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2681 | Abdulaziz | 30 May 1876
| coronation | cor-type
| predecessor = Abdulmejid I
| reg-type =
| regent
| successor = Murad V
| spouse =
| spouse-type = Consorts
| issue =
| issue-link = #Sons
| issue-pipe = Among others
| full name = Abdülaziz Han bin Mahmud
| house = Ottoman
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Mahmud II
| mother = Pertevniyal Sultan
| birth_date = 8 February 1830
| birth_place = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| death_date
| death_place = Feriye Palace, Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| burial_date | burial_place Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II, Fatih, Istanbul
| signature_type = Tughra
| religion = Sunni Islam
| signature = Tughra of Abdülaziz.svg
}}
Abdulaziz (; ; 8 February 18304 June 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was overthrown in a government coup.
Abdulaziz's reign began with the Ottoman Empire resurgent following the Crimean War and two decades of Tanzimat reform, though reliant on European capital. The decade after his accession was dominated by the duo of Fuad Pasha and Aali Pasha, who accelerated reorganization. The Vilayet Law was promulgated, Western codes were applied to more aspects of Ottoman law, and the millets were restructured. The issue of Tanzimat dualism continued to plague the empire, however.
He was the first Ottoman sultan who traveled to Western Europe in a diplomatic capacity, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London, and Vienna in the summer of 1867. With Fuad and Aali dead by 1871, Abdul Aziz promulgated reactionary ministries and attempted absolutist rule. In his last years as sultan, famine, economic crisis and default, diplomatic isolation, government dysfunction, and uprisings by Christian minorities culminated into a general international crisis known as the Great Eastern Crisis. He was deposed by his ministers on the grounds of having mismanaged the Ottoman economy on 30 May 1876, and was found dead six days later in mysterious circumstances.
Early life
Abdulaziz was born at Eyüp Palace, Constantinople (Istanbul) on 8 February 1830. His parents were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan,<!--:tr:Pertevniyal Valide Sultan--> originally named Besime, a Circassian.
The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871.
His paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan. Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Empress Joséphine. Pertevniyal was a sister of Hushiyar Qadin, third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Khushiyar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il Pasha.
Abdulaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was being achieved in the West. He was the first Ottoman sultan who traveled to Western Europe, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London, and Vienna in the summer of 1867.
In addition to his interest in literature, Abdulaziz was also a classical music composer. He took a special interest in documenting the Ottoman Empire. Some of his compositions, together with those of the other members of the Ottoman dynasty, have been collected in the album European Music at the Ottoman Court by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.
Reign
in 1867.]]Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdulmejid I were continued under the leadership of his chief ministers, Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. In London, he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with Ismail Pasha. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland, Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia. Impressed by the museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), According to another account, Pertevniyal was outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie in taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as a possibly more subtly intended reminder that they were not in France.
Railroads
, London and Vienna in 1867, currently at the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul.]]
The first Ottoman railroads were opened between İzmir–Aydın and Alexandria–Cairo in 1856, during the reign of Sultan Abdulmejid I. The first large railway terminal within present-day Turkey, the Alsancak Terminal in İzmir, was opened in 1858. However, these were individual, unconnected railroads, without a railway network. Sultan Abdulaziz established the first Ottoman railway networks. On 17 April 1869, the concession for the Rumelia Railway (i.e. Balkan Railways, Rumeli (Rumelia) meaning the Balkan peninsula in Ottoman Turkish) which connected Istanbul to Vienna was awarded to Baron Maurice de Hirsch (Moritz Freiherr Hirsch auf Gereuth), a Bavaria-born banker from Belgium. The project foresaw a railway route from Istanbul via Edirne, Plovdiv and Sarajevo to the shore of the Sava River. In 1873, the first Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul was opened. The temporary Sirkeci terminal building was later replaced with the current one which was built between 1888 and 1890 (during the reign of Abdülhamid II) and became the final destination terminus of the Orient Express. In 1871, Sultan Abdulaziz established the Anatolia Railway. Construction works of the on the Asian side of Istanbul, from Haydarpaşa to Pendik, began in 1871. The line was opened on 22 September 1872. The railway was extended to Gebze, which opened on 1 January 1873. In August 1873 the railway reached Izmit. Another railway extension was built in 1871 to serve a populated area along Bursa and the Sea of Marmara. The Anatolia Railway was then extended to Ankara and eventually to Mesopotamia, Syria and Arabia during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, with the completion of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway.
Further decline of the empire
in 1875]]
Also in 1867, Abdulaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Governor of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914). Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been the governors of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867. In return, the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, had agreed a year earlier (in 1866) to increase the annual tax revenues which Egypt and Sudan would provide for the Ottoman treasury. Between 1854 and 1894, the revenues from Egypt and Sudan were often declared as a surety by the Ottoman government for borrowing loans from British and French banks. when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I and changed the status of these territories as British protectorates (which was formally recognized by Turkey with Articles 17–21 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923). One of those physicians also stated that "His skin was very pale, and entirely free from bruises, marks or spots of any kind whatever. There was no lividity of the lips indicating suffocation nor any sign of pressure having been applied to the throat". Abdulaziz's death was documented as a suicide.
Conspiracy theories
There are several sources claiming the death of Abdulaziz was due to an assassination. Islamic nationalist author Necip Fazıl Kısakürek claimed that it was a clandestine operation carried out by the British.
Another similar claim is based on the book The Memoirs of Sultan Abdulhamid II. In the book, which turned out to be a fraud, the author claims that Sultan Murad V had begun to show signs of paranoia, madness, and continuous fainting and vomiting until the day of his coronation, and he even threw himself into a pool yelling at his guards to protect his life. High-ranking politicians of the time were afraid the public would become outraged and revolt to bring Abdulaziz back to power. Thus, they arranged the assassination of Abdulaziz by cutting his wrists and announced that "he committed suicide". This book of memoir was commonly referred to as a first-hand testimony of the assassination of Abdulaziz. Yet it was proven, later on, that Abdulhamid II never wrote nor dictated such a document.
Honours, emblem, flag
Honours
* Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle, with Collar, 1865
* : Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 14 August 1867
* : Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword
* : Knight of the Golden Fleece, 24 June 1870
* : Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, 14 December 1874 Emblem and flag<!-- could a vexillologist please clarify what type of flag the right is. Is it an ensign? burgee? Some type of penant? -->
Family
Abdülaziz's harem was known because, although slavery in the Ottoman Empire had already been abolished, his mother Pertevniyal Sultan continued to send him slave girls from the Caucasus.
Consorts
Abdülaziz had six consorts:'s reception of H.I.M. The Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz Khan at The Guildhall on 18 July 1867, issued to The Chairman of the P. & O. Steam Navigation Company.]]
* Dürrinev Kadın (15 March 1835 - 4 December 1895). BaşKadin. Called also Dürrunev Kadın. Georgian, born Princess Melek Dziapş-lpa, before becoming a consort she was a lady-in-waiting to Servetseza Kadin, consort of Abdülmecid I. She had two sons and a daughter.
* Edadil Kadın (1845 - 12 December 1875). Second Kadın. She was Abkhazian, born Princess Aredba. She became Abdülaziz's consort at the time of his accession to the throne. She had a son and a daughter.
* Hayranidil Kadın (2 November 1846 - 26 November 1895). Second Kadın after Edadil's death. She perhaps was of slave origin. She had a son and a daughter.
* Neşerek Kadın (1848 - 11 June 1876). Third Kadin. Called also Nesrin Kadın or Nesteren Kadin. Circassian, born in Sochi as Princess Zevş-Barakay. She had a son and a daughter.
* Gevheri Kadın (8 July 1856 - 6 September 1884). Fourth Kadın. She was Abkhazian and her real name was Emine Hanim. She had a son and a daughter.
* Yıldız Hanim. Baş Ikbal. Sister of Safinaz Nurefsun Kadın, consort of Abdülhamid II. She had two daughters.
In addition to these, Abdülaziz planned to marry the Egyptian princess Tawhida Hanim, daughter of the Egyptian Khedive Isma'il Pasha. His Grand Vizier, Mehmed Fuad Pasha, was opposed to marriage and wrote a note for the sultan explaining that marriage would be politically counterproductive and would give Egypt an undue advantage. However, the Grand Chamberlain, instead of handing the note to the sultan, read it to him in public, humiliating him. Although the marriage project was abandoned, Fuad was fired for the accident.
Sons
Abdülaziz had six sons:
* Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin (11 October 1857 - 1 February 1916) - with Dürrinev Kadın. Favorite son of his father, he was born when Abdülaziz was still a prince and therefore was kept hidden until his accession to the throne. During his reign, Abdülaziz unsuccessfully attempted to change the law of succession to allow him to inherit the throne. He had six consorts, two sons and two daughters.
* Şehzade Mahmud Celaleddin (14 November 1862 - 1 September 1888) - with Edadil Kadin. He was vice admiral, pianist and flutist. He was the favorite nephew of Adile Sultan, who dedicated several poetic components to him. He had a consort but no child.
* Şehzade Mehmed Selim (28 October 1866 - 21 October 1867) - with Dürrinev Kadın. Born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace, buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Abdülmecid II (29 May 1868 - 23 August 1944) - with Hayranidil Kadin. He never became sultan due to the abolition of the Sultanate in 1922, and was the last caliph of the Ottoman Empire.
* Şehzade Mehmed Şevket (5 June 1872 - 22 October 1899) - with Neşerek Kadın. Parentless at the age of four, he was welcomed in Yıldız Palace by Abdülhamid II, who raised him with his children. He had a consort and a son.
* Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (22 September 1874 - 19 October 1927) - with Gevheri Kadin. Fatherless at the Age of two, he was welcomed by Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin. Vice admiral and musician. He had four consorts, three sons and a daughter.
Daughters
Abdülaziz had seven daughters:
* Fatma Saliha Sultan (10 August 1862 - 1941) - with Dürrinev Kadın. She married once and had a daughter.
* Nazime Sultan (February 25, 1866 - 9 November 1947) - with Hayranidil Kadin. She married once but had no children.
* Emine Sultan (30 November 1866 - 23 January 1867) - with Edadil Kadin. Born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Esma Sultan (21 March 1873 - 7 May 1899) - with Gevheri Kadin. Fatherless at the age of three, she was welcomed with her mother by her half-brother Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin. She married once and had four sons and a daughter. She died in childbirth.
* Fatma Sultan (1874–1875) - with Yıldız Hanim. She was born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace, buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Emine Sultan (24 August 1874 - 29 January 1920) - with Neşerek Kadın. Parentless at the age of two, she was welcomed with her mother by her half-brother Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin. She married once and had a daughter.
* Münire Sultan (1876/1877 - 1877) - with Yıldız Hanim. She was born posthumously and died as a newborn.
See also
* Imperial Firman of 27 May 1866
Annotations
Between 1861 and 1867, he had three kadıns. }}
References
Sources
*
*
*External links
*
30 May 1876
}}
30 May 1876
}}
Category:1830 births
Category:1876 deaths
Category:1870s suicides
Category:Dethroned monarchs
Category:19th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Category:Turks from the Ottoman Empire
Category:Composers of Ottoman classical music
Category:Composers of Turkish makam music
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Category:Heads of state who died by suicide
Category:Suicides by sharp instrument in Turkey
Category:Sons of sultans
Category:Royalty who died by suicide | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdulaziz | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.474312 |
2684 | Abdera, Spain | __NOTOC__
|region =
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|builder |material
|built |abandoned
|epochs |cultures
|dependency_of |occupants
|event |excavations
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Abdera was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.
Name
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription (). () but can no longer be found at the Cabinet des Médailles.}} The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for "servant" or "slave"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.
It appears in Greek sources as tà Ábdēra () and Aúdēra (), Ábdara (), and tò Ábdēron ().
History
Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony. It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica.<ref name"EB1911"/> Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.CoinsThe most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town's main temple with two erect tunas as its columns.<ref name"EB1911"/> Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
* .
Further reading
*
Category:Phoenician colonies in Spain
Category:Former populated places in Spain
Category:Archaeological sites in Andalusia
Category:Roman sites in Spain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdera,_Spain | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.480714 |
2685 | Abdera, Thrace | |postal_code |area_code
|licence = AH
|website |image_skyline Abdera.JPG
|caption_skyline = Remains of the ancient city of Abdera.
|mayor Georgios Tsitiridis
|party |since 2014
}}
Abdera () is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek polis on the Thracian coast.
The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor. The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization. The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece. After the 4th centuryAD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.
During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city. It was called Polystylon (), and later considered as the New Abdera (). In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements. The ancient site remains in it as a ruin. The municipality of Abdera has 17,610 inhabitants (2021). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.
Name
The name Abdera is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. (Ábdeira) in Claudius Ptolemy's Geography.}} It was variously Hellenized as (Ábdēra), (Aúdēra), (Ábdēron), before being Latinized as Abdera. Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules's founding of a city at the location.
The present-day town is written Avdira () and pronounced in modern Greek.
History
Antiquity
es, Clazomenae and Teos.]]
.]]
The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.
The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654BC. (Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera's failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios's having left Klazomenai.
Strabo describes Abdera as "a Thracian city" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area. The successful colonisation occurred in 544BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian invasion of their homeland. The chief coin type, a griffon, is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.
In 513 and 512BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.
Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom.
A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, The Philogelos, a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about dumb Abderans. Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras
Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.
The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56'1.02"N 24°58'21.81"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon (). Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi. By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.ModernAvdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928. The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani.
The municipality has an area of 352.047 km<sup>2</sup>, the municipal unit 161.958 km<sup>2</sup>. The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.
Landmarks
Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, the Kütüklü Baba Tekke, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also Paralia Avdiron) near the village Lefkippos.
Famous people
* Democritus
* Protagoras
* Hecateus
* Nicaenetus
See also
* List of ancient Greek cities
Notes
ReferencesCitationsSources*
*
* Adak, Mustafa and Thonemann, Peter (2022). Teos and Abdera: Two Cities in Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
*
*
* .
Category:Municipalities of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
Category:Populated places in Xanthi (regional unit)
Category:Ionian colonies in Thrace
Category:Ancient Greek cities
Category:Members of the Delian League
Category:Populated places established in the 7th century BC
Category:Greek city-states
Category:Populated places in ancient Thrace
Category:Phoenician colonies in Greece
Category:Towns of fools | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdera,_Thrace | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.490041 |
2686 | Apollos | 1400s
|birth_place|death_place
|titles= Confessor
|canonized_date= Pre-Congregation
|canonized_place|canonized_by
|patronage|major_shrine
|suppressed_date|issues
}}
Apollos () was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.
Biblical account
Acts of the Apostles
Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as "being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John". Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:
:"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately."
The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos "knew only the baptism of John". Later, during Apollos' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus:
Before Paul's arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and "greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.
1 Corinthians
Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos' role at Corinth:
:I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.
Paul's Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. "It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul [...] alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence 'I am for Cephas'. [...] What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; 'I am for Christ'." Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians' immaturity in faith.
Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Apollos' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, for example, commented: "It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew ... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader ... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching."
There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.
Epistle to Titus
Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to "speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way".
Extrabiblical information
Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul's letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea. He also suggested there were those in Corinth "...fascinated by [Apollos’] way of speaking...." The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos' authorship of Hebrews as "generally believed". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.
Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.
Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25. Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great).NotesReferences
* Articles in
** Encyclopaedia Biblica
** Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie
** The Jewish Encyclopedia ([http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid1650&letterA&search=Apollos Jewish Encyclopedia: Apollos])
* James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible
* Karl Heinrich von Weizsäcker, Das apostolische Zeitalter (1886)
* A. C. McGiffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age.
* Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion
Category:1st-century bishops in Roman Achaea
Category:Biblical apostles
Category:Christianity in Roman Corinth
Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism
Category:Early Jewish Christians
Category:First Epistle to the Corinthians
Category:People in the Pauline epistles
Category:Seventy disciples | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollos | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.495500 |
2687 | Acquis communautaire | The Community acquis or acquis communautaire (; ), sometimes called the EU acquis, and often shortened to acquis,
Chapters
During the process of the enlargement of the European Union, the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate states for membership for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus Romania and Bulgaria which joined in 2007). These chapters were:
Free movement of goods
Free movement of persons
Freedom to provide services
Free movement of capital
Company law
Competition policy
Agriculture
Fisheries
Transport policy
Taxation
Economic and Monetary Union
Statistics
Social policy and employment
Energy
Industrial policy
Small and medium-sized enterprises
Science and research
Education and training
Telecommunication and information technologies
Culture and audio-visual policy
Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments
Environment
Consumers and health protection
Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs
Customs union
External relations
Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
Financial control
Financial and budgetary provisions
Institutions
Others
Beginning with the negotiations with Croatia (which joined in 2013), the acquis is split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: (dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process)
Free movement of goods
Freedom of movement for workers
Right of establishment and freedom to provide services
Free movement of capital
Public procurement
Company law
Intellectual property law
Competition policy
Financial services
Information society and media
Agriculture and rural development
Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy
Fisheries
Transport policy
Energy
Taxation
Economic and monetary policy
Statistics
Social policy and employment (including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)
Enterprise and industrial policy
Trans-European networks
Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments
Judiciary and fundamental rights
Justice, freedom and security
Science and research
Education and culture
Environment
Consumer and health protection
Customs union
External relations
Foreign, security and defence policy
Financial control
Financial and budgetary provisions
Institutions
Other issues
Correspondence between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement:
5th Enlargement 6th Enlargement 1. Free movement of goods 1. Free movement of goods 7. Intellectual property law 2. Free movement of persons 2. Freedom of movement for workers 3. Right of establishment and freedom to provide services 3. Freedom to provide services 9. Financial services 4. Free movement of capital 4. Free movement of capital 5. Company law 6. Company law 6. Competition policy 8. Competition policy 5. Public procurement 7. Agriculture 11. Agriculture and rural development 12. Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy 8. Fisheries 13. Fisheries 9. Transport policy 14. Transport policy 21. Trans-European networks (one half of it) 10. Taxation 16. Taxation 11. Economic and Monetary Union 17. Economic and monetary policy 12. Statistics 18. Statistics 13. Social policy and employment 19. Social policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men) 14. Energy 15. Energy 21. Trans-European networks (one half of it) 15. Industrial policy 20. Enterprise and industrial policy 16. Small and medium-sized enterprises 17. Science and research 25. Science and research 18. Education and training 26. Education and culture10. Information society and media 19. Telecommunication and information technologies 20. Culture and audio-visual policy 21. Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments 22. Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments 22. Environment 27. Environment 23. Consumer and health protection 28. Consumer and health protection 24. Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs 23. Judiciary and fundamental rights 24. Justice, freedom and security 25. Customs union 29. Customs union 26. External relations 30. External relations 27. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 31. Foreign, security and defence policy 28. Financial control 32. Financial control 29. Financial and budgetary provisions 33. Financial and budgetary provisions 30. Institutions 34. Institutions 31. Others 35. Other issues
Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the acquis.
Terminology
The term acquis is also used to describe laws adopted under the Schengen Agreement, prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the Treaty of Amsterdam, in which case one speaks of the Schengen acquis.
The term acquis has been borrowed by the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, in the case Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, to refer to the accumulation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO law ("acquis gattien"), though this usage is not well established.
It has been used to describe the achievements of the Council of Europe (an international organisation unconnected with the European Union):
It has also been applied to the body of "principles, norms and commitments" of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE):
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its "Strategy for enlargement and outreach", May 2004.
See also
Official Journal of the European Union
Primacy of European Union law
Subsidiarity
References
External links
EUR-Lex: European Union Law.
JRC-Acquis, Aligned multilingual parallel corpus: 23,000 Acquis-related texts per language, available in 22 languages. Total size: 1 Billion words.
Translation Memory of the EU-Acquis: Up to 1 Million translation units each, for 231 language pairs.
Category:European Union constitutional law | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquis_communautaire | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.515496 |
2689 | Antacid | thumb|Calcium carbonate antacid tablets
An antacid is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity and is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion, or an upset stomach. Some antacids have been used in the treatment of constipation and diarrhea. Marketed antacids contain salts of aluminum, calcium, magnesium, or sodium.
Medical uses
Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Alternative uses for antacids include constipation, diarrhea, hyperphosphatemia, and urinary alkalization.
Non-particulate antacids (sodium citrate) increase gastric pH with little or no effect on gastric volume, and therefore may see some limited use in pre-operative procedures. Sodium citrate should be given within one hour of surgery to be the most effective.
Side effects
Conventional effervescent tablets contain a significant amount of sodium and are associated with increased odds of adverse cardiovascular events according to a 2013 study. Alternative sodium-free formulations containing magnesium salts may cause diarrhea, whereas those containing calcium or aluminum may cause constipation. Long-term use of antacids containing aluminum may increase the risk of developing osteoporosis. In vitro studies have found a potential for acid rebound to occur due to antacid overuse, however the significance of this finding has been called into question.
Properties of antacids
When an excess amount of acid is produced in the stomach, the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can degrade, leading to pain and irritation. There is also potential for the development of acid reflux, which can cause pain and damage to the esophagus. Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage to the stomach lining and esophagus, and relieving pain.
Antacids do not directly inhibit acid secretion, and thus are distinct from acid-reducing drugs like H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors.
Interactions
thumb|Structural depiction of tetracycline metal chelation, where 'M' is a metal such as those found in antacids
Antacids are known to interact with several oral medications, including fluoroquinolone and tetracycline antibiotics, iron, itraconazole, and prednisone. Metal chelation is responsible for some of these interactions (e.g. fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines), leading to decreased absorption of the chelated drug. Some interactions may be due to the pH increase observed in the stomach following antacid ingestion, leading to increased absorption of weak acids, and decreased absorption of weak bases. Antacids also cause an increase in pH of the urine (alkalization), which may cause increased blood concentrations of weak bases, and increased excretion of weak acids.
A proposed method to mitigate the effects of stomach acidity and chelation on drug absorption is to space out the administration of antacids with interacting medications by at least two hours, however this method has not been well studied for drugs affected by urine alkalization.
Liquids
Several liquid antacid preparations are marketed. Common liquid preparations include milk of magnesia and magnesium/aluminum combinations. A potential advantage of using a liquid preparation over a tablet is that liquids may provide quicker relief, however this may coincide with a shorter duration of action.
Tablets
Chewable tablets
Chewable tablets are one of the most common forms of antacids, most frequently made from carbonate or hydroxide salts, and are readily available over the counter. Upon reaching the stomach, the powdered antacid salts bind to hydronium (H+) ions, producing chloride salts, carbon dioxide, and water. This process reduces the concentration of H+ ions in the stomach, raising the pH and neutralizing the acid.
Effervescent tablets
Effervescent tablets are tablets which are designed to dissolve in water, and then release carbon dioxide. Common ingredients include citric acid and sodium bicarbonate, which react when in contact with water to produce carbon dioxide. Effervescent antacids may also contain aspirin, sodium carbonate, or tartaric acid. Those containing aspirin may cause further gastric irritation and ulceration due to aspirin's effects on the mucous membrane of the stomach.
Brand names
Some brands include Alka-Seltzer, Gaviscon, Tums, Gelusil and Eno.
References
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antacid | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.532483 |
2690 | Antidiarrheal | Antidiarrheals are a class of medication used primarily to manage and reduce the frequency of diarrhea. This class of medication predominantly works by slowing digestion, reducing fluid loss, or improving absorption. There are four main classes: opiates, 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptor antagonists, adsorbents, and bulk-forming agents. Commonly used medications include loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate, bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), Cholestyramine, and Octreotide. Although not considered an antidiarrheal, oral rehydration solutions are also an important aspect of managing diarrhea. The most common causes of acute diarrhea in children are the viral agents norovirus and rotavirus, accounting for about 70% of cases. Travelers’ diarrhea (TD) is one of the most common illnesses affecting people of all ages abroad, with up to 70% of travelers developing symptoms within two weeks. While traditional advice like avoiding uncooked or unpeeled foods was once thought to be effective, poor sanitation and food handling practices—especially in local eateries—remain major risk factors.
Dehydration and oral replacement therapy
The primary risk from diarrhea is dehydration and electrolyte loss, making fluid and electrolyte replacement the top treatment priority. While generally safe, even when combined with antibiotics, the use of opiates may slightly increase the risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Since it is a heavy metal, in may cause encephalopathy in rare cases. <ref name":02" /> Bile acid resins Bile acid binding resins like cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevelam are effective but can cause constipation and may interfere with the absorption of other medications, so they should be taken at least two hours apart from other drugs. <ref name":12" />
Alpha-2 (α<sub>2</sub>) adrenergic agonists
Clonidine, used for diabetic diarrhea, is often limited by its ability to lower blood pressure.<ref name":12" /> 5-HT<sub>3</sub> antagonists Alosetron, often used for IBS-related diarrhea, poses a risk of colonic ischemia and severe constipation, which makes it infrequently used.<ref name":12" />
Available forms
{| class="wikitable"
|+Antidiarrheal Medications<ref name=":02" />
! colspan"2" |Inhibition of Intestinal Transit<ref name":02" />
|-
| rowspan="8" |Opiates
|Loperamide
|-
|Eluxadoline
|-
|Diphenoxylate
|-
|Difenoxin
|-
|Codeine
|-
|Opium
|-
|Paregoric
|-
|Morphine
|-
|Enkephalinase inhibitor
|Racecadotril
|-
|5-HT₃ receptor antagonist
|Alosetron
|-
|α₂-Adrenergic agonist
|Clonidine
|-
| rowspan="3" |Somatostatin and analogs
|Octreotide
|-
|Lanreotide
|-
|Pasireotide
|-
|Calcium channel blocker
|Nifedipine
|-
! colspan"2" |Pro-absorptive Agents<ref name":02" />
|-
|Glucose, amino acids
|
|-
|Oral rehydration solution
|
|-
|α₂-Adrenergic agonist
|Clonidine
|-
! colspan"2" |Antisecretory Drugs<ref name":02" />
|-
| rowspan="3" |Somatostatin and analogs
|Octreotide
|-
|Lanreotide
|-
|Pasireotide
|-
| rowspan="2" |Enterocyte apical membrane chloride channel inhibitors
|Crofelemer
|-
|Berberine
|-
|Calcium channel blockers
|Nifedipine
|-
| rowspan="2" |Calmodulin inhibitors
|Chlorpromazine
|-
|Trifluoperazine
|-
| rowspan="2" |Calcium-sensing receptor ligands
|Calcium
|-
|Nicotinic acid
|-
|Lithium
|
|-
|Zinc
|
|-
|Bismuth
|
|-
|Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
|
|-
|Corticosteroids
|
|-
|Teduglutide
|
|-
! colspan"2" |Intraluminal Agents<ref name":02" />
|-
| rowspan="1" |Adsorbents
|Clays
|-
| rowspan="3" |Bile acid-binding resins
|Cholestyramine
|-
|Colestipol
|-
|Colesevelam
|-
|Fiber
|
|}
See also
* ATC code A07 Antidiarrheals, intestinal anti-inflammatory/anti-infective agents
References
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidiarrheal | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.540614 |
2691 | Áed mac Cináeda | Áed mac Cináeda (Modern Scottish Gaelic: Aodh mac Choinnich; ; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin). He became king of the Picts in 877 when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed Áed of the White Flowers, the wing-footed () or the white-foot ().
Sources
The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says of Áed: "Edus [Áed] held the same [i.e., the kingdom] for one year. The shortness of his reign has bequeathed nothing memorable to history. He was slain in the civitas of Nrurim." Nrurim is unidentified.
The Annals of Ulster says that, in 878, "Áed mac Cináeda, king of the Picts, was killed by his associates." Tradition, reported by George Chalmers in his Caledonia (1807), and by the New Statistical Account (1834–1845), has it that the early-historic mound of the Cunninghillock by Inverurie is the burial place of Áed. This is based on reading Nrurim as Inruriu.
A longer account is interpolated in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland. This says that Áed reigned for one year and was killed by his successor Giric in Strathallan and other king lists have the same report.
It is uncertain which if any, of The Prophecy of Berchán'''s kings should be taken to be Áed. William Forbes Skene presumed that the following verses referred to Áed:
129. Another king will take [sovereignty]; small is the profit that he does not divide. Alas for Scotland thenceforward. His name will be the Furious.130. He will be but a short time over Scotland. The will be no [word uncertain] unplundered. Alas for Scotland, through the youth; alas for their books, alas for their bequests.131. He will be nine years in the kingdom. I shall tell you – it will be a tale of truth – he dies without bell, with communion, at evening, in a fatal pass.
Áed's son, Constantín mac Áeda, became king in 900.
See also
Kingdom of Alba
References
Sources
Anderson, Alan Orr; Early Sources of Scottish History A.D. 500–1286, volume 1. Reprinted with corrections, Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990.
Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie; Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland, Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh, revised edition 1980.
Duncan, A. A. M.; The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002.
Smyth, Alfred P.; Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland A.D. 80–1000'', E.J. Arnold, London, 1984 (reprinted Edinburgh University Press).
External links
The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba (CKA)
Friends of Grampian Stones – history of Inverurie
Second Statistical Account [vol. XII (County of Aberdeen), p. 681]
Aed at the official website of the British monarchy
Category:878 deaths
Category:9th-century Scottish monarchs
Category:Burials at Iona Abbey
Category:House of Alpin
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Gaels | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Áed_mac_Cináeda | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.546431 |
2692 | Abdul Hamid I | | house = Ottoman
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = Ahmed III
| mother = Rabia Şermi Kadın
| signature_type = Tughra
| religion = Sunni Islam
| signature = Tughra of Abdülhamid I.svg
}}
Abdulhamid I or Abdul Hamid I (, `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel; ; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries "There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn."
advances from Sofia, its largest garrison in Rumelia, in the year 1788.]]
Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire's armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy. He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a Veli ("saint"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.
Abdul Hamid I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended. He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.
In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road. On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved. Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.
Architecture
Abdul Hamid I, left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul. The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77. He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building. The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building. During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret was, the fountain removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.
In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square. He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed. In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş.CharacterHe wrote down the troubles he saw before, to the grand vizier or to the governor of his empire. He accepted the invitations of his grand vizier and went to his mansions, followed by the reading of the Quran. He was humble and a religious Sultan.
It is known that Abdul Hamid I was fond of his children, was interested in family life, and spent the summer months in Karaağaç, Beşiktaş with his consorts, sons and daughters. His daughter Esma Sultan's dressing styles, her passion for entertainment, and her journey to the objects with her journeymen and concubines have set an example for Istanbul ladies.FamilyAbdülhamid I is famous for having concubines even during the period of confinement in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. From these relationships at least one daughter was conceived, secretly born and raised outside the Palace until the enthronement of Abdülhamid, when she was accepted at court as the sultan's "adopted daughter".ConsortsAbdülhamid I had at least fourteen consorts:
*Ayşe Kadın. BaşKadin (first consort) until her death in 1775. She was buried in Yeni Cami.
* Hace Hatice Ruhşah Kadın. BaşKadin after Ayşe's death. She was Abdulhamid's most beloved consort. She was his concubine even before he became sultan. Five incredibly intense love letters that the sultan wrote to her around that time have been preserved. Mother of at least a son. After Abdülhamid's death she made the pilgrimage to Mecca by proxy, which earned her the name "Hace". She died in 1808 and was buried in mausoleum Abdülhamid I.
*Binnaz Kadın (1743 - May/June 1823), also known as Beynaz Kadın. She had previously been the consort of Abdulhamid's predecessor, Mustafa III. With no children of either of them, after Abdülhamid's death she married Çayırzade İbrahim Ağa. She was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
*Nevres Kadın. Before she became a consort she was the treasurer of the harem. She died in 1797.
*Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She is the mother of at least two sons, including Mustafa IV, and two daughters. She was Valide sultan for less than a year before the deposition of her son, and spent the rest of her life in her daughter's palace. She died on 11 December 1828.
*Mehtabe Kadın. Initially a Kalfa (servant) of the harem, she became consort through the favour of kızları agasi Beşir Ağa. She died in 1807.
*Muteber Kadın. Called also Mutebere Kadın. Mother of at least a son. Her personal seal read: “ Devletlü beşinci Muteber Kadın Hazretleri ”. She died on 16 May 1837 and was buried in the Abdülhamid I mausoleum.
*Fatma Şebsefa Kadın. Also called Şebisefa, Şebsafa or Şebisafa Kadin. Mother of at least a son and three daughters. She owned farms in Thessaloniki, which she left to her daughter when she died in 1805. She was buried near the Zeyrek Mosque.
*Nakşidil Kadın. Originally Georgian or Circassian, she became famous for the disproved legend that she was actually the disappeared Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, distant cousin of the Empress Josephine Bonaparte. She is a mother of two sons and a daughter, including Mahmud II. She died on 22 August 1817 and was buried in her mausoleum inside her Fatih Mosque.
*Hümaşah Kadın. Mother of at least a son, she built a fountain near Dolmabahçe and another in Emirgân. She died in 1778 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
*Dilpezir Kadın. She died in 1809 and was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
*Mislinayab Kadın. She was buried in the Nakşıdil Valide Sultan mausoleum.
*Mihriban Kadın. Misidentified by Oztüna as Esma Sultan's mother, she died in 1812 and was buried in Edirne.
*Nükhetseza Hanım. BaşIkbal, she was the youngest consort. She died in 1851.
Sons
Abdülhamid I had at least eleven sons:
* Şehzade Abdüllah (1 January 1776 - 1 January 1776). Born dead, he was buried in Yeni Cami.
* Şehzade Mehmed (22 August 1776 - 20 February 1781) - with Hümaşah Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Şehzade Ahmed (8 December 1776 - 18 November 1778) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Şehzade Abdürrahman (8 September 1777 - 8 September 1777). Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Şehzade Süleyman (13 March 1778 - 19 January 1786) - with Muteber Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Şehzade Ahmed (1779 - 1780). He was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Şehzade Abdülaziz (19 June 1779 - 19 June 1779) - with Ruhşah Kadin. Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Mustafa IV (8 September 1779 - 16 November 1808) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. 29th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, was executed after less than a year.
* Şehzade Mehmed Nusret (20 September 1782 - 23 October 1785) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her mother dedicated a mosque to his memory. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Şehzade Seyfullah Murad (22 October 1783 - 21 January 1785) - with Nakşidil Kadin. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Mahmud II (20 July 1785 - 1 July 1839) - with Nakşidil Kadin. 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Daughters
Abdülhamid I had at least sixteen daughters:
* Ayşe Athermelik Dürrüşehvar Hanım (1767 - 11 May 1826). Called also Athermelek. She was conceived while her father was still Şehzade and confined in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. Her mother was smuggled out of the palace and her birth kept secret, otherwise both would have been killed. When Abdülhamid, who adored her, ascended the throne, he returned her to court with the status of "adopted daughter", which gave her the rank of imperial princess as the other daughters, but he could not grant her the title of "Sultan", so she never came. fully equal to the stepsisters. She married once and had two daughters.
* Hatice Sultan (12 January 1776 - 8 November 1776). First daughter born after her father's accession to the throne, her birth was celebrated for ten days. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Ayşe Sultan (30 July 1777 - 9 September 1777). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
* Esma Sultan (17 July 1778 - 4 June 1848) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She nicknamed Küçük Esma (Esma the younger ) to distinguish her from her aunt, Esma the eldest. Close to her brother Mustafa IV, she attempted to put him back on the throne with the help of their half-sister Hibetullah Sultan, but eventually she became the new sultan's favorite sister, his half-brother Mahmud II, which gave her a degree of freedom never before granted to a princess. She married once but had no children.
* Melekşah Sultan (19 February 1779 - 1780).
* Rabia Sultan (20 March 1780 - 28 June 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Aynışah Sultan (9 July 1780 - 28 July 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Melekşah Sultan (28 January 1781 - 24 December 1781). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Rabia Sultan (10 August 1781 - 3 October 1782). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Fatma Sultan (12 December 1782 - 11 January 1786) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Died of smallpox, she was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum. A fountain was dedicated to her memory.
* Hatice Sultan (6 October 1784 - 1784).
* Alemşah Sultan (11 October 1784 - 10 March 1786) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her birth was celebrated for three days. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Saliha Sultan (27 November 1786 - 10 April 1788) - with Nakşidil Kadin. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Emine Sultan (4 February 1788 - 9 March 1791) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her father strongly hoped she would live and showered her with gifts, including the properties of her later aunt Esma Sultan and a court of Chechen entertainers. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
* Zekiye Sultan (? - 20 March 1788). She died in infancy.
* Hibetullah Sultan (16 March 1789 - 19 September 1841) - with Şebsefa Kadın. She married once but had no children. She collaborated with her half-sister Esma Sultan to restore Mustafa IV, Esma's brother and Hibetullah's half-brother, to the throne, but she was discovered by Mahmud II, the new sultan and also their half-brother, and placed under house arrest for life, unable to communicate with anybody.
Death
in Eminönü quarter of Fatih, Istanbul.]]
Abdul Hamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Istanbul. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.
He bred Arabian horses with great passion. One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named "Küheylan Abdülhamid" after him.
References
Sources
*
*
*
External links
*
[aged 64]
Category:1725 births
Category:1789 deaths
Category:18th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Category:Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian Wars
Category:Turks from the Ottoman Empire
Category:People of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Category:Sons of sultans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_I | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.557476 |
2695 | Abdur Rahman Khan | Abdur Rahman Khan (Pashto: }}) (between 1840 and 1844 – 1 October 1901) also known by his epithet, The Iron Amir, was Amir of Afghanistan from 1880 to his death in 1901. He is known for perpetrating the Hazara Genocide, but also uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India. He became known as The Iron Amir because his government was a military despotism. This despotism rested upon a well-appointed army and was administered through officials subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage.
The nickname, The Iron Amir, is also associated due to his victory over a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives. One source says that during his reign there were over 40 rebellions against his rule. Abdur Rahman Khan's rule was termed by one British official as a "reign of terror", as he was considered despotic and had up to 100,000 people judicially executed during his 21 years as Emir. Thousands more starved to death, caught deadly diseases and died, were massacred by his army, or were killed during his forceful migrations of tribes.Background and early careerBefore his death in Herat, on 9 June 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan, nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan, as his successor, passing over the two elder half brothers of Sher Ali, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan. At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan.
Described by the American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as "a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish, face", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring. Although his father, Afzal Khan came to terms with Amir Sher Ali, Abdur's behavior in the northern province soon excited Amir's suspicion and, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bukhara. Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.
The Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar, but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10 May, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzal Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzal Khan died at the end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868, Sher Ali's return and a general rising in his favour resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at Tinah Khan on 3 January 1869. Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, where Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azam died in Kabul in October 1869.Exile and return to powerUpon the death of Sher Ali Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan, serving exile in Turkestan, requested from the Russians to enter Afghanistan as a claimant of the throne. This request was denied. However, following Yaqub Khan's abdication, as well as the British occupation of Kabul, the Russians allowed Abdur Rahman Khan to re-enter Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman made way for Badakhshan, whose ruler he had marriage ties with. While on route, he did a pilgrimage to the shrine of Khwaja Ahrar, taking his banner after claiming he had a vision that ensured victory. The ruler of Badakhshan did not permit Abdur Rahman to ford the Amu Darya, to which Abdur Rahman did so further downstream. He then crossed a mountain pass while it snowed, arriving at Rostaq, where its garrison defected. With the fall of Rostaq, Abdur Rahman met the Mir of Badakhshan in battle, forcing him to flee to Chitral while Abdur Rahman annexed Badakhshan.
Abdur Rahman requested from Sultan Murad of Kunduz for military access so he could advance on Kabul. This request was denied. However, Ghulam Haidar Khan, Yaqub's governor of Balkh, attacked Kunduz, occupying it, and forcing Sultan Murad to flee to Fayzabad. Sultan Murad then aligned with Abdur Rahman, and encouraged rebellion against Ghulam Haidar, with the commander of Takhtapul declaring for Abdur Rahman. Ghulam Haidar fled across the Amu Darya, leaving the entirety of Afghan Turkestan under Abdur Rahman's control.
The British, eyeing for a suitable candidate to be the ruler of Afghanistan, scouted Abdur Rahman Khan, and began negotiating with him. Abdur Rahman was reluctant to accept such a proposal, as he considered himself an opponent of the British, with his own men wishing for Jihad against them. While negotiations continued, the British considered numerous political solutions, including dividing Afghanistan into numerous kingdoms. The British were seeking to a quick conclusion to the war due to the resignation of Lytton, with his successor, the Marquis of Ripon, wishing to withdraw all British troops from Afghanistan as quickly as possible. With this, the British no longer wished to uphold a British envoy in Afghanistan. However, both sides continued to differ, with the British wishing to keep Kandahar under their control with Sardar Sher Ali as governor, while Abdur Rahman saw it imperative as a part of Afghanistan.
Believing that the British might withdraw, Abdur Rahman Khan arrived in Charikar sometime in July 1880, where religious leaders from regions such as Panjshir, Kohistan, and Tagab welcomed his arrival. On 19 July, the British informed Abdur Rahman that they were prepared to recognize him as the ruler of Afghanistan, inviting him to Kabul for a ceremony. Abdur Rahman called a Jirga, with many tribal leaders declaring for him, while Abdur Rahman was declared the Amir of Kabul.
Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand.ReignA central political issue in Afghanistan during Khan's reign was the difficulties in establishing a relationship between nationalism, Islam, and claims to political legitimacy by traditional tribal structures. At the durbar on 22 July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new Amir.
However, Ayub Khan, one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880. This serious reverse roused the Amir, who had not displayed much activity. Instead, Ayub Khan was defeated in Kandahar by the British General Frederick Roberts on 1 September 1880. Ayub Khan was forced to flee into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated firm on the throne at Kabul, thanks to the unwavering British protections in terms of giving large supplies of arms and money. In the course of the next few years, Abdul Rahman consolidated his grip over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrection by a relentless and brutal use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai revolted against the severity of his measures several times.
In 1885, at the moment when the Amir was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else.
His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency, the Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.
, built for the Amir]]
His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees. He was allowed to import munitions of war. He succeeded in imposing an organised government one of the most the fiercest and unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country.
He also built himself several summer and guest houses, including the Bagh-e Bala Palace and Chihil Sutun Palace in Kabul, and the Jahan Nama Palace in Kholm.
The Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan, the crown prince, went instead.Durand Line
In 1893, Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions. Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation.
In the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British-governed India, and was tasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand Line, between the two parties camped at Parachinar, now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost, Afghanistan. From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, British Political Agent in Khyber. Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.
In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan the Durand Line Treaty for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, now provinces of Pakistan as a successor state of British India. In 1905, Amir Habibullah Khan signed a new agreement with the United Kingdom which confirmed the legality of the Durand Line. Similarly, the legality of the Durand Line was once again confirmed by King Amanullah Khan through the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919.
The Durand Line was once again recognised as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan by Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan (former prime minister and later president of Afghanistan) during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976.Dictatorship and the "Iron Amir"Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.
In the 1880s, the "Iron Emir" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security. For example, he "uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in the north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory."
Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of Abdur Rahman.
Hazara genocide
In the early 1890s Hazaras revolted against Abdur Rahman. As the Kabul Newsletters written by the British agents indicate, Abdur Rahman was an extremely ruthless man. He has been called 'The Dracula Amir' by some writers. In the Bamyan region, Abdur Rahman ordered soldiers to destroy the faces of the Buddhas of Bamiyan during a military campaign against a Hazara rebellion in the area.
Death and descendants
, Kabul.]]
Abdur Rahman died on 1 October 1901, inside his summer palace, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan who is the father of Amanullah Khan.
Today, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France, Germany, and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark. His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. One of the Amir's grandchildren, Azizullah Khan Ziai was the ambassador of Iran from 1930 to 1932, he was the son of Nasrullah Khan.LegacyAfghan society has mixed feelings about his rule. A majority of Pashtuns (his native ethnics) remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernisation, and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia by using the "financial and advisory" support of British Empire during the Great Game. The Emir was effectively dependent on British arms and money to stay in power.
Honours and awards
* Honorary Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India, 11 April 1885
* Honorary Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (civil division), 29 December 1893
Writings
* Pandnamah-i dunya va din (Advice on the worldly life and religion), 1883. Autobiography.
* Risalah-i Khirad’namah-i Amiri (Epistle of princely wisdom), 1886. On the notion of aql or intellect in Islam.
* Risalah-i najiyah, 1889. On the importance of jihad in the Qur’an and hadith.
* Taj al-Tavarikh (Crown of histories), 1904, Autobiography in 2 volumes.
In popular culture
* In the film Kesari, Abdur Rahman is briefly mentioned.
See also
*European influence in Afghanistan
*Lillias Hamilton (court physician to Abdur Rahman Khan in the 1890s)
*List of heads of state of Afghanistan
*Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan
Notes
References
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Embree, Ainslie T. ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (4 vol. 1988) 1:5.
External links
*
Category:1840s births
Category:1901 deaths
Category:19th-century Afghan monarchs
Category:20th-century Afghan monarchs
Category:Emirs of Afghanistan
Category:Barakzai dynasty
Category:Durand Line
Category:Pashtun people
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Category:19th-century Afghan politicians
Category:19th-century monarchs in Asia
Category:20th-century Afghan politicians
Category:Genocide perpetrators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Khan | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.571298 |
2696 | Abencerrages | Zegris (genus)}}
]]
(1870)]]
The Abencerrages or Abencerrajes (, ; from the Arabic , ) were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.
The name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370–1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.
Washington Irving in Tales of the Alhambra (1832) disagrees, saying the massacre was a fiction, but that a number of Abencerrages were killed in one of the battles at the time. Nonetheless, many poems and plays, including Romance de la pérdida de Alhama, the novella The Abencerraje, and two operas (Les Abencérages, by Luigi Cherubini, and ''L'esule di Granata, by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend.
Notes
External links
*
*
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070912072444/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/i/irving/washington/i72a/part17.html The Abencerrages]–Part 17 of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra
Category:Nasrid dynasty | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abencerrages | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.574076 |
2699 | Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency) | Aberavon () was a constituency in Wales in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was represented from 1922 until 2024 by the Welsh Labour Party. It included the town of Aberavon, although the largest town in the constituency was Port Talbot.
The constituency was abolished as part of the 2023 periodic review of Westminster constituencies and under the June 2023 final recommendations of the Boundary Commission for Wales for the 2024 general election. Its area was split between Aberafan Maesteg and Neath and Swansea East.History
The constituency was created for the 1918 general election by the dividing of the Swansea District. With the exception of the first term, it has always been held by the Labour Party. Ramsay MacDonald, who became Labour's first Prime Minister in 1924, held the seat from 1922 to 1929. Its final MP, Stephen Kinnock, is the son of Neil Kinnock, who was Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 to 1992.
It was one of the most consistently safe seats for Labour; since the end of the Second World War, the Labour candidate had always won Aberavon with a majority at least 33%, and with the exception of 2015, the Labour candidate has also always won an overall majority of the vote in the seat. In 2015, Kinnock only won 48.9% of the vote in Aberavon, against a surge in the vote for the UKIP candidate; however, in 2017, Kinnock's vote share rose by 19.2 percentage points, the biggest increase in the Labour vote in the seat's history, and his majority increased to 50.4%, the highest for an Aberavon MP since 2001. The 2017 result also made Aberavon the safest Labour seat in Wales, however the seat saw a significant swing against Labour in 2019.
Boundaries
|frameyes|text=Map of boundaries 2010–2024}}
1918–1950: The Borough of Aberavon, the Urban Districts of Briton Ferry, Glencorwg, Margam, and Porthcawl and part of the Rural Districts of Neath and Penybont.
1950–1983: The Borough of Port Talbot, the Urban Districts of Glyncorrwg and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural District of Penybont.
1983–1997: The Borough of Afan, and the Borough of Neath wards nos. 3 and 6.
1997–2010: The Borough of Port Talbot; and the Borough of Neath wards of Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, and Coedffranc West.
2010–2024: The Neath Port Talbot County Borough electoral divisions of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West, and Tai-bach.
The constituency was in South Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay.
Commenting on the 1983 boundary changes to the constituency when moving the 2000 Loyal Address of the Blair Government in Parliament, the seat's then-MP Sir John Morris, who would retire at the 2001 general election, said:
Members of Parliament
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan2|Election!!Member!!Party
|-
|style="color:inherit;background-color: " |
|1918
|Jack Edwards
|Coalition Liberal
|-
|rowspan"5" style"color:inherit;background-color: " |
|1922
|Rt Hon. Ramsay MacDonald
|rowspan="5" | Labour
|-
|1929
|William Cove
|-
|1959
|Sir John Morris
|-
|2001
|Hywel Francis
|-
|2015
|Stephen Kinnock
|-
|
|2024
|colspan="2"|Constituency abolished
|}
Elections
Elections in the 1910s
Elections in the 1950s
Elections in the 1980s
Elections in the 1990s
Elections in the 2000s
Elections in the 2010s
Of the 44 rejected ballots:
*29 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.}}
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
*37 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.}}
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
*41 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.}}
Of the 82 rejected ballots:
*61 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.<ref name=2019results/>
*19 voted for more than one candidate.<ref name=2019results/>
*2 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified.<ref name2019results/>See also* Aberavon (Senedd constituency)ReferencesFurther reading*
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180216152334/http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/edates.htm Politics Resources] (election results from 1922 onwards)
*[http://www.electoralcalculus.co.uk/flatfile.html Electoral Calculus] (election results from 1955 onwards)
*[http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7979/CBP-7979.pdf 2017 Election] House Of Commons Library 2017 Election report
*[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/ A Vision Of Britain Through Time] (constituency elector numbers)
*[https://mapit.mysociety.org/area/12884.html Aberavon UK Parliament constituency] (boundaries April 1997 – April 2010) at MapIt UK
*[https://mapit.mysociety.org/area/66101.html Aberavon UK Parliament constituency] (boundaries April 2010 – May 2024) at MapIt UK
Category:Historic parliamentary constituencies in South Wales
Category:Politics of Neath Port Talbot
Category:Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1918
Category:Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 2024
Category:Ramsay MacDonald | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberavon_(UK_Parliament_constituency) | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.632868 |
2700 | Abercarn | | welsh_name | official_name Abercarn
| community_wales = Abercarn
| unitary_wales = Caerphilly
| lieutenancy_wales = Gwent
| constituency_westminster = Newport West and Islwyn
| constituency_welsh_assembly = Islwyn
| post_town = NEWPORT
| postcode_district = NP11
| postcode_area = NP
| dial_code = 01495
| os_grid_reference = ST216947
| population = 5,352
| population_ref (2011 census)
| module= <br />Map of the community
}}
Abercarn is a town and community in Caerphilly county borough, Wales. It is 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Newport on the A467 between Cwmcarn and Newbridge, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire.
History
An estate at Abercarn was owned by the ironmaster Richard Crawshay; in 1808, it passed to his son-in-law, the industrialist and politician Benjamin Hall.
The district was traditionally associated with the coal mining collieries, ironworks and tinplate works of the South Wales coalfield and South Wales Valleys, although all have now <span style"white-space:nowrap;">closed;</span> the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.
On 11 September 1878, an underground explosion at the Prince of Wales Colliery killed 268 coal miners.Local governmentThe area was part of the ancient Monmouthshire parish of Mynyddislwyn until the late 19th century. In 1892 a local board of health and local government district of Abercarn was formed. This became Abercarn urban district in 1894, governed by an urban district council of twelve members. Under the Local Government Act 1972 the urban district was abolished in 1974, becoming part of the borough of Islwyn, Gwent. Further local government organisation in 1996 placed the area in the county borough of Caerphilly. The former urban district corresponds to the three communities of Abercarn, Crumlin and Newbridge.SportAbercarn is home to Abercarn Rugby Club which is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union, and to Abercarn United Football Club which plays in division one of the Gwent County League. Transport Bus The town is served by Stagecoach South Wales services including:
* X15 (from Newport to Brynmawr)
* 151 gold (from Newport to Blackwood Interchange)
Rail
The town is lies between Newbridge railway station and Crosskeys railway station, with the latter slightly the closer of the two. Both are approximately a four-minute drive or thirty minute walk away.Notable peopleThe surgeon Sir Clement Price Thomas (1893–1973) was born in Abercarn. He was famous for his 1951 operation on King George VI.
Education
*Abercarn Primary School
* Ysgol Gymraeg Cwm Gwyddon (Welsh Medium Education School)
References
Category:Towns in Caerphilly County Borough
Category:Local Government Districts created by the Local Government Act 1858
Category:Communities in Caerphilly County Borough | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abercarn | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.637260 |
2701 | Aberdare | | static_image_caption | static_image_alt <!-- see WP:ALT -->
| static_image_2_name | static_image_2_width
| static_image_2_caption | static_image_2_alt <!-- see WP:ALT -->
| welsh_name = Aberdâr
| constituency_welsh_assembly = Cynon Valley
| official_name = Aberdare
| coordinates
| unitary_wales = Rhondda Cynon Taf
| lieutenancy_wales = Mid Glamorgan
| constituency_westminster = Cynon Valley
| post_town = ABERDARE
| postcode_district = CF44
| postcode_area = CF
| dial_code = 01685
| os_grid_reference = SO005025
| population = 39,550
| population_ref (Mid-2017 Estimate)
}}
Aberdare ( ; ) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon. Aberdare has a population of 39,550 (mid-2017 estimate).
Dâr is an archaic Welsh word for oaks (derwen is the singulative), and the valley was noted for its large and fine oaks as late as the 19th century. In ancient times, the river may have been associated with Daron, an ancient Celtic goddess of oak. As such, the town would share an etymology with Aberdaron and the Daron river. As with many Welsh toponyms, it is likely that the locality was known by this name long before the development of the town.
History
Early history
There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. This may have led to the mountain itself being named Bryn-y-Beddau (hill of graves) although other local traditions associate the name with the Battle of Hirwaun Wrgant.
Middle Ages
Aberdare lies within the commote (cwmwd) of Meisgyn, in the cantref of Penychen. The area is traditionally given as the scene of the battle of Hirwaun Wrgant, where the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan, defeated Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed. The battle is thought to have started at Aberdare, with the areas now known as Upper and Lower Gadlys (The battle Court(s)), traditionally given as each armies' headquarters. It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from at least 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains.
Industrial Aberdare
Company around 1811 to carry the tramway that ran from Hirwaun to the canal head at Cwmbach. It is one of the oldest surviving railway bridges in the world.]]
Aberdare grew rapidly in the early 19th century through two major industries: first iron, then coal. A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was opened to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff. This growth was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town. The population of the Aberdare District (centred on the town) was 9,322 in 1841, 18,774 in 1851, and 37,487 in 1861.
Despite a small decline in the 1870s, population levels continued to increase, with the first decade of the 20th century seeing a notably sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911. The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry.
The Aberdare population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales). By 2011 it was 29,748, though the figure includes the surrounding populations of Aberaman, Abercwmboi, Cwmbach and Llwydcoed.LanguageWelsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing. A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.
In his controversial evidence to the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales (the report of which is known in Wales as the Brad y Llyfrau Gleision, Treason of the Blue Books), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was "generally understood" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire. Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh-speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.
This evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as "ignorant", "lazy" and "immoral" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as "evil". The controversial reports allowed the local nonconformist minister Thomas Price of Calfaria to arrange public meetings, from which he would emerge as a leading critic of the vicar's evidence and, by implication, a defender of both the Welsh language and the morality of the local population. It is still contended that Griffiths was made vicar of Merthyr in the neighbouring valley to escape local anger, even though it was over ten years before he left Aberdare. The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly nonconformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.
By 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911. The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men. A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil. English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town. This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education. Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.
According to the 2011 Census, 11.6% of Aberdare residents aged three years and over could speak Welsh, with 24.8% of 3- to 15-year-olds stating that they could speak it.IndustryIron industryIronworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 described it as "the most dynamic place in Wales". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare's product and launched a huge international export market. Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from in 1844 to in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.
The growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield. Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857–8. The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages. The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.
Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry's Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of
Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon's Navigation and Powell Duffryn. Until the mid-19th century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen annually. However, with the rapid industrial development of the parish, these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities. During the early decades of the 19th century the ironmasters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs, and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836. During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers. A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price. The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.
In the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply, and mortality rates were high. Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace. Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which recommended that a local board of health be established. The whole parish of Aberdare was formally declared a local board district on 31 July 1854, to be governed by the Aberdare Local Board of Health. Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (Alaw Goch), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev. Thomas Price. It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871. The Old Town Hall was erected in 1831 although it was not converted for municipal use until the second half of the century.
By 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments: these included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital. The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.
Later, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1894, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley.
At the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists, and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners' agent David Morgan (Dai o'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative. From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards. The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.
Aberdare Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The area became part of the borough of Cynon Valley within the new county of Mid Glamorgan. The area of the former urban district was made a community, later being subdivided in 1982 into five communities: Aberaman, Cwmbach, Llwydcoed, Penywaun, and a smaller Aberdare community. The Aberdare community was further divided in 2017 into two communities called Aberdare East and Aberdare West. Aberdare East includes Aberdare town centre and the village of Abernant. Aberdare West includes Cwmdare, Cwm Sian and Trecynon. No community council exists for either of the Aberdare communities.
Cynon Valley Borough Council and Mid Glamorgan County Council were both abolished in 1996, since when Aberdare has been governed by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council. The town lies mainly in the Aberdare East ward, represented by two county councillors. Nearby Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon are represented by the Aberdare West/Llwydcoed ward. Both wards have been represented by the Labour Party since 2012.
Culture
statue in Victoria Square]]
Aberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated. The town erected a monument in the local park to commemorate the occasion. A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park, where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair. From the mid 19th century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language. A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys. From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman's Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills. Y Darian, as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys. The miners' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism. The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.
The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare's main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners' subscriptions.
The Second World War poet Alun Lewis was born near Aberdare in the village of Cwmaman; there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem The Mountain over Aberdare.
The founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners' strike.
Griffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the conductor of the famous 'Côr Mawr' ("great choir") of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town's most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.
Aberdare was culturally twinned with the German town of Ravensburg.
Religion
Anglican Church
The original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189. Some of its original architecture is still intact. This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since it was built. The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.
John Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan's, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan's, Trecynon. Other churches in the parish are St Luke's (Cwmdare), St James's (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew's (1891) (Abernant).
In the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret's Church, with a beautiful old pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also in this parish is St Joseph's Church, Cwmaman. St Joseph's has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre, surrounded by a beautiful floral garden and leading to the Cwmaman Sculpture Trail. However, regular church services still take place. Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.
In 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare. A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels. The local newspaper, the Aberdare Leader, regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the 'abnormal heat' which it engendered. Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were said to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself. The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.
Once the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early 20th century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels. This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language. There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.
Of the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number have closed since the turn of the millennium. Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished. Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).
Independents
The earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, Trecynon, although meetings had been held from the late 18th century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun. During the 19th century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897. By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612.
Baptists
The Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev. Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel. In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh. Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales. The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.Calvinistic MethodistsBy 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879.Other denominationsIn 1878 Mother Shepherd, a native Welsh speaker, was sent to Aberdare by the Salvation Army at the start of a period of growth for their mission. After five years she had created seven new stations before she was recalled to London. Shepherd would return to Aberdare working for the community. In 1930 she was given a public funeral.
The Wesleyan Methodists had 14 places of worship by 1910. with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there. The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services. The current organist is Grace Jones, the sister of the former organist Jacob Jones. The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.JudaismSeymour Street was once home to a synagogue which opened its doors in the late 1800s but closed in 1957. The site now has a blue plaque.EducationThe state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period, as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports. Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners. However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally. In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools. At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population. Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils. Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (Alaw Goch).
Much energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education. The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries. School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds. Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones. By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.
In common with other public bodies at the time (see 'Local Government' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen. Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (''Dai o'r Nant), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.Colleges*Coleg y CymoeddSecondary schools
*Aberdare Community School
*St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)
*Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun
Transport
The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre. The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012–13.
Sports
Aberdare was noted as "very remarkable" for its traditions of Taplasau Hâf (summer games/dances), races and gwrolgampau ("manly sports") which were said to have been a feature of the area since at least the 1640s. The town is also home to Yr Ynys'', an historic sports ground which has the distinction of hosting the first Rugby League international, a professional Rugby League team, a football League side and an All Blacks' tour match. Today the Ynys hosts the town's Rugby union and cricket teams, as well as the Sobell Leisure Centre and the Ron Jones Athletics Stadium, a 263-seat stadium with crumb rubber track and field sports facilities, home to Aberdare Valley AAC. Cricket A cricket club was re-established at the Ynys in 1968 and was named Riverside Cricket Club in reference to its location near the banks of the river. The club would later be renamed Dare Valley CC, before finally changing its name to Aberdare CC. In 2008 the club was granted a 25-year lease on the land outside the boundary of the Ynys' pitch 1, where a club house and training nets were soon constructed. This was followed by the building of a Community Hub and Café in the 2010s. Today, the club runs 3 adult teams and 4 junior sides. Rugby League
would score the decisive try in Wales' victory in the first ever international Rugby League match, played at the Ynys.]]
The Northern Union hired the Ynys on 1 January 1908 to host what would be the first ever international rugby league match. Played on a near frozen pitch, the match between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds proved to be a close and exciting game. The decisive score came from local star and former Aberdare RFC player, Dai "Tarw" Jones, who scored a try just minutes before the final whistle, giving Wales a 9–8 victory.
The match attracted 15,000 paying spectators, with the gate receipts of £560 highlighting the commercial potential of rugby league at the Ynys. This took place at a time when the Northern Union was looking to establish professional teams across south Wales and just months after the Welsh Rugby Union had sanctioned Aberdare RFC for professionalism (banning Jones for life). As such, discussions on the establishment of a Rugby League club in Aberdare advanced quickly and on 21 July 1908, Aberdare RLFC were admitted to the Northern Union's Rugby League. On 5 September 1908 the new team played their first match against Wigan in front of a crowd of 3,000 at the Ynys.
The potential for crowd support was again demonstrated on 10 November 1908, when the Ynys hosted its second international side as 5,000 spectators watched Aberdare take on the first touring Australian team. However the Aberdare club side could not replicate the heroics of the Welsh team, losing the match 10–37. Indeed, Aberdare struggled under Northern Union rules and initially high crowd numbers deteriorated with the poor results, which saw Aberdare finishing their only season in the Rugby Football League as the bottom club. Finally on 10 July 1909, Aberdare reported 'unexpected difficulties' in its finances and resigned from the Northern Rugby League. The club had great success in the early twentieth century with local star Dai 'Tarw' Jones captaining the club from 1905 to 1907. Jones gained recognition as a player in club, representative and international games. Most notably, Jones played an important part in the "Match of the century", when Wales defeated the New Zealand All Blacks. In 1907, Jones and the Aberdare club played a pivotal role in the professionalism scandal, with the Welsh Rugby Union permanently suspending the club's entire committee and a number of players (including a lifetime ban for Jones). These events would quickly lead to many of the town's players and fans switching to rugby league, with the first ever rugby league international and the founding of Aberdare RLFC in 1908.
Despite the suspensions, rugby union continued in the town as the club (renamed Aberaman RFC) moved to Aberaman Park. The Ynys Stadium would host its first international rugby union side on 12 December 1935, when the 1935-36 All Blacks played a tour match against a Mid-Districts side. The All Blacks won the match 31–10 in front of a crowd of 6,000.
Aberaman RFC returned to the Ynys in the 1960s. In February 1971, a clubhouse was opened at the old Crown Hotel in Gloucester Street, this was followed by the construction of a grand stand at the Ynys costing £20,000. Following the advent of professionalism in rugby union, the WRU sanctions against Aberdare were no longer applicable. As such, the club took the name Aberdare RUFC once again. Aberdare is also home to Abercwmboi RFC and Hirwaun RFC.
Association Football
The Ynys stadium was also home to Aberdare Athletic F.C., members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927. Aberdare finished bottom in their final season and folded in 1928 after failing to be re-elected to the league.
Aberaman Athletic F.C. continued to play until World War II, and was succeeded by Aberdare & Aberaman Athletic in 1945 and Aberdare Town F.C. in 1947. The club continue to play in the Welsh Football League. Today, Aberdare Town plays in the South Wales Alliance League and are based at Aberaman Park.
Notable people
:See also :Category:People from Aberdare
Arts and broadcasting
*Ieuan Ddu ap Dafydd ab Owain – 15th century bard
*Edward Evans - 18th century bard
*Ioan Gruffudd – actor, born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
*Griffith Rhys Jones – known as Caradog, conductor of the famous choirs Côr Caradog (which won events at multiple Eisteddfodau) and Côr Mawr who won first prize at The Crystal Palace choral competitions in 1872 and 1873.
*Alun Lewis – war poet
*Mihangel Morgan – Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon whose works often feature Aberdare
*John Morgan – comedian, most notably with Royal Canadian Air Farce
*Roy Noble – writer and broadcaster who has lived much of his life in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
*Ieuan Rhys – actor from Trecynon
*Rhian Samuel – composer and professor of music
*Stereophonics – all three original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable were brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare
*Jo Walton – fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec
Politicians
*Henry Austin Bruce – 1st Baron Aberdare & Home Secretary (1868–1873)
*Rose Davies – Labour politician and feminist
*Patrick Hannan – political journalist, author and a presenter on television and radio.
*Rhys Hopkin Rhys – 19th century industrialist and prominent local politician
*Bethan Sayed – Member of the Senedd for South Wales West
Religion
*R. Ifor Parry – Congregationalist Minister and schoolteacher
*Thomas Price (Baptist minister) – Baptist Minister and radical politician
Science
*Lyn Evans – particle physicist and project leader of the Large Hadron Collider
Sportspeople
*Jon Bryant – Wales international rugby union player
*Les Cartwright – Wales international association footballer
*Isaak Davies – association Footballer
*Neil Davies – Wales rugby league international
*Amy Evans – Wales international rugby union player
*Ian Evans – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
*Rosser Evans – Wales international rugby union player
*David "Tarw" Jones – dual code rugby international for Wales rugby league and Wales rugby union international teams
*Arthur Linton – cyclist
*Jimmy Michael – world cycling champion
*'Big' Jim Mills – Wales & Great Britain rugby league international
*Teddy Morgan – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
*William Llewellyn Morgan – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
*Darren Morris – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
*Jason Price – association footballer
*Martin Roberts – Wales international rugby union player
*Rees Thomas – association footballer
*Lee Williams – Wales rugby league international
*Dai Young – Wales international rugby union player and coach and three times British & Irish Lions tourist
*Thomas Young – Wales international rugby union player
See also
* List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom
*Aberdare Park
References
Sources
Books
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Journals
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* Newspapers
*Aberdare Leader
*Cardiff and Merthyr Guardian
Online
*
External sources
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/aberdare/ BBC website on Aberdare]
*[http://www.stfagansaberdare.co.uk/ Website of the Parish of St Fagans Aberdare]
External links
*[https://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=2734169 www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Aberdare and surrounding area]
Category:Towns in Rhondda Cynon Taf
Category:Former communities of Rhondda Cynon Taf | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdare | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.662930 |
2702 | Aberration | An aberration is something that deviates from the normal way.
Aberration may also refer to:
Biology and medicine
Form (zoology) or aberration, a rare mutant butterfly or moth wing pattern
Cardiac aberrancy, aberration in the shape of the EKG signal
Chromosome aberration, abnormal number or structure of chromosomes
Entertainment
Aberration, a DLC for the video game Ark: Survival Evolved
Aberration (film), a 1997 horror film
Aberration (EP), by Neurosis, 1989
Aberrations, or abbies, human-like creatures in the American TV series Wayward Pines
Optics and physics
Astronomical aberration, phenomenon wherein objects appear to move about their true positions in the sky
Chromatic aberration, failure of a lens to focus all colors on the same point
Defocus aberration, in which an image is out of focus
Optical aberration, an imperfection in image formation by an optical system
Relativistic aberration, the distortion of light at high velocities
Spherical aberration, which occurs when light rays pass through a spherical lens near the edge
See also
Aberrant, a superhero role-playing game by White Wolf Game Studio
Aberrancy (geometry), the non-circularity of a curve
Abomination (Bible), a term used in Bible
Freak (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.664923 |
2703 | Aberration (astronomy) | thumb|A diagram showing how the apparent position of a star viewed from the Earth can change depending on the Earth's velocity. The effect is typically much smaller than illustrated.
In astronomy, aberration (also referred to as astronomical aberration, stellar aberration, or velocity aberration) is a phenomenon where celestial objects exhibit an apparent motion about their true positions based on the velocity of the observer: It causes objects to appear to be displaced towards the observer's direction of motion. The change in angle is of the order of where is the speed of light and the velocity of the observer. In the case of "stellar" or "annual" aberration, the apparent position of a star to an observer on Earth varies periodically over the course of a year as the Earth's velocity changes as it revolves around the Sun, by a maximum angle of approximately 20 arcseconds in right ascension or declination.
The term aberration has historically been used to refer to a number of related phenomena concerning the propagation of light in moving bodies.
Aberration is distinct from parallax, which is a change in the apparent position of a relatively nearby object, as measured by a moving observer, relative to more distant objects that define a reference frame. The amount of parallax depends on the distance of the object from the observer, whereas aberration does not. Aberration is also related to light-time correction and relativistic beaming, although it is often considered separately from these effects.
Aberration is historically significant because of its role in the development of the theories of light, electromagnetism and, ultimately, the theory of special relativity. It was first observed in the late 1600s by astronomers searching for stellar parallax in order to confirm the heliocentric model of the Solar System. However, it was not understood at the time to be a different phenomenon.
In 1727, James Bradley provided a classical explanation for it in terms of the finite speed of light relative to the motion of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun,
which he used to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light. However, Bradley's theory was incompatible with 19th-century theories of light, and aberration became a major motivation for the aether drag theories of Augustin Fresnel (in 1818) and G. G. Stokes (in 1845), and for Hendrik Lorentz's aether theory of electromagnetism in 1892. The aberration of light, together with Lorentz's elaboration of Maxwell's electrodynamics, the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, as well as the Fizeau experiment, led Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity in 1905, which presents a general form of the equation for aberration in terms of such theory.
Explanation
thumb|300px|Light rays striking the earth in the Sun's rest frame compared to the same rays in the Earth's rest frame according to special relativity. The effect is exaggerated for illustrative purposes.
Aberration may be explained as the difference in angle of a beam of light in different inertial frames of reference. A common analogy is to consider the apparent direction of falling rain. If rain is falling vertically in the frame of reference of a person standing still, then to a person moving forwards the rain will appear to arrive at an angle, requiring the moving observer to tilt their umbrella forwards. The faster the observer moves, the more tilt is needed.
The net effect is that light rays striking the moving observer from the sides in a stationary frame will come angled from ahead in the moving observer's frame. This effect is sometimes called the "searchlight" or "headlight" effect.
In the case of annual aberration of starlight, the direction of incoming starlight as seen in the Earth's moving frame is tilted relative to the angle observed in the Sun's frame. Since the direction of motion of the Earth changes during its orbit, the direction of this tilting changes during the course of the year, and causes the apparent position of the star to differ from its true position as measured in the inertial frame of the Sun.
While classical reasoning gives intuition for aberration, it leads to a number of physical paradoxes observable even at the classical level (see history). The theory of special relativity is required to correctly account for aberration. The relativistic explanation is very similar to the classical one however, and in both theories aberration may be understood as a case of addition of velocities.
Classical explanation
In the Sun's frame, consider a beam of light with velocity equal to the speed of light c, with x and y velocity components u_x and u_y, and thus at an angle \theta such that \tan(\theta) u_y/u_x. If the Earth is moving at velocity v in the x direction relative to the Sun, then by velocity addition the x component of the beam's velocity in the Earth's frame of reference is u_x' u_x + v, and the y velocity is unchanged, u_y' = u_y. Thus the angle of the light in the Earth's frame in terms of the angle in the Sun's frame is
\tan(\phi) \frac{u_y'}{u_x'} \frac{u_y}{u_x+v} = \frac{\sin(\theta)}{v/c + \cos(\theta)}
In the case of \theta 90^\circ, this result reduces to \tan(\theta - \phi) v/c, which in the limit v/c \ll 1 may be approximated by \theta - \phi = v/c.
Relativistic explanation
The reasoning in the relativistic case is the same except that the relativistic velocity addition formulas must be used, which can be derived from Lorentz transformations between different frames of reference. These formulas are
u_x' = (u_x + v)/(1+u_x v/c^2)
u_y' = u_y / \gamma (1+u_x v/c^2)
where \gamma = 1/\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}, giving the components of the light beam in the Earth's frame in terms of the components in the Sun's frame. The angle of the beam in the Earth's frame is thus
\tan(\phi) \frac{u_y'}{u_x'} \frac{u_y}{\gamma(u_x+v)} = \frac{\sin(\theta)}{\gamma(v/c + \cos(\theta))}
or
\tan\frac{\phi}{2} =\sqrt{\frac{1-v/c}{1+v/c}}\tan\frac{\theta}{2}
In the case of \theta 90^\circ, this result reduces to \sin(\theta - \phi) v/c, and in the limit v/c \ll 1 this may be approximated by \theta - \phi v/c. This relativistic derivation keeps the speed of light \sqrt{u_x^2 + u_y^2} c constant in all frames of reference, unlike the classical derivation above.
Relationship to light-time correction and relativistic beaming
thumb|400px|Aberration, light-time correction, and relativistic beaming can be considered the same phenomenon depending on the frame of reference.
Aberration is related to two other phenomena, light-time correction, which is due to the motion of an observed object during the time taken by its light to reach an observer, and relativistic beaming, which is an angling of the light emitted by a moving light source. It can be considered equivalent to them but in a different inertial frame of reference. In aberration, the observer is considered to be moving relative to a (for the sake of simplicity) stationary light source, while in light-time correction and relativistic beaming the light source is considered to be moving relative to a stationary observer.
Consider the case of an observer and a light source moving relative to each other at constant velocity, with a light beam moving from the source to the observer. At the moment of emission, the beam in the observer's rest frame is tilted compared to the one in the source's rest frame, as understood through relativistic beaming. During the time it takes the light beam to reach the observer the light source moves in the observer's frame, and the 'true position' of the light source is displaced relative to the apparent position the observer sees, as explained by light-time correction. Finally, the beam in the observer's frame at the moment of observation is tilted compared to the beam in source's frame, which can be understood as an aberrational effect. Thus, a person in the light source's frame would describe the apparent tilting of the beam in terms of aberration, while a person in the observer's frame would describe it as a light-time effect.
The relationship between these phenomena is only valid if the observer and source's frames are inertial frames. In practice, because the Earth is not an inertial rest frame but experiences centripetal acceleration towards the Sun, many aberrational effects such as annual aberration on Earth cannot be considered light-time corrections. However, if the time between emission and detection of the light is short compared to the orbital period of the Earth, the Earth may be approximated as an inertial frame and aberrational effects are equivalent to light-time corrections.
Types
The Astronomical Almanac describes several different types of aberration, arising from differing components of the Earth's and observed object's motion:
Stellar aberration: "The apparent angular displacement of the observed position of a celestial body resulting from the motion of the observer. Stellar aberration is divided into diurnal, annual, and secular components."
Annual aberration: "The component of stellar aberration resulting from the motion of the Earth about the Sun."
Diurnal aberration: "The component of stellar aberration resulting from the observer's diurnal motion about the center of the Earth due to the Earth's rotation."
Secular aberration: "The component of stellar aberration resulting from the essentially uniform and almost rectilinear motion of the entire solar system in space. Secular aberration is usually disregarded."
Planetary aberration: "The apparent angular displacement of the observed position of a solar system body from its instantaneous geocentric direction as would be seen by an observer at the geocenter. This displacement is caused by the aberration of light and light-time displacement."
