Cantonal politics
The Grand Council of the canton of Aargau is called Grosser Rat. It is the legislature of the canton, has 140 seats, with members elected every four years.
Religion
From the , 219,800 or 40.1% were Roman Catholic, while 189,606 or 34.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 11,523 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.10% of the population), there were 3,418 individuals (or about 0.62% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 29,580 individuals (or about 5.40% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 342 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 30,072 (or about 5.49% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 1,463 individuals who were Buddhist, 2,089 individuals who were Hindu and 495 individuals who belonged to another church. 57,573 (or about 10.52% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 15,875 individuals (or about 2.90% of the population) did not answer the question.
Of the working population, 19.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 55.3% used a private car.
Tourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach-Bad, the ancient castles, the landscape, and the many old museums in the canton. Hillwalking is another tourist attraction but is of only limited significance.
See also
* Aargauer Zeitung
* FC Aarau
* Grand Prix of Aargau Canton, bicycle race
Notes
FootnotesReferences
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External links
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131115014012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/kantone/ag/key.html Official statistics] (archived 15 November 2013)
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}}
Category:Cantons of Switzerland
Category:Cantons of the Helvetic Republic
Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines
Category:States and territories established in 1803
Category:1803 establishments in Switzerland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aargau | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.952672 |
2470 | Aba | Aba may refer to:
Animals
Aba roundleaf bat
Gymnarchus (or aba), an electric fish
People
Clans
Aba (family), in Hungary
Aba people, in Russia
Hape people, in North America
In arts and entertainment
Aba Bayefsky, Canadian artist and teacher
Aba Cercato, Italian television presenter
Vilmos Aba-Novák, a Hungarian painter
Rulers
Aba, ruler of Olba
Samuel Aba, 11th-century Hungarian king
Other people
Aba I, patriarch of the Church of the East from 540 to 552
Aba II, patriarch of the Church of the East from 741 to 751
Aba Andam, Ghanaian physicist
Johnny Aba (born 1956), a Papua New Guinean boxer
Places
Africa
Aba, Nigeria
Aba River (Nigeria)
Aba Island, on Sudan's White Nile river
Aba, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Asia
Aba (Russia), a river
Aba, Okayama, Japan
Aba Prefecture, Sichuan, China
Aba County
Aba, Sichuan
Upu (also transliterated Aba), a historic region around Damascus
Europe
Aba, Hungary
Religion and mythology
Aba (mythology), Hellenic Thracian naiad nymph
Anglican Province of Aba, Nigeria
Roman Catholic Diocese of Aba, Nigeria
Aba, the Great Spirit of Choctaw mythology
Other uses
Aba (Dune), a robe in the fictional Dune universe
Aba (film), a 2008 Sri Lanka film
Aba Women's War, period of unrest in colonial Nigeria
A short form of Abaya, a middle eastern robe
Applied behavioral analysis
See also
Abaá, a Fang longhouse
Abba (disambiguation)
Abas (disambiguation)
Ab (Semitic), "father" in Semitic languages
ABA (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aba | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.967850 |
2471 | Ababda people | The Ababda ( or ) are an Arab in eastern Egypt and Sudan. Historically, most were Bedouins living in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea, with some settling along the trade route linking Korosko with Abu Hamad. Numerous traveler accounts from the nineteenth century report that some Ababda at that time still spoke Beja or a language of their own, hence many secondary sources consider the Ababda to be a Beja subtribe. Most Ababda now speak Arabic and identify as an Arab tribe from the Hijaz. The Ababda have a total population of over 250,000 people.
Origin and history
Ababda tribal origin narratives identify them as an Arab people from the Hijaz, descended from Zubayr ibn al-Awwam (possibly through his son Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr) following the Muslim conquest of Egypt.
Many published sources in Western languages identify the Ababda as a subtribe of the Beja, or as descendants of speakers of a Cushitic language.