Annual aberration
thumb|250px|Stars at the ecliptic poles appear to move in circles, stars exactly in the ecliptic plane move in lines, and stars at intermediate angles move in ellipses. Shown here are the apparent motions of stars with the ecliptic latitudes corresponding to these cases, and with ecliptic longitude of 270°.
thumb|250px|The direction of aberration of a star at the northern ecliptic pole differs at different times of the year
Annual aberration is caused by the motion of an observer on Earth as the planet revolves around the Sun. Due to orbital eccentricity, the orbital velocity v of Earth (in the Sun's rest frame) varies periodically during the year as the planet traverses its elliptic orbit and consequently the aberration also varies periodically, typically causing stars to appear to move in small ellipses.
Approximating Earth's orbit as circular, the maximum displacement of a star due to annual aberration is known as the constant of aberration, conventionally represented by \kappa. It may be calculated using the relation \kappa = \theta-\phi \approx v/c substituting the Earth's average speed in the Sun's frame for v and the speed of light c. Its accepted value is 20.49552 arcseconds (sec) or 0.000099365 radians (rad) (at J2000).
Assuming a circular orbit, annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit) to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by \kappa on either side of their position in the Sun's frame. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic poles (at 90° from the ecliptic plane) will appear to move in a circle of radius \kappa about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small ellipse.
For illustration, consider a star at the northern ecliptic pole viewed by an observer at a point on the Arctic Circle. Such an observer will see the star transit at the zenith, once every day (strictly speaking sidereal day). At the time of the March equinox, Earth's orbit carries the observer in a southwards direction, and the star's apparent declination is therefore displaced to the south by an angle of \kappa. On the September equinox, the star's position is displaced to the north by an equal and opposite amount. On either solstice, the displacement in declination is 0. Conversely, the amount of displacement in right ascension is 0 on either equinox and at maximum on either solstice.
In actuality, Earth's orbit is slightly elliptic rather than circular, and its speed varies somewhat over the course of its orbit, which means the description above is only approximate. Aberration is more accurately calculated using Earth's instantaneous velocity relative to the barycenter of the Solar System.
Secular aberration
The secular component of aberration, caused by the motion of the Solar System in space, has been further subdivided into several components: aberration resulting from the motion of the solar system barycenter around the center of our Galaxy, aberration resulting from the motion of the Galaxy relative to the Local Group, and aberration resulting from the motion of the Local Group relative to the cosmic microwave background.
In about 200 million years, the Sun circles the galactic center, whose measured location is near right ascension (α 266.4°) and declination (δ −29.0°). or 165 Highly precise measurements extending over several years can observe this change in secular aberration, often called the secular aberration drift or the acceleration of the Solar System, as a small apparent proper motion.
Recently, highly precise astrometry of extragalactic objects using both Very Long Baseline Interferometry and the Gaia space observatory have successfully measured this small effect. The first VLBI measurement of the apparent motion, over a period of 20 years, of 555 extragalactic objects towards the center of our galaxy at equatorial coordinates of α 263° and δ −20° indicated a secular aberration drift 6.4 ±1.5 μas/yr. Optical observations using only 33 months of Gaia satellite data of 1.6 million extragalactic sources indicated an acceleration of the solar system of 2.32 ± 0.16 × 10−10 m/s2 and a corresponding secular aberration drift of 5.05 ± 0.35 μas/yr in the direction of α 269.1° ± 5.4°, δ −31.6° ± 4.1°. It is expected that later Gaia data releases, incorporating about 66 and 120 months of data, will reduce the random errors of these results by factors of 0.35 and 0.15. The latest edition of the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF3) adopted a recommended galactocentric aberration constant of 5.8 μas/yr The asymmetry of these results, which were expected to be mirror images of each other, were completely unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories.
Early hypotheses
thumb|Hypothetical observation of γ Draconis if its movement was caused by parallax.
thumb|Hypothetical observation of γ Draconis and 35 Camelopardalis if their movements were caused by nutation.
Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of finding the solution. Since the apparent motion was evidently caused neither by parallax nor observational errors, Bradley first hypothesized that it could be due to oscillations in the orientation of the Earth's axis relative to the celestial sphere – a phenomenon known as nutation. 35 Camelopardalis was seen to possess an apparent motion which could be consistent with nutation, but since its declination varied only one half as much as that of γ Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the answer (however, Bradley later went on to discover that the Earth does indeed nutate).
However, there is no record of this incident in Bradley's own account of the discovery, and it may therefore be apocryphal.
The following table shows the magnitude of deviation from true declination for γ Draconis and the direction, on the planes of the solstitial colure and ecliptic prime meridian, of the tangent of the velocity of the Earth in its orbit for each of the four months where the extremes are found, as well as expected deviation from true ecliptic longitude if Bradley had measured its deviation from right ascension:
Month Direction of tangential velocity of Earth on the plane of the solstitial colure Deviation from true declination of γ Draconis Direction of tangential velocity of Earth on the plane of the ecliptic prime meridian Expected deviation from true ecliptic longitude of γ Draconis December zero none ← (moving toward perihelion at fast velocity) decrease of more than 20.2" March ← (moving toward aphelion) 19.5" southward zero none June zero none → (moving toward aphelion at slow velocity) increase of less than 20.2" September → (moving toward perihelion) 19.5" northward zero none
Bradley proposed that the aberration of light not only affected declination, but right ascension as well, so that a star in the pole of the ecliptic would describe a little ellipse with a diameter of about 40", but for simplicity, he assumed it to be a circle. Since he only observed the deviation in declination, and not in right ascension, his calculations for the maximum deviation of a star in the pole of the ecliptic are for its declination only, which will coincide with the diameter of the little circle described by such star. For eight different stars, his calculations are as follows:
Star Annual Variation (") Maximum deviation in declination of a star in the pole of the ecliptic (") γ Draconis 39 40.4 β Draconis 39 40.2 η Ursa Maj. 36 40.4 α Cass. 34 40.8 τ Persei 25 41.0 α Persei 23 40.2 35 Camel. 19 40.2 Capella 16 40.0 MEAN 40.4
Based on these calculations, Bradley was able to estimate the constant of aberration at 20.2", which is equal to 0.00009793 radians, and with this was able to estimate the speed of light at per second. By projecting the little circle for a star in the pole of the ecliptic, he could simplify the calculation of the relationship between the speed of light and the speed of the Earth's annual motion in its orbit as follows:
\cos\left(\frac{1}{2}\pi-0.00009793\right) \sin(0.00009793) \frac{v}{c}
Thus, the speed of light to the speed of the Earth's annual motion in its orbit is 10,210 to one, from whence it would follow, that light moves, or is propagated as far as from the Sun to the Earth in 8 minutes 12 seconds. is that aberration (as understood only later) would exactly counteract the lag even if large, leaving this eclipse method completely insensitive to light speed. (Otherwise, shadow-lag methods could be made to sense absolute translational motion, contrary to a basic principle of relativity.)
Historical theories of aberration
The phenomenon of aberration became a driving force for many physical theories during the 200 years between its observation and the explanation by Albert Einstein.
The first classical explanation was provided in 1729, by James Bradley as described above, who attributed it to the finite speed of light and the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun.
Luminiferous aether
thumb|250px|Young reasoned that aberration could only be explained if the aether were immobile in the frame of the Sun. On the left, stellar aberration occurs if an immobile aether is assumed, showing that the telescope must be tilted. On the right, the aberration disappears if the aether moves with the telescope, and the telescope does not need to be tilted.
In the early nineteenth century the wave theory of light was being rediscovered, and in 1804 Thomas Young adapted Bradley's explanation for corpuscular light to wavelike light traveling through a medium known as the luminiferous aether. His reasoning was the same as Bradley's, but it required that this medium be immobile in the Sun's reference frame and must pass through the earth unaffected, otherwise the medium (and therefore the light) would move along with the earth and no aberration would be observed.
He wrote:
However, it soon became clear Young's theory could not account for aberration when materials with a non-vacuum refractive index were present. An important example is of a telescope filled with water. The speed of light in such a telescope will be slower than in vacuum, and is given by c/n rather than c where n is the refractive index of the water. Thus, by Bradley and Young's reasoning the aberration angle is given by
\tan(\phi) = \frac { \sin(\theta)}{v/(c/n) + \cos (\theta)}.
which predicts a medium-dependent angle of aberration. When refraction at the telescope's objective is taken into account this result deviates even more from the vacuum result. In 1810 François Arago performed a similar experiment and found that the aberration was unaffected by the medium in the telescope, providing solid evidence against Young's theory. This experiment was subsequently verified by many others in the following decades, most accurately by Airy in 1871, with the same result. At the same time, the modern theories of electromagnetic aether could not account for aberration at all. Many scientists such as Maxwell, Heaviside and Hertz unsuccessfully attempted to solve these problems by incorporating either Fresnel or Stokes' theories into Maxwell's new electromagnetic laws.
Hendrik Lorentz spent considerable effort along these lines. After working on this problem for a decade, the issues with Stokes' theory caused him to abandon it and to follow Fresnel's suggestion of a (mostly) stationary aether (1892, 1895). However, in Lorentz's model the aether was completely immobile, like the electromagnetic aethers of Cauchy, Green and Maxwell and unlike Fresnel's aether. He obtained Fresnel's dragging coefficient from modifications of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, including a modification of the time coordinates in moving frames ("local time"). In order to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887), which apparently contradicted both Fresnel's and Lorentz's immobile aether theories, and apparently confirmed Stokes' complete aether drag, Lorentz theorized (1892) that objects undergo "length contraction" by a factor of \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2} in the direction of their motion through the aether. In this way, aberration (and all related optical phenomena) can be accounted for in the context of an immobile aether. Lorentz' theory became the basis for much research in the next decade, and beyond. Its predictions for aberration are identical to those of the relativistic theory.
Special relativity
Lorentz' theory matched experiment well, but it was complicated and made many unsubstantiated physical assumptions about the microscopic nature of electromagnetic media. In his 1905 theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein reinterpreted the results of Lorentz' theory in a much simpler and more natural conceptual framework which disposed of the idea of an aether. His derivation is given above, and is now the accepted explanation. Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of aberration:
Other important motivations for Einstein's development of relativity were the moving magnet and conductor problem and (indirectly) the negative aether drift experiments, already mentioned by him in the introduction of his first relativity paper. Einstein wrote in a note in 1952:
While Einstein's result is the same as Bradley's original equation except for an extra factor of \gamma, Bradley's result does not merely give the classical limit of the relativistic case, in the sense that it gives incorrect predictions even at low relative velocities. Bradley's explanation cannot account for situations such as the water telescope, nor for many other optical effects (such as interference) that might occur within the telescope. This is because in the Earth's frame it predicts that the direction of propagation of the light beam in the telescope is not normal to the wavefronts of the beam, in contradiction with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. It also does not preserve the speed of light c between frames. However, Bradley did correctly infer that the effect was due to relative velocities.
See also
Apparent place
Stellar parallax
Astronomical nutation
Proper motion
Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics
Relativistic aberration
Sagnac effect
Optical aberration
Notes
References
Further reading
P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.), Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac (University Science Books, 1992), 127–135, 700.
Stephen Peter Rigaud, Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of the Rev. James Bradley, D.D. F.R.S. (1832).
Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1795).
H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904).
Thomas Simpson, Essays on Several Curious and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mix'd Mathematicks (1740).
:de:August Ludwig Busch, Reduction of the Observations Made by Bradley at Kew and Wansted to Determine the Quantities of Aberration and Nutation (1838).
External links
Courtney Seligman on Bradley's observations
Category:Electromagnetic radiation
Category:Astrometry
Category:Radiation
Category:Observational astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_(astronomy) | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.722608 |
2704 | Optical aberration | }}
. 2: A lens with less chromatic aberration]]
In optics, aberration is a property of optical systems, such as lenses and mirrors, that causes the image created by the optical system to not be a faithful reproduction of the object being observed. Aberrations cause the image formed by a lens to be blurred, distorted in shape or have color fringing or other effects not seen in the object, with the nature of the distortion depending on the type of aberration.
Aberration can be defined as a departure of the performance of an optical system from the predictions of paraxial optics. In an imaging system, it occurs when light from one point of an object does not converge into (or does not diverge from) a single point after transmission through the system. Aberrations occur because the simple paraxial theory is not a completely accurate model of the effect of an optical system on light, rather than due to flaws in the optical elements.
An image-forming optical system with aberration will produce an image which is not sharp. Makers of optical instruments need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration.
Aberration can be analyzed with the techniques of geometrical optics. The articles on reflection, refraction and caustics discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays.
Overview
.]]
With an ideal lens, light from any given point on an object would pass through the lens and come together at a single point in the image plane (or, more generally, the image surface). Real lenses, even when they are perfectly made, do not however focus light exactly to a single point. These deviations from the idealized lens performance are called aberrations of the lens.
Aberrations fall into two classes: monochromatic and chromatic. Monochromatic aberrations are caused by the geometry of the lens or mirror and occur both when light is reflected and when it is refracted. They appear even when using monochromatic light, hence the name.
Chromatic aberrations are caused by dispersion, the variation of a lens's refractive index with wavelength. Because of dispersion, different wavelengths of light come to focus at different points. Chromatic aberration does not appear when monochromatic light is used.
Monochromatic aberrations
The most common monochromatic aberrations are:
*Defocus
*Spherical aberration
*Coma
*Astigmatism
*Field curvature
*Image distortion
Although defocus is technically the lowest-order of the optical aberrations, it is usually not considered as a lens aberration, since it can be corrected by moving the lens (or the image plane) to bring the image plane to the optical focus of the lens.
In addition to these aberrations, piston and tilt are effects which shift the position of the focal point. Piston and tilt are not true optical aberrations, since when an otherwise perfect wavefront is altered by piston and tilt, it will still form a perfect, aberration-free image, only shifted to a different position.
Chromatic aberrations
Chromatic aberration occurs when different wavelengths are not focussed to the same point. Types of chromatic aberration are:
*Axial (or "longitudinal") chromatic aberration
*Lateral (or "transverse") chromatic aberration
Theory of monochromatic aberration
In a perfect optical system in the classical theory of optics, rays of light proceeding from any object point unite in an image point; and therefore the object space is reproduced in an image space. The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to Gauss, and Ernst Abbe showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e., the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (per Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points, and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors showed, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflection and refraction. Consequently, the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating reality; realistic optical systems fall short of this unattainable ideal. Currently, all that can be accomplished is the projection of a single plane onto another plane; but even in this, aberrations always occurs and it may be unlikely that these will ever be entirely corrected. and the theory was developed by Allvar Gullstrand. This simple relation is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems / tan w 1}}.
{|
|-
|<math>a_0 \times 1 </math>|| "Piston", equal to the mean value of the wavefront
|-
|<math>a_1\times \rho \cos(\phi)</math> || "X-Tilt", the deviation of the overall beam in the sagittal direction
|-
|<math>a_2\times \rho \sin(\phi)</math> || "Y-Tilt", the deviation of the overall beam in the tangential direction
|-
|<math>a_3\times (2\rho^2-1)</math> || "Defocus", a parabolic wavefront resulting from being out of focus
|-
|<math>a_4\times \rho^2 \cos(2\phi)</math> || "0° Astigmatism", a cylindrical shape along the X or Y axis
|-
|<math>a_5\times \rho^2 \sin(2\phi)</math> || "45° Astigmatism", a cylindrical shape oriented at ±45° from the X axis
|-
|<math>a_6\times (3\rho^2-2)\rho \cos(\phi)</math> || "X-Coma", comatic image flaring in the horizontal direction
|-
|<math>a_7\times (3\rho^2-2)\rho \sin(\phi)</math> || "Y-Coma", comatic image flaring in the vertical direction
|-
|<math>a_8\times (6\rho^4-6\rho^2+1)</math> || "Third order spherical aberration"
|}
where is the normalized pupil radius with , is the azimuthal angle around the pupil with , and the fitting coefficients , ..., a}} are the wavefront errors in wavelengths.
As in Fourier synthesis using sines and cosines, a wavefront may be perfectly represented by a sufficiently large number of higher-order Zernike polynomials. However, wavefronts with very steep gradients or very high spatial frequency structure, such as produced by propagation through atmospheric turbulence or aerodynamic flowfields, are not well modeled by Zernike polynomials, which tend to low-pass filter fine spatial definition in the wavefront. In this case, other fitting methods such as fractals or singular value decomposition may yield improved fitting results.
The circle polynomials were introduced by Frits Zernike to evaluate the point image of an aberrated optical system taking into account the effects of diffraction. The perfect point image in the presence of diffraction had already been described by Airy, as early as 1835. It took almost hundred years to arrive at a comprehensive theory and modeling of the point image of aberrated systems (Zernike and Nijboer). The analysis by Nijboer and Zernike describes the intensity distribution close to the optimum focal plane. An extended theory that allows the calculation of the point image amplitude and intensity over a much larger volume in the focal region was recently developed ([http://www.nijboerzernike.nl Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory]). This Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory of point image or 'point-spread function' formation has found applications in general research on image formation, especially for systems with a high numerical aperture, and in characterizing optical systems with respect to their aberrations.
Analytic treatment of aberrations
The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the Abbe theory of aberrations, in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be infinitely small of a certain order; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. the numerical orders of the image, are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the th order is that in the series for }} and }} the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th, ... (2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, from similar calculations which have never been published. The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder, who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber. A. Konig and M. von Rohr have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically. and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874–1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwarzschild (Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. ]]
The classical imaging problem is to reproduce perfectly a finite plane (the object) onto another plane (the image) through a finite aperture. It is impossible to do so perfectly for more than one such pair of planes (this was proven with increasing generality by Maxwell in 1858, by Bruns in 1895, and by Carathéodory in 1926, see summary in Walther, A., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 6, 415–422 (1989)). For a single pair of planes (e.g. for a single focus setting of an objective), however, the problem can in principle be solved perfectly. Examples of such a theoretically perfect system include the Luneburg lens and the Maxwell fish-eye.
Practical methods solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (insofar as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases. At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colors, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colors, and the system is said to be in stable achromatism.See also
* Aberrations of the eye
*
* Wavefront coding
Notes
References External links
* [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/aberrationhome.html Microscope Objectives: Optical Aberrations] section of Molecular Expressions website, Michael W. Davidson, Mortimer Abramowitz, Olympus America Inc., and The Florida State University
Category:Geometrical optics
Category:Image defects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_aberration | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.750234 |
2705 | Amy Grant | | birth_place = Augusta, Georgia, U.S.
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Amy Lee Grant (born November 25, 1960) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. She began her music career in contemporary Christian music (CCM) before crossing over to pop music in the mid-1980s. Grant has been referred to as "The Queen of Christian Pop".
Grant made her debut as a teenager, gaining fame in Christian music during the 1980s with hits such as "Father's Eyes", "El Shaddai", and "Angels". In the mid-1980s, she began broadening her audience and soon became one of the first CCM artists to cross over into mainstream pop on the heels of her successful albums Unguarded and Lead Me On. In 1986, she scored her first Billboard Hot 100 no. 1 song in a duet with Peter Cetera, "The Next Time I Fall". In 1991, she released the album Heart in Motion, which became her best-selling album, topping the Billboard Christian album chart for 32 weeks. It sold five million copies in the U.S. and produced her second no. 1 pop single "Baby Baby", as well as another three top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot 100: "That's What Love Is For", "Every Heartbeat" and "Good for Me".
Grant had sold more than 30 million albums worldwide, won six Grammy Awards, 22 Gospel Music Association Dove Awards, and had the first Christian album to go platinum. She was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006 for her contributions to the entertainment industry, and in 2022 she was announced as a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors. Grant is the author of several books, including a memoir, Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far, and a book based on the popular Christmas song "Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)" that she co-wrote.
Background
Early life and career
Born in Augusta, Georgia, Grant is the youngest of four sisters. Her family settled in Nashville in 1967. She is a great-granddaughter of Nashville philanthropist A. M. Burton (founder of Life and Casualty Insurance Company, eponym of Nashville's Life & Casualty Tower, WLAC Radio, and WLAC-TV) and Lillie Burton. She has acknowledged the influence of the Burtons on her development as a musician, starting with their common membership in Nashville's Ashwood Church of Christ. According to the Singing Carrots website, based on her recorded songs, Grant has a mezzo-soprano voice type, also able to perform in the soprano and contralto ranges.
In 1976, Grant wrote her first song ("Mountain Top"), performed in public for the first time at Harpeth Hall School, the all-girls school she attended in Nashville. She recorded a demo tape for her parents with church youth-leader Brown Bannister. While Bannister was dubbing a copy of the tape, Chris Christian, the owner of the recording studio, heard the demo and called Word Records. He played it over the phone, and she was offered a recording contract five weeks before her 16th birthday.
In 1977, she recorded her first album, Amy Grant, produced by Bannister, who also produced her next 11 albums. It was released in early 1978, one month before her high-school graduation. Toward the end of 1978 she performed her first ticketed concert after beginning her first year at Furman University.
In May 1979, while at the album-release party for her second album, ''My Father's Eyes, Grant met Gary Chapman, who had written the title track. Grant and Chapman toured together in mid-1979. In late 1980, she transferred to Vanderbilt University where she was a member of the sorority Kappa Alpha Theta.
In 1982 she released her breakthrough album Age to Age. The album contains the signature track, "El Shaddai" (written by Michael Card) and the Grant-Chapman penned song, "In a Little While". "El Shaddai" was later awarded one of the "Songs of the Century" by the RIAA in 2001. Grant received her first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Gospel Performance, as well as two GMA Dove Awards for Gospel Artist of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Album of the Year. Age to Age'' became the first Christian album by a solo artist to be certified gold (1983) and the first Christian album to be certified platinum (1985).
Grant followed this album with the first of her Christmas albums, which was later the basis for her holiday shows. In 1984, she released another pop-oriented Christian hit, Straight Ahead, earning Grant her first appearance at the Grammy Awards show in 1985. The head of NBC took notice of Grant's performance and called her manager to book her for her own Christmas special. Unguarded (1985) surprised some fans for its very mainstream sound. "Find a Way", from Unguarded, became one of the few non-Christmas Christian songs to hit the Billboard Top 40 list, also reaching No. 7 on the Adult Contemporary chart. She also scored No. 18 on Billboard AC in 1986 with "Stay for Awhile". Grant scored her first Billboard No. 1 song in 1986 with "The Next Time I Fall", a duet with former Chicago singer/bassist Peter Cetera. That year, she also recorded a duet with singer Randy Stonehill for his Love Beyond Reason album, titled "I Could Never Say Goodbye", and recorded ''The Animals' Christmas with Art Garfunkel.
Lead Me On (1988) contained many songs which were about Christianity and love relationships, but some interpreted it as not being enough of a "Christian" record. Years later Lead Me On would be chosen as the greatest Contemporary Christian album of all time by CCM Magazine''. The mainstream song "Saved by Love" was a minor hit, receiving airplay on radio stations featuring the newly emerging Adult Contemporary format. The album's title song received some pop radio airplay and crossed over to No. 96 on the Billboard Hot 100, and "1974 (We Were Young)" and "Saved By Love" also charted as Adult Contemporary songs. In 1989, she appeared in a Target ad campaign, performing songs from the album.
In the mainstream
When Heart in Motion was released in 1991, many fans were surprised that the album was of contemporary pop music. Grant's desire to widen her audience was frowned upon by the confines of the popular definitions of ministry at the time. The track "Baby Baby" written for Grant's newborn daughter Millie, of whom Grant wrote, her "six-week-old face was my inspiration", became a pop hit (hitting No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100), and Grant was established as a name in the mainstream music world. "Baby Baby" received Grammy nominations for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and Record and Song of the Year (although it failed to win in any of those categories).
Four other hits from the album made the Pop top 20: "Every Heartbeat" (No. 2), "That's What Love Is For" (No. 7), "Good for Me" (No. 8), and "I Will Remember You" (No. 20). On the Adult Contemporary chart, all five songs were top 10 hits, with two of the five ("Baby Baby" and "That's What Love Is For") reaching No. 1. Many Christian fans remained loyal, putting the album atop Billboard Contemporary Christian Chart for 32 weeks. Heart in Motion is Grant's best-selling album, having sold over five million copies according to the RIAA. Grant followed the album with her second Christmas album, Home For Christmas in 1992, which included the song "Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)", written by Chris Eaton and Grant, and would later be covered by many artists, including Donna Summer, Jessica Simpson (who acknowledged Grant as one of her favorite artists), Vince Gill, Sara Groves, Point of Grace, Gladys Knight, and Broadway star Barbara Cook.
House of Love in 1994 continued in the same vein, containing pop songs mingled with spiritual lyrics. The album was a multi-platinum success and produced the pop hit "Lucky One" (No. 18 pop and No. 2 AC; No. 1 on Radio & Records) as well as the title track (a duet with country music star and future husband Vince Gill) (No. 37 pop) and a cover of Joni Mitchell's frequently covered "Big Yellow Taxi" (No. 67 pop) (in which she changed the line "And they charged the people a dollar and a half just to see'em" to "And then they charged the people 25 bucks just to see'em").
After she covered the 10cc song "The Things We Do for Love" for the Mr. Wrong soundtrack, Behind the Eyes was released in September 1997. The album struck a much darker note, leaning more towards downtempo, acoustic soft-rock songs, with more mature (yet still optimistic) lyrics. She called it her "razor blades and Prozac" album. Although "Takes a Little Time" was a moderate hit single, the album failed to sell like the previous two albums, which had both gone multi-platinum. Behind The Eyes was eventually certified Gold by the RIAA. The video for "Takes a Little Time" was a new direction for Grant; with a blue light filter, acoustic guitar, the streets and characters of New York City, and a plot, Grant was re-cast as an adult light rocker. She followed up "Behind The Eyes" with A Christmas To Remember, her third Christmas album, in 1999. The album was certified gold in 2000.
Following the 9/11 attacks Grant's "I Will Remember You" saw a resurgence in popularity as many radio DJs mixed a special tribute version of the song. In the same year Grant won $125,000 for charity on the "Rock Star Edition" of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
Return to Gospel Roots
Grant returned to Christian pop with the 2002 release of an album of hymns titled Legacy... Hymns and Faith. The album featured a Vince Gill-influenced mix of bluegrass and pop and marked Grant's 25th anniversary in the music industry. Grant followed this up with Simple Things in 2003. The album did not have the success of her previous pop or gospel efforts. Soon after Simple Things, Grant and Interscope/A&M parted ways. The same year, Grant was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame by the Gospel Music Association, an industry trade organization of which she is a longstanding member, in her first year of eligibility. Grant released a sequel in 2005 titled Rock of Ages...Hymns and Faith.
Grant joined the reality television phenomenon by hosting Three Wishes, a show in which she and a team of helpers make wishes come true for small-town residents. The show debuted on NBC in the fall of 2005; however it was canceled at the end of its first season due to high production costs. After Three Wishes was canceled, Grant won her 6th Grammy Award for Rock of Ages... Hymns & Faith. In a February 2006 webchat, Grant said she believes her "best music is still ahead".
In April 2006, a live CD/DVD titled Time Again... Amy Grant Live was recorded in Fort Worth, Texas, at Bass Performance Hall. (Grant's first paid public performance was at the Will Rogers Auditorium in Fort Worth.) The concert was released on September 26, 2006. In addition to receiving a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, media appearances included write-ups in CCM Magazine, and a performance on The View.
In a February 2007 web chat on her web site, Grant discussed a book she was working on titled Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far, saying, "It's not an autobiography, but more a collection of memories, song lyrics, poetry and a few pictures." The book was released on October 16, 2007. In November, it debuted at No. 35 on the New York Times Best Seller list. In the same web chat, Grant noted that she is "anxious to get back in the studio after the book is finished, and reinvent myself as an almost-50 performing woman".
2007 was Grant's 30th year in music. She left Word/Warner, and contracted with EMI CMG who re-released her regular studio albums as remastered versions on August 14, 2007. Marking the start of Grant's new contract is a career-spanning greatest hits album, with all the songs digitally remastered. The album was released as both a single-disc CD edition, and a two-disc CD/DVD Special Edition, the DVD featuring music videos and interviews. Grant appeared with Gill on The Oprah Winfrey Show for a holiday special in December 2007.
In February 2008, Grant joined the writing team from Compassionart as a guest vocalist at the Abbey Road studios, London, to record a song called "Highly Favoured", which was included on the album CompassionArt. On June 24, 2008, Grant re-released her 1988 album, Lead Me On, in honor of its 20th anniversary. The two-disc release includes the original album and a second disc with new acoustic recordings, live performances from 1989, and interviews with Amy. Grant recreated the Lead Me On tour in the fall of 2008. On June 27, 2008, at Creation Festival Northeast she performed "Lead Me On" and a few other songs backed by Hawk Nelson. At the end of the concert, Grant returned to the stage and sang "Thy Word". She appeared on the 2008 album Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends singing "Could I Have This Dance".
On May 5, 2009, Grant released an EP containing two new songs, "She Colors My Day", and "Unafraid", as well as the previously released songs "Baby Baby" and "Oh How the Years Go By". The EP, exclusively through iTunes, benefited the Entertainment Industry Foundation's (EIF) Women's Cancer Research Fund. In 2010, Grant released Somewhere Down the Road, featuring the hit single "Better Than a Hallelujah", which peaked at No. 8 on Billboard Top Christian Songs chart. When asked about the new album during an interview with CBN.com, Grant says, "... my hope is just for those songs to provide companionship, remind myself and whoever else is listening what's important. I feel like songs have the ability to connect us to ourselves and to each other, and to our faith, to the love of Jesus, in a way that conversation doesn't do. Songs kind of slip in and move you before you realize it." In September 2012, Grant took part in a campaign called "30 Songs / 30 Days" to support Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide, a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.
Grant's next album, How Mercy Looks from Here, was released on May 14, 2013, and was produced by Marshall Altman. The album reached No. 12 on the Billboard 200 chart, making it her highest-charting album since 1997's Behind the Eyes. Two singles were released from the album: "Don't Try So Hard" and "If I Could See", both of which charted on the US Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart. On August 19, 2014, she released an album of hits remixed by well known engineers and DJs. The album was titled In Motion: The Remixes. It charted at 110 on the US Billboard 200 chart and at No. 5 on the US Dance chart. To promote the album, several new remix EPs were released on iTunes the following month including "Find a Way, "Stay for Awhile", "Baby Baby, "Every Heartbeat" and "That's What Love Is For". Due to club play of the remixes of "Baby Baby" and "Every Heartbeat", they charted at No. 3 and 13, respectively on the U.S. Dance Chart. This marked her first appearance on that chart in 23 years. On September 30, 2014, Grant released a new single titled "Welcome Yourself". In honor of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, proceeds of the single go to breast cancer research.
On February 12, 2015, she announced a new compilation album titled Be Still and Know... Hymns & Faith, to be released. The album was released on April 14, 2015, and charted at No. 7 in the U.S. on the Billboard Christian Albums chart. . Grant released a Christmas album on October 21, 2016, Tennessee Christmas, which is a combination of classic Christmas songs and original material. It charted in the U.S. at No. 31 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 3 on the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart. The single from the album, "To Be Together", reached No. 32 on the Hot Christian Songs chart and No. 19 on the Holiday Digital Song Sales chart. She supported the album with a series of Christmas concerts with Vince Gill at the Ryman Auditorium. She also toured the U.S. and Canada with Christmas concerts accompanied by Michael W. Smith and season 9 winner of The Voice, Jordan Smith. In February 2017, she released a new song, "Say It With a Kiss", with accompanying video. During November and December 2017, Grant performed another series of Christmas concerts with Vince Gill at the Ryman and embarked on another U.S. and Canada Christmas tour with Michael W. Smith and Jordan Smith. Grant has been a guest narrator for Disney's Candlelight Processional at Walt Disney World in 2012, 2013, and 2015.
Personal life
in 2004]]On June 19, 1982, Grant married fellow Christian musician Gary Chapman. Their marriage produced three children. In March 1999 she filed for divorce from Chapman. On March 10, 2000, Grant married country singer-songwriter Vince Gill, who had been previously married to country singer Janis Oliver of Sweethearts of the Rodeo. Grant and Gill have one daughter together, Corrina Grant Gill, born March 12, 2001.
In the November 1999 CCM Magazine, Grant explained why she left Chapman and married Gill:
In June 2020, Grant had an open-heart surgery to repair partial anomalous pulmonary venous return (PAPVR), a congenital heart condition. Public views and perception Along with praise for her contributions to the contemporary Christian genre, Grant has also generated controversy within the Christian community, from "complaints that she was too worldly and too sexy" to a "barrage of condemnation" following her divorce and remarriage.
In an interview early in her career, Grant stated, "I have a healthy sense of right and wrong, but sometimes, for example, using foul, exclamation-point words among friends can be good for a laugh." The article which was based on that interview was constructed in such a manner so as to make it appear as though Grant condoned premarital sex. Later Grant reflected on how the article misrepresented her views, stating: "We probably talked for two hours about sexual purity, but when the interview finally came out he worded it in such a way that it sounded like I condoned premarital sex. So I picked up that article and thought, 'You've made me say something I've never said, and you've totally disregarded two hours of Bible put in one flippant comment that I made about a moan.
Discography
in 2011]]
Bibliography
* Amy Grant's Heart to Heart Bible Stories; Worthy Pub (1985),
* Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song); W Publishing Group (2001),
* "The Creation" (narrator), in Rabbit Ears Beloved Bible Stories: the Creation, Noah and the Ark (audio book); Listening Library (Audio) (2006),
* Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far''; Flying Dolphin Press (2007),
<!-- Trivia items are not appropriate for encyclopedias, see WP:TRIVIA, most artists have their songs used in movies/TV shows, have had their likeness parodied, joked about, etc., but these do NOT relate directly to the subject's biography, and they are not encyclopedic. Please see talk page. Thanks! -->
Awards and achievements
Grammy Awards
|-
| align="center"|1979 || ''My Father's Eyes || Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational ||
|-
| align="center"|1980 || Never Alone || Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational ||
|-
| align="center"|1981 || Amy Grant in Concert || Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational ||
|-
| align="center"|1982 || Age to Age || Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary ||
|-
| align"center"|1983 || Ageless Medley || rowspan"3"|Best Gospel Vocal Performance, Female ||
|-
| align="center"|1984 || "Angels" ||
|-
| rowspan"2" align"center"|1985 || Unguarded ||
|-
|"I Could Never Say Goodbye" || Best Gospel Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group, Choir or Chorus ||
|-
| align="center"|1987 || "The Next Time I Fall" || |Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ||
|-
| align="center"|1988 || Lead Me On'' || Best Gospel Vocal Performance, Female ||
|-
| align="center"|1989 || "'Tis So Sweet to Trust in Jesus" || Best Gospel Vocal Performance, Female ||
|-
| rowspan"4" align"center"|1992 || Heart in Motion || Album of the Year ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|"Baby Baby" || Song of the Year ||
|-
| Record of the Year ||
|-
| Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ||
|-
| align="center"|1994 || The Creation || Best Spoken Word Album for Children ||
|-
| align="center"|2000 || "When I Look Into Your Heart" || Best Country Collaboration with Vocals ||
|-
| align="center"|2005 || Rock of Ages... Hymns and Faith || Best Southern, Country or Bluegrass Gospel Album ||
<!-- Sarah Hart was nominated for an award in 2011 for a cover of Grant's gospel song "Better Than a Hallelujah", though it did not win (and would not have been a Grant win). As of the 66th Grammy awards, Grant's award nominations stand at 19 with 6 wins.
|-
| align="center"|2011 || "Better Than a Hallelujah" || Best Gospel Song ||
-->
|-
| align="center"|2012 || "Threaten Me with Heaven" || Best Country Song ||
|-
|}
GMA Dove Awards
Special awards and recognitions
s in the Amy Grant Music Room at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital]]
being awarded the Class of 1966 Friend of West Point Award in 2008]]
* 1992: Junior Chamber of Commerce Young Tennessean of the Year
* 1994: St. John University Pax Christi Award
* 1994: Nashville Symphony Harmony Award
* 1996: Sarah Cannon Humanitarian Award – TNN Awards
* 1996: Minnie Pearl Humanitarian Award – Columbia Hospital
* 1996: Voice of America Award – ASCAP
* 1996: Academy of Achievement Golden Plate Award
* 1999: "An Evening with the Arts" Honor – The Nashville Chamber of Commerce, Nashville Symphony, and Tennessee Performing Arts Center
* 1999: The Amy Grant Room for Music and Entertainment – The Target House at St. Jude's Children's Hospital
* 2001: Easter Seals Nashvillian of the Year Award
* 2003: Inducted into the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame
* 2003: Summit Award – Seminar in the Rockies
* 2006: Amy Grant Performance Platform – Nashville Schermerhorn Symphony Center
* 2006: Hollywood Walk of Fame star unveiled
* 2008: Class of 1966 Friend of West Point award with Vince Gill
* 2012: Honorary Doctorate Degree of Music and Performance – Grand Canyon University
* 2015: No. 52 in The Top 100 Female Artists of the Rock Era (1955–2015)
* 2022: Kennedy Center Honoree
* 2023 Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts – University of Notre Dame
References
External links
*
*
*
Category:1960 births
Category:A&M Records artists
Category:American child singers
Category:American members of the Churches of Christ
Category:American mezzo-sopranos
Category:American performers of Christian music
Category:American pop rock singers
Category:American women pop singers
Category:American soft rock musicians
Category:Christian music songwriters
Category:Christians from Tennessee
Category:Furman University alumni
Category:Grammy Award winners
Category:Living people
Category:Musicians from Augusta, Georgia
Category:Myrrh Records artists
Category:Musicians from Nashville, Tennessee
Category:People with congenital heart defects
Category:Performers of contemporary Christian music
Category:Sparrow Records artists
Category:Vanderbilt University alumni
Category:Ward–Belmont College alumni
Category:Word Records artists
Category:Writers from Augusta, Georgia
Category:20th-century American women singers
Category:20th-century American singers
Category:21st-century American women singers
Category:21st-century American singers
Category:Kennedy Center honorees | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Grant | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.781288 |
2707 | Arthur William à Beckett | thumb|right|Beckett in 1896.
Arthur William à Beckett (25 October 1844 – 14 January 1909) was an English journalist and intellectual.
Biography
He was a younger son of Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and Mary Anne à Beckett, brother of Gilbert Arthur à Beckett and educated at Felsted School. Besides fulfilling other journalistic engagements, Beckett founded The Tomahawk which ran from 1867 to 1870Beckett was on the staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, edited the Sunday Times 1891–1895, and the Naval and Military Magazine in 1896.
He gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in The à Becketts of Punch (1903). A childhood friend (and distant relative) of W. S. Gilbert, Beckett briefly feuded with Gilbert in 1869, but the two patched up the friendship, and Gilbert even later collaborated on projects with Beckett's brother.
thumb|St Mary Magdalen, Mortlake
He was married to Suzanne Frances Winslow, daughter of the noted psychiatrist Forbes Benignus Winslow. He is buried in the churchyard at St Mary Magdalen, Mortlake.
Works
He published:
Comic Guide to the Royal Academy, with his brother Gilbert (1863–64)
Fallen Amongst Thieves (1869)
Our Holiday in the Highlands (1874)
The Shadow Witness and The Doom of Saint Quirec, with Francis Burnand (1875–76)
The Ghost of Greystone Grange (1877)
The Mystery of Mostyn Manor (1878)
Traded Out; Hard Luck; Stone Broke; Papers from Pump Handle Court, by a Briefless Barrister (1884)
Modern Arabian Nights (1885)
The Member for Wrottenborough (1895)
Greenroom Recollections (1896)
The Modern Adam (1899)
London at the End of the Century (1900)
With F. C. Burnand he co-authored:
The Doom of St. Querec (1875)
The Shadow Witness (1876)
He wrote for the theatre two three-act comedies:
L.S.D. (Royalty Theatre, 1872);
About Town (Court Theatre, 1873, it ran for over 150 nights);
and
On Strike (Court Theatre, 1873, a domestic drama in one act) ;
Faded Flowers (The Haymarket);
Long Ago (Royalty Theatre, 1882);
From Father to Son (Liverpool, 1881, a dramatised version of his novel Fallen among Thieves written in 3 acts in cooperation with J. Palgrave Simpson).
Notes
References
External links
Category:1844 births
Category:1909 deaths
Category:English male journalists
Category:English humorists
Category:Burials at St Mary Magdalen Roman Catholic Church Mortlake
Category:À Beckett family | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_William_à_Beckett | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.788309 |
2709 | Aberdeen, South Dakota | <!-- Images --------------->
|image_skyline
|image_caption |image_flag
|image_seal |image_blank_emblem
|blank_emblem_type =
<!-- Maps ----------------->
|image_map = Brown County South Dakota Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Aberdeen Highlighted.svg
|map_caption = Location in Brown County and the state of South Dakota
|image_map1 |map_caption1
<!-- Location ------------->
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = United States
|subdivision_type1 = State
|subdivision_name1 = South Dakota
|subdivision_type2 = County
|subdivision_name2 = Brown
<!-- Government ----------->
|government_footnotes |government_type
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name Travis Schaunaman
|leader_title1 = City manager
|leader_name1 Robin Bobzien
|established_title = Established
|established_date = June 15, 1879
|established_title1 = Settled
|established_date1 = 1880
|established_title2 = Incorporated (town)
|established_date2 July 6, 1881
|established_title3 = Incorporated (city)
|established_date3 = May 8, 1882
<!-- Area ----------------->
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes
|area_magnitude |area_total_km2 42.98
|area_land_km2 = 42.78
|area_water_km2 = 0.20
|area_total_sq_mi = 16.59
|area_land_sq_mi = 16.52
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.08
<!-- Population ----------->
|population_as_of = 2020
|population_est = 28210
|pop_est_as_of = 2022
|pop_est_footnotes
|blank_name_sec1 = Sales tax
|blank_info_sec1 6.2%
|website =
}}
Aberdeen () is a city in and the county seat of Brown County, South Dakota, United States. As of the 2020 census, its population was 28,495. making it the third-most populous city in the state. Aberdeen is home of Northern State University.HistorySettlement
Before Aberdeen or Brown County was inhabited by European settlers, it was inhabited by the Sioux Indians from approximately 1700 to 1879. Europeans entered the region for business, founding fur trading posts during the 1820s; these trading posts operated until the mid-1830s. The first "settlers" of this region were the Arikara Indians, but they would later be joined by others.
The first group of Euro-American settlers to reach the area that is now Brown County was a party of four people, three horses, two mules, fifteen cattle, and two wagons. This group of settlers was later joined by another group the following spring, and, eventually, more settlers migrated toward this general area, currently known as Columbia, South Dakota. This town was established on June 15, 1879, was settled in 1880, and was incorporated in 1882.
Creation of the town
Aberdeen, like many towns of the Midwest, was built around the newly developing railroad systems. Aberdeen was first officially plotted as a town site on January 3, 1881, by Charles Prior, the superintendent of the Minneapolis office of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad, or the Milwaukee Road for short, which was presided over by Alexander Mitchell, Charles Prior's boss, who was responsible for the choice of town names. He was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, after which the town of Aberdeen was named.
Aberdeen had four different railroad companies with depots built in the newly developing town. With these four railroads intersecting here, Aberdeen soon became known as the "Hub City of the Dakotas". When looking down on Aberdeen from above, the railroad tracks converging in Aberdeen resembled the spokes of a wheel converging at a hub, hence the name "Hub City of the Dakotas". These four railroad companies are the reason why Aberdeen was able to grow and flourish as it did. The only railroad still running through Aberdeen is the BNSF Railway.
L. Frank Baum, who was later author of the book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its many sequels, lived here with his wife and children from 1888 to 1891. He ran a fancy goods store, Baum's Bazaar, for over a year, which failed. He later published one of the city's then nine newspapers, where he used his editorials to campaign for women's suffrage (a suffrage amendment to the new South Dakota constitution was on the ballot at the time). The city's small amusement park has some features reflective of the Oz series. After his sojourn in Aberdeen, he moved to Chicago in 1892.
Five sitting Presidents of the United States have visited Aberdeen: William McKinley in 1899, Theodore Roosevelt in 1903, William Howard Taft in 1911, Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936, and George W. Bush in 2002.[https://sodakgovs.com/2021/07/06/presidential-visits-to-south-dakota-updated/]
Geography
Aberdeen is located in northeastern South Dakota, in the James River valley, approximately west of the river. The James River enters northeastern South Dakota in Brown County, where it is dammed to form two reservoirs northeast of Aberdeen. The city is bisected by Moccasin Creek, a slow-moving waterway which flows south and then northeast to the James River.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.ClimateAberdeen experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) influenced by its position far from moderating bodies of water. This brings four distinct seasons, a phenomenon that is characterized by hot, relatively humid summers and cold, dry winters, and it lies in USDA Hardiness Zone 4b. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while there are 16 days of + highs and 38 days with sub- lows annually.
}}
Demographics
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Aberdeen's employers
! Business
! Full-time employees
|-
| Avera Saint Luke's Hospital
|
|-
| Aberdeen Public School District
|
|-
| Wells Fargo Auto Finance
|
|-
| 3M
|
|-
| Super 8 Worldwide
|
|-
| Hub City Inc.
|
|-
| Agtegra Cooperative
| +
|-
| Midstates Printing/Quality Quick Print
|
|-
| Northern State University
|
|}
Super 8 Motels
Super 8 Motels was founded in 1972 by Dennis Brown and Ron Rivett as a motel referral system, which was replaced with a franchise operation in 1973. The first Super 8, with 60 rooms, was opened in 1974 in Aberdeen and still operates today as the Super 8 Aberdeen East.
Arts and culture
The Aberdeen Area Arts Council publishes a small monthly newspaper, ARTiFACTS, with information on area events.
The Aberdeen Community Theatre was created in 1979 and performs at the Capitol Theatre in downtown Aberdeen. The Capitol Theatre opened in 1927 and donated to the Aberdeen Community Theatre in 1991; since then more than $963,000 has been spent on renovating and preserving the historical aspect of the Capitol Theatre. Today, the Aberdeen Community Theatre performs five mainstage productions and three youth productions per year.
The South Dakota Film Festival established in 2007 is held annually in the fall. The festival has been host to Kevin Costner, Graham Greene, Adam Greenberg, CSA and many more stars of film and television. The festival's first feature film screened was Into The Wild, shot partially in SD. The festival is held at the historic Capitol Theatre.
The Northern State University Theater Department puts on plays during the school year.
There are four galleries in Aberdeen: Presentation College's Wein Gallery, Northern State University's Lincoln Gallery, the Aberdeen Recreation & Cultural Center (ARCC) Gallery and the ArtWorks Cooperative Gallery located in The Aberdeen Mall.
Sports
Bowling
The Village Bowl in Aberdeen is a modern bowling center with multiple lanes. Located at 1314 8th Ave NW.
Minor league baseball
Aberdeen has had three minor league baseball teams since 1920. The Aberdeen Boosters, a class D league team, played in 1920, the Aberdeen Grays, also a class D team, played from 1921 to 1923. The class C Aberdeen Pheasants from 1946 to 1971, and 1995 to 1997. The Pheasants were the affiliate of the former St. Louis Browns (and current Baltimore Orioles). Aberdeen was a stop to the majors for such notable players as Don Larsen (perfect game in the World Series), Lou Piniella (AL rookie of the year with Kansas City Royals in 1969), and Jim Palmer, Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles. In the 1960's, the Pheasants were Coached by Cal Ripken, Sr, who later ended up being a Major League Coach and had two sons Cal, Jr. and Billy that also played for the Orioles organization.
On June 8, 2024, the first SABR Historical Marker in the state of South Dakota was revealed on the campus of Northern State University. It was the 60th anniversary to the day when the Baltimore Orioles played an exhibition game at the ballpark.
Tennis
Aberdeen has 19 public tennis courts throughout the city – Melgaard Park (4), Northern State University (6), and Holgate Middle School (8).
Golf
Aberdeen has three golf courses: Lee Park Municipal Golf Course, Moccasin Creek Country Club and Rolling Hills Country Club. Lee Park and Moccasin Creek are both 18-hole courses. Rolling Hills is a combined nine-hole course and housing development which opened in 2005.
Hockey/ice skating
Aberdeen has several outdoor skating rinks and hockey rinks open to the public during winter months. Aberdeen is also home to the NAHL team, Aberdeen Wings.
Skateboarding/rollerblading
Aberdeen has a skate park located between East Melgaard Road and 17th Ave SE at Melgaard Park. The equipment installed includes a quarter pipe, penalty box with half pyramid, bank ramp, spine, kinked rail and a ground rail.
Disc golf
Aberdeen has two disc golf courses, Melgaard Park, and the Richmond Lake Disc Golf Course.
Roller Derby
Aberdeen has an All-women's Roller Derby league "A-Town Roller Girlz" established in 2011, also bringing Junior Roller Derby to the area.
Parks and recreation
Aberdeen Family YMCAThe full service YMCA includes an aquatic center with a competitive size lap pool, zero depth entry recreation pool with play features and hot tub. There are three gyms one of which has a climbing wall. There are two racquetball courts. Saunas and steam rooms are in the men's and women's locker rooms. Over 100 group fitness classes are offered each week with child watch available (short term childcare). A wellness center that has cardio equipment, weight machines and free weights.Family Aquatic CenterCompleted in the summer of 2007, this complex includes a zero entry pool, competition lap pool, lazy river, numerous water slides, play sand area, and a concession area.Wylie Park Recreation AreaWylie Park Recreation Area features go-kart racing, sand volleyball courts, access to Wylie Lake, camping area, picnic areas, and is connected to Storybook Land. Wylie Lake is a small man-made lake, open in the summer months for swimming, lying on the beach, and paddle boating. in the foreground]]Storybook LandStorybook Land is a park with attractions from several different children's storybooks. The park contains a castle, as well as a train that takes visitors through the park. There are two barns which contain petting zoos. Humpty Dumpty's Great Fall Roller Coaster was added to the park, summer 2015. Newly added is the Land of Oz, that features characters and attractions from L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Baum was a resident of Aberdeen in the 1880s. He left after a severe drought led to the failure first of his variety store Baum's Bazaar, and then to his newspaper The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer, where he wrote an opinion column titled Our Landlady.Kuhnert ArboretumThe Kuhnert Arboretum provides many new learning experiences for the residents of the Aberdeen area, including school-aged children. The Arboretum offers environmental education, a children's area, rose garden collection, recreational trails and much more.Richmond Lake Recreation AreaThe Richmond Lake Recreation Area is used by all types of outdoors enthusiasts. Three separate areas in this park cater to the needs of campers, swimmers, naturalists, boaters and anglers. Campers stay in the South Unit, while the Forest Drive Unit is a great place for wildlife viewing. The Boat Ramp Unit provides access to the more than lake.
Richmond Lake Recreation Area's small campground offers a quiet camping experience. The park also features a wheelchair accessible camping cabin.
The park's extensive trail system features over of trails, including both accessible and interpretive trails. Hikers, bikers, and horseback riders can observe the abundance of prairie plants and wildlife of the area up-close.
The park has multiple private and public boat ramps as well as an accessible fishing dock. Richmond Lake has a population of walleye, northern pike, bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, and bullheads within its waters. An entrance fee is required to gain access to the water and park itself.
Government
Aberdeen is the center of government for Brown County. City government is overseen by a City Manager/Council form of government with a mayor and eight council members. The City Manager is Robin Bobzien, and the City Council is composed of Mayor Travis Shaunaman and Council Members Char Liebelt, Rich Ward, Erin Fouberg, Rob Ronayne, Alan Johnson, Tiffany Langer, David Novstup and Justin Reinbold. Each council member serves a five-year term.
County government is overseen by five commissioners. Each county commissioner serves a five-year term. The county commissioners include Duane Sutton, Drew Dennert, Mike Wiese, Mike Gage, and Doug Fjeldheim. Aberdeen is home to Brown County offices including clerk-magistrate, county auditor, landfill office, register of deeds, county treasurer, coroner, emergency management, highway superintendent, public welfare, state's attorney, and a few others.
The state senators from Brown County include Brock Greenfield and Al Novstrup, and the state representatives included Lana Greefield, Kaleb Wies, Carl Perry and Drew Dennert. They are all in office until December 2020
In 2008, Governor Mike Rounds named Aberdeen as the South Dakota Community of the Year.
Education
Public schools
Aberdeen Public Schools are part of the Aberdeen School District. The school district has six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school.
The elementary schools are C.C. Lee Elementary School, Lincoln Elementary School, May Overby Elementary School, O.M. Tiffany Elementary School, Simmons Elementary School and Mike Miller Elementary School. The two middle schools are Holgate Middle School, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons Middle School, which serves the south side of the city. Students in the district attend Central High School. The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school.
The Aberdeen School District's enrollment for the year 2011–2012 was approximately 3,945 students, and the average class size was in the low to mid-twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle School was completely remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building which was completed in August 2008. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA.Parochial schoolsAberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic-affiliated Roncalli High School, the nondenominational Aberdeen Christian School, and Trinity Lutheran School of the WELS.Special programsThe South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a state special school under the direction of the South Dakota Board of Regents.
Higher education
Northern State University
Northern State University (NSU) is a public university that was founded in 1901Presentation CollegePresentation College was a Catholic college on a campus, and was founded in 1951. PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1. Presentation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Presentation College announced that it would no longer take new enrollments, and closed the college at the end of the summer semester in 2023.MediaThe American News was founded as a weekly newspaper in 1885, by C.W. Starling and Paul Ware. It is now a daily newspaper.Television{| class"wikitable"
|+ align=bottom |
! style="background:#ccf;"| Channel<br />(Digital)
! style="background:#ccf;"| Callsign
! style="background:#ccf;"| Network
! style="background:#ccf;"| Owner
|-
|3.1||K24DT-D<br />||CBS||Nexstar Media Group
|-
|3.2||K24DT-D<br />||MyNetworkTV||Nexstar Media Group
|-
|7.1||K39CZ-D<br />||Fox||Independent Communications
|-
|7.2||K39CZ-D<br />||This TV||Independent Communications|
|-
|7.3||K39CZ-D<br />||Cozi TV||Independent Communications|
|-
|13.1||K33MI-D<br />||ABC||Gray Television|
|-
|13.2||K33MI-D<br />||CW||Gray Television|
|-
|13.3||K33MI-D<br />||MeTV||Gray Television|
|-
|46.1||K33MI-D<br />||NBC||Gray Television|
|-
|46.2||K33MI-D<br />||Antenna TV||Gray Television|
|-
|16.1||KDSD||PBS||SDPB
|-
|16.2||KDSD||World||SDPB
|-
|16.3||KDSD||Create||SDPB
|-
|16.4||KDSD||Kids||SDPB
|}
AM radio
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style"text-align:center;" colspan"6"|AM radio stations
|-
!Frequency!!Call sign!!Name!!Format!!Owner!!City
|-
|930 AM||KSDN||930 KSDN||News/Talk||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen
|-
|1420 AM||KGIM||ESPN Radio 1420/107.1||Sports||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen
|}
FM radio
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! style"text-align:center;" colspan"7"|FM radio stations
|-
!Frequency!!Call sign!!Name!!Format!!Owner!!Target city/market!!City of license
|-
|88.1 FM||KFCA||||Christian||American Christian Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|89.7 FM||K209FR||Christian||Christian rock||CSN International||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|90.1 FM||KEEA||||Christian||American Family Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|90.9 FM||KDSD||South Dakota Public Broadcasting||Public radio||South Dakota Public Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Pierpont
|-
|91.7 FM||K219CM||South Dakota Public Broadcasting||Public radio||South Dakota Public Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|94.1 FM||KSDN||94.1 The Rock||Classic rock||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|94.5 FM||K233BN||||Christian contemporary||Prairie Winds Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|94.9 FM||KLRJ||K-Love||Christian||Educational Media Foundation||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|97.7 FM||KNBZ||Sunny 97.7||Adult contemporary||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Redfield
|-
|98.5 FM||K253AB||Praise FM||Christian||Christian Heritage Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|102.1 FM||K271CN||KSDN||News/Talk||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|103.7 FM||KGIM-FM||Pheasant Country 103||Country||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Redfield
|-
|105.5 FM||KMOM|| 105.5 Maverick FM||Country||Dakota Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Roscoe
|-
|106.7 FM||KBFO||Point FM||Top 40||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|107.1 FM||K296FW||ESPN Radio 1420/107.1||Sports||Hub City Radio||Aberdeen||Aberdeen
|-
|107.7 FM||KABD||107-7 The Shark||Adult hits||Dakota Broadcasting||Aberdeen||Ipswich
|}
Infrastructure
Transportation
Air
The Aberdeen Regional Airport is currently served by Delta Connection. It offers flights to Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport using the Bombardier CRJ550 aircraft.
Roadways
There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is US Highway 281, a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is US Highway 12 that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the Minnesota border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city.
Intercity Bus
Jefferson Lines is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Fargo, North Dakota, and Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Public Transit
Ride Line Transportation Services provides demand response service to the Aberdeen area. Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed-route service.
depot in Aberdeen]]
Railroads
The BNSF Railway conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the Milwaukee Road ran trains between Aberdeen and Minneapolis. Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's Aberdeen station. Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's "Pacific Extension" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977.
In addition, the Great Northern Railway was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, & Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad.
The Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago & Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway merged with the Chicago & Northwestern Railway October 1960. Chicago & Northwestern already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the Chicago and Northwestern before its 1995 merger with the Union Pacific Railroad.
Taxi
Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services.
Car rental
There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar-Thrifty, Toyota Rent-a-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent-a-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.
Healthcare
Aberdeen has two hospitals, Avera St. Luke's Hospital and Sanford Aberdeen Medical Center.
There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, Manor Care, Bethesda Home of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Health and Rehab, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus.
Notable people
*Jon Lewis, notable accountant, city figure, most noted for his use of the "[https://www.accountingtoday.com/news/all-parts-of-the-sandwich sandwich]" accounting system
* Michael Andrew, Olympic swimmer
* Bruce Baillie, experimental filmmaker, founding member of Canyon Cinema
* Sam Barry, Hall of Fame basketball, football and baseball coach
* L. Frank Baum, famous for his book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
* Fischer quintuplets, the first surviving quintuplets in the United States were born in Aberdeen in 1963
* Terry Francona, Cleveland Indians manager
* Matilda Joslyn Gage, suffragist, Native American activist and author
* Hamlin Garland, author of the Middle Border series.<ref name=EB />
* Mary GrandPré, illustrator
* Matt Guthmiller, Once the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe by air
* Joseph Hansen, mystery writer
* Charles N. Herreid, Governor of South Dakota
* Josh Heupel Football player and coach
* Ron Holgate, singer and actor
* Buel Hutchinson, lawyer and politician
* Colton Iverson (born 1989), basketball player for Bàsquet Club Andorra
* David C. Jones, USAF general and former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
* Roland Loomis, key figure in the modern primitive movement
* Kenneth J. Meier, political scientist, Texas A&M University
* Don Meyer college basketball coach
* Saul Phillips college basketball coach
* Ron Rivett, founder of Super 8 Motels and My Place hotels
* Paul Sather college basketball coach
* Julie Sommars, actress
* Eddie Spears, actor
* Michael Spears, actor
Notes
References
External links
*[https://www.aberdeen.sd.us/ City website]
*[http://www.aberdeensd.com/ Community website]
*
**
}}
Category:Cities in South Dakota
Category:Cities in Brown County, South Dakota
Category:County seats in South Dakota
Category:Populated places established in 1880
Category:1880 establishments in Dakota Territory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen,_South_Dakota | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.836460 |
2710 | Au | Au, AU, au or a.u. may refer to:
Science and technology
Computing
.au, the internet country code for Australia
Au file format, Sun Microsystems' audio format
Audio Units, a system level plug-in architecture from Apple Computer
Adobe Audition, a sound editor program
Windows Update or Automatic Updates, in Microsoft Windows
Windows 10 Anniversary Update, of August 2016a
Physics and chemistry
Gold, chemical symbol Au
Absorbance unit, a reporting unit in spectroscopy
Atomic units, a system of units convenient for atomic physics and other fields
Ångström unit, a unit of length equal to 10−10 m or 0.1 nanometre.
Astronomical unit, a unit of length used in planetary systems astronomy
Arbitrary unit, a placeholder unit for when the actual value of a measurement is unknown or unimportant
Arts and entertainment
Music
AU (band), an experimental pop group headed by Luke Wyland
Au, a 2010 release by Scottish rock band Donaldson, Moir and Paterson
Au a track on Some Time in New York City by an album by John Lennon & Yoko Ono and Elephant's Memory
Magazines
Alternative Ulster, a Northern Irish music magazine, now called AU
A&U: America's AIDS Magazine, sponsor of the Christopher Hewitt Award
Other media
Alternative universe (fan fiction), fiction by fan authors that deliberately alters facts of the canonical universe written about.
Au Co, a fairy in Vietnamese mythology
Age of Ultron, a 2013 series published by Marvel Comics
A.U, a Chinese media franchise and brand
Organizations
au (mobile phone company), a mobile phone operator in Japan
African Union, a continental union
Americans United for Separation of Church and State
Athletic Union, the union of sports clubs in a British university
Austral Líneas Aéreas (IATA code AU)
Auxiliary Units, specially trained, highly secret units created by the United Kingdom government during the Second World War
AGROunia, an agrarian-socialist political party in Poland
Universities
Asia
Ajou University in Suwon, Gyeonggi, South Korea
Abasyn University in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Andhra University in Visakhapatnam, AP, India
Anhui University in Hefei, Anhui, China
Aletheia University in New Taipei City, Taiwan
Allahabad University in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Arellano University in Philippines
Assumption University (Thailand) in Thailand
Abhilashi University in Himachal Pradesh, India
Adesh University in Bathinda, Punjab, India.
Europe
Aarhus University in Aarhus, Denmark
Aberystwyth University in Aberystwyth, Wales, United Kingdom
Akademia Umiejętności in Kraków, Poland
Arden University in Coventry, England
Oceania
Auckland University in New Zealand
North America
Adelphi University in Garden City, New York
Alfred University in Alfred, New York
Algoma University in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada
American University in Washington, D.C.
Anaheim University in Anaheim, California
Anderson University (Indiana) in Anderson, Indiana
Anderson University (South Carolina) in Anderson, South Carolina
Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan
Antioch University in Culver City, California
Apollos University in Huntington Beach, California
Arcadia University in Glenside, Pennsylvania
Argosy University in Alameda, California
Arizona University in Tucson, Arizona
Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio
Athabasca University in Athabasca, Alberta, Canada
Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama
Augsburg University in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Aurora University in Aurora, Illinois
Other
Air University (disambiguation), various Air Force universities
Places
Aue (toponymy), a frequent element in Germanic toponymy
Australia (ISO 3166 country code)
Au, Guinea, Kankan Region
Austria
Austria (obsolete NATO, FIPS, and LOC MARC two-letter country code)
Au, Vorarlberg, Bregenz, Austria
Au am Leithaberge, Austria
Au im Bregenzerwald, Austria
Germany
Au (Munich), Munich, Germany
Au (Schwarzwald), Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Au (squat), a building and cultural center in Frankfurt, Germany
Au am Rhein, Germany
Au in der Hallertau, Germany
Switzerland
Au, St. Gallen
Au, Zürich
Au peninsula
Schloss Au, a château in Wädenswil
Vehicles
Ford Falcon (AU), a family car made in Australia
Vought AU, a post-World War II US Marine Corps variant of the F4U Corsair aircraft
Other uses
Aú, a cartwheel in the Brazilian martial art of Capoeira
Au (surname), a Chinese family name
Au language
Ab urbe condita (sometimes abbreviated as a.u.), Latin for "from the founding of the City" (Rome)
a'u, the Hawaiian name for the Pacific blue marlin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.841579 |
2712 | Aberdour | | population
| population_ref ()| os_grid_reference NT190852
| unitary_scotland = Fife
| lieutenancy_scotland = Fife
| country = Scotland
| post_town = BURNTISLAND
| postcode_area = KY
| postcode_district = KY3
| dial_code = 01383
| constituency_westminster = Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath
| constituency_scottish_parliament = Cowdenbeath
}}
Aberdour (; Scots: , ) is a scenic and historic village on the south coast of Fife, Scotland. It is on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, looking south to the island of Inchcolm and its Abbey, and to Leith and Edinburgh beyond. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 1,633.
The village's winding High Street lies a little inland from the coast. Narrow lanes run off it, providing access to the more hidden parts of the village and the shoreline itself. The village nestles between the bigger coastal towns of Burntisland to the east and Dalgety Bay to the west.
The parish of Aberdour takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,972 at the 2011 Census. Etymology Aberdour means 'mouth of the Dour'. The first element is the Pictish word aber 'river mouth'. The name of the Dour Burn, which enters the River Forth at the village's harbour, is from Pictish 'water'.
History
For much of its history Aberdour was two villages, Wester Aberdour and Easter Aberdour, on either side of the Dour Burn; however this distinction was blurred by the 19th century arrival of the railway.
In the 18th century Aberdour's harbour was improved by the addition of a stone pier to help handle the coal traffic from nearby collieries. However, in the 1850s the traffic changed dramatically, and Aberdour Harbour became a popular destination for pleasure steamers from Leith. This in turn led to the building of a deeper water pier a little around the bay at Hawkcraig, and to the development of hotels and many of the other services still on view today in the village.
The railway came to Aberdour in 1890, with the building of the line east from the newly opened Forth Bridge. The station has won many "best kept station" awards. Geography
The A921, the main road along the south coast of Fife, leads down the High Street of Wester Aberdour, before kinking sharply left to cross the railway line, then right again to progress through Easter Aberdour's Main Street.
Wester Aberdour has a narrow through road more closely hemmed in by shops and hotels. A number of vernacular buildings of the 17th-early 19th centuries add to the historic scene. Close to the railway bridge, three lanes continue eastwards, presumably once the route of the original High Street before the arrival of the railway. One now leads to Aberdour railway station, a beautifully kept and cared for example of a traditional station, in keeping with its role of transporting at least a quarter of the village's working population to their work each day.
A second lane leads alongside the railway line to Aberdour Castle, while a third leads to the restored Aberdour House. A little further west, a narrow road closely lined with high walls, Shore Road, leads down to the West Sands and the Harbour. For many this area is the highlight of any visit to Aberdour; parking at the foot of Shore Road is usually at a premium.
Another road leads coastwards from Easter Aberdour. Hawkcraig Road leads past St Fillan's Church and through Silversand Park, home to Aberdour Shinty Club, en route to a parking area on Hawkcraig. The car park was the site of a whinstone quarry between 1910 and 1933, exploiting the dolerite sill which forms the bedrock geology. The area was then used as the council refuse tip before becoming a car park in the 1970s,
The Aberdour obelisk was built by Lord Morton on his departure from the village to relocate to a large home in Edinburgh, it was built so he could see his former hometown from his new house when he looked through binoculars – it stands in a cowfield between the castle and the beach.
Culture
Aberdour hosts an annual festival, which runs from late July to early August and features musical events, shows, sporting events and children's events.
Aberdour was a 2005 finalist in the prestigious "Beautiful Scotland in Bloom" awards. It was nominated for "Best Coastal Resort" in Scotland along with St Andrews in Fife, North Berwick in East Lothian, and Rothesay in Argyll and Bute.
In 2014 Aberdour was voted Best Coastal Village in Fife and Best Small Coastal Village in Scotland. It also received a Gold Award in Beautiful Fife and Beautiful Scotland. In 2018 Aberdour was voted the second-best place to live in Scotland by The Sunday Times list of Best Places to Live
Aberdour is home to Fife's only senior shinty club. Aberdour Shinty Club field teams in both the men's and women's senior national leagues.
Aberdour is one of the few communities outside of Turkmenistan to celebrate Melon Day on the second Sunday of every August. Aberdour's beaches
Aberdour has two beaches – the Silver Sands, and the Black Sands.
The Silver Sands are located on the East side of the village, and have previously held a "Blue flag" beach award, which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness, facilities, safety, environmental education and management. New facilities are currently under construction by Fife Council, which will much improve the beach throughout the year.
The Black Sands (also known as the West Beach), as the contrasting name would suggest, have a rockier and darker sand, and are also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and unique sea life. During the summer months (April–September), dogs are banned from the Silver Sands but they are allowed all year round at the West Beach. The two beaches are linked by part of the Fife Coastal Path which also takes hikers past the harbour and the Hawkcraig – a popular rock climbing location.
Silver Sands is becoming more popular with open water swimmers, who swim daily in the sea, both as a leisure pursuit, and as training for open water competition. The bay provides safety from the currents, although only the adventurous swim round to the harbour.
Several scenes of Richard Jobson's 2003 movie 16 Years of Alcohol were filmed at the Black Sands in Aberdour.
Inchcolm
The island of Inchcolm, or Island (Gaelic innis) of Columba, a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour. Its name implies associations dating back to the time of Columba and, although undocumented before the 12th century, it may have served the monks of the Columban family as an 'Iona of the east' from early times.
During the First and Second World Wars, Inchcolm was occupied by the army as part of the defences of the Firth of Forth. There are extensive remains of gun emplacements, barracks, etc. from these periods.
The island is notable for its wildlife, especially seabirds and seals. These draw many visitors in summer, along with the remains of the historic Abbey, and is a popular setting for weddings.
Notable residents
Notable past and present residents of the town include:
*Rev Robert Liston Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1787
*Geoffrey Keyes, recipient of the Victoria Cross
*William Wotherspoon, rugby union player
Twin cities/towns
* Corte Franca, Italy (since 31 July 2004) See also
* Aber and Inver as place-name elements
* Aberdour Shinty Club
* List of places in Fife
References
External links
* [http://www.aberdourfestival.org Aberdour Festival website]
Category:Villages in Fife
Category:Parishes in Fife | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdour | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.850034 |
2714 | Aberfoyle, Stirling | | official_name = Aberfoyle
| gaelic_name = Obar Phuill
| population
| population_ref = ()
| civil_parish = Aberfoyle
| unitary_scotland = Stirling
| lieutenancy_scotland = Stirling and Falkirk
| constituency_westminster = Stirling
| constituency_scottish_parliament = Stirling
| post_town = STIRLING
| postcode_district = FK8
| postcode_area = FK
| dial_code = 01877
| os_grid_reference = NN518012
| edinburgh_distance_mi = 49
| london_distance_mi = 366
}}
Aberfoyle () is a village in the historic county and registration county of Perthshire and the council area of Stirling, Scotland. The settlement lies northwest of Glasgow.
The parish of Aberfoyle takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,065 at the 2011 census. Geography The town is situated on the River Forth at the foot of Craigmore ( high). Since 1885, when the Duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the public in 1931 when the Forestry Commission acquired the land.
Loch Ard, about west of Aberfoyle, lies above the sea. It is long (including the narrows at the east end) and broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. The loch's northern shores are dominated by the mountain ridge of Beinn an Fhogharaidh (). northwest of Loch Ard is Loch Chon, at above the sea, long and about broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Forth.
Toponym
Aberfoyle supposedly originates from the Brittonic Celtic, aber poll or aber phuill (Scottish Gaelic, ), meaning (place at the) mouth of the Phuill Burn (the Pow Burn enters the River Forth at Aberfoyle). Historically, alternative spellings such as Abirfull, Aberfule, Aberfoill and Aberfoil have been recorded before the current spelling became accepted by the 20th century. The river-name is from either Gaelic poll or Brittonic pol, both of which mean 'pool, sluggish water'.Industry
The slate quarries on Craigmore which operated from the 1820s to the 1950s are now defunct; at its peak this was a major industry. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the 1720s, as well as wool spinning and a lint mill.
From 1882 the village was served by Aberfoyle railway station, the terminus of the Strathendrick and Aberfoyle Railway which connected to Glasgow via Dumbarton or Kirkintilloch. The station closed to passenger traffic in 1951, and the remaining freight services ceased in 1959.
The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry, industry and tourism.
Tourism
Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of The Lady of the Lake by Sir Walter Scott in 1810. The poem described the beauty of Loch Katrine. Aberfoyle describes itself as The Gateway to the Trossachs, and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as Loch Lomond and Inchmahome Priory at the Lake of Menteith. Aberfoyle Golf Club was built in 1860 and is located just south of town near the Rob Roy restaurant. Aberfoyle is also part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.
Aberfoyle is also home to the largest Go Ape adventure course in the UK, featuring the longest death slide, or 'zip-line', in the UK.
Historical figures
Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as Áedán mac Gabráin, Rob Roy and Mary, Queen of Scots. A Life of the Irish saint Berach of Cluain Chairpthe has the saint travel to Eperpuill (Aberfoyle) to seek Áedán mac Gabráin's adjudication in a land dispute. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well-known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. It is recorded, for example, that in 1691, the MacGregors raided every barn in the village of Kippen and stole all the villagers' livestock. There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary, Queen of Scots, visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.
However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into Scottish Gaelic of the Metrical Psalms and then the whole Christian Bible, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book "The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies" in 1691. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them.Use in fiction
*Aberfoyle was used as the location and inspiration for the adventure novel "Les Indes noires" (English title: The Child of the Cavern) by Jules Verne.
*The "Clachan of Aberfoil", then (in 1715) a small hamlet, plays a significant role in the second Volume of the novel Rob Roy by Walter Scott.
*Aberfoyle is where two grandfathers grew up in Shadow Land by Adam Wright. The grandfathers are the ancestors of two sub-characters who are related to Shellycoats. In the book, it is surmised that people from Aberfoyle have a hint of the faerie in their blood.
See also
*List of places in Stirling (council area)
References
External links
*
*[http://www.trossachs.co.uk/aberfoyle.php Read more about Aberfoyle and its history]
Category:Parishes in Perthshire
Category:Villages in Stirling (council area)
Category:Trossachs
Category:Highland Boundary Fault | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberfoyle,_Stirling | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.857183 |
2715 | Abergavenny | | country = Wales
| official_name = Abergavenny
| welsh_name = Y Fenni
| community_wales = Abergavenny
| unitary_wales = Monmouthshire
| lieutenancy_wales = Gwent
| constituency_westminster = Monmouthshire
| constituency_welsh_assembly = Monmouth
| post_town = ABERGAVENNY
| postcode_area = NP
| postcode_district = NP7
| dial_code = 01873
| os_grid_reference = SO295145
| population = 13695
| population_ref (2021)
| static_image_name = Abergavenny.jpg
| static_image_caption = The clock tower of Abergavenny Town Hall, Cross Street
| london_distance | cardiff_distance
| module= <br />Map of the community
}}
Abergavenny (; , , archaically , ) is a market town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales. Abergavenny is promoted as a "Gateway to Wales"; it is approximately from the border with England and is located where the A40 trunk road and the recently upgraded A465 Heads of the Valleys road meet.
Originally the site of a Roman fort, Gobannium, it became a medieval walled town within the Welsh Marches. The town contains the remains of a medieval stone castle built soon after the Norman conquest of Wales.
Abergavenny is situated at the confluence of the River Usk and a tributary stream, the Gavenny. It is almost entirely surrounded by mountains and hills: the Blorenge (), the Sugar Loaf (), Skirrid Fawr (Great Skirrid), Ysgyryd Fach (Little Skirrid), Deri, Rholben and Mynydd Llanwenarth, known locally as "Llanwenarth Breast". Abergavenny provides access to the nearby Black Mountains and the wider Brecon Beacons National Park. The Cambrian Way, Beacons Way and Marches Way pass through Abergavenny whilst the Offa's Dyke Path passes through Pandy five miles to the north and the Usk Valley Walk passes through nearby Llanfoist.
In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515. The town hosted the 2016 National Eisteddfod of Wales.