Language
Arabic
Today, virtually all Ababda communities speak Arabic. There is no oral tradition of having spoken any other language prior to Arabic, in keeping with Ababda Arab origin narratives.
In a 1996 study, Rudolf de Jong found that the Ababda dialect of Arabic was quite similar to that of the Shukriya people of the Sudan, and concluded that it was an extension of the northern Sudanese dialect area.
Alfred von Kremer reported in 1863 that the Ababda had developed an Arabic-based thieves' cant that only they understood.
Ababda or Beja Language
There is rich evidence confirming that as late as the second half of the 19th century the Ababda were bilingual in Arabic and a Beja language that was either identical or closely related to Bisharin. A distinct language being spoken by the Ababda has been reported by several early travellers, either identified as Beja or left without further description. In around 1770 the Scottish traveller James Bruce claimed that they spoke the "Barabra" language, Nubian. At the turn of the 19th century, during the French campaign in Egypt and Syria, the engineer Dubois-Aymé wrote that the Ababda understood Arabic, but still spoke a language of their own. In the 1820s Eduard Rüppell briefly stated that the Ababda spoke their own, seemingly non-Arabic language. A similar opinion was written by Pierre Trémaux after his journey in Sudan in the late 1840s.
John Lewis Burckhardt reported that in 1813 those Ababda who co-resided with the Bishari tribe spoke Beja. Alfred von Kremer believed them to be native Beja-speakers and was told that the Ababda were bilingual in Arabic, which they spoke with a heavy accent. Those who resided with the Nubians spoke Kenzi. Robert Hartmann, who visited the country in 1859/60, noted that the vast majority of the Ababda now spoke Arabic. However, in the past they used to speak a Beja dialect that was now, as he was told, solely restricted to a few nomadic families roaming the Eastern Desert. He believed that they abandoned their language in favour of Arabic due to their close contact with other arabophone tribes. The Swedish linguist Herman Almkvist, writing in 1881, counted the Ababda to the Beja and noted that most had discarded the Beja language, supposedly identical to the Bishari dialect, in favour of Arabic, although "quite a lot" were still capable of understanding and even talking Beja. Bishari informants told him that in the past, the Bishari and Ababda were the same people. Joseph Russegger, who visited the country around 1840, noted that the Ababda spoke their own language, although he added that it was heavily mixed with Arabic. He believed it to be a "Nubian Bedouin" language and implied that this language, and the Ababda customs and appearance in general, is similar to that of the Bishari. Traveller Bayard Taylor wrote in 1856 that the Ababda spoke a language different from that of the Bishari, although it "probably sprang from the same original stock." The French Orientalist Eusèbe de Salle concluded in 1840, after attending a Beja conversation between Ababda and Bishari, that both understood each other reasonably well, but that the Ababda "definitely" had a language of their own. The physician Carl Benjamin Klunzinger wrote in 1878 that the Ababda would always speak Arabic while conversing with strangers, avoiding to speak their own language which he thought was a mixture of Arabic and Beja.See also
*Zubayrids
*Beja people
*Halaib Triangle
*Bir Tawil
References
External links
*
Category:African nomads
Category:Arabic-speaking people
Category:Cushitic-speaking peoples
Category:Modern nomads
Category:Blemmyes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ababda_people | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.975379 |
2472 | American Quarter Horse | sprinter
| country = United States
| group1 = American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA)
| std1 = http://www.aqha.com/
| group2 | std2
| status | note
}}
The American Quarter Horse, or Quarter Horse, is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name is derived from its ability to outrun other horse breeds in races of or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to . The development of the Quarter Horse traces to the 1600s.
The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost three million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014. The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows, and as a working ranch horse.
The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well suited for the intricate and quick maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also used in English disciplines, driving, show jumping, dressage, hunting, and many other equestrian activities.
The Texas Legislature designated the American Quarter Horse as the official "State Horse of Texas" in 2009, and Oklahoma also designated the Quarter Horse as its official state horse in 2022.