Etymology
The town derives its name from a Brythonic word Gobannia meaning "river of the blacksmiths", and relates to the town's pre-Roman importance in iron smelting. The name is related to the modern Welsh word gof (blacksmith), and so is also associated with the Welsh smith Gofannon from folklore. The river later became, in Welsh, Gafenni, and the town's name became Abergafenni, meaning "mouth of (Welsh: Aber) the Gavenny (Gafenni)". In Welsh, the shortened form Y Fenni may have come into use after about the 15th century, and is now used as the Welsh name. Abergavenny, the English spelling, is in general use.
Geography
The town originally developed on the high ground to the north of the floodplain of the River Usk and to the west of the valley of the much smaller Gavenny River though has since extended to the east of the latter. It has merged with the originally separate settlement of Mardy to the north but remains separate from that of Llanfoist to the south due to the presence of the river and its floodplain; nevertheless Llanfoist is in many ways a suburb of the town. The ground rises gradually in the north of the town before steepening to form the Deri and Rholben spurs of Sugar Loaf. The A4143 crossing of the Usk by means of the historic Usk Bridge is sited at the narrowest point of the floodplain, a site also chosen for the former crossing of a tramroad and the later mainline railway. The high ground at either side is formed by a legacy of the last ice age, the recessional Llanfoist moraine which underlies both the village which gives it its name, the town centre and the Nevill Hall area. The older parts of the town north of its centre are built upon a relatively flat-lying alluvial fan extending west from the area of St Mary's Priory to Cantref and of similar age to the moraine.
In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515.
History
Roman period
Gobannium was a Roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the River Usk, Cadw considers that the fort was occupied from around CE50 to CE150. Remains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s.
11th century
Abergavenny grew as a town in early Norman times under the protection of the Baron Bergavenny (or Abergavenny). The first Baron was Hamelin de Balun, from Ballon, a small town with a castle in Maine-Anjou near Le Mans. Today it is in the Sarthe département of France. He founded the Benedictine priory, now the Priory Church of St Mary, in the late 11th century. The Priory belonged originally to the Benedictine foundation of St. Vincent Abbaye at Le Mans. It was subsequently endowed by William de Braose, with a tithe of the profits of the castle and town. The church contains some unique alabaster effigies, church monuments and unique medieval wood carving, such as the Tree of Jesse.12th and 13th centuriesOwing to its geographical location, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare and power play of the 12th and 13th centuries in the Welsh Marches. In 1175, Abergavenny Castle was the site of a massacre of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal and his associates by William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the Prior by William de Braose.
At the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1541, the priory's endowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, King Henry VIII Grammar School, the site itself passing to the Gunter family. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair periwigs. Adolf Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, was kept under escort at Maindiff Court Hospital during the Second World War, after his flight to Britain. In 1964, the Royal Observer Corps opened a small monitoring bunker to be used in the event of a nuclear attack. It was closed in 1968 but reopened in 1973 due to the closure of a bunker near Brynmawr. It closed in 1991 on the stand down of the ROC. It remains mostly intact.
Baron of Abergavenny
The title of Baron Abergavenny was first held by the Beauchamp family. In the late 14th century the reversion of the feudal marcher barony (with the castle, town and surrounding lands appurtenant) was purchased from John Hastings, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, who had no heirs, by William Beauchamp, the second son of the Earl of Warwick; and he was elevated to the House of Lords as Baron Bergavenny. On his death, his wife Joan held the entire barony in survivorship for life until 1435, at which time it passed into the Nevill family; Joan's granddaughter Elizabeth, heir to the barony, married a Neville, Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill 5th Earl, an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Conservative Party, was created 1st Marquess of Abergavenny. Sir Charles reconstructed the house in 1746 with the addition of a nine-bay two-storey Georgian façade with a Doric portico. It was subsequently passed down in the Hanbury Williams family until it was demolished in 1954.EventsHeld during the first week of August every year, the National Eisteddfod is a celebration of the culture and language in Wales. The festival travels from place to place, alternating between north and south Wales, attracting around 150,000 visitors and over 250 tradestands and stalls. In 2016 it was held in Abergavenny for the first time since 1913. The Chair and Crown for 2016 were presented to the festival's Executive Committee at a ceremony held in Monmouth on 14 June 2016.
The Abergavenny Food Festival is held in the second week of September each year. The Steam, Veteran and Vintage Rally takes place in May every year. The event expands year on year with the 2016 rally including a rock choir, shire horses, motorcycling stunts, vintage cars and steam engines. The Country and Western Music Festival is attended by enthusiasts of country music. It marked its third year in 2016 and was attended by acts including Ben Thompson, LA Country and many more. The event was last held in 2017. The Abergavenny Writing Festival began in April 2016 and is a celebration of writing and the written word. The Abergavenny Arts Festival, first held in 2018, celebrates arts in their broadest sense and showcases amateur and professional artists from the vibrant local arts scene together with some from further afield.Welsh languageIn recent decades, the number of Welsh speakers in the town has increased dramatically. The 2001 census recorded that 10% of the local population spoke the language, a five-fold increase over ten years from the figure of 2% recorded in 1991. The town has one of the two Welsh-medium primary schools in Monmouthshire, Ysgol Gymraeg y Fenni, which was founded in the early 1990s. It is also home to the Abergavenny Welsh society, Cymreigyddion y Fenni, and the local Abergavenny Eisteddfod.SportAbergavenny was the home of Abergavenny Thursdays F.C., formed in 1927 and merged with Govilon, the local village side in 2013. The new club, Abergavenny Town F.C., plays at the Pen-y-pound Stadium, maintained and run by Thursday’s football trust, as members of the Ardal South East league (tier 3) for the 2021–22 season. It is also the home of Abergavenny RFC, a rugby union club founded in 1875 that plays at Bailey Park, Abergavenny. In the 2018–19 season, they play in the Welsh Rugby Union Division Three East A league. Abergavenny Hockey Club, formed in 1897, currently play at the Abergavenny Leisure Centre on Old Hereford Road.
Abergavenny Cricket Club play at Pen-y-Pound, Avenue Road and Glamorgan CCC also play some of their games here. Abergavenny Cricket Club was founded in 1834 and celebrated the 175th anniversary of its foundation in 2009. Abergavenny Tennis Club also play at Pen-y-Pound and plays in the South Wales Doubles League and Aegon Team Tennis. The club engages the services of a head tennis professional to run a coaching programme for the town and was crowned Tennis Wales' Club of the Year in 2010. Abergavenny hosted the British National Cycling Championships in 2007, 2009 and 2014, as part of the town's Festival of Cycling.Cattle marketA cattle market was held in Abergavenny from 1863 to December 2013. From 1825 to 1863 a sheep market was held at a site in Castle Street, to stop the sale of sheep on the streets of the town. When the market closed, the site was leased and operated by Abergavenny Market Auctioneers Ltd, who held regular livestock auctions on the site. Market days were held on Tuesdays for the auction sale of finished sheep, cull ewe/store and fodder (hay and straw), and on some Fridays for the auction sale of cattle. After Newport's cattle market closed in 2009 for redevelopment, Newport's sales were held at Abergavenny every Wednesday.
In 2011 doubts about the future of Abergavenny Cattle Market were raised after Monmouthshire County Council granted planning permission for its demolition and replacement with a supermarket, car park, and library. In January 2012 the Welsh Government announced the repeal of the Abergavenny Improvement Acts of 1854 to 1871 which obliged the holding of a livestock market within the boundaries of Abergavenny town; that repeal being effective from 26 March 2012. The county council, which requested that the Abergavenny Improvement Acts be repealed, supported plans for a new cattle market to be established about from Abergavenny in countryside at Bryngwyn, some from Raglan. There was local opposition to this site. The new Monmouthshire Livestock Centre, a 27-acre site at Bryngwyn, opened in November 2013.
Culture
Cultural history
Abergavenny has hosted the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1838, 1913 and most recently in 2016. In 2017 the town was named one of the best places to live in Wales. The town's local radio stations are currently Sunshine Radio 107.8 FM and NH Sound 1287 AM. Abergavenny is home to an award-winning brass band. Formed in Abergavenny prior to 1884, the band were joint National Welsh League Champions in 2006 and joint National Welsh League Champions in 2011. The band also operates a Junior Band training local young musicians.
The Borough Theatre in Abergavenny town centre hosts live events covering drama, opera, ballet, music, children's events, dance, comedy, storytelling, tribute bands and talks. The Melville Centre is close to the town centre and includes the Melville Theatre, which hosts a range of live events. The town held its first Abergavenny Arts Festival in 2018 and also hosts the Abergavenny Food Festival in September each year.
In popular culture
William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII features the character Lord Abergavenny. In 1968 "Abergavenny" was the title of a UK single by Marty Wilde. In 1969, it was also released in the US, under a Marty Wilde pseudonym Shannon, where it was also a minor hit. In The Adventure of the Priory School Sherlock Holmes refers to a case he is working on in Abergavenny. Abergavenny is mentioned by Stan Shunpike, the conductor of the Knight Bus when the bus takes a detour there to drop off a passenger in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The TV series Upstairs, Downstairs, features a character in the second season, Thomas Watkins, the devious Bellamy family chauffeur, who comes from Abergavenny. In the 1979 spinoff of Upstairs, Downstairs titled Thomas & Sarah, Watkins and Sarah Moffat, another major character, marry and return briefly to Abergavenny. * Much of the 1996 film, Intimate Relations starring Julie Walters, Rupert Graves, Les Dennis and Amanda Holden, was filmed at many locations in and around Abergavenny.
Transport
Railway
Abergavenny railway station lies on the Welsh Marches Line from Newport to Hereford. The weekday daytime service pattern typically sees one train per hour in each direction between Manchester Piccadilly and Cardiff Central, with most trains continuing beyond Cardiff to Swansea and west Wales. There is also a two-hourly service between Cardiff and the North Wales Coast Line to , via . These services are all operated by Transport for Wales.
Roads
The town is located where the A40 trunk road and the A465 Heads of the Valleys road meet. The latter used to meet the A40 in the town centre but the A465 now runs to the east of the town centre.
Buses
A network of services link the town with local villages. In addition, Stagecoach South Wales operate service 23 to Hereford and Newport approximately every two hours while Newport Bus operates service 83 to Monmouth.
Notable buildings
Abergavenny Castle is located strategically just south of the town centre overlooking the River Usk. It was built in about 1067 by the Norman baron Hamelin de Ballon to guard against incursions by the Welsh from the hills to the north and west. All that remains is defensive ditches and the ruins of the stone keep, towers, and part of the curtain wall. It is a Grade I listed building.
Various markets are held in the Market Hall, for example: Tuesdays, Fridays and Saturdays – retail market; Wednesdays – flea market; fourth Thursday of each month – farmers' market; third Sunday of each month – antique fair; second Saturday of each month – craft fair.
The Church in Wales church of the Holy Trinity is in the Diocese of Monmouth. Holy Trinity Church was consecrated by the Bishop of Llandaff on 6 November 1840. It was originally built as a chapel to serve the adjacent almshouses and the nearby school. It has been Grade II listed since January 1974.
Other listed buildings in the town include the parish Priory Church of St Mary, a medieval and Victorian building that was originally the church of the Benedictine priory founded in Abergavenny before 1100; the sixteenth century Tithe Barn near St Mary's; the Victorian Church of the Holy Trinity; the Grade II* listed St John's Masonic Lodge; Abergavenny Museum; the Public Library; the Town Hall; and the remains of Abergavenny town walls behind Neville Street.
From 1851, the Monmouthshire lunatic asylum, later Pen-y-Fal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital, <!---- comment out per Wikipedia:External links, but could be a source for some of this info ---[http://www.countyasylums.com/mentalasylums/penyfal01.htm]----> stood on the outskirts of Abergavenny. Between 1851 and 1950, over 3,000 patients died at the hospital. A memorial plaque for the deceased has now been placed at the site. After its closure in the 1990s, its buildings and grounds were redeveloped as housing. Some psychiatric services are now administered from Maindiff Court Hospital on the outskirts of the town, close to the foot of the Skirrid mountain.Parks and gardensAbergavenny has three public urban parks which are listed on the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales: the grounds of Abergavenny Castle, Linda Vista Gardens and Bailey Park. A fourth registered garden, at The Hill to the north of the town, forms part of the grounds of a residential development.
in the centre with its characteristic notched outline (2014)]]
Twinning
Abergavenny is twinned with:
* Östringen, Germany
* Beaupréau, France
Notable people
See also :Category:People from Abergavenny
* Augustine Baker (1575–1641), well-known Benedictine mystic and an ascetic writer. He was one of the earliest members of the English Benedictine Congregation which was newly restored to England after the Reformation.
* John Williams (1857–1932) soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for actions at Rorke’s Drift.
* Scott Ellaway (born 1981), conductor, was born and brought up locally.
* Becky James (born 1991), racing cyclist, double gold medallist at the 2013 UCI Track Cycling World Championships and double silver medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics, was born and grew up in Abergavenny.
* Matthew Jay (1978–2003), singer-songwriter, spent much of his life in the town.
* Peter Law (1948–2006), politician and Independent MP, notable for defeating the Labour candidate in the safest Welsh seat during the 2005 general election was born in Abergavenny.
* Saint David Lewis (1616–1679), Catholic priest and martyr, was born in Abergavenny and prayed in the local Gunter Mansion.
* Malcolm Nash (1945–2019), cricketer, famous for bowling to Gary Sobers who hit six sixes in one Nash over, was born in Abergavenny.
* Mary Penry (1735–1804), Moravian sister in 18th-century Pennsylvania was born in Abergavenny.
* Owen Sheers (born 1974), poet, grew up in Abergavenny.
* Oliver Thornton (born 1979), West End actor, starred of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, was born and grew up in Abergavenny.
* Vulcana (Miriam Kate Williams, 1874–1946), world-famous strongwoman, was born in Abergavenny.
* Ethel Lina White (1876–1944), crime writer best known for her novel The Wheel Spins (1936), on which the Alfred Hitchcock film The Lady Vanishes (1938) was based.
* Jules Williams (born 1968), writer, director, and producer of The Weigh Forward.
* Raymond Williams, (1921–1988) academic, critic and writer was born and brought up locally.
* Dave Richards, (1993) professional footballer for Crewe Alexandra was born and raised in the town.
* Marina Diamandis (1985), professional singer and songwriter
See also
References
Sources
* Jürgen Klötgen, ''Prieuré d'Abergavenny – Tribulations mancelles en Pays de Galles au temps du Pape Jean XXII (d'après des documents français et anglais du XIV° siècle collationnés avec une source d'histoire retrouvée aux Archives Secrètes du Vatican), in Revue Historique et Archéologique du Maine'', Le Mans, 1989, p. 65–88 (1319 : cf John of Hastings, Lord of Abergavenny; Adam de Orleton, Bishop of Hereford, John of Monmouth, Bishop of Llandaff).
External links
*[http://www.abergavennyboroughband.org.uk/index.php Abergavenny Borough Band]
* [http://www.abergavennymuseum.co.uk/index.php?langEN;navId1 Abergavenny Museum]
* BBC, South East Wales – [https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/abergavenny/ Feature on Abergavenny]
* Geograph British Isles – [https://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=3027603 Photos of Abergavenny and surrounding areas]
* [http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/abergavenny-roman-fort/ Abergavenny Roman Fort]
Category:Towns in Monmouthshire
Category:Towns of the Welsh Marches
Category:Market towns in Wales
Category:River Usk
Category:Black Mountains, Wales
Category:Communities in Monmouthshire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abergavenny | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.877799 |
2716 | Abersychan | | official_name = Abersychan
| unitary_wales = Torfaen
| community_wales = Abersychan
| lieutenancy_wales = Gwent
| map_type | map_alt Abersychan is in the north of the district of Torfaen, in south east Wales
| constituency_westminster = Torfaen
| post_town = PONTYPOOL
| postcode_district = NP4
| postcode_area = NP
| dial_code = 01495
| area_total_km2 = 24.78
| area_footnotes =
| population = 7,064
| population_ref = (2011)
| statistic = W04000759
| statistic_title = GSS code
}}
Abersychan is a town and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.
Abersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.
The town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.
Abersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (member of parliament for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.
History
]]
Like many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production.
After the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the London and North Western Railway's Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork's main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo.
The site of the former ironworks today is a core site of , and a total land area of , includes a number of listed buildings:
*Abersychan Limestone Railway: built to carry limestone from Cwm Lascarn quarry to the British Ironworks.
*Air Furnace at British Ironworks
*British Colliery Pumping Engine House: a Cornish beam pumping engine house built by the British Iron Company. Built of sandstone with a slate roof, and retains several fixtures
*Cwmbyrgwm Colliery: Site of former colliery including remains of a water-balance headgear, chimney, oval shafts, water power dams, tramroad routes, and waste tips.
Various proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.
Local government
Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.
In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.
The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.
Local transport
The nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:
*Abersychan and Talywain railway station
*Abersychan Low Level railway station
Places nearby
Pentwyn
Pentwyn, Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pontnewynydd CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland.
Victoria Village
Victoria Village is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school's boundaries.
Victoria Village primary school was opened in 1903 and closed by the council in 2018. The last head of the school was Miss Joy Dando.
References
Category:Towns in Torfaen
Category:Local Government Districts created by the Local Government Act 1858
Category:Communities in Torfaen
Category:Electoral wards of Torfaen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abersychan | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.882935 |
2717 | Abertillery | | constituency_westminster = Blaenau Gwent and Rhymney
| post_town = ABERTILLERY
| postcode_district = NP13
| postcode_area = NP
| dial_code = 01495
| os_grid_reference = SO215045
| population = 11,601
| population_ref (2011 census)
| module= <br />Map of the community
}}
Abertillery (; ) is a town and community in Blaenau Gwent County Borough, Wales. It is located in the Ebbw Fach valley, and the historic county of Monmouthshire.
The surrounding landscape borders the Brecon Beacons National Park and the Blaenavon World heritage Site. Formerly a major coal mining centre the Abertillery area was transformed in the 1990s using EU and other funding to return to a greener environment.
Situated on the A467 the town is north of the M4 and south of the A465 "Heads of the Valleys" trunk road. It is about by road from Cardiff and from Bristol.
According to the 2011 Census, 4.8% of the ward's 4,416 (212 residents) resident-population can speak, read, and write Welsh. This is below the county's figure of 5.5% of 67,348 (3,705 residents) who can speak, read, and write Welsh.
Town centre
" department store]]
Abertillery's traditional-style town centre mainly developed in the late 19th century and as such has some interesting Victorian architecture. Spread over 4 main streets the town in its heyday had two department stores and a covered Victorian arcade linking two of the main shopping areas. These were all included in a Blaenau Gwent Borough Council remodelling and modernisation project using European Union funding in a £13 million programme spread over a 5-year period ending in 2015.
The project included a new multi-storey car park, a revamp of public areas and the town's Metropole Theatre. This building provides production, exhibition, conference and meeting facilities as well as housing Abertillery museum. In March 2014 Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, officiated at the launch of Jubilee Square, a public facility in the town centre next to St Michael's Church. Coal mining Major industry came to the area in 1843 when the locality's first deep coal mine was sunk at Tir Nicholas Farm, Cwmtillery. The town developed rapidly thereafter and played a major part in the South Wales coalfield. Its population rose steeply, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. The population peaked just short of 40,000 around the beginning of the 1930s. Eventually there were six deep coal mines, numerous small coal levels, a tin works, brick works, iron foundry and light engineering businesses in the area. Just one of the coal mines, Cwmtillery, produced over 32 million tons of coal in its lifetime and at its height employed 2760 men and boys.
In 1960 an underground explosion at Six Bells Colliery resulted in the loss of life of 45 local miners. Fifty years later the archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams officiated at the launch of the Guardian mining memorial. This artistically acclaimed monument standing at 20m tall overlooks Parc Arael Griffin, the now reclaimed and landscaped former colliery site. The adjoining Ty Ebbw Fach visitor centre provides conference facilities, a restaurant and a "mining valley" experience room. Not long after the disaster the renowned artist L. S. Lowry visited the area and recorded the scene. The resultant landscape painting now hangs in National Museum Cardiff.
The coal mines remained the predominant economic emphasis until the general run down of the industry in the 1980s.
Abertillery Conurbation
Away from the town centre, the often steep sided nature of the landscape, imposes its own demands on development. Whilst this sounds limiting it has helped provide the almost amphitheatre nature of Abertillery Park, often described as one of the most attractive rugby grounds in world rugby.
The street plan and housing stock flow uninterrupted from Cwmtillery in the north to Six Bells in the south, forming the town that is Abertillery. Prior to 1974 local government was provided by Abertillery Urban District Council (AUDC). Its area included the small neighbouring villages of Aberbeeg, Llanhilleth and Brynithel. Historical data relating to Abertillery occasionally refers to this AUDC area meaning that it can be difficult to compare like with like. For example, the 2014 population for the wider conurbation area is around 20,000 rather than the 11,000 often quoted for Abertillery itself.
Whilst in the main the area has an older housing stock there are several developments of modern, often large homes, generally found on the outskirts of the town with views out over the surrounding area. These apart, terraced council tax band A and B properties predominate, meaning that average house prices are among the most affordable in the UK.
Local history
Early history
There are very few written historical records relating to the area before the town developed in the middle of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are facts that you can use to outline important events.
*Abertillery museum has locally discovered artefacts dating as far back as the Bronze Age.
*St Illtyd's Church overlooking the town dates to the 13th century – probably with 6th century origins.
*St Illtyd's Motte lies just to the south west of the church. A Norman castle mound, it was probably destroyed in 1233.
*The ruins of two more recent, probably 14th century, castles lie on private land to the northeast of St Illtyd's Church.
*There are several ruined mediaeval farmhouses in the Abertillery area.
*The Local Blaenau Gwent Baptist church can trace its roots back to Tŷ Nest Llewellyn, a ruined 17th-century dwelling place often used by non-conformists to escape from the religious persecution of the times.
Before the coming of major industry, Abertillery was little more than an area of scattered farms in the ancient parish of Aberystruth. In 1779 the parish minister Edmund Jones described the area thus: "The valley of Tyleri ... is the most delightful. The trees ... especially the beech trees, abounding about rivers great and small, the hedges and lanes make these places exceeding pleasant and the passing by them delightful and affecting ... in these warm valleys, with the prospect of the grand high mountains about them would make very delightful habitations." In 1799 clergyman and historian Archdeacon William Coxe toured the area and in writing a diary of his travels described it as "... richly wooded, and highly cultivated...we looked down with delight upon numerous valleys ... with romantic scenery". The entire population of Aberystruth parish at the turn of the 19th century was just a little over 800. It is not known what the population of Abertillery was at the time but it was probably in the very low hundreds, all of whom would have spoken Welsh only.From the mid-nineteenth centuryIndustrialisationThe area's first deep coal mine was sunk in 1843.Collieries in Abertillery* Six Bells CollieryAbertillery InstituteThe first reading rooms were set up in Abertillery in 1856. However, when Thomas Powell took over the Tillery Colliery in 1882 he made a commitment to establish educational facilities for his workers.
Local government
Formed in 1877, Abertillery Urban District Council incorporated the adjoining smaller communities of Six Bells, Cwmtillery, Brynithel, Aberbeeg and Llanhilleth. The population of this conurbation climbed to almost 40,000 in 1931 making it the second largest town in Monmouthshire. Tertiary education is now provided by Coleg Gwent at Ebbw Vale – opened in 2013.
Industry
There are several small and medium-sized business parks in the area offering a range of business premises. In 2014 the largest employer was Tyleri Valley Foods, which closed in 2023. Many local people commute outside the area to work.Sport, leisure and tourism
Abertillery Town cricket club and Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC formed in the 1880s. Both have their playing headquarters at "the Park" one of the most picturesque sporting complexes in the UK.
The town supports two local Saturday football teams: Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. There are numerous other sports activities running on an organized basis such as bowls, badminton, squash etc.
The surrounding landscape provides hill walking opportunities and walker led groups are thriving in the area. One example is Ebbw Fach Trekkers walking group.
The local museum has displays showing what life was like in the area in its heyday. It also has its own "valleys" Italian café complete with original furnishings.
The Metropole theatre holds musical and drama events – from Blues to amateur dramatics and dance.
The Guardian memorial is a destination for visitors to South Wales and amateur photographers. The visitor centre Tŷ Ebbw Fach stands nearby and provides cafe and visitor "mining valley" experience facilities.Notable people
<!-- Please maintain list in alphabetical order -->
: See also :Category:People from Abertillery.
Local people of note in the fields of civil engineering, sport, science, medicine, religion and art:
* Beatrice Green, labour activist and orator
* Chris Hill, professional tennis player
* Harold Jones (murderer), the 15-year old killer committed 2 murders in 1921.
* Jack Shore (MMA fighter), competes in the UFC
* Thora Silverthorne, leading activist within the Communist Party of Great Britain, Labour Party MP for Reading, veteran of the Spanish Civil War, founder of the Association of Nurses, and former president of the Socialist Medical Association
* Jake Blackmore, international rugby forward who played rugby union for Abertillery and represented his country in the rugby union and in the rugby league.
International relations
Abertillery is twinned with Royat in France.See also
* Aber and Inver as place-name elements
* Abertillery and District Hospital
References
External links
* [http://www.abertillery.net/ Abertillery Online]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/28/newsid_2520000/2520665.stm BBC On This Day item about Six Bells]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090605150438/http://www.abertillerybluebirds.co.uk/ Abertillery Bluebirds Football Club]
* [https://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=6631199 Photos of Abertillery and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk]
Category:Towns in Blaenau Gwent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abertillery | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.890649 |
2720 | Abeyance | Abeyance (from the Old French meaning "gaping") describes a state of temporary dormancy or suspension. In law, it can refer to a situation where the ownership of property, titles, or office is not currently vested in any specific person, but is awaiting the appearance or determination of the rightful owner. This typically applies to future estates that have not yet vested, and may never vest. For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with the remainder to the heir of B upon A's death. if B is still alive, the remainder is held in abeyance because B can have no legal heir until B's own death.
The term hold in abeyance is used in lawsuits and court cases when a case is temporarily put on hold.
English peerage law
History
The most common use of the term is in the case of English peerage dignities. Most such peerages pass to heirs-male, but the ancient baronies created by writ, as well as some very old earldoms, pass instead to heirs-general (by cognatic primogeniture). In this system, sons are preferred from eldest to youngest, the heirs of a son over the next son, and any son over daughters, but there is no preference among daughters: they or their heirs inherit equally.
If the daughter is an only child or her sisters are deceased and have no living issue, she (or her heir) is vested with the title; otherwise, since a peerage cannot be shared nor divided, the dignity goes into abeyance between the sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one. If through lack of issue, marriage, or both, eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, they can claim the dignity as a matter of right, and the abeyance is said to be terminated. The Complete Peerage reports that only baronies have been called out of abeyance, although the Earldom of Cromartie was called out of a two-year abeyance in 1895.
It is entirely possible for a peerage to remain in abeyance for centuries. For example, the Barony of Grey of Codnor was in abeyance for over 490 years between 1496 and 1989, and the Barony of Hastings was similarly in abeyance for over 299 years from 1542 to 1841. Some other baronies became abeyant in the 13th century, and the abeyance has yet to be terminated. The only modern examples of titles other than a barony that have yet gone into abeyance are the earldom of Arlington and the viscountcy of Thetford, which are united, and (as noted above) the earldom of Cromartie.
It is no longer straightforward to claim English peerages after long abeyances. In 1927, a parliamentary Select Committee on Peerages in Abeyance recommended that no claim should be considered where the abeyance has lasted more than 100 years, nor where the claimant lays claim to less than one third of the dignity. The Barony of Grey of Codnor was treated as an exception to this principle, as a claim to it had been submitted prior to these recommendations being made to the Sovereign.
It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance.
*1455: Baron Cromwell, called out of abeyance after 35 years; again in 1923 after 426 years.
*1481: Baron Mowbray, called out of abeyance after 2 years; again in 1878 after 100 years and 3 months.
*1496: Baron Grey of Codnor, called out of abeyance in 1989 after 493 years.
*1508: Baron de Ros, called out of abeyance after 4 years; again in 1806 (after 119 years), in 1943 (after 4 years) and in 1958 (after 2 years).
*1542: Baron Hastings, called out of abeyance after 299 years.
*1557: Baron Braye, called out of abeyance after 282 years; again in 1879 after 17 years.
*1602: Baron Strabolgi, called out of abeyance after 314 years.
*1604: Baron le Despencer, called out of abeyance after 143 years; called out again in 1763 after 7 months and in 1788 after 7 years.
*1616: Baron Furnivall, called out of abeyance after 31 years.
*1646: Baron Ferrers of Chartley, called out of abeyance after 31 years.
*1660: Baron Windsor, called out of abeyance after 18 years (the length of the English Civil War); again in 1855 after 22 years.
*1721: Baron Clinton, called out of abeyance after 29 years
*1734: Baron Clifford, called out of abeyance after 5 years; (again in 1776 and 1833 after a year)
*1741: Baron Ferrers of Chartley, called out of abeyance after 8 years. again in 2004 after five years.
*1948: Baron Conyers and Baron Fauconberg, called out of abeyance after 64 years.
}}
Settling litigation
Abeyance can be used in cases where parties are interested in temporarily settling litigation while still holding the right to seek relief later if necessary. This may be considered a desirable outcome in cases where the party to the lawsuit is an organization with a transient membership and political perspective. The use of abeyance in such instances can allow such an organization to 'settle' with the party without officially binding its actions in the future, should a new group of decision makers within the organization choose to pursue taking the dispute to court.
For example, abeyance was used as a settlement method in a Canadian lawsuit involving the University of Victoria Students' Society (UVSS), the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association, and a campus anti-abortion club to whom the UVSS denied funding. The parties agreed to settle the lawsuit by holding the case in abeyance in return for the UVSS temporarily giving resources back to the club. With this arrangement, the anti-abortion club held on to its right to immediately reopen the case again should the UVSS deny resources to the club in the future, and the UVSS was able to avoid an expensive legal battle it did not have the will to pursue at the time. Thus, the use of abeyance provided the security of a settlement for the anti-abortion campus club, while preserving the student society's voting membership's ability to take the matter back to court should they choose in the future to deny resources to the club.
Other court cases may be held in abeyance when the issue may be resolved by another court or another event. This saves time and effort trying to resolve a dispute that may be made moot by the other events. During lawsuits related to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act after the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari in King v. Burwell, attorneys in Halbig v. Burwell requested abeyance of that case as the matter would be resolved in King and it would be a waste of time and effort to try to resolve it in the Halbig case.Scottish peerage lawTitles in the Peerage of Scotland cannot go into abeyance, because in Scottish law the eldest sister is preferred over younger sisters; sisters are not considered equal co-heirs.See also* Coparcenary Citations General and cited references * Cokayne, George Edward. The Complete Peerage. and .External links
*
Category:Peerages in the United Kingdom
Category:Property law | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abeyance | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.896366 |
2722 | Anders Celsius | | birth_place = Uppsala, Sweden
| death_date
| death_place = Uppsala, Sweden
| field = Astronomy, physics, mathematics, geology
| work_institutions | alma_mater Uppsala University
| doctoral_advisor | doctoral_students
| known_for = Celsius
| author_abbrev_bot | prizes
| signature = Anders Celsius Signature.svg
| footnotes =
}}
Anders Celsius (; 27 November 170125 April 1744) Their family estate was at Doma, also known as Höjen or Högen (locally as Högen 2). The name Celsius is a latinization of the estate's name (Latin 'mound').
As the son of an astronomy professor, Nils Celsius, nephew of botanist Olof Celsius and the grandson of the mathematician Magnus Celsius and the astronomer Anders Spole, Celsius chose a career in science. He was a talented mathematician from an early age. Anders Celsius studied at Uppsala University, where his father was a teacher, and in 1730 he, too, became a professor of astronomy there. Noted Swedish dramatic poet and actor Johan Celsius was also his uncle.
Career
In 1730, Celsius published the (New Method for Determining the Distance from the Earth to the Sun). His research also involved the study of auroral phenomena, which he conducted with his assistant Olof Hiorter, and he was the first to suggest a connection between the aurora borealis and changes in the magnetic field of the Earth. He observed the variations of a compass needle and found that larger deflections correlated with stronger auroral activity. At Nuremberg in 1733, he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself and others over the period 1716–1732.
Celsius traveled frequently in the early 1730s, including to Germany, Italy and France, when he visited most of the major European observatories. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland. In 1736, he participated in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698–1759) to measure a degree of latitude. The observatory was equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology of the period. In 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, the oldest Swedish scientific society, founded in 1710. His thermometer was calibrated with a value of 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. In 1745, a year after Celsius's death, the scale was reversed by Carl Linnaeus to facilitate more practical measurement.
Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process which has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However, he wrongly posed the notion that the water was evaporating.
In 1725 he became secretary of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, and served at this post until his death from tuberculosis in 1744. He supported the formation of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm in 1739 by Linnaeus and five others, and was elected a member at the first meeting of this academy. It was in fact Celsius who proposed the new academy's name.
Works
*
* See also
* Celsius family
* Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
References
Citations
Sources
*
External links
*[https://www.myheritage.com/names/johan_celsius Johan Celsius - Historical records and family trees at MyHeritage]
Category:1701 births
Category:1744 deaths
Category:18th-century Swedish astronomers
Category:18th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Category:People from Uppsala
Category:Uppsala University alumni
Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Sweden
Category:18th-century Swedish mathematicians
Category:Fellows of the Royal Society
Category:Creators of temperature scales
Category:Age of Liberty people
Category:18th-century Swedish inventors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Celsius | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.901578 |
2723 | Adam Carolla | | birth_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| alias | occupation
| known =
| television =
| boards Marijuana Policy Project (advisory board)
| spouse
| children = 2
| relations | website
}}
Adam Carolla (born May 27, 1964) is an American radio personality, comedian, actor and podcaster. He hosts The Adam Carolla Show, a talk show distributed as a podcast which set the record as the "most downloaded podcast" as judged by Guinness World Records in 2011. in 2011.
Carolla has also appeared on the network reality television programs Dancing with the Stars and The Celebrity Apprentice. His book ''In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks debuted on The New York Times Best Seller list in 2010, and his second book, Not Taco Bell Material, also reached The New York Times'' bestseller status.
Carolla has made numerous guest appearances on political talk shows as a commentator. He hosted a weekly segment, "Rollin' with Carolla", on Bill O'Reilly's ''The O'Reilly Factor.
Early life
Adam Carolla was born on May 27, 1964, to Jim and Kris (née'' McCall) Carolla. although some sources list his birthplace as Los Angeles County, or Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Carolla was not given a middle name by his parents; on his driver's license application he listed his middle name as "Lakers" as a joke. The application was processed without notice. His maternal step-grandfather was screenwriter László Görög.
Carolla was raised in the North Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles. He attended Colfax Elementary School, Walter Reed Junior High, and North Hollywood High School. Carolla did not receive his high school diploma until years later as it was held by the school until a library fine was paid. Carolla can be seen paying off the book and receiving his diploma in an episode of his 2005 television show, The Adam Carolla Project.
During his youth, Carolla played Pop Warner football for seven years; he later suggested that being involved in sports saved him from a chaotic home life. During his senior year at North Hollywood High School, Carolla distinguished himself in football. In December 1981, he was named to the First Team Offensive Line, Central Valley League, one of 8 leagues at the time in the LA City Section of the California Interscholastic Federation. In October 2020 he spoke of being recruited by "7 or 8" schools including UC-Davis, Cal Poly Pomona, and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo.
He began living on his own at the age of 18. He briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, a community college, where he was placed on academic probation before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, including carpet cleaner, carpenter, boxing instructor, and traffic school instructor. Although broke, Carolla, his friends, and roommates owned a 1963 Cadillac limousine.
In the early 1990s, Carolla studied improvisational comedy with The Groundlings and was a member of the ACME Comedy Theatre troupe. Kimmel was a regular on the show as "Jimmy the Sports Guy" and he was set to fight another KROQ personality in a boxing exhibition which was being billed as the "Bleeda in Reseda". Carolla parlayed this opportunity into a long-running friendship and business partnership with Kimmel as well as a recurring role on Kevin and Bean as cranky woodshop teacher, Mr. Birchum.LovelineIn October 1995, after being signed to the William Morris Agency by Mark Itkin, Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting the evening radio call-in show Loveline. His co-hosts were the physician Drew Pinsky ("Dr. Drew") and metal DJ Riki Rachtman. Carolla received the offer after Pinsky heard him on Kevin and Bean Loveline was broadcast on KROQ-FM in Los Angeles and was syndicated nationwide on the former Westwood One radio network.
While the format of the program was primarily that of a call-in show wherein listeners would ask questions about sex and relationships, Carolla would often spend much of the show ranting about various topics from fart jokes to extended parodies of radio morning shows, including mocking the format's penchant for useless and repetitive weather and traffic reports. In contrast to the reserved, thoughtful Pinsky, Carolla served as the loud, funny side of the show. Carolla's character was described by one reviewer as "a toned-down version of Howard Stern minus the huge ego".
The Adam Carolla Show
In October 2005, Carolla was announced as the host of a new morning radio show on the Infinity Broadcasting network. His new show would replace the popular syndicated Howard Stern Show (which was moving to satellite radio) in twelve of the 27 markets in which Stern had been broadcast including Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Diego, Phoenix, and Portland, Oregon. The Adam Carolla Show debuted in January 2006.
In early 2008, actor Gerard Butler sat in and observed Adam Carolla on The Adam Carolla Show in order to prepare for his role in The Ugly Truth as a cynical and crass talk-radio host allegedly based on Carolla.
On February 18, 2009, The Adam Carolla Show was canceled as part of a format switch at KLSX to AMP FM, a new top 40 station. The final show was Friday, February 20, 2009.PodcastsThe Adam Carolla Podcast
Carolla started a daily podcast on February 23, 2009, at his personal website, which would evolve into the ACE Broadcasting Network. The first Adam Carolla podcast was downloaded more than 250,000 times in the initial 24 hours, and by the third podcast, it was the number one podcast on iTunes in both the U.S. and Canada. During the debut week, the Adam Carolla podcast recorded 1.6 million downloads. In the second week it recorded 2.4 million downloads. By the fourth episode of the second week, featuring former Adam Carolla Show sidekick Dave Dameshek, the show was downloaded more than 500,000 times. Adam stated that bandwidth cost more than $9,000 a month as of May 2009.
At the end of 2009, The Adam Carolla Podcast was selected by iTunes for its end-of-the-year awards as the Best Audio Podcast of 2009.
On the April 4, 2010, episode of The Adam Carolla Show, Carolla referred to Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao as a "fucking idiot" and said of the Philippines: "They got this and sex tours, that's all they have over there. Get your shit together, Philippines." A spokesman for President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called Carolla an "ignorant fool". Carolla subsequently apologized via Twitter.
On May 18, 2011, Carolla noted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! that The Adam Carolla Show had taken the Guinness World Record for the most downloaded podcast ever from previous holder Ricky Gervais by receiving 59,574,843 unique downloads from March 2009 to March 16, 2011.
In 2010, Carolla posed for the NOH8 Campaign. In August 2011, Carolla released a podcast where he mocked a petition to the producers of Sesame Street that demanded Bert and Ernie get married on air. He said on air that gay activists should "[j]ust get married, and please shut up" and that "Y.U.C.K." would be more memorable acronym than LGBT, and referring to transgender people he asked: "When did we start giving a shit about these people?" GLAAD characterized the previous remarks by Carolla as offensive, including an assertion that "all things being equal", heterosexual parents make better parents than homosexual parents. Carolla responded: "I'm sorry my comments were hurtful. I'm a comedian, not a politician.""Patent Troll" LawsuitIn 2013, Personal Audio filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Lotzi Digital, Inc., producers of The Adam Carolla Show and several other podcasts on the Carolla Digital Network, in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas. The suit alleged that owner Adam Carolla and his network of content infringed on Personal Audio's patent 8,112,504.
Using the crowdfunding site FundAnything.com, listeners contributed more than $475,000 (as of August 2014) to support Carolla throughout the legal proceedings.
Personal Audio dropped the lawsuit July 29, 2014, stating that the defendants were not "making significant money from infringing Personal Audio's patents". However, Carolla countersued, having already spent hundreds of thousands of dollars mounting a defense against claims he deemed unfounded. Among claims sought by the countersuit was a request that the initial patent be invalidated. On August 15, 2014, Carolla and Personal Audio filed a joint motion to dismiss after reaching a settlement, the details of which were not made public but included a six-week "quiet period" during which neither party could speak to the media. Both parties' claims were dropped without prejudice and, as such, could be refiled at a later date.Television1996 through 2004
From 1996 to 2000, Carolla and Dr. Drew hosted Loveline on MTV, a television version of the radio show. Carolla began his first original television series with The Man Show, along with partner and friend Jimmy Kimmel, on Comedy Central from 1999 to 2003. He left The Man Show at the same time as Kimmel. Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and guest on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. He also appeared on an episode of Space Ghost Coast to Coast around this time.
Carolla and partner Daniel Kellison are the heads of Jackhole Productions. The two created the television show Crank Yankers for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character. The show premiered in 2002 on Comedy Central and returned to MTV2 on February 9, 2007, running again until March 30, 2007. The show screened in Australia on SBS Television and The Comedy Channel between 2003 and 2008. The show was again revived in 2019, returning to Comedy Central.
Corolla also starred in the role of Spanky Ham for the Comedy Central adult animated series, Drawn Together.
2005 through 2008
From August 2005 to November 2005, Carolla hosted the talk show Too Late with Adam Carolla on Comedy Central.
Also in 2005, Carolla was featured in a home remodeling program called The Adam Carolla Project wherein he and a crew of old friends renovated his childhood home. The 13 episodes aired on the cable channel TLC (The Learning Channel) from October through December 2005. The house was then sold for 1.2 million dollars.
In 2006, Carolla appeared on the special summer series Gameshow Marathon as a celebrity panelist on the Match Game episode.
On the February 18, 2008, broadcast of his radio show, Carolla announced that he would be one of the contestants on the next season of Dancing with the Stars. Later in the broadcast, it was revealed to Carolla that his partner would be Julianne Hough. He was voted off on the April 8, 2008, episode after his performance of the Paso Doble, after incorporating a demonstration of unicycle riding in his dance routine.
;Dancing with the Stars performances
{| class"wikitable" style"float:left;"
|- style="text-align:Center; background:#ccc; background:#ccc;"
| rowspan=2|Week #
| rowspan=2|Dance/Song
| colspan=3|'''Judges' score
| rowspan=2|Result'''
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccc; background:#ccc;"
| style="width:10%; "|Inaba
| style="width:10%; "|Goodman
| style="width:10%; "|Tonioli
|- style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f6; background:#faf6f6;"
||1
||Foxtrot/ "Mellow Yellow"
||5
||5
||5
||N/A
|- style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f6;"
||2
||Mambo/ "House of Bamboo"
||6
||7
||6
||Safe
|- style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f6;"
||3
||Tango/ "I Can't Tell a Waltz from a Tango"
||7
||7
||7
||Safe
|- style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f6;"
||4
||Paso Doble/ "Plaza of Execution"
||6
||7
||6
||Eliminated
|}
On June 16, 2008, Carolla was selected to host a pilot of an American version of the popular BBC show Top Gear for NBC. In December 2008, NBC decided not to pick up the show.2009 to presentOn February 21, 2009, a day after his Los Angeles-based morning radio show was canceled – as part of a format change at KLSX-FM – CBS ordered a comedy pilot, Ace in the Hole, starring Carolla as a husband and father who works as a driving instructor. Carolla created and wrote the pilot with Kevin Hench (Jimmy Kimmel Live!). Carolla stated that Pamela Adlon was to play his wife and Windell Middlebrooks would play his best friend. During his March 30, 2009, podcast, Carolla briefly described the show as being "All in the Family, essentially", with Carolla playing a similar role to that of Archie Bunker. On the July 23, 2009, episode of the Adam Carolla Podcast, Carolla announced that CBS was not picking up the pilot for the 2009 season, "in any way, shape or form".
On October 22, 2009, it was reported in Variety that Carolla had struck a deal with NBC to produce a half-hour pilot for a sitcom. The report was later confirmed on January 4, 2010, and was the first comedy pilot ordered by NBC for the season. The untitled project, written by Carolla and Kevin Hench, was a single-camera sitcom that starred Carolla as a contractor and father who attempts to rebuild his life after his wife leaves him. Carolla was set to executive produce the NBC project along with frequent collaborators Kimmel and Hench, as well as his agent James "Babydoll" Dixon, Jon Pollack, Gail Berman, Daniel Kellison, and Lloyd Braun. Universal Media Studios, BermanBraun, and Carolla and Jimmy Kimmel's own Jackhole Industries. On the March 26, 2010, episode of CarCast, Carolla said that he would not be co-hosting Top Gear US because of scheduling conflicts with his NBC sitcom project. In June 2010, Carolla said that his NBC pilot had not been picked up and was now "dead".
Premiering on February 19, 2012, Carolla was also one of the contestants in the 12th season of NBC's The Celebrity Apprentice. He was fired in Week 4, because host Donald Trump perceived that Carolla did not utilize teammate Mario Andretti's car background during a Buick presentation.
In 2022, Carolla competed in season eight of The Masked Singer as "Avocado". He was eliminated on "Comedy Roast Night" alongside Chris Jericho as "Bride".
The Car Show
Carolla's The Car Show debuted on Speed TV July 13, 2011. Appearing Wednesdays at 10 pm Eastern, it featured Carolla as the host, along with Dan Neil, John Salley, and Matt Farah. It had a format similar to Top Gear, mixing car reviews, tests and humor. The show was initially met with positive reviews from car enthusiasts and comedy fans. Talk show host and comedian Jay Leno called The Car Show, "a lot of fun".
The Car Show was cancelled after one season, after undergoing format changes due to low ratings, as Carolla mentioned on his podcast on January 13, 2012.
Catch a Contractor
Catch a Contractor is a non-scripted, original series on Spike, hosted by Carolla along with "no-nonsense contractor" Skip Bedell and his wife, investigator Alison Bedell. Together they expose unethical contractors and seek retribution for wronged homeowners.
The show premiered on March 9, 2014, to 1.2 million viewers, the largest audience for a series debut on Spike since Coal in March 2011. The show was cancelled in 2015.
Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live
Premiering on Spike TV on March 14, 2017, Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live features Carolla building projects live and in studio with some of his Hollywood friends, and tackling viewers' home improvement projects via social media.
Voice acting
Carolla has also done voice acting in animation, including Commander Nebula on the Disney animated series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Death on Family Guy (replacing Norm Macdonald) and Spanky Ham on Drawn Together. He was also the voice of the éclair police officer, Wynchell, in the Disney film Wreck-It Ralph. In 2008 and 2009, he was the spokesperson for T.G.I. Friday's.
Film
In 2003, he appeared in Windy City Heat as himself. In 2006, Carolla finished work on The Hammer, a semi-autobiographical independent film he co-wrote and co-produced, in which he stars opposite Heather Juergensen. The film is based loosely on his own life and is filmed at a gym he helped build with his co-star, Ozzie, played by Oswaldo Castillo, his friend in real life whom he met while building the gym when they both worked in construction. The film made its world premiere at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival in New York City and shortly thereafter received a positive review in Variety. The film is rated 80% on Rotten Tomatoes.
Carolla made a short appearance in Jeff Balis' Still Waiting... (a sequel to Waiting...) playing a pick-up artist guru.
Carolla helped write an unproduced screenplay for a film entitled Deaf Frat Guy: Showdown at Havasu.
He is the voice of Virgil in the independent short film Save Virgil.
In July 2013, Carolla used crowdfunding for Road Hard; a film he directed and starred in, about the lives of aging road comics. Adam confirmed through a press conference that the film would co-star David Alan Grier, Illeana Douglas, Diane Farr, and Larry Miller. It had limited theatrical release in the United States. Several minutes of the credits are devoted to listing the names of those who helped crowdfund the film.
Carolla also directed the documentary Winning: The Racing Life of Paul Newman on the 35-year car racing career of Paul Newman. The documentary showcases Newman's racing life as both a prolific driver and owner.
In 2017, Carolla and Dennis Prager began filming No Safe Spaces, a documentary about political correctness at universities. No Safe Spaces had a limited opening on October 25, 2019, and did well enough to open nationwide on December 6, 2019.BooksCarolla and Drew Pinsky co-wrote (with Marshall Fine) the self-help book The Dr. Drew and Adam Book: A Survival Guide to Life and Love, published in 1998. The book is a compilation of some of the advice the pair compiled while producing Loveline.
In November 2010, Carolla's ''In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks... And Other Complaints from an Angry Middle-Aged White Guy was published by Crown Archetype and debuted at number eight on The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover non-fiction on November 21, 2010. The book was compiled from rants Carolla had delivered on his radio show and podcast along with some new material and was dictated to and ghost-written by Mike Lynch.
Carolla published a short, illustrated e-book entitled Rich Man, Poor Man'' in January 2012. The book details some similarities in the experiences of the very rich and the very poor which are not shared by the middle class. The book was illustrated by Michael Narren.
Carolla's book Not Taco Bell Material was published by Crown Archetype on June 12, 2012.
In ''President Me: The America That's in My Head,'' Carolla presents the comedian's fantasy of the United States with him at the helm. When asked in separate interviews, both before and after the book's release, about whether the "if-I-were-king" critique of America was a serious piece, he said it's both: "Well, there's a lot of jokes in it, but you know, it's like... Well, if you have a fat friend you may make a lot of fat jokes about your fat friend, but he's still fat".
In ''Daddy, Stop Talking!: And Other Things My Kids Want But Won't Be Getting,'' Carolla writes about modern parenting. Carolla describes what he believes adults must do if they don't want to have to support their kids forever. Carolla uses his own childhood as a cautionary tale, and decries helicopter parenting.
Carolla's book, ''I'm Your Emotional Support Animal: Navigating Our All Woke, No Joke Culture'', was published by Post Hill Press on June 16, 2020.
Carolla's latest book, Everything Reminds Me of Something, was published by Post Hill Press on July 19, 2022.
Views
Religious
Carolla's parents raised him in a light form of Buddhism, which he continued to practice for the sake of a girlfriend until age 21. He also discusses being familiar with Judaism, though he is not Jewish by biological descent, due to a close relationship with his grandmother's Hungarian Jewish second husband. Since beginning his media career, Carolla has consistently identified as an atheist. Political Regarding his political views, Carolla has stated, "I guess I would be Republican, in the sense that I want a secure border, I'm not into the welfare state, I'm not into all those freebie lunch programs. It just kind of demeans people." He goes on to state, however, that he is also in favor of typically liberal causes such as the legalization of marijuana (he is a member of the advisory board of the Marijuana Policy Project) Elsewhere, he has stated, "My feeling is this whole country is founded on the principle of 'If you are not hurting anyone, and you're not fucking with someone else's shit, and you are paying your taxes, you should be able to just do what you want to do.' It's the freedom and the independence." In an interview with Reason TV, Carolla described his views as libertarian.
Carolla expressed his support for Andrew Yang's 2020 presidential run.
Women and comedy
In June 2012, Carolla gave a printed interview to the New York Post, where among other things he stated that "chicks" are "always the least funny on the writing staff" and that "dudes are funnier than chicks". Carolla's comments were criticized as sexist. Carolla criticized coverage of his comments as over-simplistic and misleading.
Cancel culture
Carolla said, "If you meet anyone over 45, they'll tell you they got paddled, they got swatted, the teacher would smack them with a ruler. ... Paddling a kid sounds pretty outrageous in 2020 and nobody would stand for it. ... But the people who engaged in it at the time when it was common practice or had a context, we don't need to build a time machine so we can cancel-culture them". In an interview with Tucker Carlson, Carolla said that cancel culture is "destroying free speech and killing comedy."Personal lifeOn September 28, 2002, Carolla married Lynette Paradise. The couple's twins Natalia and Santino "Sonny" Richard Carolla were born June 7, 2006. Carolla announced in May 2021 that he and Lynette were divorcing after 19 years. He currently lives in La Cañada Flintridge, California.
Carolla was a part owner of Amalfi, an Italian restaurant in Los Angeles, saying, "I own about two percent of it, but I've never seen a penny."
Carolla won the 2013 Pro/Celebrity Race as a professional and the 2012 Pro/Celebrity Race at the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach as an amateur. The 2012 race was run on April 14, 2012, and was broadcast on Speed TV. Carolla has previously participated in the race in 2010 and 2003. He finished ninth among 19 racers (fifth among the ten celebrities) in 2010
Honors
Carolla and Drew Pinsky received a Sexual Health in Entertainment (SHINE) Award from The Media Project in 2000 for "incorporating accurate and honest portrayals of sexuality" in the talk show category for Loveline.
Asteroid (4535) Adamcarolla is named in his honor.
He was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for radio in 2025.
Filmography
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1998
|Too Smooth
|Bruce Greenberg
|
|-
|1998
|Art House
|Cool Guy
|
|-
|1999
|Splendor
|Mike's Stupid Boss
|as Adam Carola
|-
|1999–2004
|The Man Show
|Writer / Director
|
|-
|2000
|Down to You
|'The Man Show' Host
|
|-
|2000–2001
|Buzz Lightyear of Star Command
|Commander Nebula
|Voice
|-
|2000–2014
|Family Guy
|Death
|Voice
|-
| 2001 || Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back
| FBI Agent Sid
| Deleted scene
|-
|2002
|MADtv
|Phil Pendergrast
|Episode #7.16
|-
|2002
|Frank McKlusky, C.I.
|Detective
|
|-
|2002
|Son of the Beach
|The Host
|Episode "Penetration Island"
|-
|2002–2022
|Crank Yankers
|Writer / Executive Producer / Dick Birchum / Himself
|
|-
|2003
|''Gerhard Reinke's Wanderlust
|Executive Producer
|TV miniseries
|-
|2003
|Windy City Heat
|Executive Producer
|Documentary
|-
|2003
|Jimmy Kimmel Live!
|Writer
|
|-
|2004
|Bar Mitzvah Bash!
|Consulting Producer
|TV special
|-
|2004
|Save Virgil
|Virgil
|Voice, short
|-
|2004–2007
|Drawn Together
|Spanky Ham
|Voice
|-
|2005
|Too Late with Adam Carolla
|
|
|-
|2005
|The Adam Carolla Project
|Executive Producer
|
|-
|2005
|The Bernie Mac Show
|Himself
|Episode: "Marathon Mac"
|-
|2005–2006
|The Andy Milonakis Show
|Executive Producer
|
|-
|2006
|Wasted
|Nick Morgan
|
|-
| 2007 || The Hammer
|Writer / Executive Producer / Jerry Ferro
|
|-
|2007
|Head, Heart and Balls... or Why I Gave Up Smoking Pot
|Anxiety
|Short
|-
|2008
|The Sarah Silverman Program
|Carl
|Episode: "Pee"
|-
|2008
|Wizards of Waverly Place
|Burt the Cab
|Voice, episode: "Taxi Dance"
|-
|2009
|Alligator Boots
|Executive Producer
|
|-
|2009
|Ace in the Hole
|Writer / Executive Producer / "Ace" Morella
|Television film
|-
| 2009 || Still Waiting...
|Ken Halsband
|
|-
|2009
|The Goode Family
|
|
|-
|2010
|The Drawn Together Movie: The Movie!
|Spanky Ham
|Voice
|-
|2010
|Cubed
|Himself
|Episode #1.31
|-
|2010
|Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil
|One-Eyed Jackson
|Voice
|-
|2010
|Federal Bureau of Manners: The Nod
|
|
|-
|2011
|Sports Show with Norm Macdonald
|Executive Producer
|
|-
|2011
|The Birchums
|Producer / Director
|Television film
|-
|2011
|Division III: Football's Finest
|Chet Ryback
|
|-
| 2012 || Wreck-It Ralph
|Wynnchel
|Voice
|-
| 2014 || Bar Rescue
|Himself
|Episode: "Scoreboard to Death"
|-
|2014–2015
|Catch a Contractor
|Executive Producer
|
|-
| 2015 || Road Hard
|Producer / Director / Bruce Madsen
|
|-
| 2015 || Winning: The Racing Life of Paul Newman
|Producer / Director
|Documentary
|-
| 2016 || The 24 Hour War
|Producer / Director
|Documentary
|-
|2016–2018
|Going Racing with Adam Carolla
|Executive Producer
|
|-
|2017
|Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live
|Writer / Executive Producer
|
|-
|2018
|90th Academy Awards
|Writer
|TV special
|-
|2018
|Adam Carolla: Not Taco Bell Material
|Writer / Producer
|Documentary
|-
|2018
|Ralph Breaks the Internet
|Wynnchel
|Voice
|-
| 2019 || No Safe Spaces
|
|Documentary
|-
|2019
|Shelby American: The Carroll Shelby Story
|Producer / Director
|Documentary
|-
| 2020 || Uppity: The Willy T. Ribbs Story
|Producer / Director
|Documentary
|-
|2021
|Valentine's Day in Hell
|The Devil
|
|-
|2021
|Prom in Hell
|
|
|-
|2022
|The Masked Singer
|Himself/Avocado
|Season 8 contestant
|-
|2024
|Mr. Birchum
|Mister Birchum
|Animated series
|}
References
External links
*
*
Category:1964 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American comedians
Category:21st-century American comedians
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:21st-century American male actors
Category:American atheists
Category:American football offensive linemen
Category:American libertarians
Category:American male comedians
Category:American male film actors
Category:American male television actors
Category:American male voice actors
Category:American comedy podcasters
Category:American satirists
Category:American talk radio hosts
Category:American television talk show hosts
Category:California Republicans
Category:Comedians from Los Angeles
Category:Los Angeles Valley College people
Category:Los Angeles Valley Monarchs football players
Category:Participants in American reality television series
Category:People from North Hollywood, Los Angeles
Category:Racing drivers from Los Angeles
Category:Trans-Am Series drivers
Category:The Apprentice contestants
Category:North Hollywood High School alumni
Category:Former Buddhists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Carolla | 2025-04-05T18:26:07.965740 |
2724 | Autocorrelation | thumb|300px|right|Above: A plot of a series of 100 random numbers concealing a sine function. Below: The sine function revealed in a correlogram produced by autocorrelation.
thumb|400px|Visual comparison of convolution, cross-correlation, and autocorrelation. For the operations involving function , and assuming the height of is 1.0, the value of the result at 5 different points is indicated by the shaded area below each point. Also, the symmetry of is the reason g*f and f \star g are identical in this example.
Autocorrelation, sometimes known as serial correlation in the discrete time case, measures the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself. Essentially, it quantifies the similarity between observations of a random variable at different points in time. The analysis of autocorrelation is a mathematical tool for identifying repeating patterns or hidden periodicities within a signal obscured by noise. Autocorrelation is widely used in signal processing, time domain and time series analysis to understand the behavior of data over time.
Different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance.
Various time series models incorporate autocorrelation, such as Unit root processes, trend-stationary processes, autoregressive processes, and moving average processes.
Autocorrelation of stochastic processes
In statistics, the autocorrelation of a real or complex random process is the Pearson correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. Let \left\{ X_t \right\} be a random process, and t be any point in time (t may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). Then X_t is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time t. Suppose that the process has mean \mu_t and variance \sigma_t^2 at time t, for each t. Then the definition of the autocorrelation function between times t_1 and t_2 is
where \operatorname{E} is the expected value operator and the bar represents complex conjugation. Note that the expectation may not be well defined.
Subtracting the mean before multiplication yields the auto-covariance function between times t_1 and t_2: or autocovariance function.
Autocorrelation of continuous-time signal
Given a signal f(t), the continuous autocorrelation R_{ff}(\tau) is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of f(t) with itself, at lag \tau.
A fundamental property of the autocorrelation is symmetry, R_{ff}(\tau) = R_{ff}(-\tau), which is easy to prove from the definition. In the continuous case,
the autocorrelation is an even function R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}(\tau) when f is a real function, and
the autocorrelation is a Hermitian function R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}^*(\tau) when f is a complex function.
The continuous autocorrelation function reaches its peak at the origin, where it takes a real value, i.e. for any delay \tau, |R_{ff}(\tau)| \leq R_{ff}(0).
\begin{align}
F_R(f) &= \operatorname{FFT}[X(t)] \\
S(f) &= F_R(f) F^*_R(f) \\
R(\tau) &= \operatorname{IFFT}[S(f)]
\end{align}
where IFFT denotes the inverse fast Fourier transform. The asterisk denotes complex conjugate.
Alternatively, a multiple correlation can be performed by using brute force calculation for low values, and then progressively binning the data with a logarithmic density to compute higher values, resulting in the same efficiency, but with lower memory requirements.
Estimation
For a discrete process with known mean and variance for which we observe n observations \{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_n\}, an estimate of the autocorrelation coefficient may be obtained as
\hat{R}(k)\frac{1}{(n-k) \sigma^2} \sum_{t1}^{n-k} (X_t-\mu)(X_{t+k}-\mu)
for any positive integer k. When the true mean \mu and variance \sigma^2 are known, this estimate is unbiased. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are several possibilities:
If \mu and \sigma^2 are replaced by the standard formulae for sample mean and sample variance, then this is a biased estimate.
A periodogram-based estimate replaces n-k in the above formula with n. This estimate is always biased; however, it usually has a smaller mean squared error.
Other possibilities derive from treating the two portions of data \{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_{n-k}\} and \{X_{k+1},\,X_{k+2},\,\ldots,\,X_n\} separately and calculating separate sample means and/or sample variances for use in defining the estimate.
The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of k, then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the X's, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative.
Regression analysis
In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation in a variable of interest is typically modeled either with an autoregressive model (AR), a moving average model (MA), their combination as an autoregressive-moving-average model (ARMA), or an extension of the latter called an autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). With multiple interrelated data series, vector autoregression (VAR) or its extensions are used.
In ordinary least squares (OLS), the adequacy of a model specification can be checked in part by establishing whether there is autocorrelation of the regression residuals. Problematic autocorrelation of the errors, which themselves are unobserved, can generally be detected because it produces autocorrelation in the observable residuals. (Errors are also known as "error terms" in econometrics.) Autocorrelation of the errors violates the ordinary least squares assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated, meaning that the Gauss Markov theorem does not apply, and that OLS estimators are no longer the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE). While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive.
The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin–Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin's h statistic. The Durbin-Watson can be linearly mapped however to the Pearson correlation between values and their lags. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch–Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) k lags of the residuals, where 'k' is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is TR2, where T is the sample size and R2 is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as \chi^2 with k degrees of freedom.
Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey–West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent).
In the estimation of a moving average model (MA), the autocorrelation function is used to determine the appropriate number of lagged error terms to be included. This is based on the fact that for an MA process of order q, we have R(\tau) \neq 0, for \tau 0,1, \ldots , q, and R(\tau) 0, for \tau >q.
Applications
Autocorrelation's ability to find repeating patterns in data yields many applications, including:
Autocorrelation analysis is used heavily in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to provide quantitative insight into molecular-level diffusion and chemical reactions.
Another application of autocorrelation is the measurement of optical spectra and the measurement of very-short-duration light pulses produced by lasers, both using optical autocorrelators.
Autocorrelation is used to analyze dynamic light scattering data, which notably enables determination of the particle size distributions of nanometer-sized particles or micelles suspended in a fluid. A laser shining into the mixture produces a speckle pattern that results from the motion of the particles. Autocorrelation of the signal can be analyzed in terms of the diffusion of the particles. From this, knowing the viscosity of the fluid, the sizes of the particles can be calculated.
Utilized in the GPS system to correct for the propagation delay, or time shift, between the point of time at the transmission of the carrier signal at the satellites, and the point of time at the receiver on the ground. This is done by the receiver generating a replica signal of the 1,023-bit C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code, and generating lines of code chips [-1,1] in packets of ten at a time, or 10,230 chips (1,023 × 10), shifting slightly as it goes along in order to accommodate for the doppler shift in the incoming satellite signal, until the receiver replica signal and the satellite signal codes match up.
The small-angle X-ray scattering intensity of a nanostructured system is the Fourier transform of the spatial autocorrelation function of the electron density.
In surface science and scanning probe microscopy, autocorrelation is used to establish a link between surface morphology and functional characteristics.
In optics, normalized autocorrelations and cross-correlations give the degree of coherence of an electromagnetic field.
In astronomy, autocorrelation can determine the frequency of pulsars.
In music, autocorrelation (when applied at time scales smaller than a second) is used as a pitch detection algorithm for both instrument tuners and "Auto Tune" (used as a distortion effect or to fix intonation). When applied at time scales larger than a second, autocorrelation can identify the musical beat, for example to determine tempo.
Autocorrelation in space rather than time, via the Patterson function, is used by X-ray diffractionists to help recover the "Fourier phase information" on atom positions not available through diffraction alone.
In statistics, spatial autocorrelation between sample locations also helps one estimate mean value uncertainties when sampling a heterogeneous population.
The SEQUEST algorithm for analyzing mass spectra makes use of autocorrelation in conjunction with cross-correlation to score the similarity of an observed spectrum to an idealized spectrum representing a peptide.
In astrophysics, autocorrelation is used to study and characterize the spatial distribution of galaxies in the universe and in multi-wavelength observations of low mass X-ray binaries.
In panel data, spatial autocorrelation refers to correlation of a variable with itself through space.
In analysis of Markov chain Monte Carlo data, autocorrelation must be taken into account for correct error determination.
In geosciences (specifically in geophysics) it can be used to compute an autocorrelation seismic attribute, out of a 3D seismic survey of the underground.
In medical ultrasound imaging, autocorrelation is used to visualize blood flow.
In intertemporal portfolio choice, the presence or absence of autocorrelation in an asset's rate of return can affect the optimal portion of the portfolio to hold in that asset.
In numerical relays, autocorrelation has been used to accurately measure power system frequency.
Serial dependence
Serial dependence is closely linked to the notion of autocorrelation, but represents a distinct concept (see Correlation and dependence). In particular, it is possible to have serial dependence but no (linear) correlation. In some fields however, the two terms are used as synonyms.
A time series of a random variable has serial dependence if the value at some time t in the series is statistically dependent on the value at another time s. A series is serially independent if there is no dependence between any pair.
If a time series \left\{ X_t \right\} is stationary, then statistical dependence between the pair (X_t,X_s) would imply that there is statistical dependence between all pairs of values at the same lag \tau=s-t.
See also
Autocorrelation matrix
Autocorrelation of a formal word
Autocorrelation technique
Autocorrelator
Cochrane–Orcutt estimation (transformation for autocorrelated error terms)
Correlation function
Correlogram
Cross-correlation
CUSUM
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Optical autocorrelation
Partial autocorrelation function
Phylogenetic autocorrelation (Galton's problem)
Pitch detection algorithm
Prais–Winsten transformation
Scaled correlation
Triple correlation
Unbiased estimation of standard deviation
References
Further reading
Solomon W. Golomb, and Guang Gong. Signal design for good correlation: for wireless communication, cryptography, and radar. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Klapetek, Petr (2018). Quantitative Data Processing in Scanning Probe Microscopy: SPM Applications for Nanometrology (Second ed.). Elsevier. pp. 108–112 .
Category:Signal processing
Category:Time domain analysis | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocorrelation | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.012178 |
2726 | Atlas Autocode | <!-- If known, add |mm|dd|dfyes -->
| latest release version | latest release date <!-- -->
| typing = Static, strong
| scope = Lexical
| programming language = ALGOL 60
| discontinued = Yes
| platform = Atlas<br/>English Electric KDF9
| operating system = Supervisor
| license | file ext
| file format <!-- or: | file formats -->
| website = <!-- -->
| implementations = Edinburgh IMP
| dialects | influenced by ALGOL 60
| influenced =
}}
Atlas Autocode (AA) is a programming language developed around 1963 at the University of Manchester. A variant of the language ALGOL, it was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris for the Atlas computer. The initial AA and AB compilers were written by Jeff Rohl and Tony Brooker using the Brooker-Morris Compiler-compiler, with a later hand-coded non-CC implementation (ABC) by Jeff Rohl.
The word Autocode was basically an early term for programming language. Different autocodes could vary greatly.
Features
AA was a block structured language that featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. It omitted some ALGOL features such as passing parameters by name, which in ALGOL 60 means passing the memory address of a short subroutine (a thunk) to recalculate a parameter each time it is mentioned.
The AA compiler could generate range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at runtime, i.e., an array could be declared as <code><u>integer</u> <u>array</u> Thing (i:j)</code>, where <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> were calculated values.
AA high-level routines could include machine code, either to make an inner loop more efficient or to effect some operation which otherwise cannot be done easily.<ref name="AA"/>
AA included a <code><u>complex</u></code> data type<ref name"AA"/> to represent complex numbers, partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, as complex numbers are used to represent the behavior of alternating current. The imaginary unit square root of -1 was represented by <code><u>i</u></code>, which was treated as a fixed complex constant i.
The <code><u>complex</u></code> data type was dropped when Atlas Autocode later evolved into the language Edinburgh IMP. IMP was an extension of AA and was used to write the Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) operating system.
In addition to being notable as the progenitor of IMP and EMAS, AA is noted for having had many of the features of the original Compiler Compiler. A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the year 2000.
Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan computer, a prototype Atlas 2 at Cambridge, and the Ferranti Mercury.
Syntax
Atlas Autocode's syntax was largely similar to ALGOL, though it was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Thus, it allowed symbols like <code>½</code> for <code>.5</code> and the superscript <code><sup>2</sup></code> for to the power of 2. The Flexowriter supported overstriking and thus, AA did also: up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example, the character set had no <code>↑</code> symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of <code>|</code> and <code>*</code>. The aforementioned underlining of reserved words (keywords) could also be done using overstriking. The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual.<ref name="AA"/>
Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in AA were: <code>α</code> in floating-point numbers, e.g., <code>3.56α-7</code> for modern <code>3.56e-7</code> ; <code>β</code> to mean the second half of a 48-bit Atlas memory word; <code>π</code> for the mathematical constant pi.
When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). That compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinburgh version of the Atlas Autocode manual.<ref name="AA_ED"/>
Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an "uppercasedelimiters" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. Second, in some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), it was possible to strop keywords by placing a "<code>%</code>" sign in front of them, for example the keyword <code><u>endofprogramme</u></code> could be typed as <code>%end %of %programme</code> or <code>%endofprogramme</code>. This significantly reduced typing, due to only needing one character, rather than overstriking the whole keyword. As in ALGOL, there were no reserved words in the language as keywords were identified by underlining (or stropping), not by recognising reserved character sequences. In the statement <code><u>if</u> tokenif <u>then</u> <u>result</u> token</code>, there is both a keyword <code><u>if</u></code> and a variable named <code>if</code>.
As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as <code><u>integer</u> previous value</code>. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called "line reconstruction". What the compiler would see in the above example would be "<code><u>if</u>tokenif<u>thenresult</u>token</code>". Spaces were possible due partly to keywords being distinguished in other ways, and partly because the source was processed by scannerless parsing, without a separate lexing phase, which allowed the lexical syntax to be context-sensitive.
The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., <code>3a</code> was treated as <code>3*a</code>, and <code>a(i+j)</code> was treated as <code>a*(i+j)</code> if <code>a</code> was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example <code>ab</code> was not treated as <code>a*b</code>, whether or not <code>a</code> and <code>b</code> had been declared.
References
External links
* [https://academic.oup.com/comjnl/article-pdf/8/4/303/1121480/8-4-303.pdf The main features of Atlas Autocode], By R. A. Brooker, J. S. Rohl, and S. R. Clark
* [https://www.ancientgeek.org.uk/EMAS/Miscellaneous/Atlas_Autocode_Mini_Manual.pdf The Atlas Autocode Mini-Manual] by W. F. Lunnon, G. Riding (July 1965)
* [https://www.ancientgeek.org.uk/EMAS/Miscellaneous/Atlas_Autocode_Reference_Manual.pdf Atlas Autocode Reference Manual] by R.A. Brooker, J.S.Rohl (March 1965)
* [http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/Atlas50/atlas50.cs.manchester.ac.uk/docs/Vic%20Forrington%20final.pdf Mercury Autocode, Atlas Autocode and some Associated Matters.] by Vic Forrington (Jan 2014)
* [https://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/kdf9/AA_Compiler/ Flowcharts for Atlas Autocode compiler on KDF9.]
Category:Ferranti
Category:History of computing in the United Kingdom
Category:Structured programming languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Autocode | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.018024 |
2729 | Arthur J. Stone | thumb|Arthur J. Stone's trade mark
Arthur J. Stone (1847–1938), a leading American silversmith, was born, trained and worked in Sheffield, England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, before travelling to the United States in 1884. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in Gardner, Massachusetts which operated under his name until its sale in 1937 to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in 1945. His sons Henry Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until 1957.
One of the silversmiths in Arthur Stone's shop was George Porter Blanchard, father of silversmith Porter Blanchard.
References
External links
Work examples and makers' marks
Samples of his work
Samples of his work
Article on Stone silver
Notes on his career and a picture of him at work
Category:1847 births
Category:1938 deaths
Category:Artists from Sheffield
Category:American silversmiths
Category:British emigrants to the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_J._Stone | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.019170 |
2732 | Au file format | (headerless format)
| type code =
| uniform type | magic (newer versions)
| owner = Sun Microsystems
| genre = audio file format, container format
| container for = Audio, most often μ-law
| contained by | extended from
| extended to | standard
}}
The Au file format is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate.
{| class"wikitable" width"100%"
! uint32 word
! field
! Description
|- valign = top
| 0
| Magic number
| The value (four ASCII characters ".snd")
|- valign = top
| 1 || Data offset
| The offset to the data in bytes. (In the older Sun version, this had to be a multiple of 8.) The minimum valid number is 28 (decimal), since this is the header length (six 32-bit words) plus a minimal annotation size (4 bytes, another 32-bit word).
|- valign = top
| 2 || data size
| Data size in bytes, not including the header. If unknown, the value should be used.
|- valign = top
| 3 || Encoding || Data encoding format:
Values 0 through 255 are supposed to be assigned by a file format authority (was NeXT, now Oracle). Other values can be used for custom formats.
|}
The type of encoding depends on the value of the "encoding" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy, as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data are discarded. Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually with four bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit; equivalent to, e.g., encoding CD quality MP3 at a 352 kbit rate using a low quality encoder). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.
Note: PCM formats are encoded as signed data, as opposed to unsigned.
The current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.
References
External links
*[https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E26505_01/html/816-5177/audio-7i.html Oracle man pages: audio(7i) — generic audio device interface] (for information on the /dev/audio interface)
Category:Computer file formats
Category:Digital container formats
Category:Audio codecs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_file_format | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.023737 |
2733 | April 25 | Events
Pre-1600
*404 BC – Admiral Lysander and King Pausanias of Sparta blockade Athens and bring the Peloponnesian War to a successful conclusion.
* 775 – The Battle of Bagrevand puts an end to an Armenian rebellion against the Abbasid Caliphate. Muslim control over the South Caucasus is solidified and its Islamization begins, while several major Armenian nakharar families lose power and their remnants flee to the Byzantine Empire.
* 799 – After mistreatment and disfigurement by the citizens of Rome, Pope Leo III flees to the Frankish court of king Charlemagne at Paderborn for protection.
*1134 – The name Zagreb was mentioned for the first time in the Felician Charter relating to the establishment of the Zagreb Bishopric around 1094.
1601–1900
*1607 – Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
*1644 – Transition from Ming to Qing: The Chongzhen Emperor, the last Emperor of Ming China, commits suicide during a peasant rebellion led by Li Zicheng.
*1707 – A coalition of Britain, the Netherlands and Portugal is defeated by a Franco-Spanish army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession.
*1792 – Highwayman Nicolas J. Pelletier becomes the first person executed by guillotine.
* 1792 – "La Marseillaise" (the French national anthem) is composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle.
*1808 – Dano-Swedish War of 1808–1809: The Battle of Trangen took place at Trangen in Flisa, Hedemarkens Amt, between Swedish and Norwegian troops.
*1829 – Charles Fremantle arrives in HMS Challenger off the coast of modern-day Western Australia prior to declaring the Swan River Colony for the British Empire.
*1846 – Thornton Affair: Open conflict begins over the disputed border of Texas, triggering the Mexican–American War.
*1849 – The Governor General of Canada, Lord Elgin, signs the Rebellion Losses Bill, outraging Montreal's English population and triggering the Montreal Riots.
*1859 – British and French engineers break ground for the Suez Canal.
*1862 – American Civil War: Forces under U.S. Admiral David Farragut demand the surrender of the Confederate city of New Orleans, Louisiana.
*1864 – American Civil War: In the Battle of Marks' Mills, a force of 8,000 Confederate soldiers attacks 1,800 Union soldiers and a large number of wagon teamsters, killing or wounding 1,500 Union combatants.
*1882 – French and Vietnamese troops clashed in Tonkin, when Commandant Henri Rivière seized the citadel of Hanoi with a small force of marine infantry.
*1898 – Spanish–American War: The United States Congress declares that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain has existed since April 21, when an American naval blockade of the Spanish colony of Cuba began.
1901–present
*1901 – New York becomes the first U.S. state to require automobile license plates.
*1915 – World War I: The Battle of Gallipoli begins: The invasion of the Turkish Gallipoli Peninsula by British, French, Indian, Newfoundland, Australian and New Zealand troops, begins with landings at Anzac Cove and Cape Helles.
*1916 – Anzac Day is commemorated for the first time on the first anniversary of the landing at ANZAC Cove.
*1920 – At the San Remo conference, the principal Allied Powers of World War I adopt a resolution to determine the allocation of Class "A" League of Nations mandates for administration of the former Ottoman-ruled lands of the Middle East.
*1933 – Nazi Germany issues the Law Against Overcrowding in Schools and Universities limiting the number of Jewish students able to attend public schools and universities.
*1938 – U.S. Supreme Court delivers its opinion in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins and overturns a century of federal common law.
*1944 – The United Negro College Fund is incorporated.
*1945 – World War II: United States and Soviet reconnaissance troops meet in Torgau and Strehla along the River Elbe, cutting the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany in two. This would be later known as Elbe Day.
* 1945 – World War II: Liberation Day (Italy): The National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy calls for a general uprising against the German occupation and the Italian Social Republic.
* 1945 – United Nations Conference on International Organization: Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco.
* 1945 – World War II: The last German troops retreat from Finnish soil in Lapland, ending the Lapland War. Military actions of the Second World War end in Finland.
*1951 – Korean War: Assaulting Chinese forces are forced to withdraw after heavy fighting with UN forces, primarily made up of Australian and Canadian troops, at the Battle of Kapyong.
*1953 – Francis Crick and James Watson publish "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" describing the double helix structure of DNA.
*1954 – The first practical solar cell is publicly demonstrated by Bell Telephone Laboratories.
*1959 – The Saint Lawrence Seaway, linking the North American Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean, officially opens to shipping.
*1960 – The United States Navy submarine completes the first submerged circumnavigation of the globe.
*1961 – Robert Noyce is granted a patent for an integrated circuit.
*1972 – Vietnam War: Nguyen Hue Offensive: The North Vietnamese 320th Division forces 5,000 South Vietnamese troops to retreat and traps about 2,500 others northwest of Kontum.
*1974 – Carnation Revolution: A leftist military coup in Portugal overthrows the authoritarian-conservative Estado Novo regime.
*1980 – One hundred forty-six people are killed when Dan-Air Flight 1008 crashes near Los Rodeos Airport in Tenerife, Canary Islands.
*1981 – More than 100 workers are exposed to radiation during repairs of at the Tsuruga Nuclear Power Plant in Japan.
*1982 – Israel completes its withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula per the Camp David Accords.
*1983 – Cold War: American schoolgirl Samantha Smith is invited to visit the Soviet Union by its leader Yuri Andropov after he read her letter in which she expressed fears about nuclear war.
* 1983 – Pioneer 10 travels beyond Pluto's orbit.
*1990 – Violeta Chamorro takes office as the President of Nicaragua, the first woman to hold the position.
*2001 – President George W. Bush pledges U.S. military support in the event of a Chinese attack on Taiwan.
*2004 – The March for Women's Lives brings over 1 million protesters, mostly pro-choice, to Washington D.C. to protest the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003, and other restrictions on abortion.
*2005 – The final piece of the Obelisk of Axum is returned to Ethiopia after being stolen by the invading Italian army in 1937.
* 2005 – A seven-car commuter train derails and crashes into an apartment building near Amagasaki Station in Japan, killing 107, including the driver.
* 2005 – Bulgaria and Romania sign the Treaty of Accession 2005 to join the European Union.
*2007 – Boris Yeltsin's funeral: The first to be sanctioned by the Russian Orthodox Church for a head of state since the funeral of Emperor Alexander III in 1894.
*2014 – The Flint water crisis begins when officials at Flint, Michigan switch the city's water supply to the Flint River, leading to lead and bacteria contamination.
*2015 – At least 8,962 are killed in Nepal after a massive 7.8 magnitude earthquake strikes Nepal.
Births
Pre-1600
*1214 – Louis IX of France (d. 1270)
*1228 – Conrad IV of Germany (d. 1254)
*1284 – Edward II of England (d. 1327)
*1287 – Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1330)
*1502 – Georg Major, German theologian and academic (d. 1574)
*1529 – Francesco Patrizi, Italian philosopher and scientist (d. 1597)
*1599 – Oliver Cromwell, English general and politician, Lord Protector of Great Britain (d. 1658)
1601–1900
*1621 – Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, English soldier and politician (d. 1679)
*1666 – Johann Heinrich Buttstett, German organist and composer (d. 1727)
*1694 – Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, English architect and politician, Lord High Treasurer of Ireland (d. 1753)
*1710 – James Ferguson, Scottish astronomer and author (d. 1776)
*1723 – Giovanni Marco Rutini, Italian composer (d. 1797)
*1725 – Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel, English admiral and politician (d. 1786)
*1767 – Nicolas Oudinot, French general (d. 1847)
*1770 – Georg Sverdrup, Norwegian philologist and academic (d. 1850)
*1776 – Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh (d. 1857)
*1843 – Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (d. 1878)
*1849 – Felix Klein, German mathematician and academic (d. 1925)
*1850 – Luise Adolpha Le Beau, German composer and educator (d. 1927)
*1851 – Leopoldo Alas, Spanish author, critic, and academic (d. 1901)
*1854 – Charles Sumner Tainter, American engineer and inventor (d. 1940)
*1862 – Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, English ornithologist and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (d. 1933)
*1868 – John Moisant, American pilot and engineer (d. 1910)
*1871 – Lorne Currie, French-English sailor (d. 1926)
*1872 – C. B. Fry, English cricketer, footballer, educator, and politician (d. 1956)
*1873 – Walter de la Mare, English poet, short story writer, and novelist (d. 1956)
* 1873 – Howard Garis, American author, creator of the Uncle Wiggily series of children's stories (d. 1962)
*1874 – Guglielmo Marconi, Italian businessman and inventor, developed Marconi's law, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)
* 1874 – Ernest Webb, English-Canadian race walker (d. 1937)
*1876 – Jacob Nicol, Canadian publisher, lawyer, and politician (d. 1958)
*1878 – William Merz, American gymnast and triathlete (d. 1946)
*1882 – Fred McLeod, Scottish golfer (d. 1976)
*1887 – Kojo Tovalou Houénou, Beninese lawyer and critic (d. 1936)
*1892 – Maud Hart Lovelace, American author (d. 1980)
*1896 – Fred Haney, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1977)
*1897 – Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood (d. 1965)
*1900 – Gladwyn Jebb, English politician and diplomat, Secretary-General of the United Nations (d. 1996)
* 1900 – Wolfgang Pauli, Austrian-Swiss-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
1901–present
*1902 – Werner Heyde, German psychiatrist and academic (d. 1964)
* 1902 – Mary Miles Minter, American actress (d. 1984)
*1903 – Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1987)
*1905 – George Nēpia, New Zealand rugby player and referee (d. 1986)
*1906 – Joel Brand, member of the Budapest Aid and Rescue Committee (d. 1964)
* 1906 – William J. Brennan Jr., American colonel and Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (d. 1997)
*1908 – Edward R. Murrow, American journalist (d. 1965)
*1909 – William Pereira, American architect, designed the Transamerica Pyramid (d. 1985)
*1910 – Arapeta Awatere, New Zealand interpreter, military leader, politician, and murderer (d. 1976)
*1911 – Connie Marrero, Cuban baseball player and coach (d. 2014)
* 1911 – George Roth, American gymnast (d. 1997)
*1912 – Earl Bostic, American saxophonist (d. 1965)
*1913 – Nikolaos Roussen, Greek captain (d. 1944)
*1914 – Ross Lockridge Jr., American author and academic (d. 1948)
*1915 – Mort Weisinger, American journalist and author (d. 1978)
*1916 – Jerry Barber, American golfer (d. 1994)
*1917 – Ella Fitzgerald, American singer (d. 1996)
* 1917 – Jean Lucas, French racing driver (d. 2003)
*1918 – Graham Payn, South African-born English actor and singer (d. 2005)
* 1918 – Gérard de Vaucouleurs, French-American astronomer and academic (d. 1995)
* 1918 – Astrid Varnay, Swedish-American soprano and actress (d. 2006)
*1919 – Finn Helgesen, Norwegian speed skater (d. 2011)
*1921 – Karel Appel, Dutch painter and sculptor (d. 2006)
*1923 – Francis Graham-Smith, English astronomer and academic
* 1923 – Melissa Hayden, Canadian ballerina (d. 2006)
* 1923 – Albert King, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1992)
*1924 – Ingemar Johansson, Swedish race walker (d. 2009)
* 1924 – Franco Mannino, Italian pianist, composer, director, and playwright (d. 2005)
* 1924 – Paulo Vanzolini, Brazilian singer-songwriter and zoologist (d. 2013)
*1925 – Tony Christopher, Baron Christopher, English trade union leader and businessman
* 1925 – Sammy Drechsel, German comedian and journalist (d. 1986)
* 1925 – Louis O'Neil, Canadian academic and politician (d. 2018)
*1926 – Johnny Craig, American author and illustrator (d. 2001)
* 1926 – Gertrude Fröhlich-Sandner, Austrian politician (d. 2008)
* 1926 – Patricia Castell, Argentine actress (d. 2013)
*1927 – Corín Tellado, Spanish author (d. 2009)
* 1927 – Albert Uderzo, French author and illustrator (d. 2020)
*1928 – Cy Twombly, American-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 2011)
*1929 – Yvette Williams, New Zealand long jumper, shot putter, and discus thrower (d. 2019)
*1930 – Paul Mazursky, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2014)
* 1930 – Godfrey Milton-Thompson, English admiral and surgeon (d. 2012)
* 1930 – Peter Schulz, German lawyer and politician, Mayor of Hamburg (d. 2013)
*1931 – Felix Berezin, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 1980)
* 1931 – David Shepherd, English painter and author (d. 2017)
*1932 – Nikolai Kardashev, Russian astrophysicist (d. 2019)
* 1932 – Meadowlark Lemon, African-American basketball player and minister (d. 2015)
* 1932 – Lia Manoliu, Romanian discus thrower and politician (d. 1998)
*1933 – Jerry Leiber, American songwriter and producer (d. 2011)
* 1933 – Joyce Ricketts, American baseball player (d. 1992)
*1934 – Peter McParland, Northern Irish footballer and manager
*1935 – Bob Gutowski, American pole vaulter (d. 1960)
* 1935 – Reinier Kreijermaat, Dutch footballer (d. 2018)
*1936 – Henck Arron, Surinamese banker and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Republic of Suriname (d. 2000)
*1938 – Roger Boisjoly, American aerodynamicist and engineer (d. 2012)
* 1938 – Ton Schulten, Dutch painter and graphic designer
*1939 – Tarcisio Burgnich, Italian footballer and manager (d. 2021)
* 1939 – Michael Llewellyn-Smith, English academic and diplomat
* 1939 – Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky, English historian and academic
* 1939 – Veronica Sutherland, English academic and British diplomat
*1940 – Al Pacino, American actor and director
*1941 – Bertrand Tavernier, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2021)
* 1941 – Dorothy Shea, Australian librarian (d. 2024)
*1942 – Jon Kyl, American lawyer and politician
*1943 – Tony Christie, English singer-songwriter and actor
*1944 – Len Goodman, English dancer (d. 2023)
* 1944 – Mike Kogel, German singer-songwriter
* 1944 – Stephen Nickell, English economist and academic
* 1944 – Bruce Ponder, English geneticist and cancer researcher
*1945 – Stu Cook, American bass player Creedence Clearwater Revival, songwriter, and producer
* 1945 – Richard C. Hoagland, American theorist and author
* 1945 – Björn Ulvaeus, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer
*1946 – Talia Shire, American actress
* 1946 – Peter Sutherland, Irish lawyer and politician, Attorney General of Ireland (d. 2018)
* 1946 – Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Russian colonel, lawyer, and politician (d. 2022)
*1947 – Johan Cruyff, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2016)
* 1947 – Jeffrey DeMunn, American actor
* 1947 – Cathy Smith, Canadian singer and drug dealer (d. 2020)
*1948 – Mike Selvey, English cricketer and sportscaster
* 1948 – Yu Shyi-kun, Taiwanese politician, 39th Premier of the Republic of China
*1949 – Vicente Pernía, Argentinian footballer and race car driver
* 1949 – Dominique Strauss-Kahn, French economist, lawyer, and politician, French Minister of Finance
* 1949 – James Fenton, English poet, journalist and literary critic
*1950 – Donnell Deeny, Northern Irish lawyer and judge
* 1950 – Steve Ferrone, English drummer
* 1950 – Peter Hintze, German politician (d. 2016)
* 1950 – Valentyna Kozyr, Ukrainian high jumper
*1951 – Ian McCartney, Scottish politician, Minister of State for Trade
*1952 – Ketil Bjørnstad, Norwegian pianist and composer
* 1952 – Vladislav Tretiak, Russian ice hockey player and coach
* 1952 – Jacques Santini, French footballer and coach
*1953 – Ron Clements, American animator, producer, and screenwriter
* 1953 – Gary Cosier, Australian cricketer
* 1953 – Anthony Venables, English economist, author, and academic
*1954 – Melvin Burgess, English author
* 1954 – Randy Cross, American football player and sportscaster
* 1954 – Róisín Shortall, Irish educator and politician
*1955 – Américo Gallego, Argentinian footballer and coach
* 1955 – Parviz Parastui, Iranian actor and singer
* 1955 – Zev Siegl, American businessman, co-founded Starbucks
*1956 – Dominique Blanc, French actress, director, and screenwriter
* 1956 – Abdalla Uba Adamu, Nigerian professor, media scholar
*1957 – Theo de Rooij, Dutch cyclist and manager
*1958 – Mike DeVault, American politician
* 1958 – Fish, Scottish singer-songwriter
* 1958 – Misha Glenny, British journalist
*1959 – Paul Madden, English diplomat, British High Commissioner to Australia
* 1959 – Daniel Kash, Canadian actor and director
* 1959 – Tony Phillips, American baseball player (d. 2016)
*1960 – Paul Baloff, American singer (d. 2002)
* 1960 – Robert Peston, English journalist
*1961 – Dinesh D'Souza, Indian-American journalist and author
* 1961 – Miran Tepeš, Slovenian ski jumper
*1962 – Foeke Booy, Dutch footballer and manager
*1963 – Joy Covey, American businesswoman (d. 2013)
* 1963 – David Moyes, Scottish footballer and manager
* 1963 – Paul Wassif, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1964 – Hank Azaria, American actor, voice artist, comedian and producer
* 1964 – Andy Bell, English singer-songwriter
*1965 – Eric Avery, American bass player and songwriter
* 1965 – Mark Bryant, American basketball player and coach
* 1965 – John Henson, American puppeteer and voice actor (d. 2014)
*1966 – Diego Domínguez, Argentinian-Italian rugby player
* 1966 – Femke Halsema, Dutch sociologist, academic, and politician
* 1966 – Darren Holmes, American baseball player and coach
*1967 – Angel Martino, American swimmer
*1968 – Thomas Strunz, German footballer
*1969 – Joe Buck, American sportscaster
* 1969 – Martin Koolhoven, Dutch director and screenwriter
* 1969 – Jon Olsen, American swimmer
* 1969 – Darren Woodson, American football player and sportscaster
* 1969 – Renée Zellweger, American actress and producer
*1970 – Jason Lee, American skateboarder, actor, comedian and producer
*1971 – Sara Baras, Spanish dancer
*1973 – Carlota Castrejana, Spanish triple jumper
* 1973 – Barbara Rittner, German tennis player
*1975 – Jacque Jones, American baseball player and coach
*1976 – Gilberto da Silva Melo, Brazilian footballer
* 1976 – Tim Duncan, American basketball player
* 1976 – Breyton Paulse, South African rugby player
* 1976 – Rainer Schüttler, German tennis player and coach
*1977 – Constantinos Christoforou, Cypriot singer-songwriter
* 1977 – Marguerite Moreau, American actress and producer
* 1977 – Matthew West, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
*1978 – Matt Walker, English swimmer
* 1980 – Daniel MacPherson, Australian actor and television host
* 1980 – Alejandro Valverde, Spanish cyclist
*1981 – Felipe Massa, Brazilian racing driver
* 1981 – John McFall, English sprinter
* 1981 – Anja Pärson, Swedish skier
*1982 – Monty Panesar, English cricketer
*1983 – Johnathan Thurston, Australian rugby league player
* 1983 – DeAngelo Williams, American football player
*1985 – Giedo van der Garde, Dutch racing driver
*1986 – Alexei Emelin, Russian ice hockey player
* 1986 – Gwen Jorgensen, American triathlete
* 1986 – Claudia Rath, German heptathlete
*1987 – Razak Boukari, Togolese footballer
* 1987 – Jay Park, American-South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer
*1988 – Jonathan Bailey, English actor
* 1988 – Sara Paxton, American actress
* 1988 – James Sheppard, Canadian ice hockey player
*1989 – Marie-Michèle Gagnon, Canadian skier
* 1989 – Michael van Gerwen, Dutch darts player
* 1989 – Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, the 11th Panchen Lama
*1990 – Jean-Éric Vergne, French racing driver
* 1990 – Taylor Walker, Australian footballer
*1991 – Jordan Poyer, American football player
* 1991 – Alex Shibutani, American ice dancer
*1993 – Alex Bowman, American race car driver
* 1993 – Daniel Norris, American baseball player
* 1993 – Raphaël Varane, French footballer
*1994 – Omar McLeod, Jamaican hurdler
* 1994 – Maggie Rogers, American musician
*1995 – Lewis Baker, English footballer
*1996 – Mack Horton, Australian swimmer
*1998 – Satou Sabally, German-American basketball player
*2000 – Dejan Kulusevski, Swedish footballer
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order of surname. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 501 – Rusticus, saint and archbishop of Lyon (b. 455)
* 775 – Smbat VII Bagratuni, Armenian prince
* 775 – Mushegh VI Mamikonian, Armenian prince
* 908 – Zhang Wenwei, Chinese chancellor
*1074 – Herman I, Margrave of Baden
*1077 – Géza I of Hungary (b. 1040)
*1185 – Emperor Antoku of Japan (b. 1178)
*1217 – Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia
*1228 – Queen Isabella II of Jerusalem (b. 1212)
*1243 – Boniface of Valperga, Bishop of Aosta
*1264 – Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester, medieval English nobleman; Earl of Winchester (b. 1195)
*1295 – Sancho IV of Castile (b. 1258)
*1342 – Pope Benedict XII (b. 1285)
*1397 – Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent, English nobleman
*1472 – Leon Battista Alberti, Italian author, poet, and philosopher (b. 1404)
*1516 – John Yonge, English diplomat (b. 1467)
*1566 – Louise Labé, French poet and author (b. 1520)
* 1566 – Diane de Poitiers, mistress of King Henry II of France (b. 1499)
*1595 – Torquato Tasso, Italian poet and songwriter (b. 1544)
1601–1900
*1605 – Naresuan, Siamese King of Ayutthaya Kingdom (b. c. 1555)
*1644 – Chongzhen Emperor of China (b. 1611)
*1660 – Henry Hammond, English cleric and theologian (b. 1605)
*1690 – David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter and educator (b. 1610)
*1744 – Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (b. 1701)
*1770 – Jean-Antoine Nollet, French minister, physicist, and academic (b. 1700)
*1800 – William Cowper, English poet (b. 1731)
*1840 – Siméon Denis Poisson, French mathematician and physicist (b. 1781)
*1873 – Fyodor Petrovich Tolstoy, Russian painter and sculptor (b. 1783)
*1875 – 12th Dalai Lama (b. 1857)
*1878 – Anna Sewell, English author (b. 1820)
*1890 – Crowfoot, Canadian tribal chief (b. 1830)
*1891 – Nathaniel Woodard, English priest and educator (b. 1811)
*1892 – Henri Duveyrier, French explorer (b. 1840)
* 1892 – Karl von Ditmar, Estonian-German geologist and explorer (b. 1822)
1901–present
*1906 – John Knowles Paine, American composer and educator (b. 1839)
*1911 – Emilio Salgari, Italian journalist and author (b. 1862)
*1913 – Joseph-Alfred Archambeault, Canadian bishop (b. 1859)
*1915 – Frederick W. Seward, American journalist, lawyer, and politician, 6th United States Assistant Secretary of State (b. 1830)
*1919 – Augustus D. Juilliard, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1836)
*1921 – Emmeline B. Wells, American journalist and women's rights advocate (b. 1828)
*1923 – Louis-Olivier Taillon, Canadian lawyer and politician, 8th Premier of Quebec (b. 1840)
*1928 – Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Russian general (b. 1878)
*1936 – Wajed Ali Khan Panni, Bengali aristocrat and philanthropist (b. 1871)
*1941 – Salih Bozok, Turkish commander and politician (b. 1881)
*1943 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (b. 1858)
*1944 – George Herriman, American cartoonist (b. 1880)
* 1944 – Tony Mullane, Irish-American baseball player (b. 1859)
* 1944 – William Stephens, American engineer and politician, 24th Governor of California (b. 1859)
*1945 – Huldreich Georg Früh, Swiss composer (b. 1903)
*1950 – John Ernest Adamson, English educationalist and Director of Education of the Colony of Transvaal (b. 1867)
*1961 – Robert Garrett, American discus thrower and shot putter (b. 1875)
*1970 – Anita Louise, American actress (b. 1915)
*1972 – George Sanders, English actor (b. 1906)
*1973 – Olga Grey, Hungarian-American actress (b. 1896)
*1974 – Gustavo R. Vincenti, Maltese architect and developer (b. 1888)
*1975 – Mike Brant, Israeli singer and songwriter (b. 1947)
*1976 – Carol Reed, English director and producer (b. 1906)
* 1976 – Markus Reiner, Israeli engineer and educator (b. 1886)
*1982 – John Cody, American cardinal (b. 1907)
*1983 – William S. Bowdern, American priest and author (b. 1897)
*1988 – Carolyn Franklin, American singer-songwriter (b. 1944)
* 1988 – Clifford D. Simak, American journalist and author (b. 1904)
*1990 – Dexter Gordon, American saxophonist, composer, and actor (b. 1923)
*1992 – Yutaka Ozaki, Japanese singer-songwriter (b. 1965)
*1995 – Art Fleming, American game show host (b. 1925)
* 1995 – Ginger Rogers, American actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1911)
* 1995 – Lev Shankovsky, Ukrainian military historian (b. 1903)
*1996 – Saul Bass, American graphic designer and director (b. 1920)
*1998 – Wright Morris, American author and photographer (b. 1910)
*1999 – Michael Morris, 3rd Baron Killanin, Irish journalist and author (b. 1914)
* 1999 – Roger Troutman, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1951)
*2000 – Lucien Le Cam, French mathematician and statistician (b. 1924)
* 2000 – David Merrick, American director and producer (b. 1911)
*2001 – Michele Alboreto, Italian racing driver (b. 1956)
*2002 – Lisa Lopes, American rapper and dancer (b. 1971)
*2003 – Samson Kitur, Kenyan runner (b. 1966)
*2004 – Thom Gunn, English-American poet and academic (b. 1929)
*2005 – Jim Barker, American politician (b. 1935)
* 2005 – Swami Ranganathananda, Indian monk and educator (b. 1908)
*2006 – Jane Jacobs, American-Canadian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1916)
* 2006 – Peter Law, Welsh politician and independent member of parliament (b. 1948)
*2007 – Alan Ball Jr., English footballer and manager (b. 1945)
* 2007 – Arthur Milton, English footballer and cricketer (b. 1928)
* 2007 – Bobby Pickett, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938)
*2008 – Humphrey Lyttelton, English trumpet player, composer, and radio host (b. 1921)
*2009 – Bea Arthur, American actress and singer (b. 1922)
*2010 – Dorothy Provine, American actress and singer (b. 1935)
* 2010 – Alan Sillitoe, English novelist, short story writer, essayist, and poet (b. 1928)
*2011 – Poly Styrene, British musician (b. 1957)
*2012 – Gerry Bahen, Australian footballer (b. 1929)
* 2012 – Denny Jones, American rancher and politician (b. 1910)
* 2012 – Moscelyne Larkin, American ballerina and educator (b. 1925)
* 2012 – Louis le Brocquy, Irish painter and illustrator (b. 1916)
*2013 – Brian Adam, Scottish biochemist and politician (b. 1948)
* 2013 – Jacob Avshalomov, American composer and conductor (b. 1919)
* 2013 – György Berencsi, Hungarian virologist and academic (b. 1941)
* 2013 – Rick Camp, American baseball player (b. 1953)
*2014 – Dan Heap, Canadian priest and politician (b. 1925)
* 2014 – William Judson Holloway Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and judge (b. 1923)
* 2014 – Earl Morrall, American football player and coach (b. 1934)
* 2014 – Tito Vilanova, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1968)
* 2014 – Stefanie Zweig, German journalist and author (b. 1932)
*2015 – Jim Fanning, American-Canadian baseball player and manager (b. 1927)
* 2015 – Matthias Kuhle, German geographer and academic (b. 1948)
* 2015 – Don Mankiewicz, American screenwriter and novelist (b. 1922)
* 2015 – Mike Phillips, American basketball player (b. 1956)
*2016 – Tom Lewis, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of New South Wales (b. 1922)
*2018 – Madeeha Gauhar, Pakistani actress, playwright and director of social theater, and women's rights activist (b. 1956)
*2019 – John Havlicek, American basketball player (b. 1940)
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
*2023 – Harry Belafonte, American singer, activist, and actor (b. 1927)
*2024 – Marla Adams, American television actress (b. 1938)
*2024 – Laurent Cantet, French director, cinematographer and screenwriter (b. 1961)
Holidays and observances
* Anzac Day (Australia, New Zealand, Tonga)
* Christian feast day:
** Giovanni Battista Piamarta
** Major Rogation (Western Christianity)
** Mark the Evangelist
** Maughold
** Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur
** Philo and Agathopodes
** Anianus of Alexandria
** April 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Freedom Day (Portugal)
* Liberation Day (Italy)
* Military Foundation Day (North Korea)
* World Malaria Day
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/25 Historical Events on April 25]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_25 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.056851 |
2734 | April 24 | Events
Pre-1600
*1479 BC – Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th dynasty).
*1183 BC – Traditional reckoning of the Fall of Troy marking the end of the legendary Trojan War, given by chief librarian of the Library of Alexandria Eratosthenes, among others.
*1547 – Battle of Mühlberg. Duke of Alba, commanding Spanish-Imperial forces of Charles I of Spain, defeats the troops of Schmalkaldic League.
*1558 – Mary, Queen of Scots, marries the Dauphin of France, François, at Notre-Dame de Paris.
1601–1900
*1704 – The first regular newspaper in British Colonial America, The Boston News-Letter, is published.
*1793 – French revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat is acquitted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of charges brought by the Girondin in Paris.
*1800 – The United States Library of Congress is established when President John Adams signs legislation to appropriate $5,000 to purchase "such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress".
*1837 – The great fire in Surat city of India caused more than 500 deaths and destruction of more than 9,000 houses.
*1877 – Russo-Turkish War: Russian Empire declares war on Ottoman Empire.
*1885 – American sharpshooter Annie Oakley is hired by Nate Salsbury to be a part of Buffalo Bill's Wild West.
*1895 – Joshua Slocum, the first person to sail single-handedly around the world, sets sail from Boston, Massachusetts aboard the sloop Spray.
1901–present
*1913 – The Woolworth Building, a skyscraper in New York City, is opened.
*1914 – The Franck–Hertz experiment, a pillar of quantum mechanics, is presented to the German Physical Society.
*1915 – The arrest of 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Istanbul marks the beginning of the Armenian genocide.
*1916 – Easter Rising: Irish rebels, led by Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, launch an uprising in Dublin against British rule and proclaim an Irish Republic.
* 1916 – Ernest Shackleton and five men of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition launch a lifeboat from uninhabited Elephant Island in the Southern Ocean to organise a rescue for the crew of the sunken .
*1918 – World War I: First tank-to-tank combat, during the second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux. Three British Mark IVs meet three German A7Vs.
*1922 – The first segment of the Imperial Wireless Chain providing wireless telegraphy between Leafield in Oxfordshire, England, and Cairo, Egypt, comes into operation.
*1924 – Thorvald Stauning becomes premier of Denmark (first term).
*1926 – The Treaty of Berlin is signed. Germany and the Soviet Union each pledge neutrality in the event of an attack on the other by a third party for the next five years.
*1932 – Benny Rothman leads the mass trespass of Kinder Scout, leading to substantial legal reforms in the United Kingdom.
*1933 – Nazi Germany begins its persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses by shutting down the Watch Tower Society office in Magdeburg.
*1944 – World War II: The SBS launches a raid against the garrison of Santorini in Greece.
*1953 – Winston Churchill is knighted by Queen Elizabeth II.
*1955 – The Bandung Conference ends: Twenty-nine non-aligned nations of Asia and Africa finish a meeting that condemns colonialism, racism, and the Cold War.
*1957 – Suez Crisis: The Suez Canal is reopened following the introduction of UNEF peacekeepers to the region.
*1963 – Marriage of Princess Alexandra of Kent to Angus Ogilvy at Westminster Abbey in London.
*1965 – Civil war breaks out in the Dominican Republic when Colonel Francisco Caamaño overthrows the triumvirate that had been in power since the coup d'état against Juan Bosch.
*1967 – Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov dies in Soyuz 1 when its parachute fails to open. He is the first human to die during a space mission.
* 1970 – The Gambia becomes a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, with Dawda Jawara as its first President.
* 1979 – Blair Peach, a British activist, died after being knocked unconscious during an Anti-Nazi League demonstration against a National Front election meeting in Southall, London.
*1980 – Eight U.S. servicemen die in Operation Eagle Claw as they attempt to end the Iran hostage crisis.
*1990 – STS-31: The Hubble Space Telescope is launched from the Space Shuttle Discovery.
* 1990 – Gruinard Island, Scotland, is officially declared free of the anthrax disease after 48 years of quarantine.
*1993 – An IRA bomb devastates the Bishopsgate area of London.
*1994 – A Douglas DC-3 ditches in Botany Bay after takeoff from Sydney Airport. All 25 people on board survive.
*1996 – In the United States, the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 is passed into law.
*2004 – The United States lifts economic sanctions imposed on Libya 18 years previously, as a reward for its cooperation in eliminating weapons of mass destruction.
*2005 – Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is inaugurated as the 265th Pope of the Catholic Church taking the name Pope Benedict XVI.
*2006 – Bombings in the Egyptian resort city of Dahab kill 23 people and injure about 80.
*2011 – WikiLeaks starts publishing the Guantanamo Bay files leak.
*2013 – A building collapses near Dhaka, Bangladesh, killing 1,134 people and injuring about 2,500 others.
* 2013 – Violence in Bachu County, Kashgar Prefecture, of China's Xinjiang results in death of 21 people.
Births
Pre-1600
*1086 – Ramiro II of Aragon (d. 1157)
*1492 – Sabina of Bavaria, Bavarian duchess and noblewoman (d. 1564)
*1532 – Thomas Lucy, English politician (d. 1600)
*1533 – William I of Orange, founding father of the Netherlands (d. 1584)
*1538 – Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (d. 1587)
*1545 – Henry Wriothesley, 2nd Earl of Southampton, English Earl (d. 1581)
*1562 – Xu Guangqi, Ming Dynasty Chinese politician, scholar and lay Catholic leader (d. 1633)
*1581 – Vincent de Paul, French priest and saint (d. 1660)
1601–1900
*1608 – Gaston, Duke of Orléans, third son of King Henry IV of France (d. 1660)
*1620 – John Graunt, English demographer and statistician (d. 1674)
*1706 – Giovanni Battista Martini, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1780)
*1718 – Nathaniel Hone the Elder, Irish-English painter and educator (d. 1784)
*1743 – Edmund Cartwright, English clergyman and engineer, invented the power loom (d. 1823)
*1784 – Peter Vivian Daniel, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1860)
*1815 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist, essayist, and short story writer (d. 1882)
*1823 – Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Mexican politician, President of Mexico (d. 1889)
*1829 – Luisa Cappiani, Austrian soprano, educator and essayist (d. 1919)
*1845 – Carl Spitteler, Swiss poet and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)
*1856 – Philippe Pétain, French general and politician, 119th Prime Minister of France (d. 1951)
*1860 – Queen Marau, last Queen of Tahiti (d. 1935)
*1862 – Tomitaro Makino, Japanese botanist (d. 1957)
*1868 – Sandy Herd, Scottish golfer (d. 1944)
*1876 – Erich Raeder, German admiral (d. 1960)
*1878 – Jean Crotti, Swiss-French painter (d. 1958)
*1879 – Susanna Bokoyni, Hungarian-American circus performer (d. 1984)
*1880 – Gideon Sundback, Swedish-American engineer and businessman, developed the zipper (d. 1954)
* 1880 – Josef Müller, Croatian entomologist (d. 1964)
*1882 – Hugh Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding, Scottish-English air marshal (d. 1970)
*1885 – Thomas Cronan, American triple jumper (d. 1962)
* 1885 – Con Walsh, Irish-Canadian hammer thrower and footballer (d. 1961)
*1887 – Denys Finch Hatton, English hunter (d. 1931)
*1888 – Pe Maung Tin, Burma-based scholar and educator (d. 1973)
*1889 – Stafford Cripps, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1952)
* 1889 – Lyubov Popova, Russian painter and academic (d. 1924)
*1897 – Manuel Ávila Camacho, Mexican colonel and politician, 45th President of Mexico (d. 1955)
* 1897 – Benjamin Lee Whorf, American linguist, anthropologist, and engineer (d. 1941)
*1899 – Oscar Zariski, Russian-American mathematician and academic (d. 1986)
*1900 – Elizabeth Goudge, English author and educator (d. 1984)1901–present
*1903 – José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Spanish lawyer and politician, founded the Falange (d. 1936)
*1904 – Willem de Kooning, Dutch-American painter and educator (d. 1997)
*1905 – Al Bates, American long jumper (d. 1999)
* 1905 – Robert Penn Warren, American novelist, poet, and literary critic (d. 1989)
*1906 – William Joyce, American-born Irish-British Nazi propaganda broadcaster (d. 1946)
* 1906 – Mimi Smith, English nurse (d. 1991)
*1907 – Gabriel Figueroa, Mexican cinematographer (d. 1997)
*1908 – Marceline Day, American actress (d. 2000)
* 1908 – Inga Gentzel, Swedish runner (d. 1991)
* 1908 – Józef Gosławski, Polish sculptor (d. 1963)
*1912 – Ruth Osburn, American discus thrower (d. 1994)
*1913 – Dieter Grau, German-American scientist and engineer (d. 2014)
*1914 – William Castle, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977)
* 1914 – Phil Watson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1991)
* 1914 – Justin Wilson, American chef and author (d. 2001)
*1916 – Lou Thesz, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2002)
*1919 – David Blackwell, American mathematician and academic (d. 2010)
* 1919 – Glafcos Clerides, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 4th President of Cyprus (d. 2013)
*1920 – Gino Valenzano, Italian race car driver (d. 2011)
*1922 – Marc-Adélard Tremblay, Canadian anthropologist and academic (d. 2014)
*1923 – Gus Bodnar, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2005)
* 1923 – Doris Burn, American author and illustrator (d. 2011)
*1924 – Clement Freud, German-English radio host, academic, and politician (d. 2009)
* 1924 – Ruth Kobart, American actress and singer (d. 2002)
*1925 – Franco Leccese, Italian sprinter (d. 1992)
*1926 – Marilyn Erskine, American actress
* 1926 – Thorbjörn Fälldin, Swedish farmer and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 2016)
*1927 – Josy Barthel, Luxembourgish runner and politician, Luxembourgish Minister for Energy (d. 1992)
*1928 – Tommy Docherty, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2020)
* 1928 – Johnny Griffin, American saxophonist (d. 2008)
* 1928 – Anahit Perikhanian, Russian-born Armenian Iranologist (d. 2012)
*1929 – Dr. Rajkumar, Indian actor and singer (d. 2006)
*1930 – Jerome Callet, American instrument designer, educator, and author (d. 2019)
* 1930 – Richard Donner, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2021)
* 1930 – José Sarney, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 31st President of Brazil
*1931 – Abdelhamid Kermali, Algerian footballer and manager (d. 2013)
* 1931 – Bridget Riley, English painter and illustrator
*1934 – Jayakanthan, Indian journalist and author (d. 2015)
* 1934 – Shirley MacLaine, American actress, singer, and dancer
*1936 – David Crombie, Canadian educator and politician, 56th Mayor of Toronto
* 1936 – Jill Ireland, English actress (d. 1990)
*1937 – Joe Henderson, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2001)
*1940 – Sue Grafton, American author (d. 2017)
*1941 – Richard Holbrooke, American journalist, banker, and diplomat, 22nd United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2010)
* 1941 – John Williams, Australian-English guitarist and composer
*1942 – Richard M. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 54th Mayor of Chicago
* 1942 – Barbra Streisand, American singer, actress, activist, and producer
*1943 – Richard Sterban, American country and gospel bass singer
* 1943 – Gordon West, English footballer (d. 2012)
*1944 – Peter Cresswell, English judge
* 1944 – Maarja Nummert, Estonian architect
* 1944 – Tony Visconti, American record producer, musician and singer
*1945 – Doug Clifford, American drummer and songwriter
*1946 – Doug Christie, Canadian lawyer and activist (d. 2013)
* 1946 – Phil Robertson, American hunter and television personality
*1947 – Josep Borrell, Spanish engineer and politician, 22nd President of the European Parliament
* 1947 – João Braz de Aviz, Brazilian cardinal
* 1947 – Claude Dubois, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1947 – Denise Kingsmill, Baroness Kingsmill, New Zealand-English lawyer and politician
* 1947 – Roger D. Kornberg, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
*1948 – Paul Cellucci, American soldier and politician, 69th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 2013)
* 1948 – Eliana Gil, Ecuadorian-American psychiatrist, therapist, and author
*1949 – Eddie Hart, American sprinter
* 1949 – Véronique Sanson, French singer-songwriter and producer
*1950 – Rob Hyman, American singer-songwriter and musician
*1951 – Ron Arad, Israeli architect and academic
* 1951 – Christian Bobin, French author and poet (d. 2022)
* 1951 – Nigel Harrison, English bass player and songwriter
* 1951 – Enda Kenny, Irish educator and politician, 13th Taoiseach of Ireland
*1952 – Jean Paul Gaultier, French fashion designer
* 1952 – Ralph Winter, American film producer
*1953 – Eric Bogosian, American actor and writer
*1954 – Mumia Abu-Jamal, American journalist, activist, and convicted murderer
* 1954 – Jack Blades, American singer-songwriter and bass player
*1955 – Marion Caspers-Merk, German politician
* 1955 – John de Mol Jr., Dutch businessman, co-founded Endemol
* 1955 – Eamon Gilmore, Irish trade union leader and politician, 25th Tánaiste of Ireland
* 1955 – Margaret Moran, British politician and criminal
* 1955 – Guy Nève, Belgian race car driver (d. 1992)
* 1955 – Michael O'Keefe, American actor
* 1955 – Bill Osborne, New Zealand rugby player
*1956 – James A. Winnefeld, Jr., American admiral
*1957 – Nazir Ahmed, Baron Ahmed, Pakistani-English businessman and politician
*1958 – Brian Paddick, English police officer and politician
*1959 – Paula Yates, British-Australian television host and author (d. 2000)
*1961 – Andrew Murrison, English physician and politician, Minister for International Security Strategy
*1962 – Clemens Binninger, German politician
* 1962 – Stuart Pearce, English footballer, coach, and manager
* 1962 – Steve Roach, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster
*1963 – Paula Frazer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1963 – Billy Gould, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
* 1963 – Mano Solo, French singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2010)
*1964 – Helga Arendt, German sprinter (d. 2013)
* 1964 – Cedric the Entertainer, American comedian, actor, and producer
* 1964 – Djimon Hounsou, Beninese-American actor and producer
* 1964 – Witold Smorawiński, Polish guitarist, composer, and educator
*1965 – Jeff Jackson, Canadian ice hockey player and manager
*1966 – Pierre Brassard, Canadian comedian and actor
* 1966 – Alessandro Costacurta, Italian footballer, coach, and manager
* 1966 – David Usher, English-Canadian singer-songwriter
*1967 – Dino Rađa, Croatian basketball player
* 1967 – Omar Vizquel, Venezuelan-American baseball player and coach
*1968 – Aidan Gillen, Irish actor
* 1968 – Todd Jones, American baseball player
* 1968 – Roxanna Panufnik, English composer
* 1968 – Hashim Thaçi, Kosovan soldier and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Kosovo
*1969 – Elias Atmatsidis, Greek footballer
* 1969 – Rory McCann, Scottish actor
* 1969 – Eilidh Whiteford, Scottish academic and politician
*1970 – Damien Fleming, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
*1971 – Kumar Dharmasena, Sri Lankan cricketer and umpire
* 1971 – Mauro Pawlowski, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1972 – Rab Douglas, Scottish footballer
* 1972 – Chipper Jones, American baseball player
* 1972 – Jure Košir, Slovenian skier and singer
*1973 – Gabby Logan, English gymnast, television and radio host
* 1973 – Damon Lindelof, American screenwriter and producer
* 1973 – Brian Marshall, American bass player and songwriter
* 1973 – Eric Snow, American basketball player and coach
* 1973 – Sachin Tendulkar, Indian cricketer
* 1973 – Toomas Tohver, Estonian footballer
* 1973 – Lee Westwood, English golfer
*1974 – Eric Kripke, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1974 – Stephen Wiltshire, English illustrator
*1975 – Marte Mjøs Persen, Norwegian politician
* 1975 – Dejan Savić, Yugoslavian and Serbian water polo player
*1976 – Hedda Berntsen, Norwegian skier
* 1976 – Steve Finnan, Irish international footballer
* 1976 – Frédéric Niemeyer, Canadian tennis player and coach
*1977 – Carlos Beltrán, Puerto Rican-American baseball player
* 1977 – Diego Placente, Argentine footballer
*1978 – Diego Quintana, Argentine footballer
*1980 – Fernando Arce, Mexican footballer
* 1980 – Karen Asrian, Armenian chess player (d. 2008)
*1981 – Taylor Dent, American tennis player
* 1981 – Yuko Nakanishi, Japanese swimmer
*1982 – Kelly Clarkson, American singer-songwriter, talk show host
* 1982 – David Oliver, American hurdler
* 1982 – Simon Tischer, German volleyball player
*1983 – Hanna Melnychenko, Ukrainian heptathlete
*1985 – Mike Rodgers, American sprinter
*1986 – Aaron Cunningham, American baseball player
*1987 – Ben Howard, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1987 – Kris Letang, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1987 – Rein Taaramäe, Estonian cyclist
* 1987 – Jan Vertonghen, Belgian international footballer
* 1987 – Varun Dhawan, Indian actor
*1989 – Elīna Babkina, Latvian basketball player
* 1989 – David Boudia, American diver
* 1989 – Taja Mohorčič, Slovenian tennis player
*1990 – Kim Tae-ri, South Korean actress
* 1990 – Jan Veselý, Czech basketball player
*1991 – Sigrid Agren, French-Swedish model
* 1991 – Morgan Ciprès, French figure skater
* 1991 – Batuhan Karadeniz, Turkish footballer
*1992 – Joe Keery, American actor
* 1992 – Laura Kenny, English cyclist
* 1992 – Jack Quaid, American actor
*1993 – Ben Davies, Welsh international footballer
*1994 – Jordan Fisher, American singer, dancer, and actor
* 1994 – Caspar Lee, British-South African YouTuber
*1996 – Ashleigh Barty, Australian tennis player
*1997 – Lydia Ko, New Zealand golfer
* 1997 – Veronika Kudermetova, Russian tennis player
*1998 – Ryan Newman, American actress
*1999 – Jerry Jeudy, American football player
*2002 – Olivia Gadecki, Australian tennis player
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 624 – Mellitus, saint and archbishop of Canterbury
*1149 – Petronille de Chemillé, abbess of Fontevrault
*1288 – Gertrude of Austria (b. 1226)
*1338 – Theodore I, Marquess of Montferrat (b. 1291)
*1479 – Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (b. 1440)
*1513 – Şehzade Ahmet, Ottoman prince (b. 1465)
1601–1900
*1617 – Concino Concini, Italian-French politician, Prime Minister of France (b. 1575)
*1622 – Fidelis of Sigmaringen, German friar and saint (b. 1577)
*1656 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (b. 1561)
*1692 – Johannes Zollikofer, Swiss vicar (b. 1633)
*1731 – Daniel Defoe, English journalist, novelist, and spy (b. 1660)
*1748 – Anton thor Helle, German-Estonian clergyman and translator (b. 1683)
*1779 – Eleazar Wheelock, American minister and academic, founded Dartmouth College (b. 1711)
*1794 – Axel von Fersen the Elder, Swedish field marshal and politician (b. 1719)
*1852 – Vasily Zhukovsky, Russian poet and translator (b. 1783)
*1889 – Zulma Carraud, French author (b. 1796)
*1891 – Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, German field marshal (b. 1800)
1901–present
*1924 – G. Stanley Hall, American psychologist and academic (b. 1844)
*1931 – David Kldiashvili, Georgian author and playwright (b. 1862)
*1935 – Anastasios Papoulas, Greek general (b. 1857)
*1938 – George Grey Barnard, American sculptor (b. 1863)
*1939 – Louis Trousselier, French cyclist (b. 1881)
*1941 – Karin Boye, Swedish author and poet (b. 1900)
*1942 – Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian author (b. 1874)
*1944 – Charles Jordan, American magician (b. 1888)
*1945 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz, German physician (b. 1899)
*1947 – Hans Biebow, German SS officer (b. 1902)
* 1947 – Willa Cather, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (b. 1873)
*1948 – Jāzeps Vītols, Latvian composer (b. 1863)
*1954 – Guy Mairesse, French racing driver (b. 1910)
*1960 – Max von Laue, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1879)
*1961 – Lee Moran, American actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1888)
*1962 – Milt Franklyn, American composer (b. 1897)
*1964 – Gerhard Domagk, German pathologist and bacteriologist (b. 1895)
*1965 – Louise Dresser, American actress (b. 1878)
*1966 – Simon Chikovani, Georgian poet and author (b. 1902)
*1967 – Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and cosmonaut (b. 1927)
* 1967 – Robert Richards, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of South Australia (b. 1885)
*1968 – Walter Tewksbury, American athlete (b. 1876)
*1970 – Otis Spann, American singer and pianist (b. 1930)
*1972 – Fernando Amorsolo, Filipino painter (b. 1892)
*1974 – Bud Abbott, American comedian and producer (b. 1895)
*1976 – Mark Tobey, American-Swiss painter and educator (b. 1890)
*1980 – Alejo Carpentier, Swiss-Cuban musicologist and author (b. 1904)
*1982 – Ville Ritola, Finnish runner (b. 1896)
*1983 – Erol Güngör, Turkish sociologist, psychologist, and academic (b. 1938)
* 1983 – Rolf Stommelen, German racing driver (b. 1943)
*1984 – Rafael Pérez y Pérez, Spanish author (b. 1891)
*1986 – Wallis Simpson, American socialite, Duchess of Windsor (b. 1896)
*1993 – Oliver Tambo, South African lawyer and activist (b. 1917)
* 1993 – Tran Duc Thao, Vietnamese philosopher and theorist (b. 1917)
*1995 – Lodewijk Bruckman, Dutch painter (b. 1903)
*1997 – Allan Francovich, American director and producer (b. 1941)
* 1997 – Pat Paulsen, American comedian and activist (b. 1927)
* 1997 – Eugene Stoner, American engineer, designed the AR-15 rifle (b. 1922)
*2001 – Josef Peters, German racing driver (b. 1914)
* 2001 – Johnny Valentine, American wrestler (b. 1928)
*2002 – Lucien Wercollier, Luxembourgish sculptor (b. 1908)
*2003 – Nüzhet Gökdoğan, Turkish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1910)
*2004 – José Giovanni, French-Swiss director and producer (b. 1923)
* 2004 – Estée Lauder, American businesswoman, co-founded Estée Lauder Companies (b. 1906)
*2005 – Ezer Weizman, Israeli general and politician, 7th President of Israel (b. 1924)
* 2005 – Fei Xiaotong, Chinese sociologist and academic (b. 1910)
*2006 – Brian Labone, English footballer (b. 1940)
* 2006 – Moshe Teitelbaum, Romanian-American rabbi and author (b. 1914)
*2008 – Jimmy Giuffre, American clarinet player, and saxophonist, and composer (b. 1921)
*2011 – Sathya Sai Baba, Indian guru and philanthropist (b. 1926)
*2014 – Hans Hollein, Austrian architect, designed Haas House (b. 1934)
* 2014 – Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer and manager (b. 1948)
* 2014 – Shobha Nagi Reddy, Indian politician (b. 1968)
* 2014 – Tadeusz Różewicz, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1921)
*2015 – Władysław Bartoszewski, Polish journalist and politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1922)
*2016 – Tommy Kono, American weightlifter and coach (b. 1930)
*2017 – Robert Pirsig, American author and philosopher (b. 1928)
*2022 – Andrew Woolfolk, American saxophonist (b. 1950)
*2024 – Bob Cole, Canadian sports announcer (b. 1933)
*2024 – Terry Hill, Australian rugby league player (b. 1972)
*2024 – Donald Payne Jr., American politician (b. 1958)
*2024 – Mike Pinder, British musician (b. 1941)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenia, France)
*Christian feast day:
**Benedict Menni
**Dermot of Armagh
**Dyfnan of Anglesey
**Ecgberht of Ripon
**Fidelis of Sigmaringen
**Gregory of Elvira
**Ivo of Ramsey
**Johann Walter (Lutheran)
**Mary of Clopas
**Mary Euphrasia Pelletier
**Mellitus
**Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur
**Salome (disciple)
**Wilfrid (Church of England)
**William Firmatus
**April 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Concord Day (Niger)
*Democracy Day (Nepal)
*Fashion Revolution Day, and its related observances:
**Labour Safety Day (Bangladesh, proposed)
*National Panchayati Raj Day (India)
*Republic Day (The Gambia)
*World Day for Laboratory Animals
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/24 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/24 Historical Events on April 24]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_24 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.088467 |
2735 | April 7 | Events
Pre-1600
* 451 – Attila the Hun captures Metz in France, killing most of its inhabitants and burning the town.
* 529 – First Corpus Juris Civilis, a fundamental work in jurisprudence, is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I.
*1141 – Empress Matilda becomes the first female ruler of England, adopting the title "Lady of the English".
*1348 – Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV charters Prague University.
*1449 – Felix V abdicates his claim to the papacy, ending the reign of the final Antipope.
*1521 – Ferdinand Magellan arrives at Cebu.
*1541 – Francis Xavier leaves Lisbon on a mission to the Portuguese East Indies.
1601–1900
*1724 – Premiere performance of Bach's St John Passion, BWV 245, at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig.
*1767 – End of Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767).
*1788 – Settlers establish Marietta, Ohio, the first permanent settlement created by U.S. citizens in the recently organized Northwest Territory.
*1790 – Greek War of Independence: Greek revolutionary Lambros Katsonis loses three of his ships in the Battle of Andros.
*1795 – The French First Republic adopts the kilogram and gram as its primary unit of mass.
*1798 – The Mississippi Territory is organized from disputed territory claimed by both the United States and the Spanish Empire. It is expanded in 1804 and again in 1812.
*1805 – Lewis and Clark Expedition: The Corps of Discovery breaks camp among the Mandan tribe and resumes its journey West along the Missouri River.
*1805 – German composer Ludwig van Beethoven premieres his Third Symphony, at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna.
*1824 – The Mechanics' Institution is established in Manchester, England at the Bridgewater Arms hotel, as part of a national movement for the education of working men. The institute is the precursor to three Universities in the city: the University of Manchester, UMIST and the Metropolitan University of Manchester (MMU).
*1831 – Pedro II becomes Emperor of Empire of Brazil.
*1862 – American Civil War: The Union's Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Ohio defeat the Confederate Army of Mississippi near Shiloh, Tennessee.
*1868 – Thomas D'Arcy McGee, one of the Canadian Fathers of Confederation, is assassinated by a Fenian activist.
1901–present
*1906 – Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.
* 1906 – The Algeciras Conference gives France and Spain control over Morocco.
*1922 – Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leases federal petroleum reserves to private oil companies on excessively generous terms.
*1926 – Violet Gibson attempts to assassinate Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.
*1927 – AT&T engineer Herbert Ives transmits the first long-distance public television broadcast (from Washington, D.C., to New York City, displaying the image of Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover).
*1933 – Prohibition in the United States is repealed for beer of no more than 3.2% alcohol by weight, eight months before the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution. (Now celebrated as National Beer Day in the United States.)
* 1933 – Nazi Germany issues the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service banning Jews and political dissidents from civil service posts.
*1939 – Benito Mussolini declares an Italian protectorate over Albania and forces King Zog I into exile.
*1940 – Booker T. Washington becomes the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.
*1943 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: In Terebovlia, Germans order 1,100 Jews to undress and march through the city to the nearby village of Plebanivka, where they are shot and buried in ditches.
* 1943 – Ioannis Rallis becomes collaborationist Prime Minister of Greece during the Axis Occupation.
* 1943 – The National Football League makes helmets mandatory.
* 1944 – In the Fragheto massacre, soldiers belonging to the German 356th Infantry Division kill 30 Italian civilians and 15 partisans near Casteldelci in central-northern Italy.
*1945 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy battleship Yamato, one of the two largest ever constructed, is sunk by United States Navy aircraft during Operation Ten-Go.
*1946 – The Soviet Union annexes East Prussia as the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.
*1948 – The World Health Organization is established by the United Nations.
*1954 – United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower gives his "domino theory" speech during a news conference.
*1955 – Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom amid indications of failing health.
*1956 – Francoist Spain agrees to surrender its protectorate in Morocco.
*1964 – IBM announces the System/360.
*1965 – Representatives of the National Congress of American Indians testify before members of the US Senate in Washington, D.C., against the termination of the Colville tribe.
*1968 – Two-time Formula One British World Champion Jim Clark dies in an accident during a Formula Two race in Hockenheim.
*1969 – The Internet's symbolic birth date: Publication of RFC 1.
*1971 – Vietnam War: President Richard Nixon announces his decision to quicken the pace of Vietnamization.
*1972 – Vietnam War: Communist forces overrun the South Vietnamese town of Loc Ninh.
*1976 – Member of Parliament and suspected spy John Stonehouse resigns from the Labour Party after being arrested for faking his own death.
*1977 – German Federal prosecutor Siegfried Buback and his driver are shot by two Red Army Faction members while waiting at a red light.
*1978 – Development of the neutron bomb is canceled by President Jimmy Carter.
*1980 – During the Iran hostage crisis, the United States severs relations with Iran.
*1982 – Iranian Foreign Affairs Minister Sadegh Ghotbzadeh is arrested.
*1983 – During STS-6, astronauts Story Musgrave and Don Peterson perform the first Space Shuttle spacewalk.
*1988 – Soviet Defense Minister Dmitry Yazov orders the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan.
*1989 – Soviet submarine Komsomolets sinks in the Barents Sea off the coast of Norway, killing 42 sailors.
*1990 – A fire breaks out on the passenger ferry Scandinavian Star, killing 159 people.
* 1990 – John Poindexter is convicted for his role in the Iran–Contra affair. In 1991 the convictions are reversed on appeal.
*1994 – Rwandan genocide: Massacres of Tutsis begin in Kigali, Rwanda, and soldiers kill the civilian Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana.
*2001 – NASA launches the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter.
*2003 – Iraq War: U.S. troops capture Baghdad; Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime falls two days later.
*2003 – Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Arisitde demands reparations of $21 billion from France for the Haiti Independence Debt.
*2009 – Former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori is sentenced to 25 years in prison for ordering killings and kidnappings by security forces.
* 2009 – Mass protests begin across Moldova under the belief that results from the parliamentary election are fraudulent.
*2011 – The Israel Defense Forces use their Iron Dome missile system to successfully intercept a BM-21 Grad launched from Gaza, marking the first short-range missile intercept ever.
*2017 – A man deliberately drives a hijacked truck into a crowd of people in Stockholm, Sweden, killing five people and injuring fifteen others.
* 2017 – U.S. President Donald Trump orders the 2017 Shayrat missile strike against Syria in retaliation for the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack.
*2018 – Former Brazilian president, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, is arrested for corruption by determination of Judge Sérgio Moro, from the "Car-Wash Operation". Lula stayed imprisoned for 580 days, after being released by the Brazilian Supreme Court.
* 2018 – Syria launches the Douma chemical attack during the Eastern Ghouta offensive of the Syrian Civil War.
*2020 – COVID-19 pandemic: China ends its lockdown in Wuhan.
* 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic: Acting Secretary of the Navy Thomas Modly resigns for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt and the dismissal of Brett Crozier.
*2021 – COVID-19 pandemic: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announces that the SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant has become the dominant strain of COVID-19 in the United States.
*2022 – Ketanji Brown Jackson is confirmed for the Supreme Court of the United States, becoming the first black female justice.BirthsPre-1600
*1206 – Otto II Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1253)
*1330 – John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English nobleman (d. 1352)
*1470 – Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1498)
*1506 – Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint, co-founded the Society of Jesus (d. 1552)
*1539 – Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter and illustrator (d. 1584)
1601–1900
*1613 – Gerrit Dou, Dutch painter (d. 1675)
*1644 – François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, French general (d. 1730)
*1648 – John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English poet and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1721)
*1652 – Pope Clement XII (d. 1740)
*1713 – Nicola Sala, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1801)
*1718 – Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (d. 1800)
*1727 – Michel Adanson, French botanist, entomologist, and mycologist (d. 1806)
*1763 – Domenico Dragonetti, Italian bassist and composer (d. 1846)
*1770 – William Wordsworth, English poet (d. 1850)
*1772 – Charles Fourier, French philosopher (d. 1837)
*1780 – William Ellery Channing, American preacher and theologian (d. 1842)
*1803 – James Curtiss, American journalist and politician, 11th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1859)
* 1803 – Flora Tristan, French author and activist (d. 1844)
*1811 – Hasan Tahsini, Albanian astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1881)
*1817 – Francesco Selmi, Italian chemist and patriot (d. 1881)
*1848 – Randall Davidson, Scottish archbishop (d. 1930)
*1859 – Walter Camp, American football player and coach (d. 1925)
*1860 – Will Keith Kellogg, American businessman, founded the Kellogg Company (d. 1951)
*1867 – Holger Pedersen, Danish linguist and academic (d. 1953)
*1870 – Gustav Landauer, German theorist and activist (d. 1919)
*1871 – Epifanio de los Santos, Filipino jurist, historian, and scholar (d. 1927)
*1873 – John McGraw, American baseball player and manager (d. 1934)
*1874 – Frederick Carl Frieseke, German-American painter (d. 1939)
*1876 – Fay Moulton, American sprinter, football player, coach, and lawyer (d. 1945)
*1882 – Bert Ironmonger, Australian cricketer (d. 1971)
* 1882 – Kurt von Schleicher, German general and politician, 23rd Chancellor of Germany (d. 1934)
*1883 – Gino Severini, Italian-French painter and author (d. 1966)
*1884 – Clement Smoot, American golfer (d. 1963)
*1886 – Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and soldier (d. 1971)
*1889 – Gabriela Mistral, Chilean poet and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)
*1890 – Paul Berth, Danish footballer (d. 1969)
* 1890 – Victoria Ocampo, Argentine writer (d. 1979)
* 1890 – Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American journalist and activist (d. 1998)
*1891 – Ole Kirk Christiansen, Danish businessman, founded the Lego Group (d. 1958)
*1892 – Julius Hirsch, German footballer (d. 1945)
* 1893 – José Sobral de Almada Negreiros, Portuguese artist (d. 1970)
*1893 – Allen Dulles, American lawyer and diplomat, 5th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1969)
*1895 – John Bernard Flannagan, American soldier and sculptor (d. 1942)
* 1895 – Margarete Schön, German actress (d. 1985)
*1896 – Frits Peutz, Dutch architect, designed the Glaspaleis (d. 1974)
*1897 – Erich Löwenhardt, Polish-German lieutenant and pilot (d. 1918)
* 1897 – Walter Winchell, American journalist and radio host (d. 1972)
*1899 – Robert Casadesus, French pianist and composer (d. 1972)
*1900 – Adolf Dymsza, Polish actor (d. 1975)
* 1900 – Tebbs Lloyd Johnson, English race walker (d. 1984)
1901–present
*1902 – Eduard Eelma, Estonian footballer (d. 1941)
*1903 – M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1965)
* 1903 – Edwin T. Layton, American admiral (d. 1984)
*1904 – Roland Wilson, Australian economist and statistician (d. 1996)
*1908 – Percy Faith, Canadian composer, conductor, and bandleader (d. 1976)
* 1908 – Pete Zaremba, American hammer thrower (d. 1994)
*1909 – Robert Charroux, French author and critic (d. 1978)
*1910 – Melissanthi, Greek poet, teacher and journalist (d. 1990)
*1913 – Louise Currie, American actress (d. 2013)
* 1913 – Charles Vanik, American soldier, judge, and politician (d. 2007)
*1914 – Ralph Flanagan, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1995)
* 1914 – Domnitsa Lanitou-Kavounidou, Greek sprinter (d. 2011)
*1915 – Stanley Adams, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1977)
* 1915 – Billie Holiday, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 1959)
* 1915 – Henry Kuttner, American author (d. 1958)
*1916 – Anthony Caruso, American actor (d. 2003)
*1917 – R. G. Armstrong, American actor and playwright (d. 2012)
*1918 – Bobby Doerr, American baseball player and coach (d. 2017)
*1919 – Roger Lemelin, Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 1992)
* 1919 – Edoardo Mangiarotti, Italian fencer (d. 2012)
*1920 – Ravi Shankar, Indian-American sitar player and composer (d. 2012)
*1921 – Feza Gürsey, Turkish mathematician and physicist (d. 1992)
*1922 – Mongo Santamaría, Cuban-American drummer (d. 2003)
*1924 – Johannes Mario Simmel, Austrian-English author and screenwriter (d. 2009)
*1925 – Chaturanan Mishra, Indian trade union leader and politician (d. 2011)
* 1925 – Jan van Roessel, Dutch footballer (d. 2011)
*1927 – Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian-American drummer, educator, and activist (d. 2003)
* 1927 – Leonid Shcherbakov, Russian triple jumper (d. 2004)
*1928 – James Garner, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2014)
* 1928 – Alan J. Pakula, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1998)
* 1928 – James White, Northern Irish author and educator (d. 1999)
*1929 – Bob Denard, French soldier (d. 2007)
* 1929 – Joe Gallo, American gangster (d. 1972)
*1930 – Jane Priestman, English interior designer (d. 2021)
* 1930 – Yves Rocher, French businessman, founded the Yves Rocher Company (d. 2009)
* 1930 – Andrew Sachs, German-English actor and screenwriter (d. 2016)
* 1930 – Roger Vergé, French chef and restaurateur (d. 2015)
*1931 – Donald Barthelme, American short story writer and novelist (d. 1989)
* 1931 – Daniel Ellsberg, American activist and author (d. 2023)
*1932 – Cal Smith, American singer and guitarist (d. 2013)
*1933 – Wayne Rogers, American actor, investor, and producer (d. 2015)
* 1933 – Sakıp Sabancı, Turkish businessman and philanthropist (d. 2004)
*1934 – Ian Richardson, Scottish-English actor (d. 2007)
*1935 – Bobby Bare, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1935 – Hodding Carter III, American journalist and politician, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs (d. 2023)
*1937 – Charlie Thomas, American singer (d. 2023)
*1938 – Jerry Brown, American lawyer and politician, 34th and 39th Governor of California
* 1938 – Spencer Dryden, American drummer (d. 2005)
* 1938 – Freddie Hubbard, American trumpet player and composer (d. 2008)
* 1938 – Iris Johansen, American author
*1939 – Francis Ford Coppola, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1939 – David Frost, English journalist and game show host (d. 2013)
* 1939 – Gary Kellgren, American record producer, co-founded Record Plant (d. 1977)
* 1939 – Brett Whiteley, Australian painter (d. 1992)
*1940 – Marju Lauristin, Estonian academic and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Social Affairs
*1941 – James Di Pasquale, American composer
* 1941 – Peter Fluck, English puppet maker and illustrator
* 1941 – Cornelia Frances, English-Australian actress (d. 2018)
* 1941 – Gorden Kaye, English actor (d. 2017)
*1942 – Jeetendra, Indian actor, TV and film producer
*1943 – Mick Abrahams, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1943 – Dennis Amiss, English cricketer and manager
*1944 – Shel Bachrach, American insurance broker, investor, businessman and philanthropist (d. 2024)
* 1944 – Warner Fusselle, American sportscaster (d. 2012)
* 1944 – Oshik Levi, Israeli singer and actor
* 1944 – Julia Phillips, American film producer and author (d. 2002)
* 1944 – Gerhard Schröder, German lawyer and politician, 7th Chancellor of Germany
* 1944 – Bill Stoneman, American baseball player and manager
*1945 – Megas, Icelandic singer-songwriter
* 1945 – Gerry Cottle, English circus owner (d. 2021)
* 1945 – Marilyn Friedman, American philosopher and academic
* 1945 – Martyn Lewis, Welsh journalist and author
* 1945 – Joël Robuchon, French chef and author (d. 2018)
* 1945 – Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (d. 2010)
* 1945 – Hans van Hemert, Dutch songwriter and producer (d. 2024)
*1946 – Zaid Abdul-Aziz, American basketball player
* 1946 – Colette Besson, French runner and educator (d. 2005)
* 1946 – Herménégilde Chiasson, Canadian poet, playwright, and politician, 29th Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
* 1946 – Robert Metcalfe, American engineer and entrepreneur
* 1946 – Dimitrij Rupel, Slovenian politician and diplomate
* 1946 – Stan Winston, American special effects designer and makeup artist (d. 2008)
*1947 – Patricia Bennett, American singer
* 1947 – Florian Schneider, German singer and drummer (d. 2020)
* 1947 – Michèle Torr, French singer and author
*1948 – John Oates, American singer-songwriter guitarist, and producer
* 1948 – Arnie Robinson, American athlete (d. 2020)
* 1948 – Ecaterina Andronescu, Romanian politician
*1949 – Mitch Daniels, American academic and politician, 49th Governor of Indiana
*1950 – Brian J. Doyle, American press secretary
* 1950 – Neil Folberg, American-Israeli photographer
*1951 – Bruce Gary, American drummer (d. 2006)
* 1951 – Janis Ian, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1952 – David Baulcombe, English geneticist and academic
* 1952 – Jane Frederick, American hurdler and heptathlete
* 1952 – Gilles Valiquette, Canadian actor, singer, and producer
* 1952 – Dennis Hayden, American actor
*1953 – Santa Barraza, American mixed media artist
* 1953 – Douglas Kell, English biochemist and academic
*1954 – Jackie Chan, Hong Kong martial artist, actor, stuntman, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1954 – Tony Dorsett, American football player
*1955 – Tim Cochran, American mathematician and academic (d. 2014)
* 1955 – Gregg Jarrett, American lawyer and journalist
*1956 – Annika Billström, Swedish businesswoman and politician, 16th Mayor of Stockholm
* 1956 – Christopher Darden, American lawyer and author
* 1956 – Georg Werthner, Austrian decathlete
*1957 – Kim Kap-soo, South Korean actor
* 1957 – Thelma Walker, British politician
*1958 – Brian Haner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1958 – Hindrek Kesler, Estonian architect
*1960 – Buster Douglas, American boxer and actor
* 1960 – Sandy Powell, English costume designer
*1961 – Thurl Bailey, American basketball player and actor
* 1961 – Pascal Olmeta, French footballer
* 1961 – Brigitte van der Burg, Tanzanian-Dutch geographer and politician
*1962 – Jon Cruddas, English lawyer and politician
* 1962 – Andrew Hampsten, American cyclist
*1963 – Jaime de Marichalar, Spanish businessman
* 1963 – Nick Herbert, English businessman and politician, Minister for Policing
* 1963 – Dave Johnson, American decathlete and educator
*1964 – Jace Alexander, American actor and director
* 1964 – Russell Crowe, New Zealand-Australian actor
* 1964 – Steve Graves, Canadian ice hockey player
*1965 – Bill Bellamy, American comedian, actor, and producer
* 1965 – Rozalie Hirs, Dutch composer and poet
* 1965 – Alison Lapper, English painter and photographer
* 1965 – Nenad Vučinić, Serbian-New Zealand basketball player and coach
*1966 – Richard Gomez, Filipino actor and politician
* 1966 – Zvika Hadar, Israeli entertainer
* 1966 – Béla Mavrák, Hungarian tenor singer
* 1966 – Gary Wilkinson, English snooker player
*1967 – Artemis Gounaki, Greek-German singer-songwriter
* 1967 – Bodo Illgner, German footballer
* 1967 – Simone Schilder, Dutch tennis player
*1968 – Duncan Armstrong, Australian swimmer and sportscaster
* 1968 – Jennifer Lynch, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1968 – Jože Možina, Slovenian historian, sociologist and journalist
* 1968 – Vasiliy Sokov, Russian triple jumper
*1969 – Ricky Watters, American football player
*1970 – Leif Ove Andsnes, Norwegian pianist and educator
* 1970 – Alexander Karpovtsev, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2011)
*1971 – Guillaume Depardieu, French actor (d. 2008)
* 1971 – Victor Kraatz, German-Canadian figure skater
*1972 – Tim Peake, British astronaut
*1973 – Marco Delvecchio, Italian footballer
* 1973 – Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Defence
* 1973 – Carole Montillet, French skier
* 1973 – Christian O'Connell, British radio DJ and presenter
* 1973 – Brett Tomko, American baseball player
*1975 – Karin Dreijer Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer
* 1975 – Ronde Barber, American football player and sportscaster
* 1975 – Tiki Barber, American football player and journalist
* 1975 – Ronnie Belliard, American baseball player
* 1975 – John Cooper, American singer-songwriter and bass player
* 1975 – Simon Woolford, Australian rugby league player
*1976 – Kevin Alejandro, American actor and producer
* 1976 – Martin Buß, German high jumper
* 1976 – Jessica Lee, English lawyer and politician
* 1976 – Aaron Lohr, American actor
* 1976 – Barbara Jane Reams, American actress
* 1976 – Gang Qiang, Chinese anchor
*1977 – Tama Canning, Australian-New Zealand cricketer
* 1977 – Karin Haydu, Slovak actress
*1978 – Jo Appleby, English soprano
* 1978 – Duncan James, English singer-songwriter and actor
* 1978 – Lilia Osterloh, American tennis player
*1979 – Adrián Beltré, Dominican-American baseball player
* 1979 – Patrick Crayton, American football player
* 1979 – Pascal Dupuis, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1979 – Danny Sandoval, Venezuelan-American baseball player
*1980 – Dragan Bogavac, Montenegrin footballer
* 1980 – Bruno Covas, Brazilian lawyer, politician (d. 2021)
* 1980 – Tetsuji Tamayama, Japanese actor
*1981 – Hitoe Arakaki, Japanese singer
*1981 – Kazuki Watanabe, Japanese songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000)
* 1981 – Vanessa Olivarez, American singer-songwriter, and actress
* 1981 – Suzann Pettersen, Norwegian golfer
*1982 – Silvana Arias, Peruvian actress
* 1982 – Sonjay Dutt, American wrestler
* 1982 – Kelli Young, English singer
*1983 – Hamish Davidson, Australian musician
* 1983 – Franck Ribéry, French footballer
* 1983 – Jon Stead, English footballer
* 1983 – Jakub Smrž, Czech motorcycle rider
* 1983 – Janar Talts, Estonian basketball player
*1984 – Hiroko Shimabukuro, Japanese singer
*1985 – KC Concepcion, Filipino actress and singer
* 1985 – Humza Yousaf, Scottish politician
*1986 – Brooke Brodack, American comedian
* 1986 – Jack Duarte, Mexican actor, singer, and guitarist
* 1986 – Andi Fraggs, English singer-songwriter and producer
* 1986 – Christian Fuchs, Austrian footballer
* 1986 – Choi Si-won, South Korean singer and actor
*1987 – Martín Cáceres, Uruguayan footballer
* 1987 – Eelco Sintnicolaas, Dutch decathlete
* 1987 – Jamar Smith, American football player
*1988 – Antonio Piccolo, Italian footballer
* 1988 – Ed Speleers, English actor and producer
*1989 – Franco Di Santo, Argentinian footballer
* 1989 – Mitchell Pearce, Australian rugby league player
* 1989 – Teddy Riner, French judoka
*1990 – Nickel Ashmeade, Jamaican sprinter
* 1990 – Anna Bogomazova, Russian-American kick-boxer, martial artist, and wrestler
* 1990 – Sorana Cîrstea, Romanian tennis player
* 1990 – Trent Cotchin, Australian footballer
*1991 – Luka Milivojević, Serbian footballer
* 1991 – Anne-Marie, English singer-songwriter
*1992 – Andreea Acatrinei, Romanian gymnast
* 1992 – Guilherme Negueba, Brazilian footballer
*1993 – Ichinojō Takashi, Mongolian sumo wrestler
*1994 – Johanna Allik, Estonian figure skater
* 1994 – Aaron Gray, Australian rugby league player
* 1994 – Josh Hader, American baseball player
*1996 – Emerson Hyndman, American international soccer player
*1997 – Rafaela Gómez, Ecuadorian tennis player
Deaths
Pre-1600
*AD 30 – Jesus Christ (possible date of the crucifixion) (b. circa 4 BC)
* 821 – George the Standard-Bearer, archbishop of Mytilene (b. c. 776)
* 924 – Berengar I of Italy (b. 845)
*1201 – Baha al-Din Qaraqush, regent of Egypt and builder of the Cairo Citadel
*1206 – Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine
*1340 – Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia (b. 1308)
*1498 – Charles VIII of France (b. 1470)
*1499 – Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (b. 1442)
*1501 – Minkhaung II, king of Ava (b. 1446)
1601–1900
*1606 – Edward Oldcorne, English martyr (b. 1561)
*1614 – El Greco, Greek-Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1541)
*1638 – Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese daimyō (b. 1576)
*1651 – Lennart Torstensson, Swedish field marshal and engineer (b. 1603)
*1658 – Juan Eusebio Nieremberg, Spanish mystic and philosopher (b. 1595)
*1661 – Sir William Brereton, 1st Baronet, English commander and politician (b. 1604)
*1663 – Francis Cooke, English-American settler (b. 1583)
*1668 – William Davenant, English poet and playwright (b. 1606)
*1719 – Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint, founded the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (b. 1651)
*1739 – Dick Turpin, English criminal (b. 1705)
*1747 – Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1676)
*1761 – Thomas Bayes, English minister and mathematician (b. 1701)
*1766 – Tiberius Hemsterhuis, Dutch philologist and critic (b. 1685)
*1767 – Franz Sparry, Austrian composer and director (b. 1715)
*1779 – Martha Ray, English singer (b. 1746)
*1782 – Taksin, Thai king (b. 1734)
*1789 – Abdul Hamid I, Ottoman sultan (b. 1725)
*1789 – Petrus Camper, Dutch physician, anatomist, and physiologist (b. 1722)
*1801 – Noël François de Wailly, French lexicographer and author (b. 1724)
*1804 – Toussaint Louverture, Haitian general (b. 1743)
*1811 – Garsevan Chavchavadze, Georgian diplomat and politician (b. 1757)
*1823 – Jacques Charles, French physicist and mathematician (b. 1746)
*1833 – Antoni Radziwiłł, Lithuanian composer and politician (b. 1775)
*1836 – William Godwin, English journalist and author (b. 1756)
*1849 – Pedro Ignacio de Castro Barros, Argentinian priest and politician (b. 1777)
*1850 – William Lisle Bowles, English poet and critic (b. 1762)
*1858 – Anton Diabelli, Austrian composer and publisher (b. 1781)
*1868 – Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian journalist, activist, and politician (b. 1825)
*1879 – Begum Hazrat Mahal, Begum of Awadh, was the second wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (b. 1820)
*1884 – Maria Doolaeghe, Flemish novelist (b. 1803)
*1885 – Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold, German physiologist and zoologist (b. 1804)
*1889 – Youssef Bey Karam, Lebanese soldier and politician (b. 1823)
* 1889 – Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Mexican politician and president, 1872-1876 (b. 1823)
*1891 – P. T. Barnum, American businessman and politician, co-founded The Barnum & Bailey Circus (b. 1810)
1901–present
*1917 – Spyridon Samaras, Greek composer and playwright (b. 1861)
*1918 – David Kolehmainen, Finnish wrestler (b. 1885)
* 1918 – George E. Ohr, American potter (b. 1857)
*1920 – Karl Binding, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1841)
*1922 – James McGowen, Australian politician, 18th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1855)
*1928 – Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician, philosopher, and author (b. 1873)
*1932 – Grigore Constantinescu, Romanian priest and journalist (b. 1875)
*1938 – Suzanne Valadon, French painter (b. 1865)
*1939 – Joseph Lyons, Australian educator and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1879)
*1943 – Jovan Dučić, Serbian-American poet and diplomat (b. 1871)
* 1943 – Alexandre Millerand, French lawyer and politician, 12th President of France (b. 1859)
*1947 – Henry Ford, American engineer and businessman, founded the Ford Motor Company (b. 1863)
*1949 – John Gourlay, Canadian soccer player (b. 1872)
*1950 – Walter Huston, Canadian-American actor and singer (b. 1883)
*1955 – Theda Bara, American actress (b. 1885)
*1956 – Fred Appleby, English runner (b. 1879)
*1960 – Henri Guisan, Swiss general (b. 1874)
*1965 – Roger Leger, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1919)
*1966 – Walt Hansgen, American race car driver (b. 1919)
*1968 – Edwin Baker, Canadian co-founder of the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (CNIB) (b. 1893)
* 1968 – Jim Clark, Scottish race car driver (b. 1936)
*1972 – Joe Gallo, American gangster (b. 1929)
* 1972 – Abeid Karume, Tanzanian politician, 1st President of Zanzibar (b. 1905)
*1981 – Kit Lambert, English record producer and manager (b. 1935)
* 1981 – Norman Taurog, American director and screenwriter (b. 1899)
*1982 – Harald Ertl, Austrian race car driver and journalist (b. 1948)
*1984 – Frank Church, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1924)
*1985 – Carl Schmitt, German philosopher and jurist (b. 1888)
*1986 – Leonid Kantorovich, Russian mathematician and economist (b. 1912)
*1990 – Ronald Evans, American captain, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1933)
*1991 – Memduh Ünlütürk, Turkish general (b. 1913)
*1992 – Ace Bailey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1903)
* 1992 – Antonis Tritsis, Greek high jumper and politician, 71st Mayor of Athens (b. 1937)
*1994 – Lee Brilleaux, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952)
* 1994 – Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic footballer, manager, and politician (b. 1923)
* 1994 – Golo Mann, German historian and author (b. 1909)
* 1994 – Agathe Uwilingiyimana, Rwandan chemist, academic, and politician, Prime Minister of Rwanda (b. 1953)
*1995 – Philip Jebb, English architect and politician (b. 1927)
*1997 – Luis Aloma, Cuban-American baseball player (b. 1923)
* 1997 – Georgy Shonin, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1935)
*1998 – Alex Schomburg, Puerto Rican painter and illustrator (b. 1905)
*1999 – Heinz Lehmann, German-Canadian psychiatrist and academic (b. 1911)
*2001 – David Graf, American actor (b. 1950)
* 2001 – Beatrice Straight, American actress (b. 1914)
*2002 – John Agar, American actor (b. 1921)
*2003 – Cecile de Brunhoff, French pianist and author (b. 1903)
* 2003 – David Greene, English-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
*2004 – Victor Argo, American actor (b. 1934)
* 2004 – Konstantinos Kallias, Greek politician (b. 1901)
*2005 – Cliff Allison, English race car driver (b. 1932)
* 2005 – Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (b. 1922)
* 2005 – Bob Kennedy, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1920)
* 2005 – Melih Kibar, Turkish composer and educator (b. 1951)
*2007 – Johnny Hart, American author and illustrator (b. 1931)
* 2007 – Barry Nelson, American actor (b. 1917)
*2008 – Ludu Daw Amar, Burmese journalist and author (b. 1915)
*2009 – Dave Arneson, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (b. 1947)
*2011 – Pierre Gauvreau, Canadian painter (b. 1922)
*2012 – Steven Kanumba, Tanzanian actor and director (b. 1984)
* 2012 – Satsue Mito, Japanese zoologist and academic (b. 1914)
* 2012 – Ignatius Moses I Daoud, Syrian cardinal (b. 1930)
* 2012 – David E. Pergrin, American colonel and engineer (b. 1917)
* 2012 – Bashir Ahmed Qureshi, Pakistani politician (b. 1959)
* 2012 – Mike Wallace, American television news journalist (b. 1918)
*2013 – Marty Blake, American businessman (b. 1927)
* 2013 – Les Blank, American director and producer (b. 1935)
* 2013 – Andy Johns, English-American record producer (b. 1950)
* 2013 – Lilly Pulitzer, American fashion designer (b. 1931)
* 2013 – Irma Ravinale, Italian composer and educator (b. 1937)
* 2013 – Mickey Rose, American screenwriter (b. 1935)
* 2013 – Carl Williams, American boxer (b. 1959)
*2014 – George Dureau, American painter and photographer (b. 1930)
* 2014 – James Alexander Green, American-English mathematician and academic (b. 1926)
* 2014 – V. K. Murthy, Indian cinematographer (b. 1923)
* 2014 – Zeituni Onyango, Kenyan-American computer programmer (b. 1952)
* 2014 – John Shirley-Quirk, English opera singer (b. 1931)
* 2014 – George Shuffler, American guitarist (b. 1925)
* 2014 – Josep Maria Subirachs, Spanish sculptor and painter (b. 1927)
* 2014 – Royce Waltman, American basketball player and coach (b. 1942)
*2015 – Tim Babcock, American soldier and politician, 16th Governor of Montana (b. 1919)
* 2015 – José Capellán, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1981)
* 2015 – Stan Freberg, American puppeteer, voice actor, and singer (b. 1926)
* 2015 – Richard Henyekane, South African footballer (b. 1983)
* 2015 – Geoffrey Lewis, American actor (b. 1935)
*2016 – Blackjack Mulligan, American professional wrestler (b. 1942)
*2017 – Nicolae Șerban Tanașoca, Romanian historian and philologist (b. 1941)
*2019 – Seymour Cassel, American actor (b. 1935)
*2020 – John Prine, American country folk singer-songwriter (b. 1946)
* 2020 – Herb Stempel, American television personality (b. 1926)
*2021 – Tommy Raudonikis, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1950)
*2023 – Ben Ferencz, American lawyer (b. 1920)
*2024 – Jerry Grote, American baseball player (b. 1942)
*2024 – Joe Kinnear, Irish football player and manager (b. 1946)Holidays and observances
* Christian feast days:
**Aibert of Crespin
**Blessed Alexander Rawlins
**Blessed Edward Oldcorne and Blessed Ralph Ashley
**Blessed Notker the Stammerer
**Brynach
**Hegesippus
**Henry Walpole
**Hermann Joseph
**Jean-Baptiste de La Salle
**Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow (Eastern Orthodox Church, Episcopal Church (USA))
**April 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Flag Day (Slovenia)
*Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance:
**International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations)
*Motherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia)
*National Beer Day (United States)
*Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania)
*Women's Day (Mozambique)
*Veterans' Day (Belgium)
*World Health Day (International observance)<ref nameun />ReferencesExternal links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/7 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/7 Historical Events on April 7]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_7 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.151983 |
2736 | Andalusia | | settlement_type = Autonomous community
| image_flag = Flag of Andalucía.svg
| flag_type = Flag
| image_shield = Escudo de Andalucía (oficial2).svg
| shield_type = Coat of arms
| label_map | image_map
| map_alt | motto
| population_rank = 1st in Spain <br /> 17.84% of Spain
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym Andalusian<br />,
| GDP_footnotes
| GDP_rank = 3rd
| GDP_year = 2023
| GDP_total = €199.951 billion
| GDP_per_capita = €23,218
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 17th
| HDI_year = 2022
| HDI 0.881<br />
| HDI_rank = · 13th
| postal_code_type = ISO 3166 code
| iso_code = ES-AN
| timezone1 = CET (UTC+1)
| utc_offset1 | timezone1_DST CEST (UTC+2)
| postal_code_prefix =
| telephone_code = +34 95
| module }}
| website = www.juntadeandalucia.es/
}}
Andalusia ( , ; , ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain, located in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognized as a historical nationality and a national reality. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga, and Seville. Its capital city is Seville, while the seat of its High Court of Justice is the city of Granada.