Breed history
Colonial era
In the 1600s, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted local horses on the Eastern seaboard of colonial America.
One of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756. The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial "Quarter Horse". The resulting horse was small, hardy, quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends.
As flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England. These courses were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When competing against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won. As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books. This began a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the "Quarter Horse", named after the race distance at which it excelled. Some Quarter Horses have been clocked at up to .Westward expansion
In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which became the Southwestern United States and Mexico.
The horses of the West included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate "cow sense", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.Development as a distinct breed
Early foundation sires of Quarter Horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock's Rondo, one of many "Rondo" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy—again, one of many "Billy" horses—foaled ; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889; and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree. Another early foundation sire for the breed was Copperbottom, foaled in 1828, who tracks his lineage through the Byerley Turk, a foundation sire of the Thoroughbred horse breed.
The main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills required by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. The Quarter Horse dominates in events that require speed as well as the ability to handle cattle.
Sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan, and even Standardbred bloodlines.
In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the Southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses. After winning the 1941 Fort Worth Exposition and Fat Stock Show grand champion stallion, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner's Rainy Day P-13. The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed. Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge."Appendix" and "Foundation" horsesSince the American Quarter Horse was formally established as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An "Appendix" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a "numbered" American Quarter Horse and an "appendix" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the "appendix" of the American Quarter Horse Association's studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration.
Since Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders argue that the continued addition of Thoroughbred bloodlines are beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard. Some favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register "Foundation" Quarter Horses. Modern American Quarter HorseThe American Quarter Horse is a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses are commonly used in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping; and gymkhana or O-Mok-See. Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but are dominated by American Quarter Horse.
The breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with earnings in the millions. In the UK the breed is also becoming very popular, especially with the two Western riding Associations, the Western Horse Association and The Western Equestrian Society. The British American Quarter Horse breed society is the AQHA-UK. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with nearly 3 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide in 2014.
Breed characteristics
The Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as .
There are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well-muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred.
Quarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white. In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered.
Stock type
A stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline – though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse.
Halter type
Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is and weighs in at over when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse's skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in descendants of the stallion Impressive (see Genetic diseases below).
Racing and hunter type
Quarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter Horses race primarily against other Quarter Horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, "the world's fastest athlete." The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.
Genetic diseases
There are several genetic diseases of concern to Quarter Horse breeders. Most can now be identified by DNA testing so that breeders do not inadvertently produce foals with these conditions:
*Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene originally linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis among affected horses. Because it is a dominant gene, only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring. There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA bars registration of horses who possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is periodically discussed. Additionally, all Quarter Horses born 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, there have been some rule changes for show competition, including the creation of a "Performance Halter class" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit in performance or racing before it can compete.
*Myosin-heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) is a genetic muscle disease added to the AQHA genetic testing panel in 2022. It is a genetic dominant condition, though not all horses who inherit the gene will show clinical signs of being affected and the environmental triggers are not well understood at present. An estimated 7% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. There are two forms, both linked to the same genetic variant. Affected horses may exhibit one or both forms. The first is Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM). It may occur in response to a vaccine or infectious agent, where the immune system misinterprets the muscle cells as foreign and rapidly attacks them. Horses initially experience stiffness, weakness, and a decreased appetite followed by the rapid loss of 40% of muscle mass within 72 hours. The second presentation of MYHM is Nonexertional Rhabdomyolysis (compare to PSSM, below) and often presents as stiffness and possible swelling of muscles along the back and haunches without exercise. Clinical signs include pain, muscle cramping, and muscle damage, but may or may not result in muscle loss. When triggered, horses can recover but may have more frequent episodes. Horses that are homozygous (My/My) may have more severe symptoms.