Andalusia is immediately south of the autonomous communities of Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha; west of the autonomous community of Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea; east of Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean; and north of the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. Gibraltar shares a land border with the Andalusian portion of the province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar.
The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, separated by the Intrabaetic Basin. In the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central. To the south, the geographic subregion of lies mostly within the Baetic System, while is in the Baetic Depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir.
The name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word (), which in turn may be derived from the Vandals, the Goths or pre-Roman Iberian tribes. The toponym is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia. These coins, called dinars, were inscribed in both Latin and Arabic. The region's history and culture have been influenced by the Tartessians, Iberians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Byzantines, Berbers, Arabs, Jews, Romanis and Castilians. During the Islamic Golden Age, Córdoba surpassed Constantinople to be Europe's biggest city, and became the capital of Al-Andalus and a prominent center of education and learning in the world, producing numerous philosophers and scientists. The Crown of Castile conquered and settled the Guadalquivir Valley in the 13th century. The mountainous eastern part of the region (the Emirate of Granada) was subdued in the late 15th century. Atlantic-facing harbors prospered upon trade with the New World. Chronic inequalities in the social structure caused by uneven distribution of land property in large estates induced recurring episodes of upheaval and social unrest in the agrarian sector in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Andalusia has historically been an agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. Still, the growth of the community in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain and higher than many communities in the Eurozone. The region has a rich culture and a strong identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin. These include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles, both of which are also prevalent in some other regions of Spain.
Andalusia's hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with Córdoba and Seville averaging above in summer high temperatures. These high temperatures, typical of the Guadalquivir valley are usually reached between 4 p.m. and 9 p.m. (local time), tempered by sea and mountain breezes afterwards. However, during heat waves late evening temperatures can locally stay around until close to midnight, and daytime highs of over are common.Etymology
dated 1770. The Kingdoms of Jaén, Córdoba and Seville are collectively referred to under the name Andalucía, while the Kingdom of Granada appears under its individual name.]]
Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, "Al-Andalus". The etymology of the name "Al-Andalus" is disputed, Traditionally it has been assumed to be derived from the name of the Vandals. Since the 1980s, a number of proposals have challenged this contention. Halm, in 1989, derived the name from a Gothic term, *,
and in 2002, Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.
The Spanish place name Andalucía (immediate source of the English Andalusia) was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. The name was adopted to refer to those territories still under Moorish rule, and generally south of Castilla Nueva and Valencia, and corresponding with the former Roman province hitherto called Baetica in Latin sources. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the adjectival form of the Arabic language al-Andalus, the name given by the Arabs to all of the Iberian territories under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated (see al-Andalus), but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this area came under Moorish rule.
Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the exact territory designated by these terms today. Initially, the term referred exclusively to territories under Muslim control. Later, it was applied to some of the last Iberian territories to be regained from the Muslims, though not always to exactly the same ones.
From an administrative point of view, Granada remained separate for many years even after the completion of the Reconquista The often-used expression "Four Kingdoms of Andalusia" dates back in Spanish at least to the mid-18th century.Symbols
, executed in azulejos, located on the avenue in Jerez de la Frontera named in his honour.]]
The Andalusian emblem shows the figure of Hercules and two lions between the two pillars of Hercules that tradition situates on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. An inscription below, superimposed on an image of the flag of Andalusia reads Andalucía por sí, para España y la Humanidad ("Andalusia for herself, Spain and Humanity"). Over the two columns is a semicircular arch in the colours of the flag of Andalusia, with the Latin words Dominator Hercules Fundator (Lord Hercules is the Founder) superimposed.
The official flag of Andalusia consists of three equal horizontal stripes, coloured green, white, and green respectively; the Andalusian coat of arms is superimposed on the central stripe. Its design was overseen by Blas Infante and approved in the Assembly of Ronda (a 1918 gathering of Andalusian nationalists at Ronda). Blas Infante considered these to have been the colours most used in regional symbols throughout the region's history. According to him, the green came in particular from the standard of the Umayyad Caliphate and represented the call for a gathering of the populace. The white symbolised pardon in the Almohad dynasty, interpreted in European heraldry as parliament or peace. Other writers have justified the colours differently, with some Andalusian nationalists referring to them as the Arbonaida, meaning white-and-green in Mozarabic, a Romance language that was spoken in the region in Muslim times. Nowadays, the Andalusian government states that the colours of the flag evoke the Andalusian landscape as well as values of purity and hope for the future. which was reaffirmed in the reformed Statute of Autonomy submitted to popular referendum 18 February 2007. The preamble of the present 2007 Statute of Autonomy says that Article 2 of the present Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognises Andalusia as a nationality. Later, in its articulation, it speaks of Andalusia as a "historic nationality" (Spanish: nacionalidad histórica). It also cites the 1919 Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba describing Andalusia as a "national reality" (realidad nacional), but does not endorse that formulation. Article 1 of the earlier 1981 Statute of Autonomy defined it simply as a "nationality" (nacionalidad).
The national holiday, Andalusia Day, is celebrated on 28 February, commemorating the 1980 autonomy referendum.
The honorific title of Hijo Predilecto de Andalucía ("Favourite Son of Andalusia") is granted by the Autonomous Government of Andalusia to those whose exceptional merits benefited Andalusia, for work or achievements in natural, social, or political science. It is the highest distinction given by the Autonomous Community of Andalusia.Geography
The Sevillian historian Antonio Domínguez Ortiz wrote that:
Location
Andalusia has a surface area of , 17.3% of the territory of Spain. Andalusia alone is comparable in extent and in the variety of its terrain to any of several of the smaller European countries. To the east is the Mediterranean Sea; to the west Portugal and the Gulf of Cádiz (Atlantic Ocean); to the north the Sierra Morena constitutes the border with the Meseta Central; to the south, the self-governing British overseas territory of Gibraltar and the Strait of Gibraltar separate it from Morocco.
Climate
]]
Andalusia is home to the hottest and driest climates in Spain, with yearly average rainfall around in Cabo de Gata, as well as some of the wettest ones, with yearly average rainfall above in inland Cádiz. In the west, weather systems sweeping in from the Atlantic ensure that it is relatively wet and humid in the winter, with some areas receiving copious amounts. Contrary to what many people think, as a whole, the region enjoys above-average yearly rainfall in the context of Spain.
Andalusia sits at a latitude between 36° and 38° 44' N, in the warm-temperate region. In general, it experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, with dry summers influenced by the Azores High, but subject to occasional torrential rains and extremely hot temperatures. In the winter, the tropical anticyclones move south, allowing cold polar fronts to penetrate the region. Still, within Andalusia there is considerable climatic variety. From the extensive coastal plains one may pass to the valley of the Guadalquivir, barely above sea level, then to the highest altitudes in the Iberian peninsula in the peaks of the Sierra Nevada. In a mere one can pass from the subtropical coast of the province of Granada to the snowy peaks of Mulhacén. Andalusia also includes both the dry Tabernas Desert in the province of Almería and the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park in the province of Cádiz, which experiences one of highest rainfall in Spain.
Annual rainfall in the Sierra de Grazalema has been measured as high as in 1963, the highest ever recorded for any location in Iberia. Andalusia is also home to the driest place in Europe, the Cabo de Gata, with only of rain per year.
In general, as one goes from west to east, away from the Atlantic, there is less precipitation.
The average temperature in Andalusia throughout the year is over . Averages in the cities range from in Baeza to in Seville. However, a small region on the Mediterranean coast of Almeria and Granada provinces have average annual temperature over . Much of the Guadalquivir valley and the Mediterranean coast has an average of about . The coldest month is January when Granada at the foot of the Sierra Nevada experiences an average temperature of . The hottest are July and August, with an average temperature of for Andalusia as a whole. Córdoba is the hottest provincial capital, followed by Seville.
The Guadalquivir valley has experienced some of the highest temperatures recorded in Europe, with a maximum of recorded at La Rambla, Córdoba (14 August 2021). The mountains of Granada and Jaén have the coldest temperatures in southern Iberia, but do not reach continental extremes (and, indeed are surpassed by some mountains in northern Spain). In the cold snap of January 2005, Santiago de la Espada (Jaén) experienced a temperature of and the ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park—the southernmost ski resort in Europe—dropped to . Sierra Nevada Natural Park has Iberia's lowest average annual temperature, ( at Pradollano) and its peaks remain snowy practically year-round.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:60%; font-size:95%;"
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Terrain
peak is the highest point of continental Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains and the Alps. It is part of the Sierra Nevada range.]]
Mountain ranges affect climate, the network of rivers, soils and their erosion, bioregions, and even human economies insofar as they rely on natural resources. The Andalusian terrain offers a range of altitudes and slopes. Andalusia has the Iberian peninsula's highest mountains and nearly 15 percent of its terrain over . The picture is similar for areas under (with the Baetic Depression), and for the variety of slopes.
The Atlantic coast is overwhelmingly beach and gradually sloping coasts; the Mediterranean coast has many cliffs, above all in the Malagan Axarquía and in Granada and Almería. This asymmetry divides the region naturally into (two mountainous areas) and (the broad basin of the Guadalquivir).
The Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central. Although sparsely populated, this is not a particularly high range, and its highest point, the peak of La Bañuela in the Sierra Madrona, lies outside of Andalusia. Within the Sierra Morena, the gorge of Despeñaperros forms a natural frontier between Castile and Andalusia.
The Baetic Cordillera consists of the parallel mountain ranges of the Cordillera Penibética near the Mediterranean coast and the Cordillera Subbética inland, separated by the Surco Intrabético. The Cordillera Subbética is quite discontinuous, offering many passes that facilitate transportation, but the Penibético forms a strong barrier between the Mediterranean coast and the interior. The Sierra Nevada, part of the Cordillera Penibética in the province of Granada, has the highest peaks in Iberia: El Mulhacén at and El Veleta at .
Lower Andalusia, the Baetic Depression, the basin of the Guadalquivir, lies between these two mountainous areas. It is a nearly flat territory, open to the Gulf of Cádiz in the southwest. Throughout history, this has been the most populous part of Andalusia.
Hydrography
Andalusia has rivers that flow into both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Flowing to the Atlantic are the Guadiana, Odiel-Tinto, Guadalquivir, Guadalete, and Barbate. Flowing to the Mediterranean are the Guadiaro, Guadalhorce, Guadalmedina, Guadalfeo, Andarax (also known as the Almería) and Almanzora. Of these, the Guadalquivir is the longest in Andalusia and fifth longest on the Iberian peninsula, at .
The rivers of the Atlantic basin are characteristically long, run through mostly flat terrain, and have broad river valleys. As a result, at their mouths are estuaries and wetlands, such as the marshes of Doñana in the delta of the Guadalquivir, and wetlands of the Odiel. In contrast, the rivers of the Mediterranean Basin are shorter, more seasonal, and make a precipitous descent from the mountains of the Baetic Cordillera. Their estuaries are small, and their valleys are less suitable for agriculture. Also, being in the rain shadow of the Baetic Cordillera means that they receive a lesser volume of water.
Soils
The soils of Andalusia can be divided into three large areas: the Sierra Morena, Cordillera Subbética, and the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético.
The Sierra Morena, due to its morphology and the acidic content of its rocks, developed principally relatively poor, shallow soils, suitable only for forests. In the valleys and in some areas where limestone is present, deeper soils allowed farming of cereals suitable for livestock. The more complicated morphology of the Baetic Cordillera makes it more heterogeneous, with the most heterogeneous soils in Andalusia. Very roughly, in contrast to the Sierra Morena, a predominance of basic (alkaline) materials in the Cordillera Subbética, combined with a hilly landscape, generates deeper soils with greater agricultural capacity, suitable to the cultivation of olives.
Finally, the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético have deep, rich soils, with great agricultural capacity. In particular, the alluvial soils of the Guadalquivir valley and plain of Granada have a loamy texture and are particularly suitable for intensive irrigated crops. In the hilly areas of the countryside, there is a double dynamic: the depressions have filled with older lime-rich material, developing the deep, rich, dark clay soils the Spanish call bujeo, or tierras negras andaluzas, excellent for dryland farming. In other zones, the whiter albariza provides an excellent soil for vineyards.
Despite their marginal quality, the poorly consolidated soils of the sandy coastline of Huelva and Almería have been successfully used in recent decades for hothouse cultivation under clear plastic of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits.
Flora
of Andalusia]]
Biogeographically, Andalusia forms part of the Western Mediterranean subregion of the Mediterranean Basin, which falls within the Boreal Kingdom. Five floristic provinces lie, in whole or in part, within Andalusia: along much of the Atlantic coast, the Lusitanian-Andalusian littoral or Andalusian Atlantic littoral; in the north, the southern portion of the Luso-Extremaduran floristic province; covering roughly half of the region, the Baetic floristic province; and in the extreme east, the Almerian portion of the Almerian-Murcian floristic province and (coinciding roughly with the upper Segura basin) a small portion of the Castilian-Maestrazgan-Manchegan floristic province. These names derive primarily from past or present political geography: "Luso" and "Lusitanian" from Lusitania, one of three Roman provinces in Iberia, most of the others from present-day Spanish provinces, and Maestrazgo being a historical region of northern Valencia.
.]]
In broad terms, the typical vegetation of Andalusia is Mediterranean woodland, characterized by leafy xerophilic perennials, adapted to the long, dry summers. The dominant species of the climax community is the holly oak (Quercus ilex). Also abundant are cork oak (Quercus suber), various pines, and Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo). Due to cultivation, olive (Olea europaea) and almond (Prunus dulcis) trees also abound. The dominant understory is composed of thorny and aromatic woody species, such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), thyme (Thymus), and Cistus. In the wettest areas with acidic soils, the most abundant species are the oak and cork oak, and the cultivated Eucalyptus. In the woodlands, leafy hardwoods of genus Populus (poplars, aspens, cottonwoods) and Ulmus (elms) are also abundant; poplars are cultivated in the plains of Granada.
The Andalusian woodlands have been much altered by human settlement, the use of nearly all of the best land for farming, and frequent wildfires. The degraded forests become shrubby and combustible garrigue. Extensive areas have been planted with non-climax trees such as pines. There is now a clear conservation policy for the remaining forests, which survive almost exclusively in the mountains.
Fauna
(Lynx pardinus)]]
The biodiversity of Andalusia extends to its fauna as well. More than 400 of the 630 vertebrate species extant in Spain can be found in Andalusia. Spanning the Mediterranean and Atlantic basins, and adjacent to the Strait of Gibraltar, Andalusia is on the migratory route of many of the numerous flocks of birds that travel annually from Europe to Africa and back.
The Andalusian wetlands host a rich variety of birds. Some are of African origin, such as the red-knobbed coot (Fulica cristata), the purple swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), and the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus). Others originate in Northern Europe, such as the greylag goose (Anser anser). Birds of prey (raptors) include the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti), the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), and both the black and red kite (Milvus migrans and Milvus milvus).
]]
Among the herbivores, are several deer (Cervidae) species, notably the fallow deer (Dama dama) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); the European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), a feral sheep; and the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica, which despite its scientific name is no longer found in the Pyrenees). The Spanish ibex has recently been losing ground to the Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), an invasive species from Africa, introduced for hunting in the 1970s. Among the small herbivores are rabbits—especially the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)—which form the most important part of the diet of the carnivorous species of the Mediterranean woodlands.
The large carnivores such as the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) are quite threatened, and are limited to the Sierra de Andújar, inside of Sierra Morena, Doñana and Despeñaperros. Stocks of the wild boar (Sus scrofa), on the other hand, have been well preserved because they are popular with hunters. More abundant and in varied situations of conservation are such smaller carnivores as otters, dogs, foxes, the European badger (Meles meles), the European polecat (Mustela putorius), the least weasel (Mustela nivalis), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the common genet (Genetta genetta), and the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon).
Other notable species are Acherontia atropos (a variety of death's-head hawkmoth), Vipera latasti (a venomous snake), and the endemic (and endangered) fish Aphanius baeticus.
Protected areas
s and natural parks in Andalusia.]]
Andalusia has many unique ecosystems. In order to preserve these areas in a manner compatible with both conservation and economic exploitation, many of the most representative ecosystems have been given protected status.
The various levels of protection are encompassed within the Network of Protected Natural Spaces of Andalusia (Red de Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Andalucía, RENPA) which integrates all protected natural spaces located in Andalusia, whether they are protected at the level of the local community, the autonomous community of Andalusia, the Spanish state, or by international conventions. RENPA consists of 150 protected spaces, consisting of two national parks, 24 natural parks, 21 periurban parks (on the fringes of cities or towns), 32 natural sites, two protected countrysides, 37 natural monuments, 28 nature reserves, and four concerted nature reserves (in which a government agency coordinates with the owner of the property for its management), all part of the European Union's Natura 2000 network. Under the international ambit are the nine Biosphere Reserves, 20 Ramsar wetland sites, four Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance and two UNESCO Geoparks.
In total, nearly 20 percent of the territory of Andalusia lies in one of these protected areas, which constitute roughly 30 percent of the protected territory of Spain. and became an autonomous community under the 1981 Statute of Autonomy known as the Estatuto de Carmona. The process followed the Spanish Constitution of 1978, still current as of 2009, which recognizes and guarantees the right of autonomy for the various regions and nationalities of Spain. The process to establish Andalusia as an autonomous region followed Article 151 of the Constitution, making Andalusia the only autonomous community to take that particular course. That article was set out for regions like Andalusia that had been prevented by the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War from adopting a statute of autonomy during the period of the Second Spanish Republic.
Article 1 of the 1981 Statute of Autonomy justifies autonomy based on the region's "historical identity, on the self-government that the Constitution permits every nationality, on outright equality to the rest of the nationalities and regions that compose Spain, and with a power that emanates from the Andalusian Constitution and people, reflected in its Statute of Autonomy".
In October 2006 the constitutional commission of the Cortes Generales (the national legislature of Spain), with favorable votes from the left-of-center Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), the leftist United Left (IU) and the right-of-center People's Party (PP), approved a new Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, whose preamble refers to the community as a "national reality" (realidad nacional):
|| 102 municipalities || 8
|-
! Cádiz
| Cádiz || 1,250,539 || || 44 municipalities || 14
|-
! Córdoba
| Córdoba || 773,997 || || 75 municipalities || 12
|-
! Granada
| Granada || 930,181 || || 170 municipalities || 9
|-
! Huelva
| Huelva || 530,824 || || 79 municipalities || 6
|-
! Jaén
| Jaén || 620,242 || || 97 municipalities || 10
|-
! Málaga
| Málaga || 1,751,600 || || 102 municipalities || 11
|-
! Seville
| Seville || 1,957,210 || || 105 municipalities || 15
|}
Andalusia is traditionally divided into two historical subregions: '''Upper Andalusia or Eastern Andalusia ' (Andalucía Oriental), consisting of the provinces of Almería, Granada, Jaén, and Málaga, and 'Lower Andalusia or Western Andalusia ' (Andalucía Occidental), consisting of the provinces of Cádiz, Córdoba, Huelva and Seville.
Comarcas and mancomunidades
]]
Within the various autonomous communities of Spain, comarcas'' are comparable to shires (or, in some countries, counties) in the English-speaking world. Unlike in some of Spain's other autonomous communities, under the original 1981 Statute of Autonomy, the comarcas of Andalusia had no formal recognition, but, in practice, they still had informal recognition as geographic, cultural, historical, or in some cases administrative entities. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy echoes this practice, and mentions comarcas in Article 97 of Title III, which defines the significance of comarcas and establishes a basis for formal recognition in future legislation.
The current statutory entity that most closely resembles a comarca is the , a freely chosen, bottom-up association of municipalities intended as an instrument of socioeconomic development and coordination between municipal governments in specific areas.Municipalities and local entitiesBeyond the level of provinces, Andalusia is further divided into 774 municipalities (municipios).
In conformity with the intent to devolve control as locally as possible, in many cases, separate nuclei of population within municipal borders each administer their own interests. These are variously known as pedanías ("hamlets"), villas ("villages"), aldeas (also usually rendered as "villages"), or other similar names.
Main cities
Province
| city_1 = Seville
| div_1 = Province of SevilleSeville
| pop_1 = 687,488
| img_1 = Sevilla Luft 120308.JPG
| city_2 = Málaga
| div_2 = Province of MálagaMálaga
| pop_2 = 591,637
| img_2 = Malaga Luftaufnahme.jpg
| city_3 = Córdoba, SpainCórdoba
| div_3 = Province of Córdoba (Spain)Córdoba
| pop_3 = 322,811
| img_3 = Córdoba aerial 6.jpg
| city_4 = Granada
| div_4 = Province of GranadaGranada
| pop_4 = 232,717
| img_4 = La alhambra desde el tambor - panoramio.jpg
| city_5 = Jerez de la Frontera
| div_5 = Province of CádizCádiz
| pop_5 = 213,688
| city_6 = Almería
| div_6 = Province of AlmeríaAlmería
| pop_6 = 202,675
| city_7 = Marbella
| div_7 = Province of MálagaMálaga
| pop_7 = 159,000
| city_8 = Huelva
| div_8 = Province of HuelvaHuelva
| pop_8 = 143,290
| city_9 = Dos Hermanas
| div_9 = Province of SevilleSeville
| pop_9 = 140,430
| city_10 = Algeciras
| div_10 = Province of CádizCádiz
| pop_10 = 124,978
| city_11 = Jaén, SpainJaén
| div_11 = Province of Jaén (Spain)Jaén
| pop_11 = 112,074
| city_12 = Cádiz
| div_12 = Province of CádizCádiz
| pop_12 = 110,914
| city_13 = Roquetas de Mar
| div_13 = Province of AlmeríaAlmería
| pop_13 = 109,204
| city_14 = San Fernando, CádizSan Fernando
| div_14 = CádizCádiz
| pop_14 = 93,645
| city_15 = Mijas
| div_15 = Province of MálagaMálaga
| pop_15 = 93,302
| city_16 = El Ejido
| div_16 = Province of AlmeríaAlmería
| pop_16 = 90,135
| city_17 = El Puerto de Santa María
| div_17 = Province of CádizCádiz
| pop_17 = 89,960
| city_18 = Chiclana de la Frontera
| div_18 = Province of CádizCádiz
| pop_18 = 89,794
| city_19 = Vélez-Málaga
| div_19 = Province of MálagaMálaga
| pop_19 = 85,990
| city_20 = Fuengirola
| div_20 = Province of MálagaMálaga
| pop_20 = 85,859
}}
Population change
At the end of the 20th century, Andalusia was in the last phase of demographic transition. The death rate stagnated at around 8–9 per thousand, and the population came to be influenced mainly by birth and migration.
In 1950, Andalusia had 20.04 percent of the national population of Spain. By 1981, this had declined to 17.09 percent. Although the Andalusian population was not declining in absolute terms, these relative losses were due to emigration great enough to nearly counterbalance having the highest birth rate in Spain. Since the 1980s, this process has reversed on all counts, and as of 2009, Andalusia has 17.82 percent of the Spanish population.
The birth rate is sharply down, as is typical in developed economies, although it has lagged behind much of the rest of the world in this respect. Furthermore, prior emigrants have been returning to Andalusia. Beginning in the 1990s, others have been immigrating in large numbers as well, as Spain has become a country of net immigration. The result is that as of 2009, the trend toward rejuvenation of the population is among the strongest of any autonomous community of Spain, or of any comparable region in Europe. Comparison of the population pyramid in 2008 to that in 1986 shows:
# A clear decrease in the population under the age of 25, due to a declining birth rate.
# An increase in the adult population, as the earlier, larger cohort born in the "baby boom" of the 1960s and 1970s reach adulthood. This effect has been exacerbated by immigration: the largest contingent of immigrants are young adults.
# A further increase in the adult population, and especially the older adult population, due to increased life expectancy.
As far as composition by sex, two aspects stand out: the higher percentage of women in the elderly population, owing to women's longer life expectancy, and, on the other hand, the higher percentage of men of working age, due in large part to a predominantly male immigrant population. This is a relatively low number for a Spanish region, the national average being over three percentage points higher.
The immigrants are not evenly distributed among the Andalusian provinces. In 2022, more than 21.8% of the Almería's population was immigrant, ranking third among all provinces in Spain. From the other end, Jaén and Córdoba had barely 2.8% immigrant population each, being the Spanish provinces with the lowest foreign population in relative numbers. The predominant foreign nationalities are Moroccan (163,585, constituting 22.06 percent of the foreigners living in Andalusia) and British (12.43 percent across the region). When comparing world regions rather than individual countries, the single largest immigrant block is Europe, followed by Africa and Latin America. Demographically, this group has provided an important addition to the Andalusian labor force.
|Number
|%
|-
|
|206,934
|27.91%
|-
|Rest of Europe
|135,529
|18.28%
|-
|TOTAL EUROPE
|342,463
|46.19%
|-
|TOTAL AFRICA
|211,443
|28.52%
|-
|South America
|102,938
|13.89%
|-
|Central America
|30,160
|4.06%
|-
|North America
|11,446
|1.54%
|-
|TOTAL AMERICAS
|144,544
|19.49%
|-
|TOTAL ASIA
|41,811
|5.64%
|-
|TOTAL OCEANIA
|573
|0.07%
|-
|TOTAL FOREIGNERS
|741,378
|100%
|-
|TOTAL ANDALUSIA
|colspan=2|8,511,167
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|Foreign Population by Nationality
|Number
|%
|-
|
|163,585
|22.06%
|-
|
|92,180
|12.43%
|-
|
|73,010
|9.84%
|-
|
|26,328
|3.55%
|-
|
|25,795
|3.48%
|-
|
|21,975
|2.96%
|-
|
|17,434
|2.35%
|-
|
|16,829
|2.26%
|-
|
|16,038
|2.16%
|-
|
|15,942
|2.15%
|-
|
|15,232
|2.05%
|-
|
|14,905
|2.01%
|}
Economy
Andalusia is traditionally an agricultural area, but the service sector (particularly tourism, retail sales, and transportation) now predominates. The once booming construction sector, hit hard by the 2009 recession, was also important to the region's economy. The industrial sector is less developed than most other regions in Spain.
Between 2000 and 2006 economic growth per annum was 3.72%, one of the highest in the country. Still, according to the Spanish (INE), the GDP per capita of Andalusia (€17,401; 2006) remains the second lowest in Spain, with only Extremadura lagging behind. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 160.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 13.4% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 20,500 euros or 68% of the EU27 average in the same year.
{| class"wikitable" style"margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|+ GDP, GDP per capita, number of people in the work force, percentage of the Andalusian work force by province
|-
! !! Andalusia !! Almería !! Cádiz !! Córdoba !! Granada !! Huelva !! Jaén !! Málaga !! Seville
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| GDP (thousands of €) || 154,011,654|| 14,124,024|| 21,430,772|| 13,000,521|| 16,403,614|| 9,716,037|| 10,036,091|| 31,331,122|| 37,969,433
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| GDP per capita (€) || 18,360|| 20,054 || 17,284 || 16,422 || 17,919 || 18,699 || 15,481|| 19,229 || 19,574
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| Workers || 2,990,143|| 286,714|| 387,174 || 264,072|| 309,309|| 196,527 || 220,877|| 607,255|| 718,215
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| GDP (%) || 100 || 9.17 || 13.92 || 8.44 || 10.65 || 6.31 || 6.52 || 20.34 || 24.65
|}
Primary sector
The primary sector, despite adding the least of the three sectors to the regional GDP, remains important, especially when compared to typical developed economies. The primary sector produces 8.26 percent of regional GDP, 6.4 percent of its GVA and employs 8.19 percent of the workforce.<!-- existing citation is very vague--> In monetary terms it could be considered a rather uncompetitive sector, given its level of productivity compared to other Spanish regions. In addition to its numeric importance relative to other regions, agriculture and other primary sector activities have strong roots in local culture and identity.
The primary sector is divided into a number of subsectors: agriculture, commercial fishing, animal husbandry, hunting, forestry, mining, and energy.
Agriculture, husbandry, hunting, and forestry
of olive oil in Andalusia]]
For many centuries, agriculture dominated Andalusian society, and, with 44.3 percent of its territory cultivated and 8.4 percent of its workforce in agriculture as of 2016 it remains an integral part of Andalusia's economy.<!-- citation is vague --> However, its importance is declining, like the primary and secondary sectors generally, as the service sector is increasingly taking over. The primary cultivation is dryland farming of cereals and sunflowers without artificial irrigation, especially in the vast countryside of the Guadalquivir valley and the high plains of Granada and Almería-with a considerably lesser and more geographically focused cultivation of barley and oats. Using irrigation, maize, cotton and rice are also grown on the banks of the Guadalquivir and Genil.
The most important tree crops are olives, especially in the Subbetic regions of the provinces of Córdoba and Jáen, where irrigated olive orchards constitute a large component of agricultural output. There are extensive vineyards in various zones such as Jerez de la Frontera (sherry), Condado de Huelva, Montilla-Moriles and Málaga. Fruits—mainly citrus fruits—are grown near the banks of the Guadalquivir; almonds, which require far less water, are grown on the high plains of Granada and Almería.
In monetary terms, by far the most productive and competitive agriculture in Andalusia is the intensive forced cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits grown under hothouse conditions under clear plastic, often in sandy zones, on the coasts, in Almería and Huelva.
, Huelva.]]
.]]
Organic farming has recently undergone rapid expansion in Andalusia, mainly for export to European markets but with increasing demand developing in Spain.
Andalusia has a long tradition of animal husbandry and livestock farming, but it is now restricted mainly to mountain meadows, where there is less pressure from other potential uses. Andalusians have a long and colourful history of dog breeding that can be observed throughout the region today. The raising of livestock now plays a semi-marginal role in the Andalusian economy, constituting only 15 percent of the primary sector, half the number for Spain taken as a whole.
"Extensive" raising of livestock grazes the animals on natural or cultivated pastures, whereas "intensive" raising of livestock is based in fodder rather than pasture. Although the productivity is higher than with extensive techniques, the economics are quite different. While intensive techniques now dominate in Europe and even in other regions of Spain, most of Andalusia's cattle, virtually all of its sheep and goats, and a good portion of its pigs are raised by extensive farming in mountain pastures. This includes the Black Iberian pigs that are the source of Jamón ibérico. Andalusia's native sheep and goats present a great economic opportunity in a Europe where animal products are generally in strong supply, but the sheep and goat meat, milk, and leather (and the products derived from these) are relatively scarce. Dogs are bred not just as companion animals, but also as herding animals used by goat and sheep herders.
Hunting remains relatively important in Andalusia, but has largely lost its character as a means of obtaining food.
It is now more of a leisure activity linked to the mountain areas and complementary to forestry and the raising of livestock. Dogs are frequently used as hunting companions to retrieve killed game.
The Andalusian forests are important for their extent—50 percent of the territory of Andalusia—and for other less quantifiable environmental reasons, such as their value in preventing erosion, regulating the flow of water necessary for other flora and fauna. For these reasons, there is legislation in place to protect the Andalusian forests. The value of forest products as such constitutes only 2 percent of agricultural production. This comes mostly from cultivated species—eucalyptus in Huelva and poplar in Granada—as well as naturally occurring cork oak in the Sierra Morena.Fishing
.]]
Fishing is a longstanding tradition on the Andalusian coasts. Fish and other seafood have long figured prominently in the local diet and in the local gastronomic culture: fried fish (pescaito frito in local dialect), white prawns, almadraba tuna, among others. The Andalusian fishing fleet is Spain's second largest, after Galicia, and Andalusia's 38 fishing ports are the most of any Spanish autonomous community. Commercial fishing produces only 0.5 percent of the product of the regional primary sector by value, but there are areas where it has far greater importance. In the province of Huelva it constitutes 20 percent of the primary sector, and locally in Punta Umbría 70 percent of the work force is involved in commercial fishing.
Failure to comply with fisheries laws regarding the use of trawling, urban pollution of the seacoast, destruction of habitats by coastal construction (for example, alteration of the mouths of rivers, construction of ports), and diminution of fisheries by overexploitation
have created a permanent crisis in the Andalusian fisheries, justifying attempts to convert the fishing fleet. The decrease in fish stocks has led to the rise of aquaculture, including fish farming both on the coasts and in the interior.MiningDespite the general poor returns in recent years, mining retains a certain importance in Andalusia. Andalusia produces half of Spain's mining product by value. Of Andalusia's production, roughly half comes from the province of Huelva. Mining for precious metals at Minas de Riotinto in Huelva (see Rio Tinto Group) dates back to pre-Roman times; the mines were abandoned in the Middle Ages and rediscovered in 1556. Other mining activity is coal mining in the Guadiato valley in the province of Córdoba; various metals at Aznalcóllar in the province of Seville, and iron at Alquife in the province of Granada. In addition, limestone, clay, and other materials used in construction are well distributed throughout Andalusia.
Secondary sector: industry
The Andalusian industrial sector has always been relatively small. Nevertheless, in 2007, Andalusian industry earned 11.979 million euros and employed more than 290,000 workers. This represented 9.15 percent of regional GDP, far below the 15.08 the secondary sector represents in the economy of Spain as a whole. By analyzing the different subsectors of the food industry Andalusian industry accounts for more than 16% of total production. In a comparison with the Spanish economy, this subsector is virtually the only food that has some weight in the national economy with 16.16%. Lies far behind the manufacturing sector of shipping materials just over 10% of the Spanish economy. Companies like Cruzcampo (Heineken Group), Puleva, Domecq, Santana Motors or Renault-Andalusia, are exponents of these two subsectors. Of note is the Andalusian aeronautical sector, which is second nationally only behind Madrid and represents approximately 21% of total turnover in terms of employment, highlighting companies like Airbus, Airbus Military, or the newly formed Aerospace Alestis. On the contrary it is symptomatic of how little weight the regional economy in such important sectors such as textiles or electronics at the national level.
Andalusian industry is also characterized by a specialization in industrial activities of transforming raw agricultural and mineral materials. This is largely done by small enterprises without the public or foreign investment more typical of a high level of industrialization.
Tertiary sector: services
. One of the largest components of the service sector is "sun and sand" tourism.]]
In recent decades the Andalusian tertiary (service) sector has grown greatly, and has come to constitute the majority of the regional economy, as is typical of contemporary economies in developed nations. This growth occurred somewhat earlier than in most developed economies and occurred independently of the local industrial sector. There were two principal reasons that "tertiarization" followed a different course in Andalusia than elsewhere:
1. Andalusian capital found it impossible to compete in the industrial sector against more developed regions, and was obligated to invest in sectors that were easier to enter.
2. The absence of an industrial sector that could absorb displaced agricultural workers and artisans led to the proliferation of services with rather low productivity. This unequal development compared to other regions led to a hypertrophied and unproductive service sector, which has tended to reinforce underdevelopment, because it has not led to large accumulations of capital.Tourism in Andalusia
, province of Cádiz]]
]]
, Marbella, Costa del Sol.]]
, province of Jaén.]]
Due in part to the relatively mild winter and spring climate, the south of Spain is attractive to overseas visitors–especially tourists from Northern Europe. While inland areas such as Jaén, Córdoba and the hill villages and towns remain relatively untouched by tourism, the coastal areas of Andalusia have heavy visitor traffic for much of the year.
Among the autonomous communities, Andalusia is second only to Catalonia in tourism, with nearly 30 million visitors every year. The principal tourist destinations in Andalusia are the Costa del Sol and (secondarily) the Sierra Nevada. As discussed above, Andalusia is one of the sunniest and warmest places in Europe, making it a center of "sun and sand" tourism, but not only it. Around 70 percent of the lodging capacity and 75 percent of the nights booked in Andalusian hotels are in coastal municipalities. The largest number of tourists come in August—13.26 percent of the nights booked throughout the year—and the smallest number in December—5.36 percent.
On the west (Atlantic) coast are the Costa de la Luz (provinces of Huelva and Cádiz), and on the east (Mediterranean) coast, the Costa del Sol (provinces of Cádiz y Málaga), Costa Tropical (Granada and part of Almería) and the Costa de Almería. In 2004, the Blue Flag beach program of the non-profit Foundation for Environmental Education recognized 66 Andalusian beaches and 18 pleasure craft ports as being in a good state of conservation in terms of sustainability, accessibility, and quality. Nonetheless, the level of tourism on the Andalusian coasts has been high enough to have a significant environmental impact, and other organizations—such as the Spanish Ecologists in Action (Ecologistas en Acción) with their description of "Black Flag beaches" or Greenpeace—have expressed the opposite sentiment. Still, Hotel chains such as Fuerte Hotels have ensured that sustainability within the tourism industry is one of their highest priorities.
Together with "sand and sun" tourism, there has also been a strong increase in nature tourism in the interior, as well as cultural tourism, sport tourism, and conventions. One example of sport and nature tourism is the ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park.
As for cultural tourism, there are hundreds of cultural tourist destinations: cathedrals, castles, forts, monasteries, and historic city centers and a wide variety of museums.
It can be highlighted that Spain has seven of its 42 cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Andalucia:
* Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín, Granada (1984,1994)
* Antequera Dolmens Site (2016)
* 10th Century Caliphate City of Medina Azahara (2018)
* Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (1987)
* Historic centre of Córdoba (1984,1994)
* Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (2003)
* Rock Art of the Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (1998)
Further, there are the Lugares colombinos, significant places in the life of Christopher Columbus: Palos de la Frontera, La Rábida Monastery, and Moguer) in the province of Huelva. There are also archeological sites of great interest: the Roman city of Italica, birthplace of Emperor Trajan and (most likely) Hadrian or Baelo Claudia near Tarifa.
Andalusia was the birthplace of such great painters as Velázquez and Murillo (Seville) and, more recently, Picasso (Málaga); Picasso is memorialized by his native city at the Museo Picasso Málaga and Natal House Foundation; the Casa de Murillo was a house museum 1982–1998, but is now mostly offices for the Andalusian Council of Culture. The CAC Málaga (Museum of Modern Art) is the most visited museum of Andalusia and has offered exhibitions of artists such as Louise Bourgeois, Jake and Dinos Chapman, Gerhard Richter, Anish Kapoor, Ron Mueck or Rodney Graham. Malaga is also located part of the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection at Carmen Thyssen Museum.
There are numerous other significant museums around the region, both of paintings and of archeological artifacts such as gold jewelry, pottery and other ceramics, and other works that demonstrate the region's artisanal traditions.
The Council of Government has designated the following "Municipios Turísticos": in Almería, Roquetas de Mar; in Cádiz, Chiclana de la Frontera, Chipiona, Conil de la Frontera, Grazalema, Rota, and Tarifa; in Granada, Almuñécar; in Huelva, Aracena; in Jaén, Cazorla; in Málaga, Benalmádena, Fuengirola, Nerja, Rincón de la Victoria, Ronda, and Torremolinos; in Seville, Santiponce.
Monuments and features
* Alcazaba, Almería
* Cueva de Menga, Antequera (Málaga)
* El Torcal, Antequera (Málaga)
* Medina Azahara, Córdoba
* Mosque–Cathedral, Córdoba
* Mudejar Quarter, Frigiliana (Málaga)
* Alhambra, Granada
* Palace of Charles V, Granada
* Charterhouse, Granada
* Albayzín, Granada
* La Rabida Monastery, Palos de la Frontera (Huelva)
* Castle of Santa Catalina, Jaén
* Jaén Cathedral, Jaén
* Úbeda and Baeza, Jaén
* Alcazaba, Málaga
* Buenavista Palace, Málaga
* Málaga Cathedral, Málaga
* Puente Nuevo, Ronda (Málaga)
* Caves of Nerja, Nerja (Málaga)
* Ronda Bullring, Ronda (Málaga)
* Giralda, Seville
* Torre del Oro, Seville
* Plaza de España, Seville
* Seville Cathedral, Seville
* Alcázar of Seville, Seville
* Almonaster la Real Mosque, Almonaster la Real (Huelva)
Unemployment
The unemployment rate stood at 25.5% in 2017 and was one of the highest in Spain and Europe.
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!2006
!2007
!2008
!2009
!2010
!2011
!2012
!2013
!2014
!2015
!2016
!2017
|-
|unemployment rate<br />(in %)
|12.6%
|12.8%
|17.7%
|25.2%
|27.8%
|30.1%
|34.4%
|36.2%
|34.8%
|31.5%
|28.9%
|25.5%
|}
Infrastructure
Transport
As in any modern society, transport systems are an essential structural element of the functioning of Andalusia. The transportation network facilitates territorial coordination, economic development and distribution, and intercity transportation.
In urban transport, underdeveloped public transport systems put pedestrian traffic and other non-motorized traffic are at a disadvantage compared to the use of private vehicles. Several Andalusian capitals—Córdoba, Granada and Seville—have recently been trying to remedy this by strengthening their public transport systems and providing a better infrastructure for the use of bicycles. There are now three rapid transit systems operating in Andalucia – the Seville Metro, Málaga Metro and Granada Metro. Cercanías commuter rail networks operate in Seville, Málaga and Cádiz.
For over a century, the conventional rail network has been centralized on the regional capital, Seville, and the national capital, Madrid; in general, there are no direct connections between provincial capitals. High-speed AVE trains run from Madrid via Córdoba to Seville and Málaga, from which a branch from Antequera to Granada opened in 2019. Further AVE routes are under construction. The Madrid-Córdoba-Seville route was the first high-velocity route in Spain (operating since 1992). Other principal routes are the one from Algeciras to Seville and from Almería via Granada to Madrid.
Most of the principal roads have been converted into limited access highways known as autovías. The Autovía del Este (Autovía A-4) runs from Madrid through the Despeñaperros Natural Park, then via Bailén, Córdoba, and Seville to Cádiz, and is part of European route E05 in the International E-road network. The other main road in the region is the portion of European route E15, which runs as the Autovia del Mediterráneo along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Parts of this constitute the superhighway Autopista AP-7, while in other areas it is Autovía A-7. Both of these roads run generally east–west, although the Autovía A-4 turns to the south in western Andalusia.
Other first-order roads include the Autovía A-48 roughly along the Atlantic coast from Cádiz to Algeciras, continuing European route E05 to meet up with European route E15; the Autovía del Quinto Centenario (Autovía A-49), which continues west from Seville (where the Autovía A-4 turns toward the south) and goes on to Huelva and into Portugal as European route E01; the Autovía Ruta de la Plata (Autovía A-66), European route E803, which roughly corresponds to the ancient Roman 'Silver Route' from the mines of northern Spain, and runs north from Seville; the Autovía de Málaga (Autovía A-45), which runs south from Córdoba to Málaga; and the Autovía de Sierra Nevada (Autovía A-44), part of European route E902, which runs south from Jaén to the Mediterranean coast at Motril.
.]]
As of 2008 Andalusia has six public airports, all of which can legally handle international flights. The Málaga Airport is dominant, handling 60.67 percent of passengers and 85 percent of its international traffic. The Seville Airport handles another 20.12 percent of traffic, and the Jerez Airport 7.17 percent, so that these three airports account for 87.96 percent of traffic. Seville has Spain's only commercial river port. Other significant commercial ports in Andalusia are the ports of the Bay of Cádiz, Almería and Huelva.
The Council of Government has approved a Plan of Infrastructures for the Sustainability of Transport in Andalusia (PISTA) 2007–2013, which plans an investment of 30 billion euros during that period.<!-- this is not a strong citation, a better one would be welcome -->Energy infrastructureThe lack of high-quality fossil fuels in Andalusia has led to a strong dependency on petroleum imports. Still, Andalusia has a strong potential for the development of renewable energy, above all wind energy. The Andalusian Energy Agency established in 2005 by the autonomous government, is a new governmental organ charged with the development of energy policy and provision of a sufficient supply of energy for the community. Smaller solar power stations, also recent, exist at Cúllar and Galera, Granada, inaugurated by Geosol and Caja Granada. Two more large thermosolar facilities, Andasol I y II, planned at Hoya de Guadix in the province of Granada are expected to supply electricity to half a million households. The Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) in the Tabernas Desert is an important center for the exploration of the solar energy.
The largest wind power firm in the region is the Sociedad Eólica de Andalucía, formed by the merger of Planta Eólica del Sur S.A. and Energía Eólica del Estrecho S.A.
The Medgaz gas pipeline directly connects the Algerian town of Béni Saf to Almería.
Education
.]]
As throughout Spain, basic education in Andalusia is free and compulsory. Students are required to complete ten years of schooling, and may not leave school before the age of 16, after which students may continue on to a baccalaureate, to intermediate vocational education, to intermediate-level schooling in arts and design, to intermediate sports studies, or to the working world.
Andalusia has a tradition of higher education dating back to the Modern Age and the University of Granada, University of Baeza, and University of Osuna.
there were ten private or public universities in Andalusia. University studies are structured in cycles, awarding degrees based on ECTS credits in accord with the Bologna process, which the Andalusian universities are adopting in accord with the other universities of the European Higher Education Area.HealthcareResponsibility for healthcare jurisdictions devolved from the Spanish government to Andalusia with the enactment of the Statute of Autonomy. Thus, the Andalusian Health Service (Servicio Andaluz de Salud) currently manages almost all public health resources of the Community, with such exceptions as health resources for prisoners and members of the military, which remain under central administration.Science and technologyAccording to the Outreach Program for Science in Andalusia, Andalusia contributes 14 percent of Spain's scientific production behind only Madrid and Catalonia among the autonomous communities, even though regional investment in research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP is below the national average. The lack of research capacity in business and the low participation of the private sector in research has resulted in R&D taking place largely in the public sector.
The Council of Innovation, Science and Business is the organ of the autonomous government responsible for universities, research, technological development, industry, and energy. The council coordinates and initiates scientific and technical innovation through specialized centers an initiatives such as the Andalusian Center for Marine Science and Technology (Centro Andaluz de Ciencia y Tecnología Marina) and Technological Corporation of Andalusia (Corporación Tecnológica de Andalucía).
Within the private sphere, although also promoted by public administration, technology parks have been established throughout the Community, such as the Technological Park of Andalucia (Parque Tecnológico de Andalucía) in Campanillas on the outskirts of Málaga, and Cartuja 93 in Seville. Some of these parks specialize in specific sector, such as in aerospace or in food technology. The Andalusian government deployed 600,000 Ubuntu desktop computers in their schools.
Media
Andalusia has international, national, regional, and local media organizations, which are active gathering and disseminating information (as well as creating and disseminating entertainment).
The most notable is the public Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA), broadcasting on two regional television channels, Canal Sur and Canal Sur 2, four regional radio stations, Canal Sur Radio, Canal Fiesta Radio, Radio Andalucía Información and Canal Flamenco Radio, as well as various digital signals, most notably Canal Sur Andalucía available on cable TV throughout Spain.Newspapers
Different newspapers are published for each Andalusian provincial capital, comarca, or important city. Often, the same newspaper organization publishes different local editions with much shared content, with different mastheads and different local coverage. There are also popular papers distributed without charge, again typically with local editions that share much of their content.
No single Andalusian newspaper is distributed throughout the region, not even with local editions. In eastern Andalusia the has editions tailored for the provinces of Almería, Granada, and Jaén. Grupo Joly is based in Andalucia, backed by Andalusian capital, and publishes eight daily newspapers there. Efforts to create a newspaper for the entire autonomous region have not succeeded (the most recent as of 2009 was the Diario de Andalucía). The national press (, El Mundo, ABC, etc.) include sections or editions specific to Andalusia.
Public television
's headquarters, a former train station in Córdoba.]]
Andalusia has two public television stations, both operated by Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA):
* Canal Sur first broadcast on 28 February 1989 (Andalusia Day).
* Canal Sur 2 first broadcast 5 June 1998. Programming focuses on culture, sports, and programs for children and youth.
In addition, RTVA also operates the national and international cable channel Canal Sur Andalucía, which first broadcast in 1996 as Andalucía Televisión.
Radio
There are four public radio stations in the region, all operated by RTVA:
* , first broadcast October 1988.
* , first broadcast September 1998.
* , first broadcast January 2001.
* , first broadcast 29 September 2008.
Art and culture
dance and music is native to Andalusia.]]
The patrimony of Andalusia has been shaped by its particular history and geography, as well as its complex flows of population. Andalusia has been home to a succession of peoples and civilizations, many very different from one another, each impacting the settled inhabitants. The ancient Iberians were followed by Celts, Phoenicians and other Eastern Mediterranean traders, Romans, migrating Germanic tribes, Arabs or Berbers. All have shaped the Spanish patrimony in Andalusia, which was already diffused widely in the literary and pictorial genre of the costumbrismo andaluz.
In the 19th century, Andalusian culture came to be widely viewed as the Spanish culture par excellence, in part thanks to the perceptions of romantic travellers. In the words of Ortega y Gasset:
Arts
in the 19th century invented the current classical guitar.]]
Andalusia has been the birthplace of many great artists: the classic painters Velázquez, Murillo, and Juan de Valdés Leal; the sculptors Juan Martínez Montañés, Alonso Cano and Pedro de Mena; and such modern painters as Daniel Vázquez Díaz and Pablo Picasso.
The Spanish composer Manuel de Falla was from Cádiz and incorporated typical Andalusian melodies in his works, as did Joaquín Turina, from Seville. The great singer Camarón de la Isla was born in San Fernando, Cádiz, and Andrés Segovia who helped shape the romantic-modernist approach to classical guitar, was born in Linares, Jaén. The virtuoso Flamenco guitar player Paco de Lucia who helped internationalize Flamenco, was born in Algeciras, Cadiz.
Architecture
in Granada.]]
Since the Neolithic era, Andalusia has preserved important megaliths, such as the dolmens at the Cueva de Menga and the Dolmen de Viera, both at Antequera. Archeologists have found Bronze Age cities at Los Millares and El Argar. Archeological digs at Doña Blanca in El Puerto de Santa María have revealed the oldest Phoenicians city in the Iberian peninsula; major ruins have also been revealed at Roman Italica near Seville.
Some of the greatest architecture in Andalusia was developed across several centuries and civilizations, and the region is particularly famous for its Islamic and Moorish architecture, which includes the Alhambra complex, Generalife and the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba.
.]]
The traditional architecture of Andalusia retains its Roman with Arab influences brought by Muslims, with a marked Mediterranean character strongly conditioned by the climate. Traditional urban houses are constructed with shared walls to minimize exposure to high exterior temperatures. Solid exterior walls are painted with lime to minimize the heating effects of the sun. In accord with the climate and tradition of each area, the roofs may be terraces or tiled in the Roman imbrex and tegula style. One of the most characteristic elements (and one of the most obviously influenced by Roman architecture) is the interior patio or courtyard; the patios of Córdoba are particularly famous. Other characteristic elements are decorative (and functional) wrought iron gratings and the tiles known as azulejos. Landscaping—both for common private homes and homes on a more lavish scale—also carries on older traditions, with plants, flowers, and fountains, pools, and streams of water. Beyond these general elements, there are also specific local architectural styles, such as the flat roofs, roofed chimneys, and radically extended balconies of the Alpujarra, the cave dwellings of Guadix and of Granada's Sacromonte, or the traditional architecture of the Marquisate of Zenete.
.]]The monumental architecture of the centuries immediately after the Reconquista often displayed an assertion of Christian hegemony through architecture that referenced non-Arab influences. Some of the greatest Renaissance buildings in Andalusia are from the then-kingdom of Jaén: the Jaén Cathedral, designed in part by Andrés de Vandelvira, served as a model for the Cathedral of Malaga and Guadix; the centers of Úbeda and Baeza, dating largely from this era, are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Seville and its kingdom also figured prominently in this era, as is shown by the Casa consistorial de Sevilla, the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas, or the Charterhouse of Jerez de la Frontera. The Palace of Charles V in Granada is uniquely important for its Italianate purism. Andalusia also has such Baroque-era buildings as the Palace of San Telmo in Seville (seat of the current autonomic presidency), the Church of Our Lady of Reposo in Campillos, and the Granada Charterhouse. Academicism gave the region the Royal Tobacco Factory in Seville and Neoclassicism the nucleus of Cádiz, such as its , Royal Prison, and the Oratorio de la Santa Cueva.
Revivalist architecture in the 19th and 20th centuries contributed the buildings of the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 in Seville, including the Neo-Mudéjar Plaza de España. Andalusia also preserves an important industrial patrimony related to various economic activities.
Besides the architecture of the cities, there is also much outstanding rural architecture: houses, as well as ranch and farm buildings and dog houses.
Sculpture
.]]
The Iberian reliefs of Osuna, Lady of Baza, and , the Phoenician sarcophagi of Cádiz, and the Roman sculptures of the Baetic cities such as Italica give evidence of traditions of sculpture in Andalusia dating back to antiquity. There are few significant surviving sculptures from the time of al-Andalus; two notable exceptions are the lions of the Alhambra and of the Maristán of Granada (the Nasrid hospital in the Albaicín).
The Sevillian school of sculpture dating from the 13th century onward and the Granadan school beginning toward the end of the 16th century both focused primarily on Christian religious subject matter, including many wooden altarpieces. Notable sculptors in these traditions include Lorenzo Mercadante de Bretaña, , Juan Martínez Montañés, Pedro Roldán, , Jerónimo Balbás, Alonso Cano, and Pedro de Mena.
Non-religious sculpture has also existed in Andalusia since antiquity. A fine example from the Renaissance era is the decoration of the Casa de Pilatos in Seville. Nonetheless, non-religious sculpture played a relatively minor role until such 19th-century sculptors as .
Painting
As in sculpture, there were and the schools of painting. The former has figured prominently in the history of Spanish art since the 15th century and includes such important artists as Zurbarán, Velázquez and Murillo, as well as art theorists such as Francisco Pacheco. The Museum of Fine Arts of Seville and the Prado contain numerous representative works of the Sevillian school of painting.
A specific romantic genre known as costumbrismo andaluz depicts traditional and folkloric Andalusian subjects, such as bullfighting scenes, dogs, and scenes from Andalusia's history. Important artists in this genre include Manuel Barrón, José García Ramos, Gonzalo Bilbao and Julio Romero de Torres. The genre is well represented in the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, part of which is on display at Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and Carmen Thyssen Museum in Málaga.
Málaga also has been and is an important artistic center. Its most illustrious representative was Pablo Picasso, one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. The city has a Museum and Natal House Foundation, dedicated to the painter.
Literature and philosophy
]]
Andalusia plays a significant role in the history of Spanish-language literature, although not all of the important literature associated with Andalusia was written in Spanish. Before 1492, there was the literature written in Andalusian Arabic. Hispano-Arabic authors native to the region include Ibn Hazm, Ibn Zaydún, Ibn Tufail, Al-Mu'tamid, Ibn al-Khatib, Ibn al-Yayyab, and Ibn Zamrak or Andalusian Hebrew poets as Solomon ibn Gabirol. Ibn Quzman, of the 12th century, crafted poems in the colloquial Andalusian language.
In 1492 Antonio de Nebrija published his celebrated Gramática de la lengua castellana ("Grammar of the Castilian language"), the first such work for a modern European language. In 1528 Francisco Delicado wrote La lozana andaluza, a novel in the orbit of La Celestina, and in 1599 the Sevillian Mateo Alemán wrote the first part of Guzmán de Alfarache, the first picaresque novel with a known author.
The prominent humanist literary school of Seville included such writers as Juan de Mal Lara, Fernando de Herrera, Gutierre de Cetina, Luis Barahona de Soto, Juan de la Cueva, Gonzalo Argote de Molina, and Rodrigo Caro. The Córdoban Luis de Góngora was the greatest exponent of the culteranismo of Baroque poetry in the Siglo de Oro; indeed, the style is often referred to as Góngorismo.
Literary Romanticism in Spain had one of its great centers in Andalusia, with such authors as Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas, José Cadalso and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Costumbrismo andaluz existed in literature as much as in visual art, with notable examples being the Escenas andaluzas of Serafín Estébanez Calderón and the works of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón.
Andalusian authors Ángel Ganivet, Manuel Gómez-Moreno, Manuel and Antonio Machado, and Francisco Villaespesa are all generally counted in the Generation of '98. Also of this generation were the Quintero brothers, dramatists who faithfully captured Andalusian dialects and idiosyncrasies. Also of note, 1956 Nobel Prize-winning poet Juan Ramón Jiménez was a native of Moguer, near Huelva.
, prominent poet executed by Francoists during the Spanish Civil War.]]
A large portion of the avant-garde Generation of '27 who gathered at the Ateneo de Sevilla on the 300th anniversary of Góngora's death were Andalusians: Federico García Lorca, Luis Cernuda, Rafael Alberti, Manuel Altolaguirre, Emilio Prados, and 1977 Nobel laureate Vicente Aleixandre.
Certain Andalusian fictional characters have become universal archetypes: Prosper Mérimée's gypsy Carmen, P. D. Eastman's Perro, Pierre Beaumarchais's Fígaro, and Tirso de Molina's Don Juan.
As in most regions of Spain, the principal form of popular verse is the romance, although there are also strophes specific to Andalusia, such as the soleá or the . Ballads, lullabies, street vendor's cries, nursery rhymes, and work songs are plentiful.
Among the philosophers native to the region can be counted Seneca, Avicebron, Maimonides, Averroes, Fernán Pérez de Oliva, Sebastián Fox Morcillo, Ángel Ganivet, Francisco Giner de los Ríos and María Zambrano.
Music of Andalusia
.]]
The music of Andalusia includes traditional and contemporary music, folk and composed music, and ranges from flamenco to rock. Conversely, certain metric, melodic and harmonic characteristics are considered Andalusian even when written or performed by musicians from elsewhere.
Flamenco, perhaps the most characteristically Andalusian genre of music and dance, originated in the 18th century, but is based in earlier forms from the region. The influence of the traditional music and dance of the Romani people or Gypsies is particularly clear. The genre embraces distinct vocal (cante flamenco), guitar (toque flamenco), and dance (baile flamenco) styles.
The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy reflects the cultural importance of flamenco in its Articles 37.1.18 and 68:
Fundamental in the history of Andalusian music are the composers Cristóbal de Morales, Francisco Guerrero, Francisco Correa de Arauxo, Manuel García, Manuel de Falla, Joaquín Turina, and , as well as one of the fathers of modern classical guitar, the guitarist Andrés Segovia. Mention should also be made of the great folk artists of the copla (music) and the cante hondo, such as Rocío Jurado, Lola Flores (La Faraona, "the pharaoh"), Juanito Valderrama and the revolutionary Camarón de la Isla.
Prominent Andalusian rock groups include Triana and Medina Azahara. The duo Los del Río from Dos Hermanas had international success with their "Macarena", including playing at a Super Bowl half-time show in the United States, where their song has also been used as campaign music by the Democratic Party. Other notables include the singer, songwriter, and poet Joaquín Sabina, Isabel Pantoja, Rosa López, who represented Spain at Eurovision in 2002, and David Bisbal.
On 16 November 2023, Seville will host the 24th Annual Latin Grammy Awards at the FIBES Conference and Exhibition Centre, making Seville the first city outside of the United States to host the Latin Grammy Awards.
Film
]]
The portrayal of Andalusia in film is often reduced to archetypes: flamenco, bullfighting, Catholic pageantry, brigands, the property-rich and cash-poor señorito andaluz and emigrants. These images particularly predominated from the 1920s through the 1960s, and helped to consolidate a clichéd image of the region. In a very different vein, the province of Almería was the filming location for many Westerns, especially (but by no means exclusively) the Italian-directed Spaghetti Westerns. During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, this was the extent of the film industry in Andalusia.
Nonetheless, Andalusian film has roots as far back as José Val del Omar in the pre-Franco years, and since the Spanish transition to democracy has brought forth numerous nationally and internationally respected directors: (Heart of the Earth), Chus Gutiérrez (Poniente), (Carlos Against the World), Alberto Rodríguez (7 Virgins), Benito Zambrano (Solas), and Antonio Banderas (Summer Rain).
Counting together feature films, documentaries, television programs, music videos etc., Andalusia has boomed from 37 projects shooting in 1999 to 1,054 in 2007, with the figure for 2007 including 19 feature films. Although feature films are the most prestigious, commercials and television are currently more economically important to the region.
The , headquartered in Córdoba, is a government-run entity in charge of the investigation, collection and diffusion of Andalusian cinematic heritage. Other important contributors to this last activity are such annual film festivals as the Málaga Spanish Film Festival, the most important festival dedicated exclusively to cinema made in Spain, the Seville European Film Festival (SEFF), the International Festival of Short Films—Almería in Short, the Huelva Festival of Latin American Film, the Atlantic Film Show in Cádiz, the Islantilla Festival of Film and Television and the African Film Festival of Tarifa.<!-- Not sure if some of these festivals may have established names in English, which we should use if they do. In Spanish they are:
Festival de cine europeo de Sevilla,
Festival Internacional de Cortometrajes Almería en Corto,
Festival de Cine Iberoamericano de Huelva,
Muestra Cinematográfica del Atlántico Alcances,
Festival de cine y televisión de Islantilla,
Festival de Cine Africano de Tarifa.
All have articles in es-wiki. -->
Culture
Customs and society
, with the altar of the Virgin of El Rocío]]
Each sub-region in Andalusia has its own unique customs that represent a fusion of Catholicism and local folklore. Cities like Almería have been influenced historically by both Granada and Murcia in the use of traditional head coverings. The sombrero de Labrador, a worker's hat made of black velvet, is a signature style of the region.
In Cádiz, traditional costumes with rural origins are worn at bullfights and at parties on the large estates. The tablao flamenco dance and the accompanying cante jondo vocal style originated in Andalusia and traditionally most often performed by the gypsy (Gitanos). One of the most distinctive cultural events in Andalusia is the Romería de El Rocío in May. It consists of a pilgrimage to the Hermitage of El Rocío in the countryside near Almonte, in honor of the Virgin of El Rocío, an image of the Virgin and Child. In recent times the Romería has attracted roughly a million pilgrims each year.
In Jaén, the saeta is a revered form of Spanish religious song, whose form and style has evolved over many centuries. Saetas evoke strong emotion and are sung most often during public processions. Verdiales, based upon the fandango, are a flamenco music style and song form originating in Almogia, near Málaga. For this reason, the Verdiales are sometimes known as Fandangos de Málaga. The region also has a rich musical tradition of flamenco songs, or palos called cartageneras. Seville celebrates Semana Santa, one of the better known religious events within Spain. During the festival, religious fraternities dress as penitents and carry large floats of lifelike wooden sculptures representing scenes of the Passion, and images of the Virgin Mary. Sevillanas, a type of old folk music sung and written in Seville and still very popular, are performed in fairs and festivals, along with an associated dance for the music, the Baile por sevillanas. All the different regions of Andalusia have developed their own distinctive customs, but all share a connectedness to Catholicism as developed during baroque Spain society.Andalusian Spanish
. In other areas, all three letters are pronounced (), which is known as Seseo''. Still other areas retain the distinction found elsewhere in Spain. Note that the city of Cádiz has seseo.]]
Andalusian Spanish is one of the most widely spoken forms of Spanish in Spain, and because of emigration patterns was very influential on American Spanish. Rather than a single dialect, it is really a range of dialects sharing some common features; among these is
the retention of more Arabic words than elsewhere in Spain, as well as some phonological differences compared with Standard Spanish. The isoglosses that mark the borders of Andalusian Spanish overlap to form a network of divergent boundaries, so there is no clear border for the linguistic region. A fringe movement promoting an Andalusian language independent from Spanish exists.
Religion
The territory now known as Andalusia fell within the sphere of influence of ancient Mediterranean mythological beliefs. Phoenician colonization brought the cults of Baal and Melqart; the latter lasted into Roman times as Hercules, mythical founder of both Cádiz and Seville. The Islote de Sancti Petri held the supposed tomb of Hercules, with representations of his Twelve labors; the region was the traditional site of the tenth labor, obtaining the cattle of the monster Geryon. Traditionally, the Pillars of Hercules flank the Strait of Gibraltar. Clearly, the European pillar is the Rock of Gibraltar; the African pillar was presumably either Monte Hacho in Ceuta or Jebel Musa in Morocco. The Roman road that led from Cádiz to Rome was known by several names, one of them being , Hercules route returning from his tenth labor. The present coat of arms of Andalusia shows Hercules between two lions, with two pillars behind these figures.
Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Andalusia. In 2012, the proportion of Andalusians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 78.8%. Spanish Catholic religion constitute a traditional vehicle of Andalusian cultural cohesion, and the principal characteristic of the local popular form of Catholicism is devotion to the Virgin Mary; Andalusia is sometimes known as la tierra de María Santísima ("the land of Most Holy Mary"). Also characteristic are the processions during Holy Week, in which thousands of penitents (known as nazarenos) sing saetas. Andalusia is the site of such pilgrim destinations as the in Andújar and the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte.Bullfighting
: Joselito "El Gallo".]]
While some trace the lineage of the Spanish Fighting Bull back to Roman times, today's fighting bulls in the Iberian peninsula and in the former Spanish Empire trace back to Andalusia in the 15th and 16th centuries. Andalusia remains a center of bull-rearing and bullfighting: its 227 fincas de ganado where fighting bulls are raised cover .