*Malignant hyperthermia (MH) causes a horse's body to release uncontrolled amounts of calcium into the bloodstream when subjected to certain stressors, which results in painful muscle cramps, extremely high temperature up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit, irregular heart rhythm, excessive sweating and shallow breathing. It manifests when horses receive certain anesthesia drugs or by stressors such as overwork or excitement. Caused by a mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution, it is inherited as an autosomal dominant. Horses that carry PSSM or MYHM along with MH have more severe episodes. Approximately 3.5% of all Quarter Horses are carriers, and as many as 28% of horses in cutting and related working cow horse disciplines.
*Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a recessive genetic disease where the horse is lacking an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen, the horse's heart muscle and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease manifests in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease. There is a DNA blood test available. Roughly 10% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene.
*Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder. There are two forms, PSSM-1 and PSSM-2. PSSM-1 is found in Quarter Horses and has a genetic test available. PSSM-2, which is primarily found in other breeds, has no genetic test available but can be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy. PSSM-1 has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. 11% of the Quarter Horse population carries PSSM, and 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM. To some extent it can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding, as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population.
*Lethal White Syndrome (LWS) is fatal when homozygous. Affected foals are born pure white in color, with an underdeveloped intestinal tract, and cannot defecate, thus dying within days if not euthanized first. Although "cropout" Quarter Horses with pinto markings were not allowed to be registered for many years because white markings were thought to be a result of undesirable crossbreeding,
*Cleft Palate: a birth defect linked to multiple causative factors, including genetics, hormones, mineral deficiency, tranquilizers, or steroids. Cleft palates are extremely uncommon, but as most of the research done on the condition has utilized Quarter Horses, the defect is linked to the breed. The surgery to repair the cleft palate has about a 20% success rate. Clinical signs include: lifting head high when eating, dropping head low to drink, coughing when beginning of exercise, and taking an extremely long time to fully administer oral medications placed in the side of the jaw.
See also
*Quarab
*Quarter pony
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* <!--This book is not referenced in the article. If it becomes referenced at some point, move up to the references section. Otherwise, I think we can delete it before we go to GA, yes?-->
External links
*[http://www.aqha.com American Quarter Horse Association]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071022093726/http://quarter-horse-europe.net/ Information about Quarter Horses in Europe]
Category:Horse breeds
Category:Horse breeds originating in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Quarter_Horse | 2025-04-05T18:26:04.996132 |
2473 | Abacá | nom. inval.
*Musa amboinensis <small>Miquel</small>
*Musa mindanaensis <small>Miquel</small>
*Musa mindanensis <small>Rump.</small>
*Musa silvéstris <small>Colla</small>
*Musa tikap <small>Warburg</small>
*Musa troglodytàrum textòria <small>Blanco</small>
}}
}}
| synonyms_ref =
}}
Abacá ( ; ), also known as Manila hemp, is a species of banana, Musa textilis, endemic to the Philippines. The plant grows to , and averages about . The plant has great economic importance, being harvested for its fiber extracted from the leaf-stems.
The lustrous fiber is traditionally hand-loomed into various indigenous textiles (abaca cloth or medriñaque) in the Philippines. They are still featured prominently as the traditional material of the barong tagalog, the national male attire of the Philippines, as well as in sheer lace-like fabrics called nipis used in various clothing components. Native abaca textiles also survive into the modern era among various ethnic groups, like the ''t'nalak'' of the T'boli people and the dagmay of the Bagobo people. Abaca is also used in traditional Philippine millinery, as well as for bags, shawls, and other decorative items. The hatmaking straw made from Manila hemp is called tagal or tagal straw.
The fiber is also exceptionally strong, stronger than hemp and naturally salt-resistant, making it ideal for making twines and ropes (especially for maritime shipping). It became a major trade commodity in the colonial era for this reason. The abaca industry declined sharply in the mid-20th century when abaca plantations were decimated by World War II and plant diseases, as well as the invention of nylon in the 1930s. Today, abaca is mostly used in a variety of specialized paper products including tea bags, filter paper and banknotes. Manila envelopes and Manila paper derive their name from this fiber.}} Abacá has a "false trunk" or pseudostem about in diameter. The leaf stalks (petioles) are expanded at the base to form sheaths that are tightly wrapped together to form the pseudostem. There are from 12 to 25 leaves, dark green on the top and pale green on the underside, sometimes with large brown patches. They are oblong in shape with a deltoid base. They grow in succession. The petioles grow to at least in length.