Fried fish—pescaíto frito—and seafood are common on the coast and also eaten well into the interior under coastal influence. Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) from the Almadraba areas of the Gulf of Cádiz, prawns from Sanlúcar de Barrameda (known as langostino de Sanlúcar), and deepwater rose shrimp () from Huelva are all highly prized. Fishing for the transparent goby or chanquete (Aphia minuta), a once-popular small fish from Málaga, is now banned because the techniques used to catch them trap too many immature fish of other species.
The mountainous regions of the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada produce cured hams, notably including jamón serrano and jamón ibérico. These come from two different types of pig, (jamón serrano from white pigs, the more expensive jamón ibérico from the Black Iberian pig). There are several denominaciones de origen, each with its own specifications including in just which microclimate region ham of a particular denomination must be cured. Plato alpujarreño is another mountain specialty, a dish combining ham, sausage, sometimes other pork, egg, potatoes, and olive oil.
Confectionery is popular in Andalusia. Almonds and honey are common ingredients. Many enclosed convents of nuns make and sell pastries, especially Christmas pastries: mantecados, polvorones, pestiños, alfajores, , as well as churros or , meringue cookies (merengadas), and .
Cereal-based dishes include migas de harina in eastern Andalusia (a similar dish to couscous rather than the fried breadcrumb based migas elsewhere in Spain) and a sweeter, more aromatic porridge called poleá in western Andalusia.
Vegetables form the basis of such dishes as (similar to ratatouille) and the chopped salad known as or . Hot and cold soups based in olive oil, garlic, bread, tomato and peppers include gazpacho, salmorejo, porra antequerana, ajo caliente, sopa campera, or—using almonds instead of tomato—ajoblanco.
Wine has a privileged place at the Andalusian table. Andalusian wines are known worldwide, especially fortified wines such as sherry (jerez), aged in soleras. These are enormously varied; for example, dry sherry may be the very distinct fino, manzanilla, amontillado, oloroso, or Palo Cortado and each of these varieties can each be sweetened with Pedro Ximénez or Moscatel to produce a different variety of sweet sherry. Besides sherry, Andalucía has five other denominaciones de origen for wine: D.O. Condado de Huelva, D.O. Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda, D.O. Málaga, D.O. Montilla-Moriles, and D.O. Sierras de Málaga. Most Andalusian wine comes from one of these regions, but there are other historic wines without a Protected Geographical Status, for example Tintilla de Rota, Pajarete, Moscatel de Chipiona and Mosto de Umbrete.
Andalusia also produces D.O. vinegar and brandy: D.O. Vinagre de Jerez and D.O. Brandy de Jerez.
Andalusia is also known for its dogs, particularly the Andalusian Hound, which was originally bred in the region. Dogs, not just andalusian hounds, are very popular in the region.
Andalusian equestrianism, institutionalized in the Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art is known well beyond the borders of Spain. The Andalusian horse is strongly built, compact yet elegant, distinguished in the area of dressage and show jumping, and is also an excellent horse for driving. They are known for their elegant "dancing" gait.
<gallery widths"200px" heights"200px">
File:Alhambra - decorazioni2.JPG|Tiles from the Alhambra.
File:Andalusian, in "Majo" dress.jpg|Andalusian, in "Majo" dress
File:Conjunto sombreros.jpg|alt=Sombreros cordobeses|Sombreros cordobeses.
File:Chorromujo.jpg|alt=Sombrero de catite|Sombrero de catite.
</gallery>
Sports
Team sports
is the stadium of Málaga CF, one of four Andalusian clubs in Segunda División.]]
In Andalusia, as throughout Spain, football is the predominant sport. Introduced to Spain by British men who worked in mining for Rio Tinto in the province of Huelva, the sport soon became popular with the local population. As Spain's oldest existing football club, Recreativo de Huelva, founded 1889, is known as El Decano ("the Dean").
For the 2024–2025 season, two Andalusian clubs compete in Spain's First Division La Liga: Real Betis and Sevilla FC. Betis won La Liga in 1934–35 and Sevilla in the 1945–46 season. There are five Andalusian clubs playing in the second division: Málaga CF, Cádiz CF, Cordoba CF, UD Almeria, and Granada CF.
The Andalusia autonomous football team is not in any league, and plays only friendly matches. In recent years, they have played mostly during the Christmas break of the football leagues. They play mostly against national teams from other countries, but would not be eligible for international league play, where Spain is represented by a single national team.
In recent decades, basketball has become increasingly popular, with CB Málaga, also known as Unicaja Málaga who have won the Liga ACB in 2007 and the Korać Cup in 2001 and usually play the Euroleague, CB Sevilla (Banca Cívica) and CB Granada competing at the top level in the Liga ACB.
Unlike basketball, handball has never really taken off in Andalusia. There is one Andalusian team in the Liga Asobal, Spain's premier handball league: BM Puente Genil, playing in the province of Córdoba.
Andalusia's strongest showing in sports has been in table tennis. There are two professional teams: Cajasur Priego TM and Caja Granada TM, the latter being Spain's leading table tennis team, with more than 20 league championships in nearly consecutive years and 14 consecutive Copas del Rey, dominating the Liga ENEBÉ. Cajasur is also one of the league's leading teams. <!-- need citation for the championships -->Olympics
was constructed as part of Seville's bid to host the Summer Olympics]]
220 Andalusian athletes have competed in a total of 16 summer or winter Olympic Games. The first was Leopoldo Sainz de la Maza, part of the silver medal-winning polo team at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium.
In all, Andalusians have won six gold medals, 11 silver, and two bronze. Winners of multiple medals include the Córdoban boxer Rafael Lozano (bronze in the 1996 Summer Olympics at Atlanta, Georgia, US, and silver in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia); sailor Theresa Zabell, Malagueña by adoption (gold medals at Barcelona in 1992 and Atlanta in 1996). Other notable winners have been Granadan tennis player Manuel Orantes (silver in the men's singles of the demonstration tournament in Mexico City in 1968), Jerezano riders Ignacio Rambla and Rafael Soto (silver in dressage in Athens in 2004) and the racewalker Paquillo Fernández from Guadix (silver in Athens in 2004).
The largest number of Olympic appearances were by the Malagueña swimmer María Peláez (five appearances), the Granadan skier María José Rienda (four), the Sevillian rider Luis Astolfi (four), and the Sevillian rower Fernando Climent (four, including a silver at Los Angeles, California, US, in 1984.
Seville has been a pre-candidate to host the Summer Olympics in two occasions, 2004 and 2008, and Granada has been a pre-candidate to host the winter Olympics; neither has ever succeeded in its candidature. The ski resort of Sierra Nevada, near Granada, has however hosted the 1996 Alpine World Ski Championships, and Granada hosted the 2015 Winter Universiade.
Other sports
Other sporting events in Andalusia include surfing, kitesurfing and windsurfing competitions at Tarifa, various golf tournaments at courses along the coast, and horse racing and polo at several locations in the interior. Andalusia hosted the 1999 World Championships in Athletics (Seville), the 2005 Mediterranean Games (Almería) and the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 (Granada), among other major events. There is also the annual Vuelta a Andalucía bicycle road race and the Linares chess tournament. The Circuito de Jerez, located near Jerez de la Frontera, hosts the Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix.
Twinning and covenants
Andalusia has had a sister region relationship with Buenos Aires (Argentina), since 2001; and with Córdoba (Argentina). Also Andalusia has a collaboration agreement with Guerrero (Mexico).
See also
* Andalusian people
* Andalusian nationalism
* Azulejo
* List of Andalusians
* List of the oldest mosques
* Roman Bética Route
* San Juan De Los Terreros
* White Towns of Andalusia
* Yeseria
References
External links
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*
*
* [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es Official site – Junta de Andalucia]
* [http://www.andalucia.org/en/ Andalucia Tourism Site]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/travel/andalucia Andalucia page at the guardian]
}}
Category:Autonomous communities of Spain
Category:NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
Category:States and territories established in 1981
Category:States and territories established in 2007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.278957 |
2739 | Abhorrers | Abhorrers is the name given in 1679 to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King Charles II of England to assemble Parliament.
Feeling against Catholics, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, was very great.
To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved the parliament in July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its successor, which became known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament, without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together. This agitation was opposed by Sir George Jeffreys and Francis Wythens, who presented addresses expressing abhorrence of the Petitioners, and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to English political parties as consequence of this dispute.
References
Category:1679 in England
Category:Stuart England
Category:Political history of England | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhorrers | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.281977 |
2740 | Abiathar | thumb|220px|Statue of Abiathar (next to the Queen of Sheba) at Reims Cathedral.
Abiathar ( ʾEḇyāṯār, "father (of) abundance"/"abundant father"), in the Hebrew Bible, is a son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, High Priest at Nob, the fourth in descent from Eli and the last of Eli's House to be a High Priest.
Bible account
1 Samuel and 2 Samuel mention Abiathar several times.
According to these books, Abiathar was the only one of the priests to escape from Saul's (reigned c. 1020–1000 BCE) massacre in Nob, when his father and the priests of Nob were slain on the command of Saul. He fled to David (reigned c. 1003–970 BCE) at Keilah, taking with him the ephod and other priestly regalia. In rabbinical literature that links the later extermination of David's male descendants with that of the priests of Nob, the survival of David's descendant Joash is connected to that of Abiathar.
The Biblical account says Abiathar joined David, who was then in the cave of Adullam. He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader. He was of great service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion of Absalom. When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed High Priest and the "king's counselor". Meanwhile, Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made High Priest. Another version says he was Co-Pontiff with Zadok during King David. These appointments continued in force until the end of David's reign. In 1 Kings 4:4, Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon.
The text goes on to say that Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne instead of Solomon. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar to the house of Eleazar.
In rabbinic literature
The rescue of the chief priest Abiathar, in the massacre of the priests of Nob ordered by Saul, was fortunate for the house of David; for if he had lost his life, David's descendants would through divine retaliation have been entirely wiped out of existence at the hands of Athaliah. It was David's acts that had really brought about the death of the priests, and to make amends he appointed Abiathar high priest. Abiathar retained the office until he was deserted by the Holy Spirit, without which the high priest could not successfully consult the Urim and Thummim. Abiathar's removal from the Priesthood fulfilled that other part of the curse on the House of Eli—that the Priesthood would pass out of the House of Eli.
Confusion of the name
In 2 Samuel 8:17 Ahimelech, the son of Abiathar is suggested to be read, with the Syriac, for Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech.
A similar confusion occurs in Gospel of Mark:
References
Category:11th-century BCE high priests of Israel
Category:10th-century BCE high priests of Israel
Category:People from the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
Category:Family of Eli (biblical figure) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiathar | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.287729 |
2741 | Abigail | | children = Chileab
}}
Abigail () was an Israelite woman in the Hebrew Bible married to Nabal; she married the future King David after Nabal's death (1 Samuel ). Abigail was David's third wife, after Ahinoam and Saul's daughter, Michal, whom Saul later married to Palti, son of Laish, when David went into hiding.
Abigail became the mother of one of David's sons, who is listed in the Book of Chronicles under the name Daniel, in the Masoretic Text of the Books of Samuel as Chileab, and in the Septuagint text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, Dalouia. Her name is spelled Abigal in in the American Standard Version.
Name
Derived from the Hebrew word ab, "father", and the Hebrew root g-y-l, "to rejoice," the name Abigail has a variety of possible meanings including "my father's joy" and "source of joy".
Biblical narrative
|left]]
In 1 Samuel 25, Nabal demonstrates ingratitude towards David, the son of Jesse (from the tribe of Judah), and Abigail attempts to placate David, in order to stop the future King from taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to "have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed" (verse 31, NIV) and reminding him that God will make him a "lasting dynasty" (verse 28). Jon Levenson calls this an "undeniable adumbration" of Nathan's prophecy in 2 Samuel 7. Alice Bach notes that Abigail pronounces a "crucial prophecy," and the Talmud regards her as one of the Tanakh's seven female prophets. Levenson, however, suggests that she "senses the drift of history" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.
Abigail and David's second wife, Ahinoam the Jezreelite, accompany David and his war band as they seek refuge in Philistine territory. While David and his men are encamped near Jezreel, the women are captured by Amalekites who raided the town of Ziklag and carried off the women and children. David led the pursuit, and they were subsequently rescued. Both wives then settle with David in Hebron, where Abigail gives birth to David's second son, Chileab (also called Daniel). In terms of her moral character, Abraham Kuyper argues that Abigail's conduct indicates "a most appealing character and unwavering faith," but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.
Adele Berlin contrasts the story of Abigail with that of Bathsheba. In one, the wife prevents David from murdering her foolish and greedy husband. In the second, David orders the death of a good man because he desires his wife. "In the Abigail story, David, the potential king, is seen as increasingly strong and virtuous, whereas in the Bathsheba story, the reigning monarch shows his flaws ever more overtly and begins to lose control of his family." Richard M. Davidson, however, points out that "on the basis of the final form of Old Testament canon, references to Abigail in the biblical accounts indicate two different individuals."Generic use
]]
Abigail's self-styling as a handmaid led to Abigail being a traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the "waiting gentlewoman" in Beaumont and Fletcher's The Scornful Lady, published in 1616. Jonathan Swift, Tobias Smollett, and Henry Fielding use Abigail in this generic sense, as does Charlotte Brontë. Walter Scott, in The Abbot, frequently refers to Lilias, Lady Avenel's maid as an "Abigail". Anthony Trollope makes two references to "the abigail" (all lower case) in The Eustace Diamonds, at the beginning of Chapter 42, whilst Thomas Mann makes the same reference at the start of the second chapter of Part 2 in Buddenbrooks (published in 1901). William Rose Benet notes the notoriety of Abigail Hill, better known as "Mrs Masham", a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. George MacDonald Fraser makes mention of "an 'abigail' fussing about the room" in his novel Flashman from The Flashman Papers series.In art
Abigail, and especially her meeting with David, was a common subject of European artwork in the Renaissance and post-Renaissance period. Artists depicting her, or them, include Antonio Molinari, Juan Antonio Escalante, and Peter Paul Rubens.
Abigail is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the Heritage Floor.
Citations
General and cited references
* Chicago, Judy. The Dinner Party: From Creation to Preservation. London: Merrell (2007). .
* <!-- s:A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Abigail --> External links
*
Category:10th-century BC people
Category:10th-century BC women
Category:11th-century BC people
Category:11th-century BC women
Category:Christian royal saints
Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament
Category:Christian saints in unknown century
Category:Eastern Orthodox royal saints
Category:Books of Samuel people
Category:Roman Catholic royal saints
Category:Wives of David
Category:Women in the Hebrew Bible
Category:Nonviolence advocates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abigail | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.293892 |
2742 | Abila | Abila, also spelled Abyla, may refer to:
Places
Abila in the Decapolis, ancient city in the Levant
Abila Lysaniou, capital of ancient Abilene, northwest of present-day Damascus, Syria
Abila (Peraea), archaeological site in Jordan
Abila, Latin name of Ávila, Spain
Abyla, Roman colony in the province of Mauretania Tingitana
Mount Abila, mountain in Ceuta, autonomous city of Spain, in Africa
Other
Abila (grasshopper), a genus of grasshoppers
See also
Abela, a surname
Abilene (biblical) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abila | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.294775 |
2745 | Azad Kashmir | <!---Please do not add Indian or Pakistani English here-->
| map_caption1 = Interactive map of Azad Kashmir
| coordinates
| image_skyline = 4,045,366
| population_as_of = 2017
| population_footnotes | population_density_km2 auto
| population_demonym = Azad Kashmiri
| population_note | timezone1 PKT
| utc_offset1 = +05:00
| postal_code_type | postal_code
| area_code | area_code_type
| iso_code = PK-AJK
| blank_name_sec1 = Main language(s)
| blank_info_sec1 =
| blank1_name_sec2 = Divisions
| blank1_info_sec2 = 3
| blank2_name_sec2 = Districts
| blank2_info_sec2 = 10
| blank3_name_sec1 = Literacy rate (2017)
| blank3_info_sec1 74%
| website =
| footnotes | blank3_name_sec2 Tehsils
| blank3_info_sec2 = 33
| blank4_name_sec2 = Union Councils
| blank4_info_sec2 = 182
| blank5_name_sec1 = HDI (2019)
| blank5_info_sec1 0.612 <br/>
| official_name | anthem
| leader_title5 = Inspector General of Police
| leader_name5 = Amir Ahmed Sheikh
| leader_title6 = Chief Justice
| leader_name6 = Chief Justice Raja Saeed Akram Khan
| native_name = Āzād Jammū̃ o Kaśmīr
| native_name_lang = en
| image_caption =
}}
Azad Jammu and Kashmir (||Free Jammu and Kashmir}}), abbreviated as AJK and colloquially referred to as simply Azad Kashmir ( ), is a region administered by Pakistan as a nominally self-governing entity and constituting the western portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947. Azad Kashmir also shares borders with the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the south and west, respectively. On its eastern side, Azad Kashmir is separated from the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (part of Indian-administered Kashmir) by the Line of Control (LoC), which serves as the de facto border between the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir. Geographically, it covers a total area of and has a total population of 4,045,366 as per the 2017 national census.
The territory has a parliamentary form of government modelled after the British Westminster system, with the city of Muzaffarabad serving as its capital. The President of AJK is the constitutional head of state, while the Prime Minister, supported by a Council of Ministers, is the chief executive. The unicameral Azad Kashmir Legislative Assembly elects both the Prime Minister and President. The territory has its own Supreme Court and a High Court, while the Government of Pakistan's Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and Gilgit-Baltistan serves as a link between itself and Azad Jammu and Kashmir's government, although the autonomous territory is not represented in the Parliament of Pakistan.
Northern Azad Kashmir lies in a region that experiences strong vibrations of the earth as a result of the Indian plate underthrusting the Eurasian plate. A major earthquake in 2005 killed at least 100,000 people and left another three million people displaced, causing widespread devastation to the region's infrastructure and economy. Since then, with help from the Government of Pakistan and foreign aid, reconstruction of infrastructure is underway. Azad Kashmir's economy largely depends on agriculture, services, tourism, and remittances sent by members of the British Mirpuri community. Nearly 87% of Azad Kashmiri households own farm property, and the region has the highest rate of school enrollment in Pakistan and a literacy rate of approximately 74%. The following year, the party workers assembled at the house of Sardar Ibrahim on 19 July 1947, reversed the decision, demanding that the Maharaja accede to Pakistan.
Soon afterward, Sardar Ibrahim escaped to Pakistan and led the Poonch rebellion from there, with the assistance of Pakistan's prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan and other officials. Liaquat Ali Khan appointed a committee headed by Mian Iftikharuddin to draft a "declaration of freedom". On 4 October, an Azad Kashmir provisional government was declared in Lahore with Ghulam Nabi Gilkar as president under the assumed name "Mr. Anwar" and Sardar Ibrahim as the prime minister. Gilkar travelled to Srinagar and was arrested by the maharaja's government. Pakistani officials subsequently appointed Sardar Ibrahim as the president of the provisional government.}}History
of Jammu and Kashmir; present-day Azad Kashmir constitutes areas of the three western-most districts]]
At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the British abandoned their suzerainty over the princely states, which were left with the options of joining India or Pakistan or remaining independent. Hari Singh, the maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, wanted his state to remain independent. Muslims in the western districts of the Jammu province (current day Azad Kashmir) and in the Frontier Districts province (current day Gilgit-Baltistan) had wanted to join Pakistan.
In Spring 1947, an uprising against the maharaja broke out in Poonch, an area bordering the Rawalpindi division of West Punjab. The maharaja's administration is said to have started levying punitive taxes on the peasantry which provoked a local revolt and the administration resorted to brutal suppression. The area's population, swelled by recently demobilised soldiers following World War II, rebelled against the maharaja's forces and gained control of almost the entire district. Following this victory, the pro-Pakistan chieftains of the western districts of Muzaffarabad, Poonch and Mirpur proclaimed a provisional Azad Jammu and Kashmir government in Rawalpindi on 3 October 1947. Ghulam Nabi Gilkar, under the assumed name "Mr. Anwar," issued a proclamation in the name of the provisional government in Muzaffarabad. However, this government quickly fizzled out with the arrest of Anwar in Srinagar. On 24 October, a second provisional government of Azad Kashmir was established at Palandri under the leadership of Sardar Ibrahim Khan.
On 21 October, several thousand Pashtun tribesmen from North-West Frontier Province poured into Jammu and Kashmir to help with the rebellion against the maharaja's rule. They were led by experienced military leaders and were equipped with modern arms. The maharaja's crumbling forces were unable to withstand the onslaught. The tribesmen captured the towns of Muzaffarabad and Baramulla, the latter of which is northwest of the state capital Srinagar. On 24 October, the Maharaja requested military assistance from India, which responded that it was unable to help him unless he acceded to India. Accordingly, on 26 October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession, handing over control of defence, external affairs, and communications to the Government of India in return for military aid. Indian troops were immediately airlifted into Srinagar. Pakistan intervened subsequently.
India later approached the United Nations, asking it to resolve the dispute, and resolutions were passed in favour of the holding of a plebiscite with regard to Kashmir's future. However, no such plebiscite has ever been held on either side, since there was a precondition that required the withdrawal of the Pakistani army along with the non-state elements and the subsequent partial withdrawal of the Indian army from the parts of Kashmir under their respective control – a withdrawal that never took place. In 1949, a formal cease-fire line separating the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir came into effect.
Following the 1949 cease-fire agreement with India, the government of Pakistan divided the northern and western parts of Kashmir that it controlled at the time of the cease-fire into the following two separately controlled political entities:
* Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) – the narrow, southern part, long, with a width varying from .
* Gilgit–Baltistan formerly called the Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA) – the much larger political entity to the north of AJK with an area of .
In 1955, the Poonch uprising broke out. It was largely concentrated in areas of Rawalakot as well as the rest of Poonch Division. It ended in 1956.
In 1970, Yahya Khan's military administration promulgated a 'rudimentary' constitution, 'The Azad Jammu and Kashmir Government Act, 1970' which provided AJK a presidential system, an elected legislative assembly and 'considerable' autonomy. Snedden refers to it as having "delivered the most autonomy ever enjoyed by this region – or by any region in J&K." The central government only controlling foreign affairs, defence and currency, while the MKA was sidelined.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, then Prime-Minister of Pakistan, with some local support imposed the 'Azad Jammu and Kashmir Interim Constitution Act, 1974’ (Interim till the Kashmir dispute was resolved with India). It allowed AJK a directly elected AJK Legislative Assembly, and a smaller indirectly elected Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council in Islamabad. This arrangement reduced the power of the MKA, however Snedden referred to it as a "diminution."
The Constitution provides Kashmir its own President, Prime-Minister, High Court, Supreme Court, Auditor General and Chief Election Commissioner as well. The 13th Amendment to the AJK Constitution, passed in Muzaffarabad empowered the AJK government, increased the powers of the elected assembly, granted Azad Kashmir greater financial and administrative powers and sought to make the federal territory more autonomous. The word "Act" was also deleted from the Constitution.
At one time under Pakistani control, Kashmir's Shaksgam tract, a small region along the northeastern border of Gilgit–Baltistan, was provisionally ceded by Pakistan to the People's Republic of China in 1963 which helped in resolving China-Pakistan boundary dispute and now the forms part of China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.
In 1972, the then current border between the Indian and Pakistani controlled parts of Kashmir was designated as the "Line of Control". This line has remained unchanged since the 1972 Simla Agreement, which bound the two countries "to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations". Some political experts claim that, in view of that pact, the only solution to the issue is mutual negotiation between the two countries without involving a third party such as the United Nation. The 1974 Interim Constitution Act was passed by the 48-member Azad Jammu and Kashmir unicameral assembly.
In April 1997, the Nawaz Sharif government refused to grant constitutional status to Azad Jammu and Kashmir stating that "'The grant of constitutional rights to these people will amount to unilateral annexation of these areas."GeographyThe northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir encompasses the lower area of the Himalayas, including Jamgarh Peak (). However, Sarwali Peak (6326 m) in Neelum Valley is the highest peak in the state. but ever since the 1949 ceasefire between Indian and Pakistani forces, Pakistan has exercised control over the state without incorporating it into Pakistan. Azad Kashmir has its own elected president, prime minister, legislative assembly, high court (with Azam Khan as its present chief justice), and official flag.
Azad Kashmir's budget and tax affairs, are dealt with by the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council rather than by Pakistan's Central Board of Revenue. The Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council is a supreme body consisting of 14 members, 8 from the government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and 6 from the government of Pakistan. Its chairman/chief executive is the prime minister of Pakistan. Other members of the council are the president and the prime minister of Azad Kashmir (or an individual nominated by her/him) and 6 members of the AJK Legislative Assembly. That day is a national holiday in Pakistan. Pakistan observes the Kashmir Accession Day as Black Day on 27 October of each year since 1947 as a day of protest against the accession of Jammu and Kashmir State to India and its military presence in the Indian-controlled parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
Brad Adams, the Asia director at the U.S.-based NGO Human Rights Watch said in 2006: "Although 'azad' means 'free,' the residents of Azad Kashmir are anything but; the Pakistani authorities govern the Azad Kashmir government with tight controls on basic freedoms." Scholar Christopher Snedden has observed that despite tight controls, the people of Azad Kashmir have generally accepted whatever Pakistan has done to them, which in any case has varied little from how most Pakistanis have been treated (by Pakistan). According to Christopher Snedden, one of the reasons for this was that the people of Azad Kashmir had always wanted to be part of Pakistan.
Consequently, having little to fear from a pro-Pakistan population devoid of options, Germany, between 2006 and 2014, has also donated $38 million towards the AJK Health Infrastructure Programme.
Administrative divisions
The state is administratively divided into three divisions which, in turn, are divided into ten districts.
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!Division
!District
!Area (km<sup>2</sup>)
!Population (2017 Census)
!Headquarters
|-
| rowspan="3" |Mirpur||Mirpur||1,010
|456,200
|New Mirpur City
|-
|Kotli||1,862
|774,194
|Kotli
|-
|Bhimber||1,516||420,624
|Bhimber
|-
| rowspan="3" |Muzaffarabad||Muzaffarabad ||1,642
|650,370||Muzaffarabad
|-
|Hattian||854
|230,529
|Hattian Bala
|-
|Neelam Valley||3,621||191,251
|Athmuqam
|-
| rowspan="4" |Poonch||Poonch||855||500,571
|Rawalakot
|-
|Haveli||600||152,124
|Forward Kahuta
|-
|Bagh||768||371,919
|Bagh
|-
|Sudhanoti||569||297,584
|Palandri
|- style="background:#e6e6e6"
<!--
| colspan5 style"background: black" |
|- style="border: 3px solid darkgray;"-->
|Total
|10 districts
|13,297
|4,045,366
|Muzaffarabad
|}
, Bagh District]]
Demographics
Population
The population of Azad Kashmir, according to the preliminary results of the 2017 Census, is 4.045 million. The website of the AJK government reports the literacy rate to be 74%, with the enrolment rate in primary school being 98% and 90% for boys and girls respectively.
The population of Azad Kashmir is almost entirely Muslim. The people of this region culturally differ from the Kashmiris living in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir and are closer to the culture of Jammu. Mirpur, Kotli, and Bhimber are all old towns of the Jammu region.Religion
Azad Jammu and Kashmir has an almost entirely Muslim population. According to data maintained by Christian community organizations, there are around 4,500 Christian residents in the region. Bhimber is home to most of them, followed by Mirpur and Muzaffarabad. A few dozen families also live in Kotli, Poonch, and Bagh. However, the Christian community has been struggling to get residential status and property rights in AJK.
There is no official data on the total number of Bahais in AJK. Only six Bahai families are known to be living in Muzaffarabad with others living in rural areas.
The followers of the Ahmadi faith are estimated to be somewhere between 20,000 and 25,000, and most of them live in Kotli, Mirpur, Bhimber, and Muzaffarabad.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Jammu & Kashmir Princely State era)
! rowspan="2" |Religious<br>group
! colspan"2" |1891
! colspan"2" |1901
! colspan"2" |1911
! colspan"2" |1921
! colspan"2" |1931
! colspan"2" |1941
|-
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
! Islam
| 659,265
|
| 747,426
|
| 749,945
|
| 780,607
|
| 850,135
|
| 939,460
|
|-
! Hinduism
| 92,639
|
| 108,331
|
| 84,130
|
| 81,733
|
| 87,554
|
| 93,559
|
|-
! Sikhism
| 6,918
|
| 17,132
|
| 20,391
|
| 24,491
|
| 31,709
|
| 39,910
|
|-
! Jainism
| 64
|
| 0
|
| 8
|
| 6
|
| 11
|
| 0
|
|-
! Christianity
| 21
|
| 18
|
| 55
|
| 24
|
| 168
|
| 136
|
|-
! Buddhism
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 2
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
|-
! Zoroastrianism
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 1
|
| 0
|
|-
! Tribal
| 0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
|-
! Judaism
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 0
|
|-
! Others
| 0
|
| 8
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 0
|
| 89
|
|-
! Total population
! 758,907
!
! 872,915
!
! 854,531
!
! 886,861
!
! 969,578
!
! 1,073,154
!
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" |
|}
Ethnic groups
Christopher Snedden writes that most of the native residents of Azad Kashmir are not of Kashmiri ethnicity; rather, they could be called "Jammuites" due to their historical and cultural links with that region, which is coterminous with neighbouring Punjab and Hazara. Because their region was formerly a part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and is named after it, many Azad Kashmiris have adopted the "Kashmiri" identity, whereas in an ethnolinguistic context, the term "Kashmiri" would ordinarily refer to natives of the Kashmir Valley region. The population of Azad Kashmir has strong historical, cultural and linguistic affinities with the neighbouring populations of upper Punjab and Potohar region of Pakistan, whereas the Sudhans have the oral tradition of Pashtuns.
The main communities living in this region are:
* Gujjars – They are an agricultural tribe and are estimated to be the largest community living in the ten districts of Azad Kashmir. They are estimated to number around 800,000.
* Sudhans – (also known as Sadozai, Sardar) are the second largest tribe, inhabiting mainly the districts of Poonch, Sudhanoti, Bagh, and Kotli in Azad Kashmir. They allegedly originated from Pashtun areas. Mirpuri Jats number approximately 300 000.Languages
The official language of Azad Kashmir is Urdu, while English is used in higher domains. The majority of the population, however, are native speakers of other languages. The foremost among these is Pahari–Pothwari with its various dialects. There are also sizeable communities speaking Kashmiri (mostly in the north), Gujari (throughout the territory), and Dogri (in the south), as well as pockets of speakers of Kundal Shahi, Shina and Pashto. With the exception of Pashto and English, those languages belong to the Indo-Aryan language family.
The dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari language complex cover most of the territory of Azad Kashmir. Those are also spoken across the Line of Control in the neighbouring areas of Indian Jammu and Kashmir and are closely related both to Punjabi to the south and Hindko to the northwest. The language variety in the southern districts of Azad Kashmir is known by a variety of names – including Mirpuri, Pothwari and Pahari – and is closely related to the Pothwari proper spoken to the east in the Pothohar region of Punjab. The dialects of the central districts of Azad Kashmir are occasionally referred to in the literature as Chibhali or Punchi, but the speakers themselves usually call them Pahari, an ambiguous name that is also used for several unrelated languages of the lower Himalayas. Going north, the speech forms gradually change into Hindko. Today, in the Muzaffarabad District the preferred local name for the language is Hindko, although it is still apparently more closely related to the core dialects of Pahari. Further north in the Neelam Valley the dialect, locally also known as Parmi, can more unambiguously be subsumed under Hindko.
Another major language of Azad Kashmir is Gujari. It is spoken by several hundred thousand people among the traditionally nomadic Gujars, many of whom are nowadays settled. Not all ethnic Gujars speak Gujari, the proportion of those who have shifted to other languages is probably higher in southern Azad Kashmir. Gujari is most closely related to the Rajasthani languages (particularly Mewati), although it also shares features with Punjabi. It is dispersed over large areas in northern Pakistan and India. Within Pakistan, the Gujari dialects of Azad Kashmir are more similar, in terms of shared basic vocabulary and mutual intelligibility, to the Gujar varieties of the neighbouring Hazara region than to the dialects spoken further to the northwest in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north in Gilgit.
There are scattered communities of Kashmiri speakers, notably in the Neelam Valley, where they form the second-largest language group after speakers of Hindko. There have been calls for the teaching of Kashmiri (particularly in order to counter India's claim of promoting the culture of Kashmir), but the limited attempts at introducing the language at the secondary school level have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims have seen as their identity symbol. There is an ongoing process of gradual shift to larger local languages, but at least in the Neelam Valley there still exist communities for whom Kashmiri is the sole mother tongue.
There are speakers of Dogri in the southernmost district of Bhimber, where they are estimated to represent almost a third of the district's population. Historically the economy of Azad Kashmir has been agricultural which meant that land was the main source or mean of production. This means that all food for immediate and long-term consumption was produced from the land. The produce included various crops, fruits, vegetables, etc. The land was also the source of other livelihood necessities such as wood, fuel, grazing for animals which then turned into dairy products. Because of this land was also the main source of revenue for the governments whose primary purpose for centuries was to accumulate revenue.
Agriculture is a major part of Azad Kashmir's economy. Low-lying areas that have high populations grow crops like barley, mangoes, millet, corn (maize), and wheat, and also raise cattle. In the elevated areas that are less populated and more spread out, forestry, corn, and livestock are the main sources of income. There are mineral and marble resources in Azad Kashmir close to Mirpur and Muzaffarabad. There are also graphite deposits at Mohriwali. There are also reservoirs of low-grade coal, chalk, bauxite, and zircon. Local household industries produce carved wooden objects, textiles, and dhurrie carpets.
]]
The migration to the UK was accelerated and by the completion of Mangla Dam in 1967 the process of 'chain migration' became in full flow. Today, remittances from British Mirpuri community make a critical role in AJK's economy. In the mid-1950s various economic and social development processes were launched in Azad Kashmir. In the 1960s, with the construction of the Mangla Dam in Mirpur District, the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Government began to receive royalties from the Pakistani government for the electricity that the dam provided to Pakistan. During the mid-2000s, a multibillion-dollar reconstruction began in the aftermath of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.
In addition to agriculture, textiles, and arts and crafts, remittances have played a major role in the economy of Azad Kashmir. One analyst estimated that the figure for Azad Kashmir was 25.1% in 2001. With regard to annual household income, people living in the higher areas are more dependent on remittances than are those living in the lower areas. In the latter part of 2006, billions of dollars for development were mooted by international aid agencies for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of earthquake-hit zones in Azad Kashmir, though much of that amount was subsequently lost in bureaucratic channels, leading to considerable delays in help getting to the neediest. Hundreds of people continued to live in tents long after the earthquake. The literacy rate of Azad Kashmir was 76.60% in 2018. It remained at 79.80% in 2019. According to the 2020–2021 census, the literacy rate in Azad Kashmir was 91.34%. However, only 2.2% were graduates, compared to the average of 2.9% for Pakistan.
Universities
The following is a list of universities recognised by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC):
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left;"
|-
! University
! Location(s)
! Established
! Type
! Specialization
! Website
|-
|Mirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur
|Mirpur
|1980 <small>(2008)*</small>
|Public
|Engineering & Technology
|[http://www.must.edu.pk/]
|-
|University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir
|Muzaffarabad
|1980
|Public
|General
|[http://www.ajku.edu.pk/]
|-
|University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Neelam Campus)
|Neelum
|2013
|Public
|General
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20131213133609/http://ajku.edu.pk/campus.php?CampusID=2]
|-
|University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Jhelum Valley Campus)
|Jhelum Valley District
|2013
|Public
|General
|[http://jvc.ajku.edu.pk/]
|-
|Al-Khair University
|Bhimber
|1994 <small>(2011*)</small>
|Private
|General
|[http://www.alkhair.edu.pk/]
|-
|Mohi-ud-Din Islamic University
|Nerian Sharif
|2000
|Private
|General
|[http://www.miu.edu.pk/]
|-
|University of Poonch (Rawlakot Campus)
|Rawalakot
|1980 <small>(2012)*</small>
|Public
|General
|[http://www.upr.edu.pk/index.php]
|-
|University of Poonch (SM Campus, Mong, Sudhnoti District)
|Sudhnoti District
|2014
|Public
|General
|[http://www.upr.edu.pk/?optionarticles&id192]
|-
|University of Poonch (Kahuta Campus, Haveli District)
|Haveli District
|2015
|Public
|General
|[http://www.upr.edu.pk/?optionarticles&id192]
|-
|Women University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Bagh
|Bagh
|2013
|Public
|General
|[http://www.wuajk.edu.pk/]
|-
|University of Management Sciences and Information Technology
|Kotli
|2014
|Public
|General
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20141108144942/http://www.umsit.edu.pk/]
|-
|Mirpur University of Science and Technology (Bhimber Campus)
|Bhimber
|2013
|Public
|Science & Humanities
|[http://www.must.edu.pk/]
|}
<small>* Granted university status.</small>
Cadet College Pallandri
* Cadet College Palandri is situated about from Islamabad
* Cadet College Muzzaffarabad
* Cadet College Mirpur
Medical colleges
The following is a list of undergraduate medical institutions recognised by Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC) .
* Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Medical College in Mirpur
* Azad Jammu Kashmir Medical College in Muzafarabad
* Poonch Medical College in Rawalakot
Private medical colleges
Sports
Football, cricket, and volleyball are very popular in Azad Kashmir. Many tournaments are also held throughout the year and in the holy month of Ramazan, night-time flood-lit tournaments are also organised.
Azad Kashmir has its own T20 tournament called the Kashmir Premier League, which started in 2021.
New Mirpur City has a cricket stadium (Quaid-e-Azam Stadium) which has been taken over by the Pakistan Cricket Board for renovation to bring it up to the international standards. There is also a cricket stadium in Muzaffarabad with a capacity of 8,000 people. This stadium has hosted 8 matches of the Inter-District Under 19 Tournament 2013.
There are also registered football clubs:
* Pilot Football Club
* Youth Football Club
* Kashmir National FC
* Azad Super FC
Culture
Tourism
Notable people
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Wikipedia ♦♦♦--->
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦--->
* Nisaran Abbasi, politician
* Mujahida Hussain Bibi, recipient of Sitara-e-Jurat.
* Maqbool Hussain, recipient of Sitara-e-Jurat.
* Saif Ali Janjua, recipient of Nishan-e-Haider.
* Aziz Khan, 11th Chairman Joint Chief of Staff Committee (CJCSC) of Pakistan Armed Forces.
* Khan Muhammad Khan, politician from Poonch who served as the Chairman of the War Council during the 1947 Poonch Rebellion.
* Muhammad Hayyat Khan, former President of Azad Kashmir.
* Sardar Ibrahim Khan, first and longest-serving President of Azad Kashmir.
* Masood Khan, former President of Azad Kashmir and current Pakistani ambassador to the United States.
* Zaman Khan, cricketer currently playing for the Pakistani national cricket team.
* Khalid Mahmood, British politician and Labour MP for Birmingham Perry Barr.
* Irfan Sabir, Canadian politician and NDP MLA for Calgary-Bhullar-McCall.
* Mohammad Yasin, British politician and Labour MP for Bedford.
See also
* Northern Pakistan
* 1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir
* Kashmir conflict
* Tourism in Azad Kashmir
* List of cultural heritage sites in Azad Kashmir
Notes
References
; Sources
*
* }}
*
* }}
*
* }}
*
*
*
* }}
** }}
* }}
*
Further reading
*
* External links
*
* [http://pndajk.gov.pk/ Planning & Development Department AJ&K] AJ&K Planning and Development Department
* [https://ajktourism.gov.pk/ AJ&K Tourism & Archaeology Department] Tourism in Azad Kashmir
Category:Disputed territories in Asia
Category:Foreign relations of Pakistan
Category:States and territories established in 1947
Category:States and territories of Pakistan
Category:Territorial disputes of India
Category:2005 Kashmir earthquake
Category:Countries and territories where Urdu is an official language
Category:Kashmiri-speaking countries and territories | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Kashmir | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.353191 |
2747 | Arabian Sea | | pushpin_map | pushpin_map_alt
| pushpin_map_caption | image_bathymetry Arabian Sea in its region.svg
| alt_bathymetry | caption_bathymetry The Arabian Sea as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization
| location = East Africa, West Asia and South Asia
| coordinates
| type = Sea
| part_of = Indian Ocean
| inflow | rivers
| outflow | catchment
| basin_countries = India<br>Iran<br>Maldives<br>Oman<br>Pakistan<br>Seychelles<br>Somalia<br>Sri Lanka<br>Yemen
| agency | designation
| length | width
| area (3,600,000 to 4,600,000 km2 in various sources)
| depth | max-depth
| volume | residence_time
| salinity | shore
| elevation | frozen
| islands = Astola island, Basavaraj Durga Island, Bundal Island, Charna Island, Clifton Oyster Rocks, Khiprianwala Island, Lakshadweep, Malan Island, Manora Island, Masirah Island, Piram Island, Pirotan, Shams Pir, Socotra Archipelago
| sections | islands_category
| trenches | benches
| cities | website
| reference =
}}
The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea and the Maldives, on the southwest by Somalia. Its total area is and its maximum depth is . The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.
Geography
The Arabian Sea's surface area is about . The maximum width of the sea is approximately , and its maximum depth is . The biggest river flowing into the sea is the Indus River.
The Arabian Sea has two important branches: the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian Coast.
The Arabian Sea has been crossed by many important marine trade routes since the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE. Major seaports include Kandla Port, Mundra Port, Pipavav Port, Dahej Port, Hazira Port, Mumbai Port, Nhava Sheva Port (Navi Mumbai), Mormugão Port (Goa), New Mangalore Port and Kochi Port in India, the Port of Karachi, Port Qasim, and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Chabahar Port in Iran and the Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra (Yemen), Masirah Island (Oman), Lakshadweep (India) and Astola Island (Pakistan).
The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, Iran, India and the Maldives.
*On the west: the eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden.
*On the north: a line joining Ràs al Hadd, east point of the Arabian Peninsula (22°32'N) and Ràs Jiyùni (61°43'E) on the coast of Pakistan.
*On the south: a line running from the southern extremity of Addu Atoll in the Maldives, to the eastern extremity of Ràs Hafun (the easternmost point of Africa, 10°26'N).
*On the east: the western limit of the Laccadive Sea a line running from Sadashivgad on the west coast of India () to Cora Divh () and thence down the west side of the Laccadive and Maldive archipelagos to the most southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives.
Hydrography
The International Indian Ocean Expedition in 1959 was among the first to perform hydrographic surveys of the Arabian Sea. Significant bathymetric surveys were also conducted by the Soviet Union during the 1960s.Hydrographic features
Significant features in the northern Arabian Sea include the Indus Fan, the second largest fan system in the world. The De Covilhao Trough, named after the 15th century Portuguese explorer Pero de Covilhăo, reaches depths of and separates the Indus Fan region from the Oman Abyssal Plain, which eventually leads to the Gulf of Oman.
The southern limits are dominated by the Arabian Basin, a deep basin reaching depths over . The northern sections of the Carlsberg Ridge flank the southern edge of the Arabian Basin.
The deepest parts of the Arabian Sea are in the Alula-Fartak Trough on the western edge of the Arabian Sea off the Gulf of Aden. The trough, reaching depths over , traverses the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. The deepest known point is in the Arabian Sea limits at a depth of . Other significant deep points are part of the Arabian Basin, which include a deep point off the northern limit of Calrsberg Ridge.SeamountsProminent sea mounts off the Indian west coast include Raman Seamount named after C. V. Raman, Panikkar Seamount, named after N. K. Panikkar, and the Wadia Guyot, named after D. N. Wadia.
Sind'Bad Seamount, named after the fictional explorer Sinbad the Sailor, Zheng He Seamount, and the Mount Error Guyot are some notable sea mounts in western Arabian Sea.Border and basin countriesBorder and basin countries:
# - 2,500 km coastline
# - 1,050 km coastline
#
#
#
#
#
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Bandra Sea Link aerial.jpg|right|Arabian Sea above Bombay/Mumbai
File:Arabian Sea - October 2012.jpg|right|Arabian Sea seen from space
File:Arabian Sea in Karachi.jpg|right|Arabian Sea in Karachi, Pakistan
</gallery>
Alternative names
The Arabian Sea historically and geographically has been referred to with different names by Arabian and European geographers and travelers, including Erythraean Sea, Indian Sea, Oman sea, Erythraean, Persian Sea in para No 34-35 of the Voyage. In Indian folklore, it is referred to as Darya, Sindhu Sagar, Arab Samudra.
Arab geographers, sailors and nomads used to call this sea by different names, including the Akhdar (Green) Sea, Bahre Fars (Persian Sea), the Ocean Sea, the Hindu sea, the Makran Sea, the sea of Oman; among them Zakariya al-Qazwini, Al-Masudi, Ibn Hawqal and Hafiz-i Abru. They wrote: "The green sea and Indian sea and Persian sea are all one sea and in this sea there are strange creatures." in Iran and Turkey people call it Oman sea.
In the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well as in some ancient maps, Erythraean Sea refers to the whole area of the northwestern Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Soulier, E.; Andriveau-Goujon, J. Anciens Empires Jusqua Alexandre. 1838.jpg|Erythraean Sea 1838.
File:1658 Jansson Map of the Indian Ocean (Erythrean Sea) in Antiquity - Geographicus - ErythraeanSea-jansson-1658.jpg|1658 Jansson Map of the Indian Ocean (Erythraean Sea)
File:The western part of the Indian Ocean, by Vincenzo Maria Coronelli, 1693, from his system of global gores the south.jpg|The western part of the Indian Ocean,1693
File:PeriplusAncientMap.jpg|17th century map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
File:A horizontal Malabar Coast miniature, a reprint by Petrus Bertius, 1630.jpg|A horizontal Malabar Coast miniature, a reprint by Petrus Bertius, 1630
File:Basra-ps64.JPG|Persian Sea
File:Asia in the shape of the mythical winged horse Pegasus..jpg|Asia. Sinus Persicus and the Mare Persicum
</gallery>
Trade routes
The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north.
These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh, India with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of modern-day Iran, then split around Hadhramaut, Yemen into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates.
This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's Suez Canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.
Major ports
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India.
Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram and Mormugão.
at Kochi Port in India]]
The Port of Karachi, Pakistan's largest and busiest seaport lies on the coast of the sea. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar.
The Gwadar Port of Pakistan is a warm-water, deep-sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately east of Pakistan's border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead-shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline.
Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5m teu in 2009.
Islands
There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and Astola Island (Pakistan).
The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, off the southwestern coast of India. The archipelago is a union territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. The islands form the smallest union territory of India with their total surface area being just . Next to these islands are the Maldives islands. These islands are all part of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands.
Zalzala Koh was an island which was around for only a few years. After the 2013 earthquake in Pakistan, the mud island was formed. By 2016 the island had completely submerged.
Astola Island, also known as Jezira Haft Talar in Balochi, or 'Island of the Seven Hills', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan's territorial waters.
Socotra, also spelled Soqotra, is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some east of the Horn of Africa and south of the Arabian Peninsula.
Masirah and the five Khuriya Muriya Islands are islands off the southeastern coast of Oman.
Major coastal cities
*Aden
*Colombo
*Gwadar
*Karachi
*Mogadishu
*Mumbai
*Muscat
Oxygen minimum zone
The Arabian Sea has one of the world's three largest oceanic oxygen minimum zones (OMZ), or “dead zones,” along with the eastern tropical North Pacific and the eastern tropical South Pacific. OMZs have very low levels of oxygen, sometimes so low as to be undetectable by standard equipment. The Arabian Sea's OMZ has the lowest levels of oxygen in the world, especially in the Gulf of Oman. Causes of the OMZ may include untreated sewage as well as high temperatures on the Indian subcontinent, which increase winds blowing towards India, bringing up nutrients and reducing oxygen in the Arabian Sea's waters. In winter, phytoplankton suited to low-oxygen conditions turn the OMZ bright green.
Environment and wildlife
The wildlife of the Arabian sea is diverse, and entirely unique because of the geographic distribution.
<gallery>
File:Karachi Mangroves.jpg|Mangrove forests of Karachi, Pakistan
File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif|Critically endangered Sea Creatures
File:Dugong.jpg|Dugong mother & her offspring in shallow waters
File:Red Coast of Makoran sea Iran.jpg|Makran Coast, Iran
</gallery>
Arabian Sea warming
Recent studies by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology confirmed that the Arabian Sea is warming monotonously; it possibly is due to global warming. The intensification and northward shift of the summer monsoon low-level jet over the Arabian Sea from 1979 to 2015, led to increased upper ocean heat content due to enhanced downwelling and reduced southward heat transport.See also
* Indian Ocean Rim Association
* North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone
* Piracy off the coast of Somalia
References
Sources
* [https://japan.mfa.gov.ir/en/newsview/536034 A book and Atlas]
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110523064712/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/arabian_sea.cfm Arabian Sea (World Wildlife Fund)]
Sea
Category:Marine ecoregions
Category:Bodies of water of Iran
Category:Bodies of water of the Maldives
Category:Bodies of water of Pakistan
Category:Bodies of water of Oman
Category:Bodies of water of Somalia
Category:Seas of Africa
Category:Seas of Asia
Category:Seas of India
Category:Seas of the Indian Ocean
Category:Seas of Iran
Category:Seas of Yemen
Category:India–Pakistan border
Category:Oman–Yemen border | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.368167 |
2752 | Aspartame | or <br />
| Reference
| ImageFile = Aspartame.svg
| ImageName = Aspartame
| ImageClass = skin-invert-image
| ImageFile1 = Aspartame-from-hydrate-xtal-2000-3D-balls.png
| ImageName1 = Ball-and-stick model of aspartame
| ImageFile2 = Aspartame sample.jpg
| IUPACName = Methyl -α-aspartyl--phenylalaninate
| SystematicName =(3S)-3-amino-4-「[(2S)-1-methoxy-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino」-4-oxobutanoic acid
| OtherNames = -α-Aspartyl)--phenylalanine|1-methyl ester}}
| Section1 =
| CASNo = 22839-47-0
| Beilstein = 2223850
| ChEBI_Ref =
| ChEBI = 2877
| ChEMBL_Ref =
| ChEMBL = 171679
| ChemSpiderID_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID = 118630
| DrugBank_Ref =
| DrugBank = DB00168
| UNII_Ref =
| UNII = Z0H242BBR1
| InChI = 1/C14H18N2O5/c1-21-14(20)11(7-9-5-3-2-4-6-9)16-13(19)10(15)8-12(17)18/h2-6,10-11H,7-8,15H2,1H3,(H,16,19)(H,17,18)/t10-,11-/m0/s1
| InChIKey = IAOZJIPTCAWIRG-QWRGUYRKBV
| StdInChI_Ref =
| StdInChI = 1S/C14H18N2O5/c1-21-14(20)11(7-9-5-3-2-4-6-9)16-13(19)10(15)8-12(17)18/h2-6,10-11H,7-8,15H2,1H3,(H,16,19)(H,17,18)/t10-,11-/m0/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref =
| StdInChIKey = IAOZJIPTCAWIRG-QWRGUYRKSA-N
| SMILES OC(O)C[C@H](N)C(O)N[C@H](C(O)OC)Cc1ccccc1
| KEGG_Ref =
| KEGG = C11045
| PubChem = 134601
| EC_number = 245-261-3
}}
| Section2 = g/cm
| Solubility = Sparingly soluble
| SolubleOther = Slightly soluble in ethanol
| pKa 4.5–6.0
}}
| Section6 =
| Section7 =
}}
Aspartame is an artificial non-saccharide sweetener commonly used as a sugar substitute in foods and beverages. Reviews by over 100 governmental regulatory bodies found the ingredient safe for consumption at the normal acceptable daily intake limit.
Uses
Aspartame is about 180 to 200 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). Due to this property, even though aspartame produces roughly the same energy per gram when metabolized as sucrose does, , the quantity of aspartame needed to produce the same sweetness is so small that its caloric contribution is negligible.
Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze (break down) into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener and prone to degradation in products hosting a high pH, as required for a long shelf life. The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in maltodextrin. The stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its half-life is nearly 300 days. At pH 7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable. In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin.
Descriptive analyses of solutions containing aspartame report a sweet aftertaste as well as bitter and off-flavor aftertastes.
Acceptable levels of consumption
The acceptable daily intake (ADI) value for food additives, including aspartame, is defined as the "amount of a food additive, expressed on a body weight basis, that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable health risk". The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the European Commission's Scientific Committee on Food (later becoming EFSA) have determined this value is 40 mg/kg of body weight per day for aspartame, while the FDA has set its ADI for aspartame at 50 mg/kg per day an amount equated to consuming 75 packets of commercial aspartame sweetener per day to be within a safe upper limit.
Reviews have analyzed studies which have looked at the consumption of aspartame in countries worldwide, including the US, countries in Europe, and Australia, among others. These reviews have found that even the high levels of intake of aspartame, studied across multiple countries and different methods of measuring aspartame consumption, are well below the ADI for safe consumption of aspartame. Safety and health effects
The safety of aspartame has been studied since its discovery, and it is a rigorously tested food ingredient. Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries, including the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), UK Food Standards Agency, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Health Canada, and Food Standards Australia New Zealand. A 2017 review of metabolic effects by consuming aspartame found that it did not affect blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, calorie intake, or body weight. While high-density lipoprotein levels were higher compared to control, they were lower compared to sucrose.
In 2023, the World Health Organization recommended against the use of common non-sugar sweeteners (NSS), including aspartame, to control body weight or lower the risk of non-communicable diseases, stating: "The recommendation is based on the findings of a systematic review of the available evidence which suggests that use of NSS does not confer any long-term benefit in reducing body fat in adults or children. Results of the review also suggest that there may be potential undesirable effects from long-term use of NSS, such as an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality in adults."
Phenylalanine
High levels of the naturally occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine are a health hazard to those born with phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare inherited disease that prevents phenylalanine from being properly metabolized. Because aspartame contains phenylalanine, foods containing aspartame sold in the US must state: "Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine" on product labels.
In Canada, foods that contain aspartame are required to list aspartame among the ingredients, include the amount of aspartame per serving, and state that the product contains phenylalanine.
Phenylalanine is one of the essential amino acids and is required for normal growth and maintenance of life. and EFSA, These conclusions are based on various sources of evidence,
In July 2023, scientists for the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that there was "limited evidence" for aspartame causing cancer in humans, classifying the sweetener as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic). The lead investigator of the IARC report stated that the classification "shouldn't really be taken as a direct statement that indicates that there is a known cancer hazard from consuming aspartame. This is really more of a call to the research community to try to better clarify and understand the carcinogenic hazard that may or may not be posed by aspartame consumption."
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) added that the limited cancer assessment indicated no reason to change the recommended acceptable daily intake level of 40 mg per kg of body weight per day, reaffirming the safety of consuming aspartame within this limit.HeadachesReviews have found little evidence to indicate that aspartame induces headaches, although certain subsets of consumers may be sensitive to it.
Water quality
Aspartame passes through wastewater treatment plants mainly unchanged.Mechanism of actionThe perceived sweetness of aspartame (and other sweet substances like acesulfame potassium) in humans is due to its binding of the heterodimer G protein-coupled receptor formed by the proteins TAS1R2 and TAS1R3. Rodents do not experience aspartame as sweet-tasting, due to differences in their taste receptors.
Metabolites
Aspartame is rapidly hydrolyzed in the small intestine by digestive enzymes which break aspartame down into methanol, phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and further metabolites, such as formaldehyde and formic acid. Due to its rapid and complete metabolism, aspartame is not found in circulating blood, even following ingestion of high doses over 200 mg/kg.
Two approaches to synthesis are used commercially. In the chemical synthesis, the two carboxyl groups of aspartic acid are joined into an anhydride, and the amino group is protected with a formyl group as the formamide, by treatment of aspartic acid with a mixture of formic acid and acetic anhydride. Phenylalanine is converted to its methyl ester and combined with the N-formyl aspartic anhydride; then the protecting group is removed from aspartic nitrogen by acid hydrolysis. The drawback of this technique is that a byproduct, the bitter-tasting β-form, is produced when the wrong carboxyl group from aspartic acid anhydride links to phenylalanine, with desired and undesired isomer forming in a 4:1 ratio. A process using an enzyme from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus to catalyze the condensation of the chemically altered amino acids will produce high yields without the β-form byproduct. A variant of this method, which has not been used commercially, uses unmodified aspartic acid but produces low yields. Methods for directly producing aspartyl-phenylalanine by enzymatic means, followed by chemical methylation, have also been tried but not scaled for industrial production.
History
Aspartame was discovered by accident in 1965 by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for G.D. Searle & Company in Skokie, Illinois. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame as an intermediate step in generating a tetrapeptide of the hormone gastrin, for use in assessing an anti-ulcer drug candidate. He discovered its sweet taste when he licked his finger, which had become contaminated with aspartame, to lift up a piece of paper. Torunn Atteraas Garin participated in the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener.
In 1975, prompted by issues regarding Flagyl and Aldactone, an FDA task force team reviewed 25 studies submitted by the manufacturer, including 11 on aspartame. The team reported "serious deficiencies in Searle's operations and practices". The FDA sought to authenticate 15 of the submitted studies against the supporting data. In 1979, the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) concluded, since many problems with the aspartame studies were minor and did not affect the conclusions, the studies could be used to assess aspartame's safety.
In 1983, the FDA approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages and for use in other beverages, baked goods, and confections in 1993. As of May 2023, the FDA stated that it regards aspartame as a safe food ingredient when consumed within the acceptable daily intake level of 50 mg per kg of body weight per day.
Compendial status
* British Pharmacopoeia
* United States PharmacopeiaCommercial usesUnder the brand names Equal, NutraSweet, and Canderel, aspartame is an ingredient in approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide, including (but not limited to) diet sodas and other soft drinks, instant breakfasts, breath mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, gelatin desserts, juices, laxatives, chewable vitamin supplements, milk drinks, pharmaceutical drugs and supplements, shake mixes, tabletop sweeteners, teas, instant coffees, topping mixes, wine coolers, and yogurt. It is provided as a table condiment in some countries. Aspartame is less suitable for baking than other sweeteners because it breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness.NutraSweet CompanyIn 1985, Monsanto bought G.D.Searle, and the aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, NutraSweet. In March 2000, Monsanto sold it to J.W. Childs Associates Equity Partners II L.P. European use patents on aspartame expired beginning in 1987, with the US patent following suit in 1992.
Ajinomoto
In 2004, the market for aspartame, in which Ajinomoto, the world's largest aspartame manufacturer, had a 40% share, was a year, and consumption of the product was rising by 2% a year. Ajinomoto acquired its aspartame business in 2000 from Monsanto for $67 million (equivalent to $}} in ).
In 2007, Asda was the first British supermarket chain to remove all artificial flavourings and colours in its store brand foods. In 2008, Ajinomoto sued Asda, part of Walmart, for a malicious falsehood action concerning its aspartame product when the substance was listed as excluded from the chain's product line, along with other "nasties". In July 2009, a British court ruled in favor of Asda. In June 2010, an appeals court reversed the decision, allowing Ajinomoto to pursue a case against Asda to protect aspartame's reputation. Asda said that it would continue to use the term "no nasties" on its own-label products, but the suit was settled in 2011 with Asda choosing to remove references to aspartame from its packaging.
In November 2009, Ajinomoto announced a new brand name for its aspartame sweetener — AminoSweet.
Holland Sweetener Company
A joint venture of DSM and Tosoh, the Holland Sweetener Company manufactured aspartame using the enzymatic process developed by Toyo Soda (Tosoh) and sold as the brand Sanecta. Additionally, they developed a combination aspartame-acesulfame salt under the brand name Twinsweet. They left the sweetener industry in 2006, because "global aspartame markets are facing structural oversupply, which has caused worldwide strong price erosion over the last five years", making the business "persistently unprofitable".PepsiCo.In 2023, with aspartame already being present in Diet Pepsi and Pepsi Max, PepsiCo. replaced much of the sugar in Pepsi sold in the UK with aspartame, angering many consumers, especially since the company had not made any effort to warn of the change, endangering people with phenylketonuria who are regular consumers of soda.Competing productsBecause sucralose, unlike aspartame, retains its sweetness after being heated, and has at least twice the shelf life of aspartame, it has become more popular as an ingredient. This, along with differences in marketing and changing consumer preferences, caused aspartame to lose market share to sucralose. In 2004, aspartame traded at about and sucralose, which is roughly three times sweeter by weight, at around . See also * Sugar substitute References External links
*
Category:Amino acid derivatives
Category:Aromatic compounds
Category:Beta-Amino acids
Category:Butyramides
Category:Dipeptides
Category:Carboxylate esters
Category:Sugar substitutes
Category:Methyl esters
Category:E-number additives
Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.419027 |
2753 | AutoCAD | | latest release version = AutoCAD 2026 (25.1)
| latest release date =
| operating system = Windows, macOS
| language = English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Korean, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Japanese, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian
| language count = 14
| language footnote | genre Computer-aided design
| license = Software as a service
| website =
}}
AutoCAD is a 2D and
3D computer-aided design (CAD) software application developed by Autodesk. It was first released in December 1982 for the CP/M and IBM PC platforms as a desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. Initially a DOS application, subsequent versions were later released for other platforms including Classic Mac OS (1992), Microsoft Windows (1993) and macOS (2010), iOS (2010), and Android (2011).
AutoCAD is a general drafting and design application used in industry by architects, project managers, engineers, interior designers, graphic designers, city planners, and other professionals to prepare technical drawings. After discontinuing the sale of perpetual licenses in January 2016, commercial versions of AutoCAD are licensed through a term-based subscription or Autodesk Flex, a pay-as-you-go option introduced on September 24, 2021. Subscriptions to the desktop version of AutoCAD include access to the web and mobile applications. However, users can subscribe separately to the AutoCAD Web App online or AutoCAD Mobile through an in-app purchase.HistoryBefore AutoCAD was introduced, most CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminal.
Origins
AutoCAD was derived from a program that began in 1977, and then released in 1979 named Interact CAD, also referred to in early Autodesk documents as MicroCAD, which was written prior to Autodesk's (then Marinchip Software Partners) formation by Autodesk cofounder Michael Riddle.
The first version by Autodesk was demonstrated at the 1982 Comdex and released that December. AutoCAD supported CP/M-80 computers. As Autodesk's flagship product, by March 1986 AutoCAD had become the most ubiquitous CAD program worldwide. The first UNIX version was Release 10 for Xenix in October 1989, while the first version for Windows was Release 12, released in February 1993.
Features
Compatibility with other software
Many software applications such as Autodesk Civil 3D and ESRI ArcMap 10 permits export as AutoCAD drawing files. Third-party file converters exist for specific formats such as Bentley MX GENIO Extension, PISTE Extension (France), ISYBAU (Germany), OKSTRA and Microdrainage (UK); also, conversion of .pdf files is feasible, however, the accuracy of the results may be unpredictable or distorted. For example, jagged edges may appear. Several vendors provide online conversions for free such as Cometdocs.LanguageAutoCAD and AutoCAD LT are available for English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian (also through additional language packs). The extent of localization varies from full translation of the product to documentation only. The AutoCAD command set is localized as a part of the software localization.Extensions
AutoCAD supports a number of APIs for customization and automation. These include AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET, JavaScript, and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++ class library, which was also the base for:
* products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields
* creating products such as AutoCAD Architecture, AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D
* third-party AutoCAD-based application
There are a large number of AutoCAD plugins (add-on applications) available on the application store Autodesk Exchange Apps.
AutoCAD's DXF, drawing exchange format, allows importing and exporting drawing information.
Vertical integration
Autodesk has also developed a few vertical programs for discipline-specific enhancements such as:
* Advance Steel
* AutoCAD Architecture
* AutoCAD Electrical
* AutoCAD Map 3D
* AutoCAD Mechanical
* AutoCAD MEP
* AutoCAD Plant 3D
* Autodesk Civil 3D
Since AutoCAD 2019 several verticals are included with AutoCAD subscription as Industry-Specific Toolset.
For example, AutoCAD Architecture (formerly Architectural Desktop) permits architectural designers to draw 3D objects, such as walls, doors, and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them rather than simple objects, such as lines and circles. The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented.
Additional tools generate standard 2D drawings, such as elevations and sections, from a 3D architectural model. Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional support data-specific objects facilitating easy standard civil engineering calculations and representations.
Softdesk Civil was developed as an AutoCAD add-on by a company in New Hampshire called Softdesk (originally DCA). Softdesk was acquired by Autodesk, and Civil became Land Development Desktop (LDD), later renamed Land Desktop. Civil 3D was later developed and Land Desktop was retired.
Platforms
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; margin-top: 0px;"
! colspan="2"|Operating system
! Latest release
|-
| rowspan="14" | Windows
| 10 October 2018 Update and later
| 2025 (x64)
|-
| 10
| 2022 (x64)
|-
| 8.1
| 2021 (x64)
|-
| 8
| 2016 (IA-32,x64)
|-
| 7
| 2020 (x64)
|-
| 7, 8.1 and 10
| 2019 (IA-32)
|-
| Vista
| 2012
|-
| XP
| 2014 (IA-32,x64)
|-
| 2000
| 2008
|-
| NT 4.0
| 2004 (IA-32)
|-
| 98 and Me
| 2002
|-
| 95
| 2000i
|-
| NT 3.51
| Release 14 (IA-32)
|-
| 3.1x, NT 3.5–3.51 (IA-32, Alpha)
| Release 13
|-
| rowspan="14" | macOS
| 12 and later
| 2025
|-
| 11
| 2024
|-
| 10.15
| 2023
|-
| 10.14
| 2022
|-
| 10.13
| 2021
|-
| 10.12
| 2019
|-
| 10.11
| 2018
|-
| 10.10
| 2017
|-
| 10.9
| 2016
|-
| 10.8
| 2015
|-
| 10.6–10.7
| 2013 (x64)
|-
| 10.5
| 2011 (x64)
|-
| 7.x
| Release 12
|-
| 6.x
| Release 10
|-
| colspan="2" | Solaris 2.0, IRIX, AIX, HP-UX and DOS (386)
| Release 13
|-
| colspan="2" | SunOS 4.1 and Ultrix
| Release 12
|-
| colspan="2" | DOS (286)
| Release 11
|-
| colspan="2" | Xenix and OS/2 1.x
| Release 10
|-
| colspan="2" | CP/M-80 and CP/M-86
| 1.4
|}
File formats
AutoCAD's native file formats are denoted either by a <code>.dwg</code>, <code>.dwt</code>, <code>.dws</code>, or <code>.dxf</code> filename extension. <code>.dwg</code> and, to a lesser extent, <code>.dxf</code>, have become de facto, if proprietary, standards for CAD data interoperability, particularly for 2D drawing exchange.
The primary file format for 2D and 3D drawing files created with AutoCAD is <code>.dwg</code>. While other third-party CAD software applications can create <code>.dwg</code> files, AutoCAD uniquely creates RealDWG files. The drawing version code changes between AutoCAD releases.
Using AutoCAD, any <code>.dwg</code> file may be saved to a derivative format. These derivative formats include:
* Drawing Template Files <code>.dwt</code>: New <code>.dwg</code> are created from a <code>.dwt</code> file. Although the default template file is <code>acad.dwt</code> for AutoCAD and <code>acadlt.dwt</code> for AutoCAD LT, custom <code>.dwt</code> files may be created to include foundational configurations such as drawing units and layers.
* Drawing Standards File <code>.dws</code>: Using the CAD Standards feature of AutoCAD, a Drawing Standards File may be associated to any <code>.dwg</code> or <code>.dwt</code> file to enforce graphical standards.
* Drawing Interchange Format <code>.dxf</code>: The <code>.dxf</code> format is an ASCII representation of a <code>.dwg</code> file, and is used to transfer data between various applications.VariantsAutoCAD LT
AutoCAD LT is the lower-cost version of AutoCAD, with reduced capabilities, first released in November 1993. Autodesk developed AutoCAD LT to have an entry-level CAD package to compete in the lower price level. Priced at $495, it became the first AutoCAD product priced below $1000. It was sold directly by Autodesk and in computer stores unlike the full version of AutoCAD, which must be purchased from official Autodesk dealers. AutoCAD LT 2015 introduced Desktop Subscription service from $360 per year; as of 2018, three subscription plans were available, from $50 a month to a 3-year, $1170 license. Since AutoCAD LT 2024, AutoCAD LT support LISP customization.
While there are hundreds of small differences between the full AutoCAD package and AutoCAD LT, there are a few recognized major differences in the software's features:
* 3D capabilities: AutoCAD LT lacks the ability to create, visualize and render 3D models as well as 3D printing.
* Network licensing: AutoCAD LT cannot be used on multiple machines over a network.
* Customization: AutoCAD LT does not support customization with LISP, ARX, .NET and VBA (Feature introduced with release 2024)
* Management and automation capabilities with Sheet Set Manager and Action Recorder.
* CAD standards management tools.
AutoCAD Mobile and AutoCAD Web
AutoCAD Mobile and AutoCAD Web (formerly AutoCAD WS and AutoCAD 360) is an account-based mobile and web application enabling registered users to view, edit, and share AutoCAD files via mobile device and web using a limited AutoCAD feature set — and using cloud-stored drawing files. The program, which is an evolution and combination of previous products, uses a freemium business model with a free plan and two paid levels, including various amounts of storage, tools, and online access to drawings. 360 includes new features such as a "Smart Pen" mode and linking to third-party cloud-based storage such as Dropbox. Having evolved from Flash-based software, AutoCAD Web uses HTML5 browser technology available in newer browsers including Firefox and Google Chrome.
AutoCAD WS began with a version for the iPhone and subsequently expanded to include versions for the iPod Touch, iPad, Android phones, and Android tablets. Autodesk released the iOS version in September 2010, following with the Android version on April 20, 2011. The program is available via download at no cost from the App Store (iOS), Google Play (Android) and Amazon Appstore (Android).
In its initial iOS version, AutoCAD WS supported drawing of lines, circles, and other shapes; creation of text and comment boxes; and management of color, layer, and measurements — in both landscape and portrait modes. Version 1.3, released August 17, 2011, added support for unit typing, layer visibility, area measurement and file management.
According to a 2013 interview with Ilai Rotbaein, an AutoCAD WS product manager for Autodesk, the name AutoCAD WS had no definitive meaning, and was interpreted variously as Autodesk Web Service, White Sheet or Work Space. In 2013, AutoCAD WS was renamed to AutoCAD 360. Later, it was renamed to AutoCAD Web App.Student versionsAutoCAD is licensed, for free, to students, educators, and educational institutions, with a 12-month renewable license available. Licenses acquired before March 25, 2020, were a 36-month license, with its last renovation on March 24, 2020. The student version of AutoCAD is functionally identical to the full commercial version, with one exception: DWG files created or edited by a student version have an internal bit-flag set (the "educational flag"). When such a DWG file is printed by any version of AutoCAD (commercial or student) older than AutoCAD 2014 SP1 or AutoCAD 2019 and newer, the output includes a plot stamp/banner on all four sides. Objects created in the Student Version cannot be used for commercial use. Student Version objects "infect" a commercial version DWG file if they are imported in versions older than AutoCAD 2015 or newer than AutoCAD 2018.
Version history
See also
* Autodesk 3ds Max
* Autodesk Maya
* Autodesk Revit
* AutoShade
* AutoSketch
* CAD Overlay
* Comparison of computer-aided design software
* Design Web Format
Open source CAD software:
* QCAD Community Edition
* LibreCAD
* FreeCAD
* BRL-CAD
References
External links
*
* [http://autodesk.blogs.com/between_the_lines/autocad-release-history.html AutoCAD release history]
* [http://www.digibarn.com/stories/mike-riddle/index.html Digibarn.com: Mike Riddle & the Story of Interact, AutoCAD, EasyCAD, FastCAD & more]
* [https://cadblocks.click: Architecture AutoCAD Drawings]
Category:Autodesk products
Category:1982 software
Category:IRIX software
Category:Computer-aided design software
Category:IOS software
Category:Classic Mac OS software
Category:Android (operating system) software
Category:MacOS computer-aided design software
Category:Software that uses Qt | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoCAD | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.437382 |
2754 | AutoCAD DXF | | latest release version = u19.1.01.
| latest release date
| genre = CAD data exchange
| container for | contained by
| extended from | extended to
| standard | url
}}
AutoCAD DXF (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a computer-aided design (CAD) data file format developed by Autodesk to enable CAD data exchange and interoperability between AutoCAD on different computing platforms. DXF specifications online. Compatibility Versions of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and binary forms of DXF. Earlier versions support only ASCII.
As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF has become less useful. Certain object types, including ACIS solids and regions, are not documented. Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but not well enough to allow other developers to support them. For these reasons many CAD applications use the DWG format which can be licensed from Autodesk or non-natively from the Open Design Alliance.
DXF files do not directly specify the units of measurement used for its coordinates and dimensions. DXF files have a HEADER section where a $INSUNITS variable may specify the intended unit (e.g., 1 for inches, 4 for millimeters). However, not all DXF files contain this information, and some software ignores it.
Most CAD systems and many vector graphics packages support the import and export of DXF files, notably Adobe products, Inkscape, and Blender. Some CAD systems use DXF as their native format, notably QCAD and LibreCAD.
File structure
ASCII versions of DXF can be read with any text editor. The basic organization of a DXF file is as follows:
; section: General information about the drawing. Each parameter has a variable name and an associated value.
; section: Holds the information for application-defined classes whose instances appear in the , , and sections of the database. Generally does not provide sufficient information to allow interoperability with other programs.
; section: This section contains definitions of named items.
# Application ID () table
# Block Record () table
# Dimension Style () table
# Layer () table
# Linetype () table
# Text style () table
# User Coordinate System () table
# View () table
# Viewport configuration () table
; section: This section contains Block Definition entities describing the entities comprising each Block in the drawing.
; section: This section contains the drawing entities, including any Block References.
; section: Contains the data that apply to nongraphical objects, used by AutoLISP, and ObjectARX applications.
; section: Contains the preview image for the DXF file.
;
The data format of a DXF is called a "tagged data" format, which "means that each data element in the file is preceded by an integer number that is called a group code. A group code's value indicates what type of data element follows. This value also indicates the meaning of a data element for a given object (or record) type. Virtually all user-specified information in a drawing file can be represented in DXF format."
Criticism
Because comprehensive documentation does not exist,), or even Encapsulated PostScript (EPS, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard 29112:2018). DXF (and DWG) is still a preferred format for CAD files for use by the ISO. References External links
* [http://www.autodesk.com/techpubs/autocad/acadr14/dxf/ AutoCAD DXF Reference (from Release 14, 1998)] ([http://images.autodesk.com/adsk/files/autocad_2012_pdf_dxf-reference_enu.pdf PDF version from 2012])
* [https://www.fileformat.info/format/dxf/egff.htm AutoCAD DXF File Format Summary].
* [http://www.autodesk.com/techpubs/autocad/acadr14/dxf/symbol_table_example_al_u05_b.htm Annotated example DXF file]
* [https://viewer.autodesk.com AutoDesk Online DXF File Viewer].
Category:1982 introductions
DXF
Category:Autodesk products
DXF | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoCAD_DXF | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.441872 |
2756 | Asexual reproduction | : a caducous phylloid germinating]]
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the full set of genes of their single parent and thus the newly created individual is genetically and physically similar to the parent or an exact clone of the parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce asexually. In vertebrates, the most common form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited. Some monitor lizards, including Komodo dragons, can reproduce asexually.