When the plant is mature, the flower stalk grows up inside the pseudostem. The male flower has five petals, each about long. The leaf sheaths contain the valuable fiber. After harvesting, the coarse fibers range in length from long. They are composed primarily of cellulose, lignin, and pectin.
The fruit, which is inedible and is rarely seen as harvesting occurs before the plant fruits, grows to about in length and in diameter. It has black turbinate seeds that are in diameter.
Systematics
The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Its scientific name is Musa textilis. Within the genus Musa, it is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n 20. Genetic diversity The Philippines, especially the Bicol region in Luzon, has the most abaca genotypes and cultivars. Genetic analysis using simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers revealed that the Philippines' abaca germplasm is genetically diverse. Abaca genotypes in Luzon had higher genetic diversity than Visayas and Mindanao. Ancestors of the modern abacá are thought to have originated from the eastern Philippines, where there is significant rainfall throughout the year. Wild varieties of abacá can still be found in the interior forests of the island province of Catanduanes, away from cultivated areas.
in Southeast Asia at the National Museum of the Philippines). The cloth was found in the sacred Ipot cave of Romblon. It is made from abacá.]]
Today, Catanduanes has many other modern kinds of abacá which are more competitive. For many years, breeders from various research institutions have made the cultivated varieties of Catanduanes even more competitive in local and international markets. This results in the optimum production of the island which had a consistent highest production throughout the archipelago. 16th century
, Philippines]]
Europeans first came into contact with Abacá fibre when Ferdinand Magellan landed in the Philippines in 1521, as the natives were already cultivating it and utilizing it in bulk for textiles. In fact, from 1850 through the end of the 19th century, sugar or abacá alternated with each other as the biggest export crop of the Philippines.
20th century
In the early 1900s, a train running from Danao to Argao would transport Philippine abacá from the plantations to Cebu City for export. The railway system was destroyed during World War II; the abaca continues to be transported to Cebu by road.
Outside the Philippines, abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the nineteenth century, followed up by plantings in Central America in 1929 sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It also was transplanted into India and Guam. The Philippines produces between 85%CultivationThe plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using rhizomes planted at the start of the rainy season. Harvesting generally includes several operations involving the leaf sheaths:
* tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath)
* stripping (getting the fibers)
* drying (usually following the tradition of sun-drying).
When the processing is complete, the bundles of fiber are pale and lustrous with a length of .<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:01-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-LEAVES-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|1. Abacá plants have several stalks which can be harvested annually and regenerate fully within a year.
File:06-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-HARVEST-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|2. Abacá plants are harvested by "topping", cutting the leaves with a bamboo sickle, cutting or "tumbling" the stalks. The leaves are compost on the ground, creating a fertiliser.
File:12-QWSTION-BANANATEX-TUXYING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. The tuxy, the outer layer of the leaf sheath contains primary fibres is separated from the inner layers.
File:13-QWSTION-BANANATEX-TUXYING-2-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|4. The inner layers contain the secondary fibres and pulpy material.
File:14-QWSTION-BANANATEX-STRIPPING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|5.The tuxies are separated by hand using a stripping knife at the harvesting site.
File:16-QWSTION-BANANATEX-STRIPPING-LAUSCHSICHT-2.jpg|6. The fibres are then "combed" to separate them.
File:20-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FIBERS-2-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|7. The fibres are then air-dried and bundled together before being transported from forest to the trading warehouse of the farmers cooperative.
File:23-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-GRADES.jpg|8. There they are sorted by colour grades, with lighter coloured fibres being more expensive due to their rarity.