While all prokaryotes reproduce without the formation and fusion of gametes, mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation, transformation and transduction can be likened to sexual reproduction in the sense of genetic recombination in meiosis.Types of asexual reproductionFission
Prokaryotes (Archaea and Bacteria) reproduce asexually through binary fission, in which the parent organism divides in two to produce two genetically identical daughter organisms. Eukaryotes (such as protists and unicellular fungi) may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by mitosis; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.
Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.
In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony appears either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane, sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.
Budding
'' reproducing by budding]]
Some cells divide by budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a "mother" and a "daughter" cell that is initially smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the hydra, which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.
Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two (endodyogeny) or more (endopolygeny) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.
Also, budding (external or internal) occurs in some worms like Taenia or Echinococcus; these worms produce cysts and then produce (invaginated or evaginated) protoscolex with budding.
Vegetative propagation
]]
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores and thus without syngamy or meiosis. Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, for example in kalanchoe (Bryophyllum daigremontianum) and many produce new plants from rhizomes or stolon (for example in strawberry). Some plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers, for example tulip bulbs and Dahlia tubers. In these examples, all the individuals are clones, and the clonal population may cover a large area.Spore formation
Many multicellular organisms produce spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, which undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals called gametophytes, without a fertilization event. These haploid individuals produce gametes through mitosis. Meiosis and gamete formation therefore occur in separate multicellular generations or "phases" of the life cycle, referred to as alternation of generations. Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined as the fusion of gametes (fertilization), spore formation in plant sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction (agamogenesis) despite being the result of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy. However, both events (spore formation and fertilization) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the plant life cycle.
Fungi and some algae can also utilize true asexual spore formation, which involves mitosis giving rise to reproductive cells called mitospores that develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found for example in conidial fungi and the red algae Polysiphonia, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. However, mitotic sporogenesis is an exception and most spores, such as those of plants and many algae, are produced by meiosis.
Fragmentation
"comet", a starfish regrowing from a single arm]]
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms. Animals that reproduce asexually include planarians, many annelid worms including polychaetes and some oligochaetes, Due to many environmental and epigenetic differences, clones originating from the same ancestor might actually be genetically and epigenetically different.
Agamogenesis
Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction that does not involve any union of gametes. Examples are parthenogenesis and apomixis.
Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a form of agamogenesis in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. It has been documented in over 2,000 species. Parthenogenesis occurs in the wild in many invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps) and vertebrates (mostly reptiles, amphibians, and fish). It has also been documented in domestic birds and in genetically altered lab mice. Plants can engage in parthenogenesis as well through a process called apomixis. However this process is considered by many to not be an independent reproduction method, but instead a breakdown of the mechanisms behind sexual reproduction. Parthenogenetic organisms can be split into two main categories: facultative and obligate.
Facultative parthenogenesis
In facultative parthenogenesis, females can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
giving birth to live young from an unfertilized egg]]
Heterogony is a form of facultative parthenogenesis where females alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction at regular intervals (see Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction). Aphids are one group of organism that engages in this type of reproduction. They use asexual reproduction to reproduce quickly and create winged offspring that can colonize new plants and reproduce sexually in the fall to lay eggs for the next season. However, some aphid species are obligate parthenotes. Obligate parthenogenesis In obligate parthenogenesis, females only reproduce asexually.
Gynogenesis is a form of obligate parthenogenesis where a sperm cell is used to initiate reproduction. However, the sperm's genes never get incorporated into the egg cell. The best known example of this is the Amazon molly. Because they are obligate parthenotes, there are no males in their species so they depend on males from a closely related species (the Sailfin molly) for sperm.Apomixis and nucellar embryony
Apomixis in plants is the formation of a new sporophyte without fertilization. It is important in ferns and in flowering plants, but is very rare in other seed plants. In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is now most often used for agamospermy, the formation of seeds without fertilization, but was once used to include vegetative reproduction. An example of an apomictic plant would be the triploid European dandelion. Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg within a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as in the Saharan Cypress Cupressus dupreziana, where the genetic material of the embryo is derived entirely from pollen.Androgenesis
Androgenesis occurs when a zygote is produced with only paternal nuclear genes. During standard sexual reproduction, one female and one male parent each produce haploid gametes (such as a sperm or egg cell, each containing only a single set of chromosomes), which recombine to create offspring with genetic material from both parents. However, in androgenesis, there is no recombination of maternal and paternal chromosomes, and only the paternal chromosomes are passed down to the offspring (the inverse of this is gynogenesis, where only the maternal chromosomes are inherited, which is more common than androgenesis). The offspring produced in androgenesis will still have maternally inherited mitochondria, as is the case with most sexually reproducing species.
Androgenesis occurs in nature in many invertebrates (for example, clams, some ants, bees, and parasitic wasps and fish). The androgenesis has also been seen in genetically modified laboratory mice.
One of two things can occur to produce offspring with exclusively paternal genetic material: the maternal nuclear genome can be eliminated from the zygote, or the female can produce an egg with no nucleus, resulting in an embryo developing with only the genome of the male gamete.
Male apomixis
Other type of androgenesis is the male apomixis or paternal apomixis is a reproductive process in which a plant develops from a sperm cell (male gamete) without the participation of a female cell (ovum). In this process, the zygote is formed solely with genetic material from the father, resulting in offspring genetically identical to the male organism. This has been noted in many plants like Nicotiana, Capsicum frutescens, Cicer arietinum, Poa arachnifera, Solanum verrucosum, Phaeophyceae, Pripsacum dactyloides, Zea mays, and occurs as the regular reproductive method in Cupressus dupreziana. where the genetic material is exclusively male.
Other species where androgenesis has been observed naturally are the stick insects Bacillus rossius and Bassillus Grandii, Obligate androgenesis Obligate androgenesis is the process in which males are capable of producing both eggs and sperm, however, the eggs have no genetic contribution and the offspring come only from the sperm, which allows these individuals to self-fertilize and produce clonal offspring without the need for females. They are also capable of interbreeding with sexual and other androgenetic lineages in a phenomenon known as "egg parasitism." This method of reproduction has been found in several species of the clam genus Corbicula, Lomatia tasmanica, and recently in the fish Squalius alburnoides.
The hyphae of the common mold (Rhizopus) are capable of producing both mitotic as well as meiotic spores. Many algae similarly switch between sexual and asexual reproduction. A number of plants use both sexual and asexual means to produce new plants, some species alter their primary modes of reproduction from sexual to asexual under varying environmental conditions.Inheritance in asexual speciesIn the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus asexual reproduction (obligate parthenogenesis) can be inherited by a recessive allele, which leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.<br />
Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus fabarum.
Examples in animals
Asexual reproduction is found in nearly half of the animal phyla. Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark and the blacktip shark. In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. The New Mexico whiptail is another example.
Some reptiles use the ZW sex-determination system, which produces either males (with ZZ sex chromosomes) or females (with ZW or WW sex chromosomes). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female offspring with WW chromosomes. The female boa could have chosen any number of male partners (and had successfully in the past) but on this occasion she reproduced asexually, creating 22 female babies with WW sex-chromosomes.
Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the nine-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.
Bdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have allowed them to survive better in periods of dehydration. Bdelloid rotifers are extraordinarily resistant to damage from ionizing radiation due to the same DNA-preserving adaptations used to survive dormancy. These adaptations include an extremely efficient mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks. This repair mechanism was studied in two Bdelloidea species, Adineta vaga, and appears to involve mitotic recombination between homologous DNA regions within each species.
Molecular evidence strongly suggests that several species of the stick insect genus Timema have used only asexual (parthenogenetic) reproduction for millions of years, the longest period known for any insect. Similar findings suggest that the mite species Oppiella nova may have reproduced entirely asexually for millions of years.
In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been several transitions to asexuality, likely due to different causes. Adaptive significance of asexual reproduction A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, particularly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them. Current hypotheses suggest that asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity, allowing adaptation to changing environments. Developmental constraints may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life-cycles. Almost all asexual modes of reproduction maintain meiosis either in a modified form or as an alternative pathway. Facultatively apomictic plants increase frequencies of sexuality relative to apomixis after abiotic stress.See also
* Alternation of generations
* Self-fertilization
* Bacterial conjugation
* Biological life cycle
* Biological reproduction, also simply reproduction
* Cloning
* Hermaphrodite
* Plant reproduction
* Sex
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050708073801/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030820.html Asexual reproduction]
* [http://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/protozoology/notes/intes.html Intestinal Protozoa] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.474742 |
2758 | Aelbert Cuyp | Aelbert Jacobszoon Cuyp or Cuijp (; and , respectively.}} 20 October 1620 – 15 November 1691) was one of the leading Dutch Golden Age painters, producing mainly landscapes. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father, Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp (1594–1651/52), he is especially known for his large views of Dutch riverside scenes in a golden early morning or late afternoon light. He was born and died in Dordrecht.
Biography
Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, he inherited a considerable fortune. His family were all artists, with his uncle Benjamin and grandfather Gerrit being stained glass cartoon designers. Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist. Cuyp's father was his first teacher and they collaborated on many paintings throughout his lifetime.'', , showing the Maas River in front of Cuyp's hometown of Dordrecht, National Gallery of Art|260x260px]]
Little is known about Aelbert Cuyp's life. Even Arnold Houbraken, a noted historian of Dutch Golden Age paintings and the sole authority on Cuyp for the hundred years following his death, paints a very thin biographical picture.
His period of activity as a painter is traditionally limited to the two decades between 1639 and 1660, fitting within the generally accepted limits of the Dutch Golden Age's most significant period, 1640–1665. He is known to have been married to Cornelia Bosman in 1658, a date coinciding so directly with the end of his productivity as a painter that it has been accepted that his marriage played a role in the end of his artistic career.
The year after his marriage, Cuyp became the deacon of the reformed church. Houbraken recalled that Cuyp was a devout Calvinist and the fact that when he died, there were no paintings of other artists found in his home.
Style
The development of Cuyp, who was trained as a landscape painter, may be roughly sketched in three phases based on the painters who most influenced him during that time and the subsequent artistic characteristics that are apparent in his paintings. Generally, Cuyp learned tone from the exceptionally prolific Jan van Goyen, light from Jan Both and form from his father, Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp.
Cuyp's "van Goyen phase" can be placed approximately in the early 1640s. Cuyp probably first encountered a painting by van Goyen in 1640 when van Goyen was, as Stephen Reiss points, out "at the height of [his] powers". Adding to the confusion regarding Aelbert's stylistic development and the problem of attribution is of course the fact that Jacob's style was not stagnant either. Their converging styles make it difficult to exactly understand the influences each had on the other, although it is clear enough to say that Aelbert started representing large scale forms (something he had not done previously) and placing animals as the focus of his paintings (something that was specific to him). Paintings
Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant's hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp's landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be.|260x260px]]Cuyp's drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of golden brown ink depict a distant view of the city of Dordrecht or Utrecht.
A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be a finished work of art, but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures.
Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as Abraham Calraet (1642–1722), whose initials A.C. may be mistaken for Cuyp's.
However, not everyone appreciates his work and River Landscape (1660), despite being widely regarded as amongst his best work, has been described as having "chocolate box blandness".
At the Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum most likely, the sole Cuyp's painting in Spanish public collections can be seen, a Landscape with a sunset ca. 1655 with animals. Misattribution of paintings
In addition to the scarcely documented and confirmed biography of Cuyp's life, and even more so than his amalgamated style from his three main influences, there are yet other factors that have led to the misattribution and confusion over Aelbert Cuyp's works for hundreds of years. His highly influenced style which incorporated Italianate lighting from Jan Both, broken brush technique and atonality from Jan van Goyen, and his ever-developing style from his father Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp was studied acutely by his most prominent follower, Abraham van Calraet. Calraet mimicked Cuyp's style, incorporating the same aspects, and produced similar landscapes to that of the latter. This made it quite difficult to tell whose paintings were whose. Adding to the confusion is the similar initials between the two and the inconsistent signing of paintings which were produced by Cuyp's studio.
Although Aelbert Cuyp signed many of his paintings with a script "A. Cuyp" insignia, many paintings were left unsigned (not to mention undated) after being painted, and so a similar signature was added later on, presumably by collectors who inherited or discovered the works. Furthermore, many possible Cuyp paintings were not signed but rather initialed "A. C." referring to his name. However, Abraham van Calraet could also have used the same initials to denote a painting. Although this is unlikely (as Calraet would likely have signed his paintings "A. v.C."), this brings up the question of how paintings were signed to show ownership. Most original Cuyp paintings were signed by him, and in the script manner in which his name was inscribed. This would denote that the painting was done almost entirely by him. Conversely, paintings which came out of his workshop that were not necessarily physically worked on by Cuyp but merely overseen by him technically, were marked with A.C. to show that it was his instruction which saw the paintings' completion. Cuyp's pupils and assistants often worked on paintings in his studio, and so most of the work of a painting could be done without Cuyp ever touching the canvas, but merely approving its finality. Hence, the initialed inscription rather than a signature.
Common among the mislabeled works are all of the reasons identified for misattributing Cuyp's works: the lack of biography and chronology of his works made it difficult to discern when paintings were created (making it difficult to pinpoint an artist); contentious signatures added to historians' confusion as to who actually painted the works; and the collaborations and influences by different painters makes it hard to justify that a painting is genuinely that of Aelbert Cuyp; and finally, accurate identification is made extremely difficult by the fact that this same style was copied (rather accurately) by his predecessor. As it turns out, even the historians and expert researchers have been fooled and forced to reassess their conclusions over "Cuyp's" paintings over the years.
Later life
After he married Cornelia Boschman in 1658, the number of works produced by him declined almost to nothing. This may have been because his wife was a very religious woman and a not very big patron of the arts. It could also be that he became more active in the church under his wife's guidance. He was also active as deacon and elder of the Reformed Church.
Legacy
Though long lacking a modern biography, and with the chronology of his works rather unclear, his style emerged from various influences and makes his works distinctive, although his collaborations with his father and works by his imitators often make attributions uncertain. His follower Abraham van Calraet represents a particular problem, and the signatures on paintings are not to be relied on. The Rijksmuseum has reattributed many works to other painters; Abraham van Calraet does not even appear in a Museum catalogue until 1926, and even then he was not given his own entry.
Gallery
<gallery mode"packed" heights"250" caption="Aelbert Cuyp's paintings">
File:Aelbert Cuyp - Landscape with cattle - Google Art Project.jpg|Landscape with cattle<br />(c. 1639–1649)<br />National Gallery of Victoria
File:Aelbert Cuyp (Dutch - A View of the Maas at Dordrecht - Google Art Project.jpg|A View of the Maas at Dordrecht<br />(about 1645–1646)<br />J. Paul Getty Museum
File:Cuyp, Aelbert - Herdsmen with Cows - Google Art Project.jpg|Herdsmen with Cows<br />(c. 1645)<br />Dulwich Picture Gallery
File:Cuyp, Aelbert - Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance - Google Art Project.jpg|Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance
File:Aelbert Cuyp Avenue at Meerdervoort.jpg|Avenue at Meerdervoort
File:Aelbert Cuyp 012.jpg|The Mussel Eater, c. 1650, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen
File:Aelbert Cuyp - Cows in a River - Google Art Project.jpg|Cows in a River, c. 1654
File:Aelbert Cuyp, Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle, c. 1655 at Waddesdon Manor.jpg|Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle, c. 1655, Waddesdon Manor
File:Aelbert Cuyp - A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht NTIV WADD 2565.jpg|A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht, 1655–1660, Waddesdon Manor. The other canvas that appears to show an event in the end stages of the Eighty Years' War is now in the National Gallery of Art, Washington.
File:Aelbert Cuyp - Travelers in Hilly Countryside - 1942.637 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg|Travelers in Hilly Countryside (c. 1650), Cleveland Museum of Art
File:Equestrian Portrait of Cornelis (1639–1680) and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort (1638–1653) with Their Tutor and Coachman ("Starting for the Hunt") MET DP146442.jpg|Equestrian Portrait of Cornelis and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort with Their Tutor and Coachman (before 1653), Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
Notes
References
Further reading
*
* Gerard Hoet; Catalogus of Naamlyst van Schildereyen; The Hague; 1752; vol. 2
* Jean-Baptiste Descamps; La Vie des peintres flamands, allemands et hollandois; Paris; [n. pub.]; 1753–1763; vol. 2, p. 80
* George Agar-Ellis; Catalogue of the principal pictures in Flanders and Holland, 1822; London; W. Nicol; 1826; p. 70
* John Smith; A Catalogue Raisonne of the Works of the most Eminent Dutch, Flemish and French Painters Part III Containing the Lives and Works of Anthony Van Dyck and David Teniers; London; Smith and Son; 1831; vol. 5, no. 13
* Willem Bürger; Trésors d'Art exposés à Manchester en 1857; Paris; Jules Renouard et Cie; 1857; p. 266
* Jan F. van Someren; Oude Kunst in Nederland: Etsen van Willem Steelink; Amsterdam; [n. pub.]; 1890; pl. 3
* Emile Michel, Une famille d'artistes hollandais: Les Cuyps, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 34, 1892, 5–23, 107–17, 224–38; p. 227
* Cornelis Hofstede de Groot; A Catalogue Raisonné of the Works of the Most Eminent Dutch Painters of the Seventeenth Century. Vols 1–4 [1907-1927]; Bishops Stortford; Chadwick Healey; 1976; vol. 2, no. 36
* Simon van Gijn; Dordracum Illustratum; Dordrecht; De Dordrechtsche Drukkerij-en Uitgevers-Maatschappij; 1908; no. 325
* Eugène Fromentin; The Masters of Past Time: Dutch and Flemish Painting from Van Eyck to Rembrandt [1948]; Oxford; Phaidon Press; 1981; p. 149
* Sir Francis Watson, The Art Collections at Waddesdon Manor I: The Paintings, Apollo, 69, June 1959, 172–182; p. 181
* Christopher White, Dutch and Flemish Paintings at Waddesdon Manor, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 54, August 1959, 67–74; p. 68
* Ellis Waterhouse, Anthony Blunt; Paintings: The James A. de Rothschild Collection at Waddesdon Manor; Fribourg; Office du Livre, The National Trust; 1967; pp. 134–135, cat. no. 55
* J Q Van Regteren Altena, Review of The James A. de Rothschild Collection at Waddesdon Manor. Ellis Waterhouse, Paintings., Oud Holland, 85, 1970, 59–61; p. 60
* S. Reiss; Aelbert Cuyp; London; Zwemmer; 1975; p. 146, no. 106
* Margarita Russell, Aelbert Cuyp. The Maas at Dordrecht: The Great Assembly of the Dutch Armed Forces, June–July 1646., Dutch Crossing, 40, 1990, 31–82; pp. 34–35
* Ben Broos; Great Dutch Paintings from America; Zwolle; Waanders Publishers; 1990; p. 215
* Alan Chong; Aelbert Cuyp and the Meanings of Landscape; New York University; 1992; p. 408, cat. no. 160; as 'The gathering of the fleet at Dordrecht'
* Arthur K Wheelock Jr.; Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century: The National Gallery of Art's Systematic Catalogue; Washington, D.C.; National Gallery of Art; 1995; p. 129
* Ruud Priem, The "Most Excellent Collection" of Lucretia Johanna van Winter: The Years 1809–22, with a Catalogue of the Works Purchased, Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, 25, 1997, 103–196; p. 118, fig. 19
* Ruud Priem, Catalogue of Old Master Paintings Acquired by Lucretia Johanna van Winter, 1809–22, Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, 25, 1997, 197–230; p. 219, no. 38
* Arthur K Wheelock Jr.; Aelbert Cuyp; National Gallery of Art, Washington, 7 October 2001 – 13 January 2002; National Gallery, London, 13 February – 12 May 2002; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, 7 June – 1 September 2002; New York; Thames & Hudson; 2001; pp. 146–149
* Wouter Th. Kloek; Aelbert Cuyp: Land, Water, Light; Amsterdam, Zwolle; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Waanders Publishers; 2002; p. 30
* Michael Hall; Waddesdon Manor: The Heritage of a Rothschild House; New York; Harry N Abrams Inc; 2002; p. 88, ill.
* Ariane van Suchtelen, Arthur K Wheelock Jr.; Dutch Cityscapes of the Golden Age; Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague, 11 October 2008 – 11 January 2009; National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1 February – 3 May 2009; Zwolle, Washington, D.C., The Hague; Waanders Publishers, National Gallery of Art, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague; 2008; p. 104, ill.
* Peter Hecht; 125 Jaar openbaar kunstbezit : met steun van de Vereniging Rembrandt; Zwolle; Waanders Publishers; 2008; pp. 12, 14, 209 n. 98
* Arthur K Wheelock Jr.; "Aelbert Cuyp/The Maas at Dordrecht/c. 1650", Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century, NGA Online Editions, [http://purl.org/nga/collection/artobject/576 accessed December 07, 2014].; Washington, D.C.; National Gallery of Art; 2012
* External links
*
*[http://www.pubhist.com/person/112/aelbert-cuyp Works and literature on Aelbert Cuyp]
*[http://resources.metmuseum.org/resources/metpublications/pdf/Dutch_and_Flemish_Paintings_from_the_Hermitage.pdfDutch and Flemish paintings from the Hermitage], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Cuyp (cat. no. 7)
*[https://waddesdon.org.uk/the-collection/search/?search=Cuyp Aelbert Cuyp's artworks at Waddesdon Manor]
Category:1620 births
Category:1691 deaths
Category:Dutch Golden Age painters
Category:Dutch male painters
Category:Dutch landscape painters
Category:Dutch Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Category:Painters from Dordrecht
Category:Waddesdon Manor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelbert_Cuyp | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.481717 |
2761 | Alkene | thumb|right|120px|A 3D model of ethylene, the simplest alkene
In organic chemistry, an alkene, or olefin, is a hydrocarbon containing a carbon–carbon double bond. The double bond may be internal or at the terminal position. Terminal alkenes are also known as α-olefins.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends using the name "alkene" only for acyclic hydrocarbons with just one double bond; alkadiene, alkatriene, etc., or polyene for acyclic hydrocarbons with two or more double bonds; cycloalkene, cycloalkadiene, etc. for cyclic ones; and "olefin" for the general class – cyclic or acyclic, with one or more double bonds.
Acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups (also known as mono-enes) form a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula with n being a >1 natural number (which is two hydrogens less than the corresponding alkane). When n is four or more, isomers are possible, distinguished by the position and conformation of the double bond.
Alkenes are generally colorless non-polar compounds, somewhat similar to alkanes but more reactive. The first few members of the series are gases or liquids at room temperature. The simplest alkene, ethylene () (or "ethene" in the IUPAC nomenclature) is the organic compound produced on the largest scale industrially.
Aromatic compounds are often drawn as cyclic alkenes, however their structure and properties are sufficiently distinct that they are not classified as alkenes or olefins.
: ethylene only
: propylene only
: 3 isomers: 1-butene, 2-butene, and isobutylene
: 5 isomers: 1-pentene, 2-pentene, 2-methyl-1-butene, 3-methyl-1-butene, 2-methyl-2-butene
: 13 isomers: 1-hexene, 2-hexene, 3-hexene, 2-methyl-1-pentene, 3-methyl-1-pentene, 4-methyl-1-pentene, 2-methyl-2-pentene, 3-methyl-2-pentene, 4-methyl-2-pentene, 2,3-dimethyl-1-butene, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene, 2-ethyl-1-butene
Many of these molecules exhibit cis–trans isomerism. There may also be chiral carbon atoms particularly within the larger molecules (from ). The number of potential isomers increases rapidly with additional carbon atoms.
Structure and bonding
Bonding
200px|thumb|Ethylene (ethene), showing the pi bond in green
A carbon–carbon double bond consists of a sigma bond and a pi bond. This double bond is stronger than a single covalent bond (611 kJ/mol for C=C vs. 347 kJ/mol for C–C),
Each carbon atom of the double bond uses its three sp2 hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms (the other carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms). The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp2 hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C–C axis, with half of the bond on one side of the molecule and a half on the other. With a strength of 65 kcal/mol, the pi bond is significantly weaker than the sigma bond.
Rotation about the carbon–carbon double bond is restricted because it incurs an energetic cost to break the alignment of the p orbitals on the two carbon atoms. Consequently cis or trans isomers interconvert so slowly that they can be freely handled at ambient conditions without isomerization. More complex alkenes may be named with the E–Z notation for molecules with three or four different substituents (side groups). For example, of the isomers of butene, the two methyl groups of (Z)-but-2-ene (a.k.a. cis-2-butene) appear on the same side of the double bond, and in (E)-but-2-ene (a.k.a. trans-2-butene) the methyl groups appear on opposite sides. These two isomers of butene have distinct properties.
Cis-2-Buten.svg|structure of cis-2-butene
Trans-2-Buten.svg|structure of trans-2-butene
Trans-2-butene.svg|(E)-But-2-ene
Cis-2-butene.svg|(Z)-But-2-ene
For there to be cis- and trans- configurations, there must be a carbon chain, or at least one functional group attached to each carbon is the same for both. E- and Z- configuration can be used instead in a more general case where all four functional groups attached to carbon atoms in a double bond are different. E- and Z- are abbreviations of German words zusammen (together) and entgegen (opposite). In E- and Z-isomerism, each functional group is assigned a priority based on the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules. If the two groups with higher priority are on the same side of the double bond, the bond is assigned Z- configuration, otherwise (i.e. the two groups with higher priority are on the opposite side of the double bond), the bond is assigned E- configuration. Cis- and trans- configurations do not have a fixed relationship between E- and Z-configurations.
Physical properties
Many of the physical properties of alkenes and alkanes are similar: they are colorless, nonpolar, and combustible. The physical state depends on molecular mass: like the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons, the simplest alkenes (ethylene, propylene, and butene) are gases at room temperature. Linear alkenes of approximately five to sixteen carbon atoms are liquids, and higher alkenes are waxy solids. The melting point of the solids also increases with increase in molecular mass.
Alkenes generally have stronger smells than their corresponding alkanes. Ethylene has a sweet and musty odor. Strained alkenes, in particular, like norbornene and trans-cyclooctene are known to have strong, unpleasant odors, a fact consistent with the stronger π complexes they form with metal ions including copper.
Boiling and melting points
Below is a list of the boiling and melting points of various alkenes with the corresponding alkane and alkyne analogues.
+Melting and boiling points in °CNumber ofcarbonsAlkaneAlkeneAlkyne2NameethaneethyleneacetyleneMelting point−183−169−80.7Boiling point−89−104−84.73NamepropanepropylenepropyneMelting point−190−185−102.7Boiling point−42−47−23.24Namebutane1-butene1-butyneMelting point−138−185.3−125.7Boiling point−0.5−6.28.05Namepentane1-pentene1-pentyneMelting point−130−165.2−90.0Boiling point3629.940.1
Infrared spectroscopy
In the IR spectrum, the stretching/compression of CC bond gives a peak at 1670–1600 cm−1. The band is weak in symmetrical alkenes. The bending of CC bond absorbs between 1000 and 650 cm−1 wavelength
NMR spectroscopy
In 1H NMR spectroscopy, the hydrogen bonded to the carbon adjacent to double bonds will give a δH of 4.5–6.5 ppm. The double bond will also deshield the hydrogen attached to the carbons adjacent to sp2 carbons, and this generates δH=1.6–2. ppm peaks. Cis/trans isomers are distinguishable due to different J-coupling effect. Cis vicinal hydrogens will have coupling constants in the range of 6–14 Hz, whereas the trans will have coupling constants of 11–18 Hz.
In their 13C NMR spectra of alkenes, double bonds also deshield the carbons, making them have low field shift. C=C double bonds usually have chemical shift of about 100–170 ppm.
+Combustion energies of various hydrocarbonsNumber ofcarbonsSubstanceTypeFormulaHcø(kJ/mol)2ethanesaturatedC2H6 −1559.7ethyleneunsaturatedC2H4 −1410.8acetyleneunsaturatedC2H2 −1300.83propanesaturatedCH3CH2CH3 −2219.2propeneunsaturatedCH3CHCH2 −2058.1propyneunsaturatedCH3C≡CH −1938.74butanesaturatedCH3CH2CH2CH3 −2876.51-buteneunsaturatedCH2CH−CH2CH3 −2716.81-butyneunsaturatedCH≡C-CH2CH3 −2596.6
Reactions
Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than alkanes. Most reactions of alkenes involve additions to this pi bond, forming new single bonds. Alkenes serve as a feedstock for the petrochemical industry because they can participate in a wide variety of reactions, prominently polymerization and alkylation. Except for ethylene, alkenes have two sites of reactivity: the carbon–carbon pi-bond and the presence of allylic CH centers. The former dominates but the allylic sites are important too.
Addition to the unsaturated bonds
400px|thumb|typical electrophilic addition reaction of ethylene
Hydrogenation involves the addition of H2 ,resulting in an alkane. The equation of hydrogenation of ethylene to form ethane is:
H2C=CH2 + H2→H3C−CH3
Hydrogenation reactions usually require catalysts to increase their reaction rate. The total number of hydrogens that can be added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon depends on its degree of unsaturation.
Similarly, halogenation involves the addition of a halogen molecule, such as Br2, resulting in a dihaloalkane. The equation of bromination of ethylene to form ethane is:
H2C=CH2 + Br2→H2CBr−CH2Br
Unlike hydrogenation, these halogenation reactions do not require catalysts. The reaction occurs in two steps, with a halonium ion as an intermediate.
170px|thumb|Structure of a bromonium ion
Bromine test is used to test the saturation of hydrocarbons. The bromine test can also be used as an indication of the degree of unsaturation for unsaturated hydrocarbons. Bromine number is defined as gram of bromine able to react with 100g of product. Similar as hydrogenation, the halogenation of bromine is also depend on the number of π bond. A higher bromine number indicates higher degree of unsaturation.
The π bonds of alkenes hydrocarbons are also susceptible to hydration. The reaction usually involves strong acid as catalyst. The first step in hydration often involves formation of a carbocation. The net result of the reaction will be an alcohol. The reaction equation for hydration of ethylene is:
H2C=CH2 + H2O→
350px|thumb|Example of hydrohalogenation: addition of HBr to an alkene
Hydrohalogenation involves addition of H−X to unsaturated hydrocarbons. This reaction results in new C−H and C−X σ bonds. The formation of the intermediate carbocation is selective and follows Markovnikov's rule. The hydrohalogenation of alkene will result in haloalkane. The reaction equation of HBr addition to ethylene is:
H2C=CH2 + HBr →
Cycloaddition
right|thumb|a Diels-Alder reaction
350px|center|alt=Generation of singlet oxygen and its [4+2]-cycloaddition with cyclopentadiene
Alkenes add to dienes to give cyclohexenes. This conversion is an example of a Diels-Alder reaction. Such reaction proceed with retention of stereochemistry. The rates are sensitive to electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents. When irradiated by UV-light, alkenes dimerize to give cyclobutanes. Another example is the Schenck ene reaction, in which singlet oxygen reacts with an allylic structure to give a transposed allyl peroxide:
200px|center|alt=Reaction of singlet oxygen with an allyl structure to give allyl peroxide
Oxidation
Alkenes react with percarboxylic acids and even hydrogen peroxide to yield epoxides:
For ethylene, the epoxidation is conducted on a very large scale industrially using oxygen in the presence of silver-based catalysts:
Alkenes react with ozone, leading to the scission of the double bond. The process is called ozonolysis. Often the reaction procedure includes a mild reductant, such as dimethylsulfide ():
When treated with a hot concentrated, acidified solution of , alkenes are cleaved to form ketones and/or carboxylic acids. The stoichiometry of the reaction is sensitive to conditions. This reaction and the ozonolysis can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene.
The oxidation can be stopped at the vicinal diol rather than full cleavage of the alkene by using osmium tetroxide or other oxidants:
R'CH=CR2 + 1/2 O2 + H2O -> R'CH(OH)-C(OH)R2
This reaction is called dihydroxylation.
In the presence of an appropriate photosensitiser, such as methylene blue and light, alkenes can undergo reaction with reactive oxygen species generated by the photosensitiser, such as hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen or superoxide ion. Reactions of the excited sensitizer can involve electron or hydrogen transfer, usually with a reducing substrate (Type I reaction) or interaction with oxygen (Type II reaction). These various alternative processes and reactions can be controlled by choice of specific reaction conditions, leading to a wide range of products. A common example is the [4+2]-cycloaddition of singlet oxygen with a diene such as cyclopentadiene to yield an endoperoxide:
Polymerization
Terminal alkenes are precursors to polymers via processes termed polymerization. Some polymerizations are of great economic significance, as they generate the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymers from alkene are usually referred to as polyolefins although they contain no olefins. Polymerization can proceed via diverse mechanisms. Conjugated dienes such as buta-1,3-diene and isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) also produce polymers, one example being natural rubber.
Allylic substitution
The presence of a CC π bond in unsaturated hydrocarbons weakens the dissociation energy of the allylic C−H bonds. Thus, these groupings are susceptible to free radical substitution at these C-H sites as well as addition reactions at the CC site. In the presence of radical initiators, allylic C-H bonds can be halogenated. The presence of two C=C bonds flanking one methylene, i.e., doubly allylic, results in particularly weak HC-H bonds. The high reactivity of these situations is the basis for certain free radical reactions, manifested in the chemistry of drying oils.
Metathesis
Alkenes undergo olefin metathesis, which cleaves and interchanges the substituents of the alkene. A related reaction is ethenolysis: In this case, the π electron density is donated to the metal d orbitals. The stronger the donation is, the stronger the back bonding from the metal d orbital to π* anti-bonding orbital of the alkene. This effect lowers the bond order of the alkene and increases the C-C bond length. One example is the complex . These complexes are related to the mechanisms of metal-catalyzed reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Reaction overview
Reaction name Product Comment Hydrogenation alkanes addition of hydrogen Hydroalkenylation alkenes hydrometalation / insertion / beta-elimination by metal catalyst Halogen addition reaction 1,2-dihalide electrophilic addition of halogens Hydrohalogenation (Markovnikov) haloalkanes addition of hydrohalic acids Anti-Markovnikov hydrohalogenation haloalkanes free radicals mediated addition of hydrohalic acids Hydroamination amines addition of bond across double bond Hydroformylation aldehydes industrial process, addition of CO and Hydrocarboxylation and Koch reaction carboxylic acid industrial process, addition of CO and . Carboalkoxylation ester industrial process, addition of CO and alcohol. alkylation esterindustrial process: alkene alkylating carboxylic acid with silicotungstic acid the catalyst. Sharpless bishydroxylation diols oxidation, reagent: osmium tetroxide, chiral ligand Woodward cis-hydroxylationdiolsoxidation, reagents: iodine, silver acetate Ozonolysis aldehydes or ketonesreagent: ozone Olefin metathesis alkenes two alkenes rearrange to form two new alkenes Diels–Alder reaction cyclohexenes cycloaddition with a diene Pauson–Khand reaction cyclopentenones cycloaddition with an alkyne and CO Hydroboration–oxidation alcohols reagents: borane, then a peroxide Oxymercuration-reduction alcohols electrophilic addition of mercuric acetate, then reduction Prins reaction 1,3-diols electrophilic addition with aldehyde or ketone Paterno–Büchi reaction oxetanes photochemical reaction with aldehyde or ketone Epoxidation epoxide electrophilic addition of a peroxide Cyclopropanation cyclopropanes addition of carbenes or carbenoids Hydroacylation ketones oxidative addition / reductive elimination by metal catalyst Hydrophosphination phosphines
Synthesis
Industrial methods
Alkenes are produced by hydrocarbon cracking. Raw materials are mostly natural-gas condensate components (principally ethane and propane) in the US and Mideast and naphtha in Europe and Asia. Alkanes are broken apart at high temperatures, often in the presence of a zeolite catalyst, to produce a mixture of primarily aliphatic alkenes and lower molecular weight alkanes. The mixture is feedstock and temperature dependent, and separated by fractional distillation. This is mainly used for the manufacture of small alkenes (up to six carbons).
500px|center|Cracking of n-octane to give pentane and propene
Related to this is catalytic dehydrogenation, where an alkane loses hydrogen at high temperatures to produce a corresponding alkene. A commercially significant example is the production of vinyl chloride.
The E2 mechanism provides a more reliable β-elimination method than E1 for most alkene syntheses. Most E2 eliminations start with an alkyl halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a tosylate or triflate). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a dehydrohalogenation. For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C=C) tend to predominate (see Zaitsev's rule). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that if possible, the H is anti to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable Z-isomer.
500px|center|An example of an E2 Elimination
Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via dehydration, in which case water is lost via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of ethanol produces ethylene:
CH3CH2OH → H2C=CH2 + H2O
An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., xanthate), so as to allow a milder syn-elimination such as the Chugaev elimination and the Grieco elimination. Related reactions include eliminations by β-haloethers (the Boord olefin synthesis) and esters (ester pyrolysis). A thioketone and a phosphite ester combined (the Corey-Winter olefination) or diphosphorus tetraiodide will deoxygenate glycols to alkenes.
Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl amines. The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either alkylated (as in the Hofmann elimination) or oxidized to an amine oxide (the Cope reaction) to render a smooth elimination possible. The Cope reaction is a syn-elimination that occurs at or below 150 °C, for example:
300px|center|Synthesis of cyclooctene via Cope elimination
The Hofmann elimination is unusual in that the less substituted (non-Zaitsev) alkene is usually the major product.
Alkenes are generated from α-halosulfones in the Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction, via a three-membered ring sulfone intermediate.
Synthesis from carbonyl compounds
Another important class of methods for alkene synthesis involves construction of a new carbon–carbon double bond by coupling or condensation of a carbonyl compound (such as an aldehyde or ketone) to a carbanion or its equivalent. Pre-eminent is the aldol condensation. Knoevenagel condensations are a related class of reactions that convert carbonyls into alkenes.Well-known methods are called olefinations. The Wittig reaction is illustrative, but other related methods are known, including the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction.
The Wittig reaction involves reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a Wittig reagent (or phosphorane) of the type Ph3PCHR to produce an alkene and Ph3PO. The Wittig reagent is itself prepared easily from triphenylphosphine and an alkyl halide.
350px|center|A typical example of the Wittig reaction
Related to the Wittig reaction is the Peterson olefination, which uses silicon-based reagents in place of the phosphorane. This reaction allows for the selection of E- or Z-products. If an E-product is desired, another alternative is the Julia olefination, which uses the carbanion generated from a phenyl sulfone. The Takai olefination based on an organochromium intermediate also delivers E-products. A titanium compound, Tebbe's reagent, is useful for the synthesis of methylene compounds; in this case, even esters and amides react.
A pair of ketones or aldehydes can be deoxygenated to generate an alkene. Symmetrical alkenes can be prepared from a single aldehyde or ketone coupling with itself, using titanium metal reduction (the McMurry reaction). If different ketones are to be coupled, a more complicated method is required, such as the Barton–Kellogg reaction.
A single ketone can also be converted to the corresponding alkene via its tosylhydrazone, using sodium methoxide (the Bamford–Stevens reaction) or an alkyllithium (the Shapiro reaction).
Synthesis from alkenes
The formation of longer alkenes via the step-wise polymerisation of smaller ones is appealing, as ethylene (the smallest alkene) is both inexpensive and readily available, with hundreds of millions of tonnes produced annually. The Ziegler–Natta process allows for the formation of very long chains, for instance those used for polyethylene. Where shorter chains are wanted, as they for the production of surfactants, then processes incorporating a olefin metathesis step, such as the Shell higher olefin process are important.
Olefin metathesis is also used commercially for the interconversion of ethylene and 2-butene to propylene. Rhenium- and molybdenum-containing heterogeneous catalysis are used in this process:
CH2CH2 + CH3CHCHCH3 → 2 CH2=CHCH3
Transition metal catalyzed hydrovinylation is another important alkene synthesis process starting from alkene itself. It involves the addition of a hydrogen and a vinyl group (or an alkenyl group) across a double bond.
From alkynes
Reduction of alkynes is a useful method for the stereoselective synthesis of disubstituted alkenes. If the cis-alkene is desired, hydrogenation in the presence of Lindlar's catalyst (a heterogeneous catalyst that consists of palladium deposited on calcium carbonate and treated with various forms of lead) is commonly used, though hydroboration followed by hydrolysis provides an alternative approach. Reduction of the alkyne by sodium metal in liquid ammonia gives the trans-alkene.
600px|center|Synthesis of cis- and trans-alkenes from alkynes
For the preparation multisubstituted alkenes, carbometalation of alkynes can give rise to a large variety of alkene derivatives.
Rearrangements and related reactions
Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via rearrangement reactions. Besides olefin metathesis (described above), many pericyclic reactions can be used such as the ene reaction and the Cope rearrangement.
180px|center|Cope rearrangement of divinylcyclobutane to cyclooctadiene
In the Diels–Alder reaction, a cyclohexene derivative is prepared from a diene and a reactive or electron-deficient alkene.
Application
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are widely used to produce plastics, medicines, and other useful materials.
+NameStructureUseEthyleneframeless|center|upright0.25 Monomers for synthesizing polyethylene1,3-butadieneframeless|center|upright0.44 For manufacturing synthetic rubbervinyl chlorideframeless|center|upright0.25 Precursor to PVCstyreneframeless|center|upright0.4 precursor to polystyrene
Natural occurrence
Alkenes are prevalent in nature.
Plants are the main natural source of alkenes in the form of terpenes. Many of the most vivid natural pigments are terpenes; e.g. lycopene (red in tomatoes), carotene (orange in carrots), and xanthophylls (yellow in egg yolk). The simplest of all alkenes, ethylene is a signaling molecule that influences the ripening of plants.
The Curiosity rover discovered on Mars long chain alkanes with up to 12 consecutive carbon atoms. They could be derived from either abiotic or biological sources.
File:Limonene-2D-skeletal.svg|Limonene, a monoterpene.
File:Alpha-Caryophyllen.svg| Humulene, a sesquiterpene.
File:Taxadiene.svg|Taxadiene, a diterpene, precursor to the diterpenoid taxol, an anticancer agent.
File:Squalene.svg|Squalene, a triterpene and universal precursor to natural steroids.
IUPAC Nomenclature
Although the nomenclature is not followed widely, according to IUPAC, an alkene is an acyclic hydrocarbon with just one double bond between carbon atoms. Olefins comprise a larger collection of cyclic and acyclic alkenes as well as dienes and polyenes.
To form the root of the IUPAC names for straight-chain alkenes, change the -an- infix of the parent to -en-. For example, CH3-CH3 is the alkane ethANe. The name of CH2=CH2 is therefore ethENe.
For straight-chain alkenes with 4 or more carbon atoms, that name does not completely identify the compound. For those cases, and for branched acyclic alkenes, the following rules apply:
Find the longest carbon chain in the molecule. If that chain does not contain the double bond, name the compound according to the alkane naming rules. Otherwise:
Number the carbons in that chain starting from the end that is closest to the double bond.
Define the location k of the double bond as being the number of its first carbon.
Name the side groups (other than hydrogen) according to the appropriate rules.
Define the position of each side group as the number of the chain carbon it is attached to.
Write the position and name of each side group.
Write the names of the alkane with the same chain, replacing the "-ane" suffix by "k-ene".
The position of the double bond is often inserted before the name of the chain (e.g. "2-pentene"), rather than before the suffix ("pent-2-ene").
The positions need not be indicated if they are unique. Note that the double bond may imply a different chain numbering than that used for the corresponding alkane: C–– is "2,2-dimethyl pentane", whereas C–= is "3,3-dimethyl 1-pentene".
More complex rules apply for polyenes and cycloalkenes.
400px|center|thumb|The difference between E and Z isomers
Groups containing C=C double bonds
IUPAC recognizes two names for hydrocarbon groups containing carbon–carbon double bonds, the vinyl group and the allyl group.
200px|center
See also
Alpha-olefin
Annulene
Aromatic hydrocarbon ("Arene")
Dendralene
Nitroalkene
Radialene
Nomenclature links
Rule A-3. Unsaturated Compounds and Univalent Radicals IUPAC Blue Book.
Rule A-4. Bivalent and Multivalent Radicals IUPAC Blue Book.
Rules A-11.3, A-11.4, A-11.5 Unsaturated monocyclic hydrocarbons and substituents IUPAC Blue Book.
Rule A-23. Hydrogenated Compounds of Fused Polycyclic Hydrocarbons IUPAC Blue Book.
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkene | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.573696 |
2762 | Allenes | right|thumb|Propadiene, the simplest allene, is also known as allene
In organic chemistry, allenes are organic compounds in which one carbon atom has double bonds with each of its two adjacent carbon atoms (, where R is H or some organyl group). Allenes are classified as cumulated dienes. The parent compound of this class is propadiene (), which is itself also called allene. A group of the structure is called allenyl, while a substituent attached to an allene is referred to as an allenic substituent (R is H or some alkyl group). In analogy to allylic and propargylic, a substituent attached to a saturated carbon α (i.e., directly adjacent) to an allene is referred to as an allenylic substituent. While allenes have two consecutive ('cumulated') double bonds, compounds with three or more cumulated double bonds are called cumulenes.
History
For many years, allenes were viewed as curiosities but thought to be synthetically useless and difficult to prepare and to work with. Reportedly, the first synthesis of an allene, glutinic acid, was performed in an attempt to prove the non-existence of this class of compounds. The situation began to change in the 1950s, and more than 300 papers on allenes have been published in 2012 alone. These compounds are not just interesting intermediates but synthetically valuable targets themselves; for example, over 150 natural products are known with an allene or cumulene fragment. For allenes with four identical substituents, there exist two twofold axes of rotation through the central carbon atom, inclined at 45° to the CH2 planes at either end of the molecule. The molecule can thus be thought of as a two-bladed propeller. A third twofold axis of rotation passes through the CCC bonds, and there is a mirror plane passing through both CH2 planes. Thus this class of molecules belong to the D2d point group. Because of the symmetry, an unsubstituted allene has no net dipole moment, that is, it is a non-polar molecule.
An allene with two different substituents on each of the two carbon atoms will be chiral because there will no longer be any mirror planes. The chirality of these types of allenes was first predicted in 1875 by Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, but not proven experimentally until 1935. Where A has a greater priority than B according to the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules, the configuration of the axial chirality can be determined by considering the substituents on the front atom followed by the back atom when viewed along the allene axis. For the back atom, only the group of higher priority need be considered.
Chiral allenes have been recently used as building blocks in the construction of organic materials with exceptional chiroptical properties. There are a few examples of drug molecule having an allene system in their structure. Mycomycin, an antibiotic with tuberculostatic properties, is a typical example. This drug exhibits enantiomerism due to the presence of a suitably substituted allene system.
Although the semi-localized textbook σ-π separation model describes the bonding of allene using a pair of localized orthogonal π orbitals, the full molecular orbital description of the bonding is more subtle. The symmetry-correct doubly-degenerate HOMOs of allene (adapted to the D2d point group) can either be represented by a pair of orthogonal MOs or as twisted helical linear combinations of these orthogonal MOs. The symmetry of the system and the degeneracy of these orbitals imply that both descriptions are correct (in the same way that there are infinitely many ways to depict the doubly-degenerate HOMOs and LUMOs of benzene that correspond to different choices of eigenfunctions in a two-dimensional eigenspace). However, this degeneracy is lifted in substituted allenes, and the helical picture becomes the only symmetry-correct description for the HOMO and HOMO–1 of the C2-symmetric . This qualitative MO description extends to higher odd-carbon cumulenes (e.g., 1,2,3,4-pentatetraene).
Chemical and spectral properties
Allenes differ considerably from other alkenes in terms of their chemical properties. Compared to isolated and conjugated dienes, they are considerably less stable: comparing the isomeric pentadienes, the allenic 1,2-pentadiene has a heat of formation of 33.6 kcal/mol, compared to 18.1 kcal/mol for (E)-1,3-pentadiene and 25.4 kcal/mol for the isolated 1,4-pentadiene.
The C–H bonds of allenes are considerably weaker and more acidic compared to typical vinylic C–H bonds: the bond dissociation energy is 87.7 kcal/mol (compared to 111 kcal/mol in ethylene), while the gas-phase acidity is 381 kcal/mol (compared to 409 kcal/mol for ethylene), making it slightly more acidic than the propargylic C–H bond of propyne (382 kcal/mol).
The 13C NMR spectrum of allenes is characterized by the signal of the sp-hybridized carbon atom, resonating at a characteristic 200-220 ppm. In contrast, the sp2-hybridized carbon atoms resonate around 80 ppm in a region typical for alkyne and nitrile carbon atoms, while the protons of a CH2 group of a terminal allene resonate at around 4.5 ppm — somewhat upfield of a typical vinylic proton.
Allenes possess a rich cycloaddition chemistry, including both [4+2] and [2+2] modes of addition, as well as undergoing formal cycloaddition processes catalyzed by transition metals. Allenes also serve as substrates for transition metal catalyzed hydrofunctionalization reactions.
Much like acetylenes, electron-poor allenes are unstable. Tetrachloroallene polymerizes quantitatively to perchloro(1,2-dimethylenecyclobutane) at −50 °C.
Synthesis
Although allenes often require specialized syntheses, the parent allene, propadiene is produced industrially on a large scale as an equilibrium mixture with propyne:
H2CCCH2 H3C-C#CH
This mixture, known as MAPP gas, is commercially available. At 298 K, the ΔG° of this reaction is –1.9 kcal/mol, corresponding to Keq = 24.7.
The first allene to be synthesized was penta-2,3-dienedioic acid, which was prepared by Burton and Pechmann in 1887. However, the structure was only correctly identified in 1954.
Laboratory methods for the formation of allenes include:
from geminal dihalocyclopropanes and organolithium compounds (or metallic sodium or magnesium) in the Skattebøl rearrangement (Doering–LaFlamme allene synthesis) via rearrangement of cyclopropylidene carbenes/carbenoids
from reaction of certain terminal alkynes with formaldehyde, copper(I) bromide, and added base (Crabbé–Ma allene synthesis)
from propargylic halides by SN2′ displacement by an organocuprate
from dehydrohalogenation of certain dihalides
from reaction of a triphenylphosphinyl ester with an acid halide, a Wittig reaction accompanied by dehydrohalogenation
from propargylic alcohols via the Myers allene synthesis protocol—a stereospecific process
from metalation of allene or substituted allenes with BuLi and reaction with electrophiles (RX, R3SiX, D2O, etc.)
The chemistry of allenes has been reviewed in a number of books and journal articles. Some key approaches towards allenes are outlined in the following scheme:
File:Overview_common_allene_syntheses_Zhurakovskyi.svg
One of the older methods is the Skattebøl rearrangement (also called the Doering–Moore–Skattebøl or Doering–LaFlamme rearrangement), in which a gem-dihalocyclopropane 3 is treated with an organolithium compound (or dissolving metal) and the presumed intermediate rearranges into an allene either directly or via carbene-like species. Notably, even strained allenes can be generated by this procedure. Modifications involving leaving groups of different nature are also known. rearrangements of ketene acetals 4 have been used a number of times to prepare allenic esters and acids. Reactions of vinyl ethers 5 (the Saucy–Marbet rearrangement) give allene aldehydes, while propargylic sulfenates 6 give allene sulfoxides. Allenes can also be prepared by nucleophilic substitution in 9 and 10 (nucleophile Nu− can be a hydride anion), 1,2-elimination from 8, proton transfer in 7, and other, less general, methods.
Research
The reactivity of substituted allenes has been well explored.
The two π-bonds are located at the 90° angle to each other, and thus require a reagent to approach from somewhat different directions. With an appropriate substitution pattern, allenes exhibit axial chirality as predicted by Van 't Hoff as early as 1875. Reactions with soft electrophiles (e.g. Br+) deliver positively charged onium ions 13. Transition-metal-catalysed reactions proceed via allylic intermediates 15 and have attracted significant interest in recent years. Numerous cycloadditions are also known, including [4+2]-, (2+1)-, and [2+2]-variants, which deliver, e.g., 12, 14, and 16, respectively.
File:Overview_allene_reactivity_Zhurakovskyi.svg
Occurrence
thumb|422 px|Fucoxanthin, the most abundant of all carotinoids, is the light-absorbing pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae, giving them a brown or olive-green color.
Numerous natural products contain the allene functional group. Noteworthy are the pigments fucoxanthin and peridinin. Little is known about the biosynthesis, although it is conjectured that they are often generated from alkyne precursors.
Allenes serve as ligands in organometallic chemistry. A typical complex is Pt(η2-allene)(PPh3)2. Ni(0) reagents catalyze the cyclooligomerization of allene. Using a suitable catalyst (e.g. Wilkinson's catalyst), it is possible to reduce just one of the double bonds of an allene.
Delta convention
Many rings or ring systems are known by semisystematic names that assume a maximum number of noncumulative bonds. To unambiguously specify derivatives that include cumulated bonds (and hence fewer hydrogen atoms than would be expected from the skeleton), a lowercase delta may be used with a subscript indicating the number of cumulated double bonds from that atom, e.g. 8δ2-benzocyclononene. This may be combined with the λ-convention for specifying nonstandard valency states, e.g. 2λ4δ2,5λ4δ2-thieno[3,4-c]thiophene.
See also
Compounds with three or more adjacent carbon–carbon double bonds are called cumulenes.
References
Further reading
Brummond, Kay M. (editor). Allene chemistry (special thematic issue). Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry 7: 394–943.
External links
Synthesis of allenes
Category:Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allenes | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.635412 |
2763 | Alkyne | \ce{H-C#C}
\ce{-H}
Acetylene
\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}
Propyne
\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}
1-Butyne
right|thumb|A 3D model of ethyne (acetylene), the simplest alkyne
In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula . Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to , known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic.
Structure and bonding
In acetylene, the H–C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes are rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne cannot be isolated. The C≡C bond distance of 118 picometers (for C2H2) is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (132 pm, for C2H4) or the C–C bond in alkanes (153 pm).
thumb|center|580px|Illustrative alkynes: a, acetylene, b, two depictions of propyne, c, 1-butyne, d, 2-butyne, e, the naturally occurring 1-phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne, and f, the strained cycloheptyne. Triple bonds are highlighted blue.
The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol. The second pi bond 202 kJ/mol. Bonding is usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes triple bond arising from the overlap of s and p orbitals. In terms of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized which means they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp–sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom. For example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.
Terminal and internal alkynes
Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne. They may also be asymmetrical, such as in 2-pentyne.
Terminal alkynes have the formula , where at least one end of the alkyne is a hydrogen atom. An example is methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). They are often prepared by alkylation of monosodium acetylide. Terminal alkynes, like acetylene itself, are mildly acidic, with pKa values of around 25. They are far more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, which have pKa values of around 40 and 50, respectively. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes. The carbanions generated by deprotonation of terminal alkynes are called acetylides. Internal alkynes are also considerably more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, though not nearly as acidic as terminal alkynes. The C–H bonds at the α position of alkynes (propargylic C–H bonds) can also be deprotonated using strong bases, with an estimated pKa of 35. This acidity can be used to isomerize internal alkynes to terminal alkynes using the alkyne zipper reaction.
Naming alkynes
In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.
In chemistry, the suffix -yne is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne"). "-diyne" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. In case of multiple triple bonds, the position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants'. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. "-yne" is also used as a suffix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.
Sometimes a number between hyphens is inserted before it to state which atoms the triple bond is between. This suffix arose as a collapsed form of the end of the word "acetylene". The final "-e" disappears if it is followed by another suffix that starts with a vowel.
Structural isomerism
Alkynes having four or more carbon atoms can form different structural isomers by having the triple bond in different positions or having some of the carbon atoms be substituents rather than part of the parent chain. Other non-alkyne structural isomers are also possible.
: acetylene only
: propyne only
: 2 isomers: 1-butyne, and 2-butyne
: 3 isomers: 1-pentyne, 2-pentyne, and 3-methyl-1-butyne
: 7 isomers: 1-hexyne, 2-hexyne, 3-hexyne, 4-methyl-1-pentyne, 4-methyl-2-pentyne, 3-methyl-1-pentyne, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyne
Synthesis
From calcium carbide
Classically, acetylene was prepared by hydrolysis (protonation) of calcium carbide (Ca2+[:C≡C:]2–):
Ca^{2+}[C#C]^2- + 2 HOH -> HC#CH + Ca^{2+}[(HO^{-})2]
which was in turn synthesized by combining quicklime and coke in an electric arc furnace at 2200 °C:
CaO + 3 C (amorphous) -> CaC2 + CO
This was an industrially important process which provided access to hydrocarbons from coal resources for countries like Germany and China. However, the energy-intensive nature of this process is a major disadvantage and its share of the world's production of acetylene has steadily decreased relative to hydrocarbon cracking.
Cracking
Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:
350px
Via the Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey–Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation.
Vinyl halides are susceptible to dehydrohalogenation.
Reactions, including applications
Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Such use was pioneered by Ralph Raphael, who in 1955 wrote the first book describing their versatility as intermediates in synthesis. In spite of their kinetic stability (persistence) due to their strong triple bonds, alkynes are a thermodynamically unstable functional group, as can be gleaned from the highly positive heats of formation of small alkynes. For example, acetylene has a heat of formation of +227.4 kJ/mol (+54.2 kcal/mol), indicating a much higher energy content compared to its constituent elements. The highly exothermic combustion of acetylene is exploited industrially in oxyacetylene torches used in welding. Other reactions involving alkynes are often highly thermodynamically favorable (exothermic/exergonic) for the same reason.
Hydrogenation
Being more unsaturated than alkenes, alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated". Alkynes are capable of adding two equivalents of , whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful:
frameless|400px|center
The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene in refineries (the steam cracking of alkanes yields a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst). For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the alkene dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides:
\ce{RC#CR' + H2 ->} \text{ cis-}\ce{RCH=CR'H}
RCH=CR'H + H2 -> RCH2CR'H2
The addition of one equivalent of to internal alkynes gives cis-alkenes.
Addition of halogens and related reagents
Alkynes characteristically are capable of adding two equivalents of halogens and hydrogen halides.
RC#CR' + 2 Br2 -> RCBr2CR'Br2
The addition of nonpolar bonds across is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. In the thiol-yne reaction the substrate is a thiol.
Addition of hydrogen halides has long been of interest. In the presence of mercuric chloride as a catalyst, acetylene and hydrogen chloride react to give vinyl chloride. While this method has been abandoned in the West, it remains the main production method in China.
Hydration
The hydration reaction of acetylene gives acetaldehyde. The reaction proceeds by formation of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to form the aldehyde. This reaction was once a major industrial process but it has been displaced by the Wacker process. This reaction occurs in nature, the catalyst being acetylene hydratase.
Hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone:
PhC#CH + H2O -> PhCOCH3
catalyzes hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione:
HC#C(CH2)5C#CH + 2H2O -> CH3CO(CH2)5COCH3
Isomerization to allenes
Alkynes can be isomerized by strong base or transition metals to allenes. Due to their comparable thermodynamic stabilities, the equilibrium constant of alkyne/allene isomerization is generally within several orders of magnitude of unity. For example propyne can be isomerized to give an equilibrium mixture with propadiene:
HC#C-CH3 CH2CCH2
Cycloadditions and oxidation
Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. The Diels–Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes gives 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed. Electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The "cycloadduct" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the [2+2+1]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson–Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:
RC#CR + R'C#CR' 2RC#CR'
Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids.
Reactions specific for terminal alkynes
Terminal alkynes are readily converted to many derivatives, e.g. by coupling reactions and condensations. Via the condensation with formaldehyde and acetylene is produced butynediol:
2CH2O + HC#CH -> HOCH2CCCH2OH
In the Sonogashira reaction, terminal alkynes are coupled with aryl or vinyl halides:
400px|The Sonogashira Reaction
This reactivity exploits the fact that terminal alkynes are weak acids, whose typical pKa values around 25 place them between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16):
RC#CH + MX -> RC#CM + HX
where MX = NaNH2, LiBu, or RMgX.
The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. and also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide () reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. This reactivity is the basis of alkyne coupling reactions, including the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling shown below:
2R-\!{\equiv}\!-H ->[\ce{Cu(OAc)2}][\ce{pyridine}] R-\!{\equiv}\!-\!{\equiv}\!-R
In the Favorskii reaction and in alkynylations in general, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne.
Metal complexes
Alkynes form complexes with transition metals. Such complexes occur also in metal catalyzed reactions of alkynes such as alkyne trimerization. Terminal alkynes, including acetylene itself, react with water to give aldehydes. The transformation typically requires metal catalysts to give this anti-Markovnikov addition result.
Alkynes in nature and medicine
According to Ferdinand Bohlmann, the first naturally occurring acetylenic compound, dehydromatricaria ester, was isolated from an Artemisia species in 1826. In the nearly two centuries that have followed, well over a thousand naturally occurring acetylenes have been discovered and reported. Polyynes, a subset of this class of natural products, have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, cultures of higher fungi, bacteria, marine sponges, and corals. Some acids like tariric acid contain an alkyne group. Diynes and triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C–C≡CR′ and RC≡C–C≡C–C≡CR′ respectively, occur in certain plants (Ichthyothere, Chrysanthemum, Cicuta, Oenanthe and other members of the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families). Some examples are cicutoxin, oenanthotoxin, and falcarinol. These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne. Biosynthetically, the enediyne natural products are also derived from a polyyne precursor.
Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon–carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral efavirenz and the antifungal terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene ("ene") between two alkyne groups ("diyne"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a "warhead". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.
See also
-yne
cycloalkyne
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyne | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.663247 |
2764 | AbiWord | | latest release version
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AbiWord () is a free and open-source word processor. It is written in C++ and since version 3 it is based on GTK+ 3. The name "AbiWord" is derived from the root of the Spanish word "abierto", meaning "open".
AbiWord was originally started by SourceGear Corporation as the first part of a proposed AbiSuite but was adopted by open source developers after SourceGear changed its business focus and ceased development. It now runs on Linux, ReactOS, Solaris, AmigaOS 4.0 (through its Cygwin X11 engine), MeeGo (on the Nokia N9 smartphone), Maemo (on the Nokia N810), QNX and other operating systems. Development of a version for Microsoft Windows has temporarily ended due to lack of maintainers (the latest released versions are 2.8.6 and 2.9.4 beta).
The macOS port has remained on version 2.4 since 2005, although the current version does run non-natively on macOS through XQuartz.
AbiWord is part of the AbiSource project which develops a number of office-related technologies.
Features
AbiWord supports both basic word processing features such as lists, indents and character formats, and more sophisticated features including tables, styles, page headers and footers, footnotes, templates, multiple views, page columns, spell checking, and grammar checking. The Presentation view of AbiWord, which permits easy display of presentations created in AbiWord on "screen-sized" pages, is another feature not often found in word processors.InterfaceAbiWord generally works similarly to classic versions (pre-Office 2007) of Microsoft Word, as direct ease of migration was a high priority early goal. While many interface similarities remain, cloning the Word interface is no longer a top priority. The interface is intended to follow user interface guidelines for each respective platform.Collaboration
AbiWord allows users to share and collaborate on documents in a similar manner to Google Docs, using a system known as GOCollab. Users can collaborate using a varitety of different protocols including TCP and XMPP, and formerly over AbiCollab.net, a web based service that facilitated collaboration between users.
File formats
AbiWord comes with several import and export filters providing partial support for such formats as HTML, Microsoft Word (.doc), Office Open XML (.docx), OpenDocument Text (.odt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), and text documents (.txt). LaTeX is supported for export only. Plug-in filters are available to deal with many other formats, notably WordPerfect documents. The native file format, .abw, uses XML, so as to mitigate vendor lock-in concerns with respect to interoperability and digital archiving.Grammar checkingThe AbiWord project includes a US English-only grammar checking plugin using Link Grammar. AbiWord had grammar checking before any other open source word processor, although a grammar checker was later added to OpenOffice.org.
Version 0.7.0 – May 19th, 1999 – first binary release.
Version 1.0 – April 19th, 2002.
See also
*List of free and open-source software packages
*List of word processors
* Comparison of word processors
* Office Open XML software
* OpenDocument software
References
External links
* <!-- As of 91/16/2023 this server is offline, although the site can be seen at archive.org. The original hosting domain snt.utwente.nl does not have any mention of Abiword. I don't see the data elsewhere on line. Next step would be to find new page or contact domain owner to see if it is permanently dead. --> not working,
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Category:Windows word processors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AbiWord | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.670914 |
2766 | Ames test | 500px|right|thumb|Ames test procedure
The Ames test is a widely employed method that uses bacteria to test whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. More formally, it is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. A positive test indicates that the chemical is mutagenic and therefore may act as a carcinogen, because cancer is often linked to mutation. The test serves as a quick and convenient assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound because standard carcinogen assays on mice and rats are time-consuming (taking two to three years to complete) and expensive. However, false-positives and false-negatives are known.
The procedure was described in a series of papers in the early 1970s by Bruce Ames and his group at the University of California, Berkeley. The tester strains also carry mutations in the genes responsible for lipopolysaccharide synthesis, making the cell wall of the bacteria more permeable, and in the excision repair system to make the test more sensitive.
Larger organisms like mammals have metabolic processes that could potentially turn a chemical considered not mutagenic into one that is or one that is considered mutagenic into one that is not. Therefore, to more effectively test a chemical compound's mutagenicity in relation to larger organisms, rat liver enzymes can be added in an attempt to replicate the metabolic processes' effect on the compound being tested in the Ames Test. Rat liver extract is optionally added to simulate the effect of metabolism, as some compounds, like benzo[a]pyrene, are not mutagenic themselves but their metabolic products are.
The bacteria are spread on an agar plate with a small amount of histidine. This small amount of histidine in the growth medium allows the bacteria to grow for an initial time and have the opportunity to mutate.
When the histidine is depleted only bacteria that have mutated to gain the ability to produce its own histidine will survive. The plate is incubated for 48 hours. The mutagenicity of a substance is proportional to the number of colonies observed.
Ames test and carcinogens
Mutagens identified via Ames test are also possible carcinogens, and early studies by Ames showed that 90% of known carcinogens may be identified via this test. Later studies however showed identification of 50–70% of known carcinogens. The test was used to identify a number of compounds previously used in commercial products as potential carcinogens. Examples include tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate, which was used as a flame retardant in plastic and textiles such as children's sleepwear, and furylfuramide which was used as an antibacterial additive in food in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Furylfuramide in fact had previously passed animal tests, but more vigorous tests after its identification in the Ames test showed it to be carcinogenic. Their positive tests resulted in those chemicals being withdrawn from use in consumer products.
One interesting result from the Ames test is that the dose response curve using varying concentrations of the chemical is almost always linear, However, some have proposed that organisms could tolerate low levels of mutagens due to protective mechanisms such as DNA repair, and thus a threshold may exist for certain chemical mutagens. Bruce Ames himself argued against linear dose-response extrapolation from the high dose used in carcinogenesis tests in animal systems to the lower dose of chemicals normally encountered in human exposure, as the results may be false positives due to mitogenic response caused by the artificially high dose of chemicals used in such tests. He also cautioned against the "hysteria over tiny traces of chemicals that may or may not cause cancer", that "completely drives out the major risks you should be aware of".
The Ames test is often used as one of the initial screens for potential drugs to weed out possible carcinogens, and it is one of the eight tests required under the Pesticide Act (USA) and one of the six tests required under the Toxic Substances Control Act (USA).
Limitations
Salmonella typhimurium is a prokaryote, therefore it is not a perfect model for humans. Rat liver S9 fraction is used to mimic the mammalian metabolic conditions so that the mutagenic potential of metabolites formed by a parent molecule in the hepatic system can be assessed; however, there are differences in metabolism between humans and rats that can affect the mutagenicity of the chemicals being tested. The test may therefore be improved by the use of human liver S9 fraction; its use was previously limited by its availability, but it is now available commercially and therefore may be more feasible. An adapted in vitro model has been made for eukaryotic cells, for example yeast.
Mutagens identified in the Ames test need not necessarily be carcinogenic, and further tests are required for any potential carcinogen identified in the test. Drugs that contain the nitrate moiety sometimes come back positive for Ames when they are indeed safe. The nitrate compounds may generate nitric oxide, an important signal molecule that can give a false positive. Nitroglycerin is an example that gives a positive Ames yet is still used in treatment today. Nitrates in food however may be reduced by bacterial action to nitrites which are known to generate carcinogens by reacting with amines and amides. Long toxicology and outcome studies are needed with such compounds to disprove a positive Ames test.
Fluctuation method
300px|right|thumb|Fluctuation method: 96-well plate
thumb|300px|Fluctuation method: 384-well plate
The Ames test was initially developed using agar plates (the plate incorporation technique), as described above. Since that time, an alternative to performing the Ames test has been developed, which is known as the "fluctuation method". This technique is the same in concept as the agar-based method, with bacteria being added to a reaction mixture with a small amount of histidine, which allows the bacteria to grow and mutate, returning to synthesize their own histidine. By including a pH indicator, the frequency of mutation is counted in microplates as the number of wells which have changed color (caused by a drop in pH due to metabolic processes of reproducing bacteria). As with the traditional Ames test, the sample is compared to the natural background rate of reverse mutation in order to establish the genotoxicity of a substance. The fluctuation method is performed entirely in liquid culture and is scored by counting the number of wells that turn yellow from purple in 96-well or 384-well microplates.
In the 96-well plate method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 96 which have changed color. The plates are incubated for up to five days, with mutated (yellow) colonies being counted each day and compared to the background rate of reverse mutation using established tables of significance to determine the significant differences between the background rate of mutation and that for the tested samples.
In the more scaled-down 384-well plate microfluctuation method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 48 which have changed color after 2 days of incubation. A test sample is assayed across 6 dose levels with concurrent zero-dose (background) and positive controls which all fit into one 384-well plate. The assay is performed in triplicates to provide statistical robustness. It uses the recommended OECD Guideline 471 tester strains (histidine auxotrophs and tryptophan auxotrophs).
The fluctuation method is comparable to the traditional pour plate method in terms of sensitivity and accuracy, however, it does have a number of advantages: it needs less test sample, it has a simple colorimetric endpoint, counting the number of positive wells out of possible 96 or 48 wells is much less time-consuming than counting individual colonies on an agar plate. Several commercial kits are available. Most kits have consumable components in a ready-to-use state, including lyophilized bacteria, and tests can be performed using multichannel pipettes. The fluctuation method also allows for testing higher volumes of aqueous samples (up to 75% v/v), increasing the sensitivity and extending its application to low-level environmental mutagens.
References
Further reading
Category:Applied genetics
Category:Biochemistry detection reactions
Category:Laboratory techniques
Category:Toxicology tests | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_test | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.681068 |
2767 | ACE inhibitor | | Consumer_Reports = ace-inhibitors
| medicinenet = ace_inhibitors
| rxlist = 94663
}}
Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) are a class of medication used primarily for the treatment of high blood pressure and heart failure. This class of medicine works by causing relaxation of blood vessels as well as a decrease in blood volume, which leads to lower blood pressure and decreased oxygen demand from the heart.
ACE inhibitors inhibit the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme, an important component of the renin–angiotensin system which converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, and hydrolyses bradykinin. including:
* Acute myocardial infarction (heart attack)
* Heart failure (left ventricular systolic dysfunction)
* Kidney complications of diabetes mellitus (diabetic nephropathy) by means of decreasing the blood pressure and preventing glomerular hyperfiltration injury
In treating high blood pressure, ACE inhibitors are often the first drug choice, particularly when diabetes is present, but age can lead to different choices and it is common to need more than one drug to obtain the desired improvement. There are fixed-dose combination drugs, such as ACE inhibitor and thiazide combinations. ACE inhibitors have also been used in chronic kidney failure and kidney involvement in systemic sclerosis (hardening of tissues, as scleroderma renal crisis). In those with stable coronary artery disease, but no heart failure, benefits are similar to other usual treatments.
In 2012, a meta-analysis published in the BMJ described the protective role of ACE inhibitors in reducing the risk of pneumonia when compared to angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARBs). The authors found a decreased risk in patients with previous stroke (54% risk reduction), with heart failure (37% risk reduction), and of Asian descent (43% risk reduction vs 54% risk reduction in non-Asian population). However, no reduced pneumonia-related mortality was observed.
Other
ACE inhibitors may also be used to help decrease excessive water consumption in people with schizophrenia resulting in psychogenic polydipsia. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed that when used for this purpose, enalapril led to decreased consumption (determined by urine output and osmolality) in 60% of people; the same effect has been demonstrated in other ACE inhibitors.
Additionally ACE-I are commonly used after renal transplant to manage post-transplant erythrocytosis, a condition characterised by a persistently high hematocrit greater than 51% which often develops 8–24 months after successful transplantation, as ACE-I have been shown to decrease erythropoietin production.
Adverse effects
Common side effects include: low blood pressure, cough, hyperkalemia, headache, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, and kidney impairment.
The main adverse effects of ACE inhibition can be understood from their pharmacological action. The other reported adverse effects are liver problems and effects on the fetus. However, the decrease may be significant in conditions of pre-existing decreased renal perfusions, such as renal artery stenosis, heart failure, polycystic kidney disease, or volume depletion. In these patients, the maintenance of GFR depends on angiotensin-II-dependent efferent vasomotor tone.
Reduced GFR is especially a problem if the patient is concomitantly taking an NSAID and a diuretic.
High blood potassium is another possible complication of treatment with an ACE inhibitor due to its effect on aldosterone. Suppression of angiotensin II leads to a decrease in aldosterone levels. Since aldosterone is responsible for increasing the excretion of potassium, ACE inhibitors can cause retention of potassium. Some people, however, can continue to lose potassium while on an ACE inhibitor. Hyperkalemia may decrease the velocity of impulse conduction in the nerves and muscles, including cardiac tissues. This leads to cardiac dysfunction and neuromuscular consequences, such as muscle weakness, paresthesia, nausea, diarrhea, and others. Close monitoring of potassium levels is required in patients receiving treatment with ACE inhibitors who are at risk of hyperkalemia. Many cases of cough in people on ACE inhibitors may not be from the medication itself, however. People who experience this cough are often switched to angiotensin II receptor antagonists.
Some (0.7%) A genetic predisposition may exist.
A severe rare allergic reaction can affect the bowel wall and secondarily cause abdominal pain.
Blood
Hematologic effects, such as neutropenia, agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias, have occurred during therapy with ACE inhibitors, especially in people with additional risk factors.
Pregnancy
In pregnant women, ACE inhibitors taken during all the trimesters have been reported to cause congenital malformations, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths. Commonly reported fetal abnormalities include hypotension, renal dysplasia, anuria/oliguria, oligohydramnios, intrauterine growth retardation, pulmonary hypoplasia, patent ductus arteriosus, and incomplete ossification of the skull. Overall, about half of newborns exposed to ACE inhibitors are adversely affected, leading to birth defects.
Overdose
Symptoms and Treatment: There are few reports of ACE inhibitor overdose in the literature. The most likely manifestations are hypotension, which may be severe, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia and renal impairment with metabolic acidosis. Treatment should be mainly symptomatic and supportive, with volume expansion using normal saline to correct hypotension and improve renal function, and gastric lavage followed by activated charcoal and a cathartic to prevent further absorption of the drug. Captopril, enalapril, lisinopril and perindopril are known to be removable by hemodialysis.
Contraindications and precautions
The ACE inhibitors are contraindicated in people with:
* Pregnancy or breastfeeding
* Previous angioedema associated with ACE inhibitor therapy
* Bilateral renal artery stenosis
* Hypersensitivity to ACE inhibitors
Concomitant use with cyclooxygenase inhibitors tends to decrease ACE inhibitor's hypotensive effect.