</gallery>
In Costa Rica, more modern harvest and drying techniques are being developed to accommodate the very high yields obtained there.
According to the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority, the Philippines provided 87.4% of the world's abacá in 2014, earning the Philippines US$111.33 million. The demand is still greater than the supply. Uses
]]
Due to its strength, it is a sought after product and is the strongest of the natural fibers. and decorative papers. bags, carpets, clothing and furniture.
Lupis is the finest quality of abacá. Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá.
Textiles
'' cloth of the T'boli dreamweavers are made from abacá fibers]]
dreamweaver using a traditional loom]]
Abacá fibers were traditionally woven into sturdy textiles and clothing in the Philippines since pre-colonial times. Along with cotton, they were the main source of textile fibers used for clothing in the pre-colonial Philippines. Abacá cloth was often compared to calico in terms of texture and was a major trade commodity in the pre-colonial maritime trade and the Spanish colonial era. There are multiple traditional types and names of abaca cloth among the different ethnic groups of the Philippines. Undyed plain abacá cloth, woven from fine fibers of abaca, is generally known as sinamáy in most of the islands. Abacá cloth with a more delicate texture is called tinampipi. While especially fine lace-like abacá cloth is called nipis or lupis. Fine abacá fibers may also be woven with piña, silk, or fine cotton to create a fabric called jusi.
During the Spanish colonial era, abacá cloth became known as medriñaque in Spanish (apparently derived from a native Cebuano name). They were exported to other Spanish colonies since the 16th century. A waistcoat of a native Quechua man in Peru was recorded as being made of medriñaque as early as 1584. Abacá cloth also appear in English records, spelled variously as medrinacks, medrianacks, medrianackes, and medrinacles, among other names. They were used as canvas for sails and for stiffening clothing like skirts, collars, and doublets.
Philippine indigenous tribes still weave abacá-based textiles like ''t'nalak, made by the Tiboli tribe of South Cotabato, and dagmay'', made by the Bagobo people. Abacá cloth is found in museum collections around the world, like the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Textile Museum of Canada.
Industrial textile production
Processing
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:30-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FIBER-PULP-SHEETS-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|alt1. The raw fibres are tied with rope and shipped to Mindanao, Philippines, where they are boiled and pressed into cardboard like sheets which are then shipped to Taiwan.|1. The raw fibres are tied with rope and shipped to a factory, where they are boiled and pressed into cardboard like sheets.
File:31-QWSTION-BANANATEX-PAPER-MAKING.jpg|2. The abacá fibre sheets are then soaked in water.
File:32-QWSTION-BANANATEX-ABACA-PAPER-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. They are then made into paper which are then cut into strips.
File:34-QWSTION-BANANATEX-YARN-SPINNING.jpg|4. The paper strips are then spun into yarn.
</gallery>
Dyeing and weaving
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:36-1-QWSTION-BANANATEX-YARN-DYEING-2.jpg|alt1. The natural white yarn is sent to Qwstion's dyeing and weaving partner in Tainan, Taiwan. They colour the yarn using the yarn dyeing method which is more sustainable than the roll dyeing alternative and certified OekoTex® Standard 100, the highest standard.|1. The natural white yarn is then coloured using the yarn dyeing method which is more sustainable than the roll dyeing alternative.
File:40-QWSTION-BANANATEX-WARPING-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|2. The warp yarns are then prepared for weaving.
File:38-QWSTION-BANANATEX-WEAVING-3-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|3. The yarn is then woven at extra high density.
File:48-QWSTION-BANANATEX-LOOM-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|Weaving looms processing the fabric.
File:49-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FABRIC.jpg|4. The finished Manila hemp fabric, a natural beeswax coating is added to make the fabric waterproof. This particular fabric is manufactured by the Swiss company QWSTION.
</gallery>
Manila rope
Manila rope is a type of rope made from manila hemp. Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets.
Manila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that the shrinkage is less than it would be if the rope had never been wet. A major disadvantage in this shrinkage is that many knots made with manila rope became harder and more difficult to untie when wet, thus becoming subject of increased stress. Manila rope will rot after a period of time when exposed to saltwater.
Manila hemp rope was previously the favoured variety of rope used for executions by hanging, both in the U.K. and USA. Usually 3/4 to 1 inch diameter, boiled prior to use to take out any overelasticity. It was also used in the 19th century as whaling line. Abacá fiber was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance.See also
*Musa basjoo (Japanese banana), banana species also used as a traditional source of fiber in Okinawa, Japan
*Kijōka-bashōfu, similar traditional fiber from Okinawa, Japan
*Piña
*T'nalak
*Malong
*Tapis
*Inabel
*Batik
*Yakan people
*Fiber crop
*International Year of Natural Fibres
*Natural fiber
*Manila folder
* Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia
Notes
FootnotesReferences*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Yllano, O. B., Diaz, M. G. Q., Lalusin, A. G., Laurena, A. C., & Tecson-Mendoza, E. M. (2020). Genetic Analyses of Abaca (Musa textilis Née) Germplasm from its Primary Center of Origin, the Philippines, Using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers. Philippine Agricultural Scientist, 103(4).
External links
*The World Book encyclopedia set, 1988.
*See International Year of Natural Fibres 2009
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090212162352/http://filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactIDBKJ000000001&page1&epage=15 abacá] A comprehensive pamphlet about Philippine abacá presented 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco. Online publication uploaded in [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085143/http://filipiniana.net/ Filipiniana.net]
Category:Musa (genus)
Category:Flora of the Philippines
Category:Fiber plants
Category:Biodegradable materials
Category:Philippine clothing
Category:History of Asian clothing
Category:Philippine handicrafts
Category:Austronesian agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacá | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.025706 |
2474 | Abaddon | right|Apollyon (top) battling Christian in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress|250px|thumb
The Hebrew term Abaddon ( , meaning "destruction", "doom") and its Greek equivalent Apollyon (, Apollúōn meaning "Destroyer") appear in the Bible as both a place of destruction and an angel of the abyss. In the Hebrew Bible, abaddon is used with reference to a bottomless pit, often appearing alongside the place Sheol ( ), meaning the resting place of dead peoples.
In the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, an angel called Abaddon is described as the king of an army of locusts; his name is first transcribed in Koine Greek (Revelation 9:11—"whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon") as , and then translated , Apollyon. The Vulgate and the Douay–Rheims Bible have additional notes not present in the Greek text, "in Latin Exterminans", being the Latin word for "destroyer".
In medieval Christian literature, Abaddon's portrayal diverges significantly, as seen in the "Song of Roland", an 11th-century epic poem. Abaddon is depicted as part of a fictional trinity, alongside Mahome (Mahound) and Termagant (Termagaunt), which the poem attributes to the religious practices of Muslims.
Etymology
According to the Brown–Driver–Briggs lexicon, the Hebrew is an intensive form of the Semitic root and verb stem "perish", transitive "destroy", which occurs 184 times in the Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint, an early Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, renders "Abaddon" as "" (), while the Greek is the active participle of ἀπόλλυμι , "to destroy".
Judaism
Hebrew Bible
The term abaddon appears six times in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible; abaddon means destruction or "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is accompanied by Sheol.
Job 26:6: Sheol is naked before Him; Abaddon has no cover.
Job 28:22: Abaddon and Death say, "We have only a report of it."
Job 31:12: A fire burning down to Abaddon, Consuming the roots of all my increase.
Psalm 88:11: Is your steadfast love declared in the grave, or your faithfulness in Abaddon?
Proverbs 15:11: Sheol and Abaddon lie exposed to the LORD, How much more the minds of men!
Proverbs 27:20: Sheol and Abaddon cannot be satisfied, Nor can the eyes of man be satisfied.
Second Temple era texts
The Thanksgiving Hymns—a text found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947—tell of "the Sheol of Abaddon" and of the "torrents of Belial [that] burst into Abaddon". The Biblical Antiquities (misattributed to Philo) mention Abaddon as a place (destruction) rather than as an individual. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of Gehenna. By extension, the name can refer to an underworld abode of lost souls, or Gehenna.
Rabbinical literature
In some legends, Abaddon is identified as a realm where the damned lie in fire and snow, one of the places in Gehenna that Moses visited.
Christianity
The New Testament contains the first known depiction of Abaddon as an individual entity instead of a place.
In the Old Testament, Abaddon and Death can be personified:
And,
And,
And,
The Hebrew text of Proverbs 6:32 does not contain the noun () but a participial form of the verb (). But the Septuagint uses (), the accusative case of the noun () with which it also translates in five of the six Hebrew verses that contain the word. (Though an English interlinear of the Septuagint might read "destruction the soul of him obtains", the reader should understand that "adulterer" is the subject, "soul" is the indirect object, and "destruction" is the direct object.)
In Revelation 9:11, Abaddon is described as "Destroyer", the angel of the Abyss,
The symbolism of Revelation 9:11 leaves the identity of Abaddon open to interpretation. Protestant commentator Matthew Henry (1708) believed Abaddon to be the Antichrist, whereas the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary (1871) and Henry Hampton Halley (1922) identified the angel as Satan.
Early in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress the Christian pilgrim fights "over half a day" long with the demon Apollyon. This book permeated Christianity in the English-speaking world for 300 years after its first publication in 1678.
In contrast, the Methodist publication The Interpreter's Bible states, "Abaddon, however, is an angel not of Satan but of God, performing his work of destruction at God's bidding", citing the context at Revelation chapter 20, verses 1 through 3. Jehovah's Witnesses also cite Revelation 20:1-3 where the angel having "the key of the abyss" is actually shown to be a representative of God, concluding that "Abaddon" is another name for Jesus after his resurrection.
In Medieval Christian Literature
In medieval Christian literature, the depiction of Abaddon often mirrors the religious and cultural contexts of the time. A notable illustration of this is found in the Song of Roland, an 11th-century epic poem. This work associates Abaddon with figures such as Mahome (Mahound), Apollyon (Appolin), and Termagant, which are presented as deities in the context of the poem's portrayal of Muslims. The inclusion of Apollyon, a name sometimes linked with Abaddon in Christian texts, highlights the interpretative approaches of the period towards Islamic practices.
Mandaeism
Mandaean scriptures such as the Ginza Rabba mention the Abaddons () as part of the World of Darkness. The Right Ginza mentions the existence of the "upper Abaddons" () as well as the "lower Abaddons" (). The final poem of the Left Ginza mentions the "House of the Abaddons" ().
Häberl (2022) considers the Mandaic word
ʿbdunia to be a borrowing from Hebrew.
Apocryphal texts
In the 3rd-century Gnostic text Acts of Thomas, Abaddon is the name of a demon, or the devil himself.
Abaddon is given particularly important roles in two sources, a homily entitled The Enthronement of Abaddon by pseudo-Timothy of Alexandria, and the Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, by Bartholomew the Apostle. In the homily by Timothy, Abaddon was first named Muriel, and had been given the task by God of collecting the earth that would be used in the creation of Adam. Upon completion of this task, the angel was appointed as a guardian. Everyone, including the angels, demons, and corporeal entities feared him. Abaddon was promised that any who venerated him in life could be saved. Abaddon is also said to have a prominent role in the Last Judgment, as the one who will take the souls to the Valley of Josaphat.
See also
Abaddon in popular culture
List of angels in theology
Maalik
Muriel (angel)
Citations
Further reading
External links
Category:Angels in Christianity
Category:Book of Revelation
Category:Hebrew Bible places
Category:Hell (Christianity)
Category:Individual angels
Category:Jewish underworld
Category:Satan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaddon | 2025-04-05T18:26:05.045459 |
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