Mechanism of action
ACE inhibitors reduce the activity of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) as the primary etiologic (causal) event in the development of hypertension in people with diabetes mellitus, as part of the insulin-resistance syndrome or as a manifestation of renal disease.
Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
]]
The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system is a major blood pressure regulating mechanism. Markers of electrolyte and water imbalance in the body such as hypotension, low distal tubule sodium concentration, decreased blood volume and high sympathetic tone trigger the release of the enzyme renin from the cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidney.
Renin activates a circulating liver derived prohormone angiotensinogen by proteolytic cleavage of all but its first ten amino acid residues known as angiotensin I. ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) then removes a further two residues, converting angiotensin I into angiotensin II. ACE is found in the pulmonary circulation and in the endothelium of many blood vessels. The system increases blood pressure by increasing the amount of salt and water the body retains, although angiotensin II is also a potent vasoconstrictor.
Effects
ACE inhibitors block the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). They thereby lower arteriolar resistance and increase venous capacity; decrease cardiac output, cardiac index, stroke work, and volume; lower resistance in blood vessels in the kidneys; and lead to increased natriuresis (excretion of sodium in the urine). Renin increases in concentration in the blood as a result of negative feedback of conversion of ATI to ATII. ATI increases for the same reason; ATII and aldosterone decrease. Bradykinin increases because of less inactivation by ACE.
Under normal conditions, angiotensin II has these effects:
* Vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) and vascular smooth muscle hypertrophy (enlargement) induced by ATII may lead to increased blood pressure and hypertension. Further, constriction of the efferent arterioles of the kidney leads to increased perfusion pressure in the glomeruli.
* It contributes to ventricular remodeling and ventricular hypertrophy of the heart through stimulation of the proto-oncogenes c-fos, c-jun, c-myc, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-B), through fibrogenesis and apoptosis (programmed cell death).
* Stimulation by ATII of the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, a hormone that acts on kidney tubules, causes sodium and chloride ions retention and potassium excretion. Sodium is a "water-holding" ion, so water is also retained, which leads to increased blood volume, hence an increase in blood pressure.
* Stimulation of the posterior pituitary to release vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) also acts on the kidneys to increase water retention. If ADH production is excessive in heart failure, Na<sup>+</sup> level in the plasma may fall (hyponatremia), and this is a sign of increased risk of death in heart failure patients.
* A decrease renal protein kinase C
During the course of ACE inhibitor use, the production of ATII is decreased,
ACE inhibitors have been shown to be effective for indications other than hypertension even in patients with normal blood pressure. The use of a maximum dose of ACE inhibitors in such patients (including for prevention of diabetic nephropathy, congestive heart failure, and prophylaxis of cardiovascular events) is justified, because it improves clinical outcomes independently of the blood pressure-lowering effect of ACE inhibitors. Such therapy, of course, requires careful and gradual titration of the dose to prevent the effects of rapidly decreasing blood pressure (dizziness, fainting, etc.).
ACE inhibitors have also been shown to cause a central enhancement of parasympathetic nervous system activity in healthy volunteers and patients with heart failure. This action may reduce the prevalence of malignant cardiac arrhythmias, and the reduction in sudden death reported in large clinical trials.
ACE Inhibitors also reduce plasma norepinephrine levels, and its resulting vasoconstriction effects, in heart failure patients, thus breaking the vicious circles of sympathetic and renin angiotensin system activation, which sustains the downward spiral in cardiac function in congestive heart failure
The ACE inhibitor enalapril has also been shown to reduce cardiac cachexia in patients with chronic heart failure. Cachexia is a poor prognostic sign in patients with chronic heart failure.
ACE inhibitors are under early investigation for the treatment of frailty and muscle wasting (sarcopenia) in elderly patients without heart failure.
Examples
Currently, there are 10 ACE inhibitors approved for use in the United States by the FDA: captopril (1981), enalapril (1985), lisinopril (1987), benazepril (1991), fosinopril (1991), quinapril (1991), ramipril (1991), perindopril (1993), moexipril (1995) and trandolapril (1996).
ACE inhibitors are easily identifiable by their common suffix, '-pril'. ACE inhibitors can be divided into three groups based on their molecular structure of the enzyme binding sites (sulfhydryl, phosphinyl, carboxyl) to the active center of ACE:
Sulfhydryl-containing agents
* Alacepril
* Arfalasin (HOE 409) is angiotensin antagonist.
Dairy products
* Casokinins and lactokinins, breakdown products of casein and whey, occur naturally after ingestion of milk products, especially cultured milk. Their role in blood pressure control is uncertain.
* The lactotripeptides Val-Pro-Pro and Ile-Pro-Pro produced by the probiotic Lactobacillus helveticus or derived from casein have been shown to have ACE-inhibiting and antihypertensive functions.
Comparative information
All ACE inhibitors have similar antihypertensive efficacy when equivalent doses are administered. The main differences lie with captopril, the first ACE inhibitor. Captopril has a shorter duration of action and an increased incidence of adverse effects. It is also capable of passing through the blood–brain barrier.
In a large clinical study, one of the agents in the ACE inhibitor class, ramipril (Altace), demonstrated an ability to reduce the mortality rates of patients with a myocardial infarction and to slow the subsequent development of heart failure. This finding was made after it was discovered that regular use of ramipril reduced mortality rates even in test subjects who did not have hypertension.
Some believe ramipril's additional benefits may be shared by some or all drugs in the ACE-inhibitor class. However, ramipril currently remains the only ACE inhibitor for which such effects are actually evidence-based.
A meta-analysis confirmed that ACE inhibitors are effective and certainly the first-line choice in hypertension treatment. This meta-analysis was based on 20 trials and a cohort of 158,998 patients, of whom 91% were hypertensive. ACE inhibitors were used as the active treatment in seven trials (n76,615) and angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) in 13 trials (n82,383).
ACE inhibitors were associated with a statistically significant 10% mortality reduction: (HR 0.90; 95% CI, 0.84–0.97; P0.004). In contrast, no significant mortality reduction was observed with ARB treatment (HR 0.99; 95% CI, 0.94–1.04; P0.683). Analysis of mortality reduction by different ACE inhibitors showed that perindopril-based regimens are associated with a statistically significant 13% all-cause mortality reduction.
Taking into account the broad spectrum of the hypertensive population, one might expect that an effective treatment with ACE inhibitors, in particular with perindopril, would result in an important gain of lives saved.
Equivalent doses in hypertension
The ACE inhibitors have different strengths with different starting dosages. Dosage should be adjusted according to the clinical response.
{| class=wikitable
|-
!colspan=6 | ACE inhibitors dosages for hypertension
|-
!colspan2| ||| ||colspan3 |Dosage
|-
|colspan6 | Note: bid two times a day, tid three times a day, d daily <br>Drug dosages from Drug Lookup, [https://online.epocrates.com/ Epocrates Online].
|-
! Name || Equivalent daily dose ||| || Start || Usual || Maximum
|-
| Benazepril || 10 mg||| || 10 mg || 20–40 mg || 80 mg
|-
| Captopril || 50 mg (25 mg bid) ||| || 12.5–25 mg bid-tid || 25–50 mg bid-tid || 150 mg/d
|-
| Enalapril || 5 mg ||| || 5 mg || 10–40 mg || 40 mg
|-
| Fosinopril || 10 mg || ||| 10 mg || 20–40 mg || 80 mg
|-
| Lisinopril || 10 mg || ||| 10 mg || 10–40 mg || 80 mg
|-
| Moexipril || 7.5 mg || ||| 7.5 mg || 7.5–30 mg || 30 mg
|-
| Perindopril || 4 mg ||| || 4 mg || 4–8 mg || 16 mg
|-
| Quinapril || 10 mg || ||| 10 mg || 20–80 mg || 80 mg
|-
| Ramipril || 2.5 mg || ||| 2.5 mg || 2.5–20 mg || 20 mg
|-
| Trandolapril || 2 mg || ||| 1 mg || 2–4 mg || 8 mg
|- Imidapril || 5 mg || ||| 5 mg || 10 mg ||20 mg
|}
Combination with angiotensin II receptor antagonists
ACE inhibitors possess many common characteristics with another class of cardiovascular drugs, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, which are often used when patients are intolerant of the adverse effects produced by ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors do not completely prevent the formation of angiotensin II, as blockage is dose-dependent, so angiotensin II receptor antagonists may be useful because they act to prevent the action of angiotensin II at the AT<sub>1</sub> receptor, leaving AT<sub>2</sub> receptor unblocked; the latter may have consequences needing further study.
The combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor antagonists with ACE inhibitors may be superior to either agent alone. This combination may increase levels of bradykinin while blocking the generation of angiotensin II and its activity at the AT<sub>1</sub> receptor. This 'dual blockade' may be more effective than using an ACE inhibitor alone, because angiotensin II can be generated via non-ACE-dependent pathways. Preliminary studies suggest this combination of pharmacologic agents may be advantageous in the treatment of essential hypertension, chronic heart failure, and nephropathy. However, the more recent ONTARGET study showed no benefit of combining the agents and more adverse events. While statistically significant results have been obtained for its role in treating hypertension, clinical significance may be lacking. There are warnings about the combination of ACE inhibitors with ARBs.
Patients with heart failure may benefit from the combination in terms of reducing morbidity and ventricular remodeling.
The most compelling evidence for the treatment of nephropathy has been found: This combination therapy partially reversed the proteinuria and also exhibited a renoprotective effect in patients with diabetic nephropathy,History
Leonard T. Skeggs and his colleagues (including Norman Shumway) discovered ACE in plasma in 1956. It was also noted that those who worked in banana plantations in South-western Brazil collapsed after being bitten by a pit viper, leading to a search for a blood pressure lowering component in its venom. Brazilian scientist Sérgio Henrique Ferreira reported a bradykinin-potentiating factor (BPF) present in the venom of Bothrops jararaca, a South American pit viper, in 1965. Ferreira then went to John Vane's laboratory as a postdoctoral fellow with his already-isolated BPF. The conversion of the inactive angiotensin I to the potent angiotensin II was thought to take place in the plasma. However, in 1967, Kevin K. F. Ng and John R. Vane showed plasma ACE is too slow to account for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in vivo. Subsequent investigation showed rapid conversion occurs during its passage through the pulmonary circulation.
Bradykinin is rapidly inactivated in the circulating blood, and it disappears completely in a single pass through the pulmonary circulation. Angiotensin I also disappears in the pulmonary circulation because of its conversion to angiotensin II. Furthermore, angiotensin II passes through the lungs without any loss. The inactivation of bradykinin and the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the lungs was thought to be caused by the same enzyme. In 1970, Ng and Vane, using BPF provided by Ferreira, showed the conversion is inhibited during its passage through the pulmonary circulation.
BPFs are members of a family of peptides whose potentiating action is linked to inhibition of bradykinin by ACE. Molecular analysis of BPF yielded a nonapeptide BPF teprotide (SQ 20,881), which showed the greatest ACE inhibition potency and hypotensive effect in vivo. Teprotide had limited clinical value as a result of its peptide nature and lack of activity when given orally. In the early 1970s, knowledge of the structure-activity relationship required for inhibition of ACE was growing. David Cushman, Miguel Ondetti and colleagues used peptide analogues to study the structure of ACE, using carboxypeptidase A as a model. Their discoveries led to the development of captopril, the first orally-active ACE inhibitor, in 1975.
Captopril was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1981. The first nonsulfhydryl-containing ACE inhibitor, enalapril, was approved four years later. At least 8 other ACE inhibitors have since been marketed.
In 1991, Japanese scientists created the first milk-based ACE inhibitor, in the form of a fermented milk drink, using specific cultures to liberate the tripeptide isoleucine-proline-proline (IPP) from the dairy protein. Valine-proline-proline (VPP) is also liberated in this process—another milk tripeptide with a very similar chemical structure to IPP. Together, these peptides are now often referred to as lactotripeptides. In 1996, the first human study confirmed the blood pressure-lowering effect of IPP in fermented milk. Although twice the amount of VPP is needed to achieve the same ACE-inhibiting activity as the originally discovered IPP, VPP also is assumed to add to the total blood pressure lowering effect.
Since the first lactotripeptides discovery, more than 20 human clinical trials have been conducted in many different countries.Note See also
* Angiotensin II receptor blocker
** Discovery and development of angiotensin receptor blockers
* Loop diuretic, also used to treat CHF
* Renin inhibitor
References
External links
* [https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/from-snake-venom-to-ace-inhibitor-the-discovery-and-rise-of-captopril From snake venom to ACE inhibitor — the discovery and rise of captopril]
Category:ACE inhibitors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACE_inhibitor | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.710548 |
2769 | Antianginal | An antianginal is a drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease.
Myocardial ischemia arises from the dysfunction of coronary macrovascular or microvascular components, leading to a compromised supply of oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms encompass a range of factors, including atherosclerosis in epicardial coronary arteries, vasospasm in large or small vessels, and microvascular dysfunction—whose clinical significance is increasingly acknowledged. The diverse clinical presentations of myocardial ischemia collectively fall under the term chronic coronary syndromes.
Addressing these conditions involves a multifaceted approach, where the most common antianginal medications alleviate symptoms by inducing coronary vasodilation and modifying the determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption, such as heart rate, myocardial wall stress, and ventricular contractility. Additionally, these medications can alter cardiac substrate metabolism to alleviate ischemia by enhancing the efficiency of myocardial oxygen utilization. While there is consensus on the prognostic importance of lifestyle interventions and preventive measures like aspirin and statin therapy, determining the optimal antianginal treatment for chronic coronary syndrome patients remains less defined.
The majority of individuals experiencing stable angina can effectively address their condition through lifestyle modifications, particularly by embracing smoking cessation and incorporating regular exercise into their routine. Alongside these lifestyle changes, the use of antianginal drugs is a common approach. However, findings from randomized controlled trials reveal that the efficacy of various antianginal drugs is comparable, with none demonstrating a significant reduction in mortality or the risk of myocardial infarction (MI). Despite this, prevailing guidelines lean towards recommending beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers as the preferred first-line treatment.
The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines for managing stable coronary artery disease provide well-defined classes of recommendation with corresponding levels of evidence. In a parallel vein, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for stable angina management consider cost-effectiveness in their recommendations, designating terms such as first-line and second-line therapy. Notably, both sets of guidelines advocate for the use of low-dose aspirin and statins as disease-modifying agents.
This article aims to critically examine and evaluate the pharmacological recommendations outlined in these guidelines for the management of patients with stable angina. By delving into the nuances of these recommendations, we seek to provide a comprehensive understanding of the rationale behind the suggested pharmacological interventions for stable angina, shedding light on their respective strengths and considerations in clinical practice.
Political Considerations
The 2019 guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) advocate for a personalized approach in which antianginal medications are tailored to an individual patient's comorbidities and hemodynamic profile. It's noteworthy that, although antianginal medications do not improve survival, their effectiveness in symptom reduction significantly depends on the underlying mechanism of angina.
Key considerations in antianginal therapies involve enhancing coronary vascular oxygen supply to the ischemic myocardium, reducing heart rate, myocardial work, and oxygen consumption, as well as optimizing the energetic efficiency of cardiomyocytes. Despite current guidelines recommending β-blockers and calcium-channel blockers as first-line therapy, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating their superiority over second-line therapies.
In this comprehensive review, it is crucial to emphasize that, thus far, neither drugs nor interventions that reduce ischemia have been shown to prolong survival in patients with chronic coronary syndromes.
Examples
Drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers.
Nitrates
Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by stimulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in, the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.
Agents include glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), pentaerythritol tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate and isosorbide mononitrate.
Beta blockers
Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the myocardial oxygen demand below the level that would provoke an angina attack.
They are contraindicated in variant angina and can precipitate heart failure. They are also contraindicated in severe asthmatics due to bronchoconstriction, and should be used cautiously in diabetics as they can mask symptoms of hypoglycemia.
Agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol.
Calcium channel blockers
Calcium ion (Ca++) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of chronic stable angina, and most effectively in the treatment of variant angina (directly preventing coronary artery vasospasm). They are not used in the treatment of unstable angina .
In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow.
In vivo, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore, the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions.
Class I agents have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure.
Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility.
Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex tachycardia.
Examples include Class I agents (e.g., verapamil), Class II agents (e.g., amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem.
Nifedipine is more a potent vasodilator and more effective in angina. It is in the class of dihydropyridines and does not affect refractory period on SA node conduction.
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antianginal | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.715346 |
2770 | Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System | The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System is a drug classification system that classifies the active ingredients of drugs according to the organ or system on which they act and their therapeutic, pharmacological and chemical properties. Its purpose is an aid to monitor drug use and for research to improve quality medication use. It does not imply drug recommendation or efficacy. It is controlled by the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology (WHOCC), and was first published in 1976.
Coding system
This pharmaceutical coding system divides drugs into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act, their therapeutic intent or nature, and the drug's chemical characteristics. Different brands share the same code if they have the same active substance and indications. Each bottom-level ATC code stands for a pharmaceutically used substance, or a combination of substances, in a single indication (or use). This means that one drug can have more than one code, for example acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) has as a drug for local oral treatment, as a platelet inhibitor, and as an analgesic and antipyretic; as well as one code can represent more than one active ingredient, for example is the combination of perindopril with amlodipine, two active ingredients that have their own codes ( and respectively) when prescribed alone.
The ATC classification system is a strict hierarchy, meaning that each code necessarily has one and only one parent code, except for the 14 codes at the topmost level which have no parents. The codes are semantic identifiers,
ATC level Codes Different names/pharmaceuticals Level 1 14 14 Level 2 94 94 Level 3 267 262 Level 4 889 819 Level 5 5067 4363
History
The ATC system is based on the earlier Anatomical Classification System, which is intended as a tool for the pharmaceutical industry to classify pharmaceutical products (as opposed to their active ingredients). This system, confusingly also called ATC, was initiated in 1971 by the European Pharmaceutical Market Research Association (EphMRA) and is being maintained by the EphMRA and Intellus. Its codes are organised into four levels. The WHO's system, having five levels, is an extension and modification of the EphMRA's. It was first published in 1976.
First level
The first level of the code indicates the anatomical main group and consists of one letter. There are 14 main groups:
CodeContents A Alimentary tract and metabolism B Blood and blood forming organs C Cardiovascular system D Dermatologicals G Genito-urinary system and sex hormones H Systemic hormonal preparations, excluding sex hormones and insulins J Antiinfectives for systemic use L Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents M Musculo-skeletal system N Nervous system P Antiparasitic products, insecticides and repellents R Respiratory system S Sensory organs V Various
Example: C Cardiovascular system
Second level
The second level of the code indicates the therapeutic subgroup and consists of two digits.
Example: C03 Diuretics
Third level
The third level of the code indicates the therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
Example: C03C High-ceiling diuretics
Fourth level
The fourth level of the code indicates the chemical/therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
Example: C03CA Sulfonamides
Fifth level
The fifth level of the code indicates the chemical substance and consists of two digits.
Example: C03CA01 furosemide
Other ATC classification systems
ATCvet
The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products (ATCvet) is used to classify veterinary drugs. ATCvet codes can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the ATC code of most human medications. For example, furosemide for veterinary use has the code QC03CA01.
Some codes are used exclusively for veterinary drugs, such as QI Immunologicals, QJ51 Antibacterials for intramammary use or QN05AX90 amperozide.
Herbal ATC (HATC)
The Herbal ATC system (HATC) is an ATC classification of herbal substances; it differs from the regular ATC system by using 4 digits instead of 2 at the 5th level group.
The herbal classification is not adopted by WHO. The Uppsala Monitoring Centre is responsible for the Herbal ATC classification, and it is part of the WHODrug Global portfolio available by subscription.
Defined daily dose
The ATC system also includes defined daily doses (DDDs) for many drugs. This is a measurement of drug consumption based on the usual daily dose for a given drug. According to the definition, "[t]he DDD is the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults."
Adaptations and updates
National issues of the ATC classification, such as the German Anatomisch-therapeutisch-chemische Klassifikation mit Tagesdosen, may include additional codes and DDDs not present in the WHO version.
ATC follows guidelines in creating new codes for newly approved drugs. An application is submitted to WHO for ATC classification and DDD assignment. A preliminary or temporary code is assigned and published on the website and in the WHO Drug Information for comment or objection. New ATC/DDD codes are discussed at the semi-annual Working Group meeting. If accepted it becomes a final decision and published semi-annually on the website and WHO Drug Information and implemented in the annual print/on-line ACT/DDD Index on January 1.
Changes to existing ATC/DDD follow a similar process to become temporary codes and if accepted become a final decision as ATC/DDD alterations. ATC and DDD alterations are only valid and implemented in the coming annual updates; the original codes must continue until the end of the year. An updated version of the complete on-line/print ATC index with DDDs is published annually on January 1.
See also
Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals (CPR)
ICD-10 International Classification of Diseases
International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) / ICPC-2 PLUS
Medical classification
Pharmaceutical care
Pharmacotherapy
RxNorm
References
External links
Quarterly journal providing an overview of topics relating to medicines development and regulation.
from
EphMRA Anatomical Classification (ATC and NFC)
atcd. R script to scrape the ATC data from the WHOCC website; contains link to download entire ATC tree.
Category:Drugs
Category:Pharmacological classification systems
Category:World Health Organization | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.733325 |
2778 | Parallel ATA | | data_style = Parallel
| cable = 40 or 80 conductor ribbon cable
| physical_connector | num_pins 40
| pinout_col1_name | pinout_col2_name
| pinout_image | pinout_caption
| pin1 = Reset
| pin1_name | pin2 Ground
| pin2_name | pin3 Data 7
| pin3_name | pin4 Data 8
| pin4_name | pin5 Data 6
| pin5_name | pin6 Data 9
| pin6_name | pin7 Data 5
| pin7_name | pin8 Data 10
| pin8_name | pin9 Data 4
| pin9_name | pin10 Data 11
| pin10_name | pin11 Data 3
| pin11_name | pin12 Data 12
| pin12_name | pin13 Data 2
| pin13_name | pin14 Data 13
| pin14_name | pin15 Data 1
| pin15_name | pin16 Data 14
| pin16_name | pin17 Data 0
| pin17_name | pin18 Data 15
| pin18_name | pin19 Ground
| pin19_name | pin20 Key or VCC_in
| pin20_name | pin21 DDRQ
| pin21_name | pin22 Ground
| pin22_name | pin23 I/O write
| pin23_name | pin24 Ground
| pin24_name | pin25 I/O read
| pin25_name | pin26 Ground
| pin26_name | pin27 IOCHRDY
| pin27_name | pin28 Cable select
| pin28_name | pin29 DDACK
| pin29_name | pin30 Ground
| pin30_name | pin31 IRQ
| pin31_name | pin32 No connect
| pin32_name | pin33 Addr 1
| pin33_name | pin34 GPIO_DMA66_Detect
| pin34_name | pin35 Addr 0
| pin35_name | pin36 Addr 2
| pin36_name | pin37 Chip select 1P
| pin37_name | pin38 Chip select 3P
| pin38_name | pin39 Activity
| pin39_name | pin40 Ground
| pinout_notes =
}}<!--
editors:
PLEASE do not "correct" "AT Attachment" to "Advanced Technology Attachment". The relevant standards simply say "AT Attachment". It was never written out as "Advanced Technology Attachment", except in error. The "History and terminology section" makes this clear.
REPEAT: "AT Attachment" IS CORRECT and absolutely should not be expanded.
-->
Parallel ATA (PATA), originally , also known as Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), is a standard interface designed for IBM PC-compatible computers. It was first developed by Western Digital and Compaq in 1986 for compatible hard drives and CD or DVD drives. The connection is used for storage devices such as hard disk drives, floppy disk drives, optical disc drives, and tape drives in computers.
The standard is maintained by the X3/INCITS committee. It uses the underlying (ATA) and Packet Interface (ATAPI) standards.
The Parallel ATA standard is the result of a long history of incremental technical development, which began with the original AT Attachment interface, developed for use in early PC AT equipment. The ATA interface itself evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface. As a result, many near-synonyms for ATA/ATAPI and its previous incarnations are still in common informal use, in particular Extended IDE (EIDE) and Ultra ATA (UATA). After the introduction of SATA in 2003, the original ATA was renamed to Parallel ATA, or PATA for short.
Parallel ATA cables have a maximum allowable length of . Because of this limit, the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface. For many years, ATA provided the most common and the least expensive interface for this application. It has largely been replaced by SATA in newer systems.
History and terminology
The standard was originally conceived as the "AT Bus Attachment", officially called "AT Attachment" and abbreviated "ATA" because its primary feature was a direct connection to the 16-bit ISA bus introduced with the IBM PC/AT. The original ATA specifications published by the standards committees use the name "AT Attachment".<!----> The "AT" in the IBM PC/AT referred to "Advanced Technology" so ATA has also been referred to as "Advanced Technology Attachment". When a newer Serial ATA (SATA) was introduced in 2003, the original ATA was renamed to Parallel ATA, or PATA for short.
Physical ATA interfaces became a standard component in all PCs, initially on host bus adapters, sometimes on a sound card but ultimately as two physical interfaces embedded in a Southbridge chip on a motherboard. Called the "primary" and "secondary" ATA interfaces, they were assigned to base addresses 0x1F0 and 0x170 on ISA bus systems. They were replaced by SATA interfaces.
IDE and ATA-1
thumb|left|Example of a 1992 80386 PC motherboard with nothing built in other than memory, keyboard, processor, cache, realtime clock, and slots. Such basic motherboards could have been outfitted with either the ST-506 or ATA interface, but usually not both. A single 2-drive ATA interface and a floppy interface was added to this system via the 16-bit ISA card
The first version of what is now called the ATA/ATAPI interface was developed by Western Digital under the name Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE). Together with Compaq (the initial customer), they worked with various disk drive manufacturers to develop and ship early products with the goal of remaining software compatible with the existing IBM PC hard drive interface. The first such drives appeared internally in Compaq PCs in 1986 and were first separately offered by Conner Peripherals as the CP342 in June 1987.
The term Integrated Drive Electronics refers to the drive controller being integrated into the drive, as opposed to a separate controller situated at the other side of the connection cable to the drive. On an IBM PC compatible, CP/M machine, or similar, this was typically a card installed on a motherboard. The interface cards used to connect a parallel ATA drive to, for example, an ISA Slot, are not drive controllers: they are merely bridges between the host bus and the ATA interface. Since the original ATA interface is essentially just a 16-bit ISA bus, the bridge was especially simple in case of an ATA connector being located on an ISA interface card. The integrated controller presented the drive to the host computer as an array of 512-byte blocks with a relatively simple command interface. This relieved the mainboard and interface cards in the host computer of the chores of stepping the disk head arm, moving the head arm in and out, and so on, as had to be done with earlier ST-506 and ESDI hard drives. All of these low-level details of the mechanical operation of the drive were now handled by the controller on the drive itself. This also eliminated the need to design a single controller that could handle many different types of drives, since the controller could be unique for the drive. The host need only to ask for a particular sector, or block, to be read or written, and either accept the data from the drive or send the data to it.
The interface used by these drives was standardized in 1994 as ANSI standard X3.221-1994, AT Attachment Interface for Disk Drives. After later versions of the standard were developed, this became known as "ATA-1".
A short-lived, seldom-used implementation of ATA was created for the IBM XT and similar machines that used the 8-bit version of the ISA bus. It has been referred to as "XT-IDE", "XTA" or "XT Attachment".
EIDE and ATA-2
In 1994, about the same time that the ATA-1 standard was adopted, Western Digital introduced drives under a newer name, Enhanced IDE (EIDE). These included most of the features of the forthcoming ATA-2 specification and several additional enhancements. Other manufacturers introduced their own variations of ATA-1 such as "Fast ATA" and "Fast ATA-2".
The new version of the ANSI standard, AT Attachment Interface with Extensions ATA-2 (X3.279-1996), was approved in 1996. It included most of the features of the manufacturer-specific variants.
ATA-2 also was the first to note that devices other than hard drives could be attached to the interface:
The ATA/ATAPI-4 standard also introduced several "Ultra DMA" transfer modes. These initially supported speeds from 16 to 33 MB/s. In later versions, faster Ultra DMA modes were added, requiring new 80-wire cables to reduce crosstalk. The latest versions of Parallel ATA support up to 133 MB/s.
Ultra ATA
Ultra ATA, abbreviated UATA, is a designation that has been primarily used by Western Digital for different speed enhancements to the ATA/ATAPI standards. For example, in 2000 Western Digital published a document describing "Ultra ATA/100", which brought performance improvements for the then-current ATA/ATAPI-5 standard by improving maximum speed of the Parallel ATA interface from 66 to 100 MB/s. Most of Western Digital's changes, along with others, were included in the ATA/ATAPI-6 standard (2002).
x86 BIOS size limitations
<!-- Also, do we need to mention the earlier 504MB limit in earlier BIOSes, and make clear that it was not the interface's problem but rather the BIOS... or was it? Or is that so old that we don't need to bother? [_maybe the words "such as" already allow for the 504MB, 32MB, and other random limits_]-->
Initially, the size of an ATA drive was stored in the system x86 BIOS using a type number (1 through 45) that predefined the C/H/S parameters and also often the landing zone, in which the drive heads are parked while not in use. Later, a "user definable" format Interface size limitations
The first drive interface used 22-bit addressing mode which resulted in a maximum drive capacity of two gigabytes. Later, the first formalized ATA specification used a 28-bit addressing mode through LBA28, allowing for the addressing of 2<sup>28</sup> () sectors (blocks) of 512 bytes each, resulting in a maximum capacity of 128 GiB (137 GB).
ATA-6 introduced 48-bit addressing, increasing the limit to 128 PiB (144 PB). As a consequence, any ATA drive of capacity larger than about 137 GB must be an ATA-6 or later drive. Connecting such a drive to a host with an ATA-5 or earlier interface will limit the usable capacity to the maximum of the interface.
Some operating systems, including Windows XP pre-SP1, and Windows 2000 pre-SP3, disable LBA48 by default, requiring the user to take extra steps to use the entire capacity of an ATA drive larger than about 137 gigabytes.
Older operating systems, such as Windows 98, do not support 48-bit LBA at all. However, members of the third-party group MSFN have modified the Windows 98 disk drivers to add unofficial support for 48-bit LBA to Windows 95 OSR2, Windows 98, Windows 98 SE and Windows ME.
Some 16-bit and 32-bit operating systems supporting LBA48 may still not support disks larger than 2 TiB due to using 32-bit arithmetic only; a limitation also applying to many boot sectors.
Primacy and obsolescence
Parallel ATA (then simply called ATA or IDE) became the primary storage device interface for PCs soon after its introduction. In some systems, a third and fourth motherboard interface was provided, allowing up to eight ATA devices to be attached to the motherboard. Often, these additional connectors were implemented by inexpensive RAID controllers.
Soon after the introduction of Serial ATA (SATA) in 2003, use of Parallel ATA declined. Some PCs and laptops of the era have a SATA hard disk and an optical drive connected to PATA.
As of 2007, some PC chipsets, for example the Intel ICH10, had removed support for PATA. Motherboard vendors still wishing to offer Parallel ATA with those chipsets must include an additional interface chip. In more recent computers, the Parallel ATA interface is rarely used even if present, as four or more Serial ATA connectors are usually provided on the motherboard and SATA devices of all types are common.
With Western Digital's withdrawal from the PATA market, hard disk drives with the PATA interface were no longer in production after December 2013 for other than specialty applications. Interface
Parallel ATA cables transfer data 16 bits at a time. The traditional cable uses 40-pin female insulation displacement connectors (IDC) attached to a 40- or 80-conductor ribbon cable. Each cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into a host adapter interfacing with the rest of the computer system. The remaining connector(s) plug into storage devices, most commonly hard disk drives or optical drives. Each connector has 39 physical pins arranged into two rows (2.54 mm, -inch pitch), with a gap or key at pin 20. Earlier connectors may not have that gap, with all 40 pins available. Thus, later cables with the gap filled in are incompatible with earlier connectors, although earlier cables are compatible with later connectors.
Round parallel ATA cables (as opposed to ribbon cables) were eventually made available for 'case modders' for cosmetic reasons, as well as claims of improved computer cooling and were easier to handle; however, only ribbon cables are supported by the ATA specifications.
; Pin 20: In the ATA standard, pin 20 is defined as a mechanical key and is not used. The pin's socket on the female connector is often blocked, requiring pin 20 to be omitted from the male cable or drive connector; it is thus impossible to plug it in the wrong way round. However, some flash memory drives can use pin 20 as VCC_in to power the drive without requiring a special power cable; this feature can only be used if the equipment supports this use of pin 20.
; Pin 28: Pin 28 of the gray (slave/middle) connector of an 80-conductor cable is not attached to any conductor of the cable. It is attached normally on the black (master drive end) and blue (motherboard end) connectors. This enables cable select functionality.
; Pin 34: Pin 34 is connected to ground inside the blue connector of an 80-conductor cable but not attached to any conductor of the cable, allowing for detection of such a cable. It is attached normally on the gray and black connectors.
44-pin variant
A 44-pin variant PATA connector is used for 2.5 inch drives inside laptops. The pins are closer together (2.0 mm pitch) and the connector is physically smaller than the 40-pin connector. The extra pins carry power.
80-conductor variant
thumb|80 pin parallel ATA interface on a 1.8" hard disk
thumb|300px|Comparison between ATA cables: 40-conductor ribbon cable (top), and 80-conductor ribbon cable (bottom). In both cases, a 40-pin female connector is used.
ATA's cables have had 40 conductors for most of its history (44 conductors for the smaller form-factor version used for 2.5" drives—the extra four for power), but an 80-conductor version appeared with the introduction of the UDMA/66 mode. All of the additional conductors in the new cable are grounds, interleaved with the signal conductors to reduce the effects of capacitive coupling between neighboring signal conductors, reducing crosstalk. Capacitive coupling is more of a problem at higher transfer rates, and this change was necessary to enable the 66 megabytes per second (MB/s) transfer rate of UDMA4 to work reliably. The faster UDMA5 and UDMA6 modes also require 80-conductor cables.
Though the number of conductors doubled, the number of connector pins and the pinout remain the same as 40-conductor cables, and the external appearance of the connectors is identical. Internally, the connectors are different; the connectors for the 80-conductor cable connect a larger number of ground conductors to the ground pins, while the connectors for the 40-conductor cable connect ground conductors to ground pins one-to-one. 80-conductor cables usually come with three differently colored connectors (blue, black, and gray for controller, master drive, and slave drive respectively) as opposed to uniformly colored 40-conductor cable's connectors (commonly all gray). The gray connector on 80-conductor cables has pin 28 CSEL not connected, making it the slave position for drives configured cable select.
Multiple devices on a cable
If two devices are attached to a single cable, one must be designated as Device 0 (in the past, commonly designated master) and the other as Device 1 (in the past, commonly designated as slave). This distinction is necessary to allow both drives to share the cable without conflict. The Device 0 drive is the drive that usually appears "first" to the computer's BIOS and/or operating system. In most personal computers the drives are often designated as "C:" for the Device 0 and "D:" for the Device 1 referring to one active primary partitions on each.
The mode that a device must use is often set by a jumper setting on the device itself, which must be manually set to Device 0 (Master) or Device 1 (Slave). If there is a single device on a cable, it should be configured as Device 0. However, some certain era drives have a special setting called Single for this configuration (Western Digital, in particular). Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a Single drive on a cable will often work reliably even though configured as the Device 1 drive (most often seen where an optical drive is the only device on the secondary ATA interface).
The words primary and secondary typically refers to the two IDE cables, which can have two drives each (primary master, primary slave, secondary master, secondary slave).
There are many debates about how much a slow device can impact the performance of a faster device on the same cable. On early ATA host adapters, both devices' data transfers can be constrained to the speed of the slower device, if two devices of different speed capabilities are on the same cable. For all modern ATA host adapters, this is not true, as modern ATA host adapters support independent device timing. This allows each device on the cable to transfer data at its own best speed. Even with earlier adapters without independent timing, this effect applies only to the data transfer phase of a read or write operation. This is caused by the omission of both overlapped and queued feature sets from most parallel ATA products. Only one device on a cable can perform a read or write operation at one time; therefore, a fast device on the same cable as a slow device under heavy use will find it has to wait for the slow device to complete its task first. However, most modern devices will report write operations as complete once the data is stored in their onboard cache memory, before the data is written to the (slow) magnetic storage. This allows commands to be sent to the other device on the cable, reducing the impact of the "one operation at a time" limit. The impact of this on a system's performance depends on the application. For example, when copying data from an optical drive to a hard drive (such as during software installation), this effect probably will not matter. Such jobs are necessarily limited by the speed of the optical drive no matter where it is. But if the hard drive in question is also expected to provide good throughput for other tasks at the same time, it probably should not be on the same cable as the optical drive.
Cable select
A drive mode called cable select was described as optional in ATA-1 and has come into fairly widespread use with ATA-5 and later. A drive set to "cable select" automatically configures itself as Device 0 or Device 1, according to its position on the cable. Cable select is controlled by pin 28. The host adapter grounds this pin; if a device sees that the pin is grounded, it becomes the Device 0 (master) device; if it sees that pin 28 is open, the device becomes the Device 1 (slave) device.
This setting is usually chosen by a jumper setting on the drive called "cable select", usually marked CS, which is separate from the Device 0/1 setting.
If two drives are configured as Device 0 and Device 1 manually, this configuration does not need to correspond to their position on the cable. Pin 28 is only used to let the drives know their position on the cable; it is not used by the host when communicating with the drives. In other words, the manual master/slave setting using jumpers on the drives takes precedence and allows them to be freely placed on either connector of the ribbon cable.
With the 40-conductor cable, it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting the pin 28 wire between the two device connectors; putting the slave Device 1 device at the end of the cable, and the master Device 0 on the middle connector. This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions. However, it had one drawback: if there is just one master device on a 2-drive cable, using the middle connector, this results in an unused stub of cable, which is undesirable for physical convenience and electrical reasons. The stub causes signal reflections, particularly at higher transfer rates.
Starting with the 80-conductor cable defined for use in ATAPI5/UDMA4, the master Device 0 device goes at the far-from-the-host end of the cable on the black connector, the slave Device 1 goes on the grey middle connector, and the blue connector goes to the host (e.g. motherboard IDE connector, or IDE card). So, if there is only one (Device 0) device on a two-drive cable, using the black connector, there is no cable stub to cause reflections (the unused connector is now in the middle of the ribbon). Also, cable select is now implemented in the grey middle device connector, usually simply by omitting the pin 28 contact from the connector body. Serialized, overlapped, and queued operations
The parallel ATA protocols up through ATA-3 require that once a command has been given on an ATA interface, it must complete before any subsequent command may be given. Operations on the devices must be serializedwith only one operation in progress at a timewith respect to the ATA host interface. A useful mental model is that the host ATA interface is busy with the first request for its entire duration, and therefore can not be told about another request until the first one is complete. The function of serializing requests to the interface is usually performed by a device driver in the host operating system.
The ATA-4 and subsequent versions of the specification have included an "overlapped feature set" and a "queued feature set" as optional features, both being given the name "Tagged Command Queuing" (TCQ), a reference to a set of features from SCSI which the ATA version attempts to emulate. However, support for these is extremely rare in actual parallel ATA products and device drivers because these feature sets were implemented in such a way as to maintain software compatibility with its heritage as originally an extension of the ISA bus. This implementation resulted in excessive CPU utilization which largely negated the advantages of command queuing. By contrast, overlapped and queued operations have been common in other storage buses; in particular, SCSI's version of tagged command queuing had no need to be compatible with APIs designed for ISA, allowing it to attain high performance with low overhead on buses which supported first party DMA like PCI. This has long been seen as a major advantage of SCSI.
The Serial ATA standard has supported native command queueing (NCQ) since its first release, but it is an optional feature for both host adapters and target devices. Many obsolete PC motherboards do not support NCQ, but modern SATA hard disk drives and SATA solid-state drives usually support NCQ, which is not the case for removable (CD/DVD) drives because the ATAPI command set used to control them prohibits queued operations.
HDD passwords and security
ATA devices may support an optional security feature which is defined in an ATA specification, and thus not specific to any brand or device. The security feature can be enabled and disabled by sending special ATA commands to the drive. If a device is locked, it will refuse all access until it is unlocked. A device can have two passwords: A User Password and a Master Password; either or both may be set. There is a Master Password identifier feature which, if supported and used, can identify the current Master Password (without disclosing it). The master password, if set, can used by the administrator to reset user password, if the end user forgot the user password. On some laptops and some business computers, their BIOS can control the ATA passwords.
A device can be locked in two modes: High security mode or Maximum security mode. Bit 8 in word 128 of the IDENTIFY response shows which mode the disk is in: 0 High, 1 Maximum. In High security mode, the device can be unlocked with either the User or Master password, using the "SECURITY UNLOCK DEVICE" ATA command. There is an attempt limit, normally set to 5, after which the disk must be power cycled or hard-reset before unlocking can be attempted again. Also in High security mode, the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command can be used with either the User or Master password. In Maximum security mode, the device can be unlocked only with the User password. If the User password is not available, the only remaining way to get at least the bare hardware back to a usable state is to issue the SECURITY ERASE PREPARE command, immediately followed by SECURITY ERASE UNIT. In Maximum security mode, the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command requires the Master password and will completely erase all data on the disk. Word 89 in the IDENTIFY response indicates how long the operation will take. While the ATA lock is intended to be impossible to defeat without a valid password, there are purported workarounds to unlock a device.
For NVMe drives, the security features, including lock passwords, were defined in the OPAL standard.
For sanitizing entire disks, the built-in Secure Erase command is effective when implemented correctly. There have been a few reported instances of failures to erase some or all data. which is far beyond the capabilities of the PATA/133 specification. High-performance solid state drives can transfer data at up to 7000–7500 MB/s.
Only the Ultra DMA modes use CRC to detect errors in data transfer between the controller and drive. This is a 16-bit CRC, and it is used for data blocks only. Transmission of command and status blocks do not use the fast signaling methods that would necessitate CRC. For comparison, in Serial ATA, 32-bit CRC is used for both commands and data. Features introduced with each ATA revision {| class"wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|-
! Standard
! Other names
! New transfer modes
! Maximum disk size<br />(512 byte sector)
! Other significant changes
! ANSI reference
|-
| nowrap|IDE (pre-ATA) || IDE || PIO 0 || 2 GiB (2.1 GB) || 22-bit logical block addressing (LBA) || –
|-
| || ATA, IDE || <br /><br />Multi-word DMA 0 || 128 GiB (137 GB) || 28-bit logical block addressing (LBA) || [http://www.t13.org/documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d0791r4c-ATA-1.pdf X3.221-1994] <br />(obsolete since 1999)
|-
| || EIDE, , , || PIO 3, 4<br />Multi-word DMA 1, 2 || || 44-pin Small Form Factor connector, for ≤2.5″ drives, and PCMCIA connector. Identify drive command.<!--and Page 51 in ATA2 spec Opcode ECh, PIO--> Plug and play support. || [http://www.t13.org/Documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d0948r4c-ATA-2.pdf X3.279-1996] <br />(obsolete since 2001)
|-
| || EIDE || Single-word DMA modes dropped || || S.M.A.R.T., Security || [http://www.t13.org/Documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d2008r7b-ATA-3.pdf X3.298-1997] <br />(obsolete since 2002)
|-
| || ATA-4, || ,<br />also known as UDMA/33 || || AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) (support for CD-ROM, tape drives etc.), Optional overlapped and queued command set features, Host Protected Area (HPA), CompactFlash Association (CFA) feature set for solid state drives || [http://www.t13.org/documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d1153r18-ATA-ATAPI-4.pdf NCITS 317-1998]
|-
| || ATA-5, || Ultra DMA 3, 4,<br />also known as UDMA/66 || || 80-wire cables; CompactFlash connector || [http://www.t13.org/documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d1321r3-ATA-ATAPI-5.pdf NCITS 340-2000]
|-
| || ATA-6, || UDMA 5,<br />also known as UDMA/100|| 128 PiB (144 PB) || 48-bit LBA, Device Configuration Overlay (DCO),<br />Automatic Acoustic Management (AAM)<br /> CHS method of addressing data obsolete || [http://www.t13.org/Documents/UploadedDocuments/project/d1410r3b-ATA-ATAPI-6.pdf NCITS 361-2002]
|-
| || ATA-7, || UDMA 6,<br />also known as UDMA/133<br />SATA/150 || || SATA 1.0, Streaming feature set, long logical/physical sector feature set for non-packet devices || }} }} }}
|-
| || ATA-8 || SATA/300<br />SATA/600 || || Hybrid drive featuring non-volatile cache to speed up critical OS files || [http://www.t13.org/documents/uploadeddocuments/docs2008/d1699r6a-ata8-acs.pdf INCITS 452-2008]
|-
| || — || — || ||Data Set Management, Extended Power Conditions, CFast, additional stats., etc. || [http://www.t13.org/documents/UploadedDocuments/docs2011/d2015r7-ATAATAPI_Command_Set_-_2_ACS-2.pdf INCITS 482-2012]
|-
| || — || — || || ||
|-
| || — || — || || Zoned ATA Command ||
|}
Speed of defined transfer modes
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
|+Transfer Modes
! Mode || # ||Maximum transfer rate<br />(MB/s) || cycle time
|-
| rowspan=5 | PIO
| 0 || 3.3 || 600 ns
|-
| 1 || 5.2 || 383 ns
|-
| 2 || 8.3 || 240 ns
|-
| 3 || 11.1 || 180 ns
|-
| 4 || 16.7 || 120 ns
|- style="background:#f5fffa"
| rowspan=3 | Single-word DMA
| 0 || 2.1 || 960 ns
|- style="background:#f5fffa"
| 1 || 4.2 || 480 ns
|- style="background:#f5fffa"
| 2 || 8.3 || 240 ns
|-
| rowspan=5 | Multi-word DMA
| 0 || 4.2 || 480 ns
|-
| 1 || 13.3 || 150 ns
|-
| 2 || 16.7 || 120 ns
|-
| 3 || 20 || 100 ns
|-
| 4|| 167 || 24 ns ÷ 2
|}
Related standards, features, and proposals
ATAPI Removable Media Device (ARMD)
ATAPI devices with removable media, other than CD and DVD drives, are classified as ARMD (ATAPI Removable Media Device) and can appear as either a super-floppy (non-partitioned media) or a hard drive (partitioned media) to the operating system. These can be supported as bootable devices by a BIOS complying with the ATAPI Removable Media Device BIOS Specification, originally developed by Compaq Computer Corporation and Phoenix Technologies. It specifies provisions in the BIOS of a personal computer to allow the computer to be bootstrapped from devices such as Zip drives, Jaz drives, SuperDisk (LS-120) drives, and similar devices.
These devices have removable media like floppy disk drives, but capacities more commensurate with hard drives, and programming requirements unlike either. Due to limitations in the floppy controller interface most of these devices were ATAPI devices, connected to one of the host computer's ATA interfaces, similarly to a hard drive or CD-ROM device. However, existing BIOS standards did not support these devices. An ARMD-compliant BIOS allows these devices to be booted from and used under the operating system without requiring device-specific code in the OS.
A BIOS implementing ARMD allows the user to include ARMD devices in the boot search order. Usually an ARMD device is configured earlier in the boot order than the hard drive. Similarly to a floppy drive, if bootable media is present in the ARMD drive, the BIOS will boot from it; if not, the BIOS will continue in the search order, usually with the hard drive last.
There are two variants of ARMD, ARMD-FDD and ARMD-HDD. Originally ARMD caused the devices to appear as a sort of very large floppy drive, either the primary floppy drive device 00h or the secondary device 01h. Some operating systems required code changes to support floppy disks with capacities far larger than any standard floppy disk drive. Also, standard-floppy disk drive emulation proved to be unsuitable for certain high-capacity floppy disk drives such as Iomega Zip drives. Later the ARMD-HDD, ARMD-"Hard disk device", variant was developed to address these issues. Under ARMD-HDD, an ARMD device appears to the BIOS and the operating system as a hard drive.
ATA over Ethernet
In August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of Coraid specified a lightweight ATA over Ethernet protocol to carry ATA commands over Ethernet instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host adapter. This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in storage area network (SAN) applications.
Compact Flash
Compact Flash (CF) in its IDE mode is essentially a miniaturized ATA interface, intended for use on devices that use flash memory storage. No interfacing chips or circuitry are required, other than to directly adapt the smaller CF socket onto the larger ATA connector. (Although most CF cards only support IDE mode up to PIO4, making them much slower in IDE mode than their CF capable speed)
The ATA connector specification does not include pins for supplying power to a CF device, so power is inserted into the connector from a separate source. The exception to this is when the CF device is connected to a 44-pin ATA bus designed for 2.5-inch hard disk drives, commonly found in notebook computers, as this bus implementation must provide power to a standard hard disk drive.
CF devices can be designated as devices 0 or 1 on an ATA interface, though since most CF devices offer only a single socket, it is not necessary to offer this selection to end users. Although CF can be hot-pluggable with additional design methods, by default when wired directly to an ATA interface, it is not intended to be hot-pluggable.
See also
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*
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References
Notes
External links
* [http://www.ce-ata.org/ CE-ATA Workgroup]
Category:AT Attachment
Category:Computer storage buses
Category:Computer connectors
Category:Computer hardware standards | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_ATA | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.761987 |
2779 | Atari 2600 | | lifespan = 1977–1992
| price
| discontinued
| unitssold 30 million ()
| media = ROM cartridge
| cpu = 8-bit MOS Technology 6507
| CPUspeed = 1.19 MHz
| graphics = Television Interface Adaptor
| memory = 128 bytes RAM
| controllers =
| topgame Pac-Man, (as of 1990)
| predecessor = Atari Home Pong<br/>Atari Video Pinball
| successor = Atari 5200
}}
The Atari 2600 is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS), it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially Combat and later Pac-Man. Sears sold the system as the Tele-Games Video Arcade. Atari rebranded the VCS as the Atari 2600 in November 1982, alongside the release of the Atari 5200.
Atari was successful at creating arcade video games, but their development cost and limited lifespan drove CEO Nolan Bushnell to seek a programmable home system. The first inexpensive microprocessors from MOS Technology in late 1975 made this feasible. The console was prototyped under the codename Stella by Atari subsidiary Cyan Engineering. Lacking funding to complete the project, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976.
The Atari VCS launched in 1977 with nine games on 2 KB cartridges. Atari ported many of their arcade games to the system, and the VCS versions of Breakout and Night Driver are in color while the arcade originals have monochrome graphics. The system's first killer application was the home conversion of Taito's Space Invaders in 1980. Adventure, also released in 1980, was one of the first action-adventure video games and contains the first widely recognized Easter egg. Beginning with the VCS version of Asteroids in 1980, many games used bank switching to allow 8 KB or larger cartridges. By the time of the system's peak in 1982-3, games were released with significantly more advanced visuals and gameplay than the system was designed for, such as Activision's Pitfall!. The popularity of the VCS led to the founding of Activision and other third-party game developers and competition from the Intellivision and, later, ColecoVision consoles.
By 1982, the 2600 was the dominant game system in North America, and "Atari" had entered the vernacular as a synonym for the console and video games in general. However, poor decisions by Atari management damaged both the system and company's reputation, most notably the release of two highly anticipated games for the 2600: a port of the arcade game Pac-Man and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Pac-Man became the 2600's bestselling game, but was panned for not resembling the original. E.T. was rushed to market for the holiday shopping season and was similarly disparaged. Both games, and a glut of third-party shovelware, were factors in ending Atari's significance in the console market, contributing to the video game crash of 1983.
Warner sold the assets of Atari's consumer electronics division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a revised, low-cost 2600 model, and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended in 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime.
History
Atari, Inc. was founded by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney in 1972. Its first major product was Pong, released in 1972, the first successful coin-operated video game. While Atari continued to develop new arcade games in following years, Pong gave rise to a number of competitors to the growing arcade game market. The competition along with other missteps by Atari led to financial problems in 1974, though recovering by the end of the year. The increasing competition increased the risk, as Atari had found with past arcade games and again with dedicated home consoles. Both platforms are built from integrating discrete electro-mechanical components into circuits, rather than programmed as on a mainframe computer. Thus, development of a console had cost at least plus time to complete, but the final product only had about a three-month shelf life until becoming outdated by competition.
By 1974, Atari had acquired Cyan Engineering, a Grass Valley electronics company founded by Steve Mayer and Larry Emmons, both former colleagues of Bushnell and Dabney from Ampex, who helped to develop new ideas for Atari's arcade games. Even before the release of the home version of Pong, Cyan's engineers, led by Mayer and Ron Milner, had envisioned a home console powered by new programmable microprocessors capable of playing Atari's current arcade offerings. The programmable microprocessors would make a console's design significantly simpler and more powerful than any dedicated single-game unit. However, the cost of such chips was far outside the range that their market would tolerate.MOS Technology 6502/6507In September 1975, MOS Technology debuted the 6502 microprocessor for at the Wescon trade show in San Francisco. Financial models showed that even at , the 6502 would be too expensive, and Peddle offered them a planned 6507 microprocessor, a cost-reduced version of the 6502, and MOS's RIOT chip for input/output. Cyan and MOS negotiated the 6507 and RIOT chips at a pair. MOS also introduced Cyan to Microcomputer Associates, who had separately developed debugging software and hardware for MOS, and had developed the JOLT Computer for testing the 6502, which Peddle suggested would be useful for Atari and Cyan to use while developing their system. The second prototype included a TIA, a 6507, and a ROM cartridge slot and adapter.
Alongside the electronics development, Bushnell brought in Gene Landrum, a consultant who had just prior consulted for Fairchild Camera and Instrument for its upcoming Channel F, to determine the consumer requirements for the console. In his final report, Landrum suggested a living room aesthetic, with a wood grain finish, and the cartridges must be "idiot proof, child proof and effective in resisting potential static [electricity] problems in a living room environment". Landrum recommended it include four to five dedicated games in addition to the cartridges, but this was dropped in the final designs.
By October 1976, Warner and Atari agreed to the purchase of Atari for . By 1977, development had advanced enough to brand it the "Atari Video Computer System" (VCS) and start developing games. Most of the launch games were based on arcade games developed by Atari or its subsidiary Kee Games: for example, Combat'' was based on Kee's Tank (1974) and Atari's Jet Fighter (1975). Bushnell pushed the Warner Board of Directors to start working on "Stella 2", as he grew concerned that rising competition and aging tech specs of the VCS would render the console obsolete. However, the board stayed committed to the VCS and ignored Bushnell's advice, leading to his departure from Atari in 1979. Atari sold about 600,000 VCS systems in 1979, bringing the installed base to a little over 1.3 million.
Atari obtained a license from Taito to develop a VCS conversion of its 1978 arcade hit Space Invaders. This is the first officially licensed arcade conversion for a home console. Atari sold 1.25 million Space Invaders cartridges and over 1 million VCS systems in 1980, nearly doubling the install base to over 2 million, and then an estimated 3.1 million VCS systems in 1981. at over copies sold by 1990.|}} in 1986. 61,685 in 1987. 3,885 in 1988. 34,374 in 1989. 2,166 in 1990.}} Pac-Man propelled worldwide Atari VCS sales to units during 1982, according to a November 1983 article in InfoWorld magazine. An August 1984 InfoWorld magazine article says more than Atari 2600 machines were sold by 1982. A March 1983 article in IEEE Spectrum magazine has about 3 million VCS sales in 1981, about 5.5 million in 1982, as well as a total of over 12 million VCS systems and an estimated 120 million cartridges sold.
In Europe, the Atari VCS sold 125,000 units in the United Kingdom during 1980, and 450,000 in West Germany by 1984. In France, where the VCS released in 1982, the system sold 600,000 units by 1989. The console was distributed by Epoch Co. in Japan in 1979 under the name "Cassette TV Game", but did not sell as well as Epoch's own Cassette Vision system in 1981.
In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. To standardize naming, the VCS was renamed to the "Atari 2600 Video Computer System", or "Atari 2600", derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982, the 2600 cost Atari about to make and was sold for an average of . The company spent .50 to to manufacture each cartridge, plus to for advertising, wholesaling for . In 1980, Atari attempted to block the sale of the Activision cartridges, accusing the four of intellectual property infringement. The two companies settled out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay Atari a licensing fee for their games. This made Activision the first third-party video game developer and established the licensing model that continues to be used by console manufacturers for game development.
Activision's success led to the establishment of other third-party VCS game developers following Activision's model in the early 1980s, including U.S. Games, Telesys, Games by Apollo, Data Age, Zimag, Mystique, and CommaVid. The founding of Imagic included ex-Atari programmers. Mattel and Coleco, each already producing its own more advanced console, created simplified versions of their existing games for the 2600. Mattel used the M Network brand name for its cartridges. Third-party games accounted for half of VCS game sales by 1982.
Decline and redesign
In addition to third-party game development, Atari also received the first major threat to its hardware dominance from the ColecoVision. Coleco had a license from Nintendo to develop a version of the arcade game Donkey Kong (1981), which was bundled with every ColecoVision console. Coleco gained about 17% of the hardware market in 1982 compared to Atari's 58%. With third parties competing for market share, Atari worked to maintain dominance in the market by acquiring licenses for popular arcade games and other properties to make games from. Pac-Man has numerous technical and aesthetic flaws, but nevertheless more than 7 million copies were sold. Heading into the 1982 holiday shopping season, Atari had placed high sales expectations on E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, a game programmed in about six weeks. Atari produced an estimated four million cartridges, but the game was poorly reviewed, and only about 1.5 million units were sold.
Warner Communications issued revised earnings guidance in December 1982 to its shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but now only expecting 10–15% due to declining sales at Atari. Coupled with the oversaturated home game market, Atari's weakened position led investors to start pulling funds out of video games, beginning a cascade of disastrous effects known as the video game crash of 1983.
In September 1983, Atari sent 14 truckloads of unsold Atari 2600 cartridges and other equipment to a landfill in the New Mexico desert, later labeled the Atari video game burial. Long considered an urban legend that claimed the burial contained millions of unsold cartridges, the site was excavated in 2014, confirming reports from former Atari executives that only about 700,000 cartridges had actually been buried. Atari reported a loss for 1983 as a whole, and continued to lose money into 1984, with a loss reported in the second quarter.
Warner, wary of supporting its failing Atari division, started looking for buyers in 1984. Warner sold most of the assets of Atari's counsumer electronics and home computer divisions to Jack Tramiel, the founder of Commodore International, in July 1984 in a deal valued at , though Warner retained Atari's arcade business. Tramiel was a proponent of personal computers, and halted all new 2600 game development soon after the sale.
The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo's 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of "under 50 bucks". With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989–90 including Secret Quest and Fatal Run. By 1986, over Atari VCS units had been sold worldwide. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game KLAX in 1990.
After more than 14 years on the market, 2600 production ended in 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit computers. Despite this fact, Atari continued sells in Europe for years to come. It cost less than £39.99 and was mainly distributed through mail order chains. In 1991, 200,000 units were sold on the continent and in it was a bestseller at Littlewoods stores in UK. After the fall of communism, Atari attempted to legally introduce the Atari 2600 and 7800 to the former Eastern Bloc countries, with small price being main advantage of the system, but Atari was defeated by even more cheaper and easily available clones called "Rambo TV Game 2600" (advertised with the 1982 movie character Rambo played by Sylvester Stallone), containing up to several hundred built-in games. In Western Europe, last stocks of the 2600 and 7800 were sold until Summer/Fall of 1995.Hardware
The Atari 2600's CPU is the MOS Technology 6507, a version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. Though their internal silicon was identical, the 6507 was cheaper than the 6502 because its package included fewer memory-address pins—13 instead of 16. The designers of the Atari 2600 selected an inexpensive cartridge interface that has one fewer address pins than the 13 allowed by the 6507, further reducing the already limited addressable memory from 8 KB (2<sup>13</sup> 8,192) to 4 KB (2<sup>12</sup> 4,096). This was believed to be sufficient as Combat was only 2 KB. Later games circumvented this limitation with bank switching.
The console has 128 bytes of RAM for scratch space, the call stack, and the state of the game environment.
The top bezel of the console originally had six switches: power, TV type selection (color or black-and-white), game selection, left and right player difficulty, and game reset. The difficulty switches were moved to the back of the bezel in later versions of the console. The back bezel also included the controller ports, TV output, and power input.
Graphics
'' (1982) has more advanced graphics than the games the VCS launched with. The black bar on the left provides extra time for the program to prepare graphics between each scanline.
The system was designed without a frame buffer to avoid the cost of the associated RAM. The background and sprites apply to a single scan line, and as the display is output to the television, the program can change colors, sprite positions, and background settings. The careful timing required to sync the code to the screen on the part of the programmer was labeled "racing the beam"; the actual game logic runs when the television beam is outside of the visible area of the screen.
Regional releases of the Atari 2600 use modified TIA chips for each region's television formats, which require games to be developed and published separately for each region. All modes are 160 pixels wide. NTSC mode provides 192 visible lines per screen, drawn at 60 Hz, with 16 colors, each at 8 levels of brightness. PAL mode provides more vertical scanlines, with 228 visible lines per screen, but drawn at 50 Hz and only 13 colors. SECAM mode, also a 50 Hz format, is limited to 8 colors, each with only a single brightness level.
Controllers
The first VCS bundle has two types of controllers: a joystick (part number CX10) and pair of rotary paddle controllers (CX30). Driving controllers, which are similar to paddle controllers but can be continuously rotated, shipped with the Indy 500 launch game. After less than a year, the CX10 joystick was replaced with the CX40 model Because the Atari joystick port and CX40 joystick became industry standards, 2600 joysticks and some other peripherals work with later systems, including the MSX, Commodore 64, Amiga, Atari 8-bit computers, and Atari ST. The CX40 joystick can be used with the Master System and Sega Genesis, but does not provide all the buttons of a native controller. Third-party controllers include Wico's Command Control joystick. Later, the CX42 Remote Control Joysticks, similar in appearance but using wireless technology, were released, together with a receiver whose wires could be inserted in the controller jacks.
Atari introduced the CX50 Keyboard Controller in June 1978 along with two games that require it: Codebreaker and Hunt & Score. The CX22 Trak-Ball controller was announced in January 1983 and is compatible with the Atari 8-bit computers.
There were two attempts to turn the Atari 2600 into a keyboard-equipped home computer: Atari's never-released CX3000 "Graduate" keyboard, and the CompuMate keyboard by Spectravideo which was released in 1983.
Console models
Minor revisions
The initial production of the VCS was made in Sunnyvale during 1977, using thick polystyrene plastic for the casing as to give the impression of weight from what was mostly an empty shell inside. Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. The final Sears-specific model was the Video Arcade II, released during the fall of 1982.
Sears released versions of Atari's games with Tele-Games branding, usually with different titles.Atari 2800 The Atari 2800 is the Japanese version of the 2600 released in October 1983. It is the first Japan-specific release of a 2600, though companies like Epoch had distributed the 2600 in Japan previously. The 2800 was released a short time after Nintendo's Family Computer (which became the dominant console in Japan), and it did not gain a significant share of the market. Sears previously released the 2800 in the US during late 1982 as the Sears Video Arcade II, which came packaged with two controllers and Space Invaders. The 2800's case design departed from the 2600, using a wedge shape with non-protruding switches. The case style is the basis for the Atari 7800, which was redesigned for the 7800 by Barney Huang. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting "The fun is back!". Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the "large rainbow" (shown), "short rainbow", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad.Unreleased prototypes
The Atari 2700 was a version of the 2600 with wireless controllers.
The CX2000, with integrated joystick controllers, was a redesign based on human factor analysis by Henry Dreyfuss Associates.
The circa-1982 Atari 3200 was a backwards compatible 2600 successor with "more memory, higher resolution graphics and improved sound".Related hardware and recreations
The Atari 7800, announced in 1984 and released in 1986, is the official successor to the Atari 2600 and is backward compatible with 2600 cartridges.
Multiple retro-style consoles and microconsoles have been released since the lifespan of the original Atari 2600:
*The TV Boy includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad.
*The Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, emulates the 2600 with ten games inside an Atari-style joystick with composite-video output.
*The Atari Flashback 2 (2005) contains 40 games, with four additional programs unlocked by a cheat code. It uses a recreated chip based on original 2600 hardware, and is compatible with original 2600 controllers. It can be modified to play original 2600 cartridges.
*In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 that plays original cartridges instead of preinstalled games.
*The Atari VCS (2021 console) can download and emulate 2600 games via an online store.
*The Atari Flashback 12 Gold (2023) contains 130 games built-in.
*The Atari 2600+ (2023) is a replica of the 2600 and is 20% smaller. The 2600+ includes support for original Atari 2600 and 7800 cartridges.
*The Atari 7800+ (2024) is a smaller replica of the Atari 7800. It has similar features to the Atari 2600+, but its exterior encasing design pays homage to the Atari 7800.
Games
In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the console: Air-Sea Battle, Basic Math, Blackjack, Combat, Indy 500, Star Ship, Street Racer, Surround, and Video Olympics. Indy 500 shipped with special "driving controllers", which are like paddles but rotate freely. Street Racer and Video Olympics use the standard paddle controllers. Atari, Inc. was the only developer for the first few years, releasing dozens of games.
Atari determined that box art featuring only descriptions of the game and screenshots would not be sufficient to sell games in retail stores, since most games were based on abstract principles and screenshots give little information. Atari outsourced box art to Cliff Spohn, who created visually interesting artwork with implications of dynamic movement intended to engage the player's imagination while staying true to the gameplay. Spohn's style became a standard for Atari when bringing in assistant artists, including Susan Jaekel, Rick Guidice, John Enright, and Steve Hendricks. These artists generally conferred with the programmer to learn about the game before drawing the art.
An Atari VCS port of the Breakout arcade game appeared in 1978. The original is in black and white with a colored overlay, and the home version is in color. In 1980, Atari released Adventure, the first action-adventure game, and the first home game with a hidden Easter egg.
Rick Maurer's port of Taito's Space Invaders, released in 1980, was the first VCS game to sell a million copies—eventually doubling that within a year and totaling more than cartridges by 1983. The VCS port of Asteroids (1981) was the first game for the system to use 8K via a bank switching technique between two 4K segments. Some games including Atari's ports of Dig Dug and Crystal Castles, are 16K cartridges.
Many early VCS titles were able to display in both monochrome (black and white) and full color through the use of the "TV type" switch on the console. This allowed the VCS games to function on both monochrome and color televisions. However, beginning around the rebranding from "VCS" to "2600", support for black and white display modes diminished greatly, with most releases during this period only displaying in color and the TV type switch serving no function. Late releases such as Secret Quest, began using the TV type switch for gameplay functions, such as pausing.
Two Atari-published games, both from the system's peak in 1982, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial were rushed to market and are cited as factors in the video game crash of 1983.
A company named American Multiple Industries produced a number of pornographic games for the 2600 under the Mystique Presents Swedish Erotica label. The most notorious, ''Custer's Revenge'', was protested by women's and Native American groups because it depicted General George Armstrong Custer raping a bound Native American woman. Atari sued American Multiple Industries in court over the release of the game.Legacy
" (2012) at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, with Pac-Man, Space Invaders, Pitfall!, and Combat]]
The 2600 was so successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s that "Atari" was a synonym for the console in mainstream media and for video games in general. Jay Miner directed the creation of the successors to the 2600's TIA chip—CTIA and ANTIC—which are central to the Atari 8-bit computers released in 1979 and later the Atari 5200 console.
The Atari 2600 was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 2007. In 2009, the Atari 2600 was named the number two console of all time by IGN, which cited its remarkable role behind both the first video game boom and the video game crash of 1983, and called it "the console that our entire industry is built upon".
In November 2021, the current incarnation of Atari announced three 2600 games to be published under "Atari XP" label: ''Yars' Return, Aquaventure, and Saboteur''. These were previously included in Atari Flashback consoles.
A model of the Atari 2600 was released by Lego in 2022. Included are the three games Asteroid, Centipede, and Adventure. Included is a minifigure with a bedroom designed from the 1980s.
Notes
References
Citations
General bibliography
*
*
* External links
* [http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstory=console/vcs2600 A history of the Atari VCS/2600]
* [http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/Inside-the-Atari-2600/ Inside the Atari 2600]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/2600menu/2600menu.htm Hardware and prototypes] at the Atari Museum
Category:1970s toys
Category:1980s toys
2600
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1977
Category:Home video game consoles
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1992
Category:Second-generation video game consoles
Category:65xx-based video game consoles
Category:Discontinued video game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_2600 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.823830 |
2780 | Atari 5200 | |CPU = MOS 6502C @ 1.79 MHz
|memory = 16 KB RAM
|media = ROM cartridge
|discontinued =
|controllers = Joystick <br />Trak-Ball
|units sold 1 million
|top game |predecessor Atari 2600
|successor = Atari 7800
}}
The Atari 5200 SuperSystem or simply Atari 5200 is a home video game console introduced in 1982 by Atari, Inc. as a higher-end complement for the popular Atari Video Computer System. The VCS was renamed to Atari 2600 at the time of the 5200's launch. Created to compete with Mattel's Intellivision, the 5200 wound up a direct competitor of ColecoVision shortly after its release. While the Coleco system shipped with the first home version of Nintendo's Donkey Kong, the 5200 included the 1978 arcade game Super Breakout, which had already appeared on previous Atari home platforms.
The system architecture is almost identical to that of the Atari 8-bit computers, although software is not directly compatible between them. The 5200's controllers have an analog joystick and a numeric keypad along with start, pause, and reset buttons. The 360-degree non-centering joystick was touted as offering more control than the eight-way Atari CX40 joystick of the 2600, but it was a focal point for criticism.
On May 21, 1984, during a press conference at which the Atari 7800 was introduced, company executives revealed that the 5200 had been discontinued after less than two years on the market. Total sales of the system were reportedly in excess of 1 million units,
The initial 1982 release of the system had four controller ports, compared to two in most other consoles. The controllers have an analog joystick, numeric keypad, two fire buttons on each side of the controller, and game function keys for Start, Pause, and Reset. The 5200 also featured the innovation of the first automatic TV switchbox, allowing it to automatically switch from regular TV viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated. Previous RF adapters required the user to slide a switch on the adapter by hand. The RF box was also where the power supply connected in a unique dual power/television signal setup similar to the RCA Studio II's. A single cable coming out of the 5200 plugged into the switch box and carried both electricity and the television signal.
The 1983 revision of the Atari 5200 has two controller ports instead of four, and a change back to the more conventional separate power supply and standard non-autoswitching RF switch. It also has changes in the cartridge port address lines to allow for the Atari 2600 adapter released that year. While the adapter was only made to work on the two-port version, modifications can be made to the four-port to make it line-compatible. In fact, towards the end of the four-port model's production run, there were a limited number of consoles produced which included these modifications. These consoles can be identified by an asterisk in their serial numbers.
At one point following the 5200's release, Atari planned a smaller, cost-reduced version of the Atari 5200, which removed the controller storage bin. Code-named the "Atari 5100" (a.k.a. "Atari 5200 Jr."), only a few fully working prototype 5100s were made before the project was canceled.
Technical specifications
* CPU: SALLY @ 1.79 MHz (Custom MOS Technology 6502)
* Graphics chips: ANTIC and GTIA
* Support hardware: 3 custom VLSI chips
* Screen resolution: 14 modes: Six text modes (8×8, 4×8, and 8×10 character matrices supported), Eight graphics modes including 80 pixels per line (16 color), 160 pixels per line (4 color), 320 pixels per line (2 color), variable height and width up to overscan 384×240 pixels
* Color palette: 128 (16 hues, 8 luma) or 256 (16 hues, 16 luma)
* Colors on screen: 2 (320 pixels per line) to 16 (80 pixels per line).
* Sound: 4-channel PSG sound via POKEY sound chip, which also handles keyboard scanning, serial I/O, high resolution interrupt capable timers (single cycle accurate), and random number generation.
* RAM: 16 KB Another major flaw of the controllers was that the design did not translate into a linear acceleration from the center through the arc of the stick travel. The controllers did, however, include a pause button, a unique feature at the time. Various third-party replacement joysticks were also released, including those made by Wico.
Atari Inc. released the Pro-Line Trak-Ball controller, which was used for games such as Centipede and Missile Command. A paddle controller and an updated self-centering version of the original controller were also in development, but never made it to market.
Games were shipped with plastic card overlays that snapped in over the keypad. The cards indicated which game functions, such as changing the view or vehicle speed, were assigned to each key.
The primary controller was ranked the 10th worst video game controller by IGN editor Craig Harris. An editor for Next Generation said that their non-centering joysticks "rendered many games nearly unplayable".
Besides the 5200's lack of a keyboard, the differences are:
* The Atari computer 10 KB operating system is replaced with a simpler 2 KB version, of which 1 KB is the built-in character set.
* Some hardware registers, such as those of the GTIA and POKEY chips, are at different memory locations.
* The purpose of some registers is slightly different on the 5200.
* The 5200's analog joysticks appear as pairs of paddles to the hardware, which requires different input handling from the digital joystick input on the Atari computers
In 1987, Atari Corporation released the XE Game System console, which is a repackaged 65XE (from 1985) with a detachable keyboard that can run home computer titles directly, unlike the 5200. While it touted superior graphics to the 2600 and Mattel's Intellivision, the system was initially incompatible with the 2600's expansive library of games, and some market analysts have speculated that this hurt its sales, especially since an Atari 2600 cartridge adapter had been released for the Intellivision II. (A revised two-port model was released in 1983, along with a game adapter that allowed gamers to play all 2600 games.)
Many of the 5200's games appeared simply as updated versions of 2600 titles, which failed to excite consumers. Its pack-in game, Super Breakout, was criticized for not doing enough to demonstrate the system's capabilities. This gave the ColecoVision a significant advantage as its pack-in, Donkey Kong, delivered a more authentic arcade experience than any previous game cartridge. In its list of the top 25 game consoles of all time, IGN claimed that the main reason for the 5200's market failure was the technological superiority of its competitor, while other sources maintain that the two consoles are roughly equivalent in power.
The 5200 received much criticism for the "sloppy" design of its non-centering analog controllers. Anderson described the controllers as "absolutely atrocious".
David H. Ahl of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games said in 1983 that the "Atari 5200 is, dare I say it, Atari's answer to Intellivision, Colecovision, and the Astrocade", describing the console as a "true mass market" version of the Atari 8-bit computers despite the software incompatibility. He criticized the joystick's imprecise control but said that "it is at least as good as many other controllers", and wondered why Super Breakout was the pack-in game when it did not use the 5200's improved graphics.Popular cultureCritical to the plot of the 1984 film Cloak & Dagger is an Atari 5200 game cartridge called Cloak & Dagger. The arcade version appears in the movie. In actuality the Atari 5200 version was started but never completed. The game was under development with the title Agent X when the movie producers and Atari learned of each other's projects and decided to cooperate. This collaboration was part of a larger phenomenon, of films featuring video games as critical plot elements (as with Tron and The Last Starfighter) and of video game tie-ins to the same films (as with the Tron games for the Intellivision and other platforms).See also
* List of Atari 5200 emulators
* Video game crash of 1983
References
External links
* [http://www.atariage.com/software_search.html?SystemID5200 AtariAge – Comprehensive Atari 5200 database and information]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/5200/A5200.html Atari Museum 5200 Super System section]
5200
Category:Home video game consoles
Category:Second-generation video game consoles
Category:Products introduced in 1982
Category:65xx-based video game consoles
Category:Discontinued video game consoles
Category:Regionless game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_5200 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.836417 |
2781 | Atari 7800 | | graphics = MARIA custom chip @ 7.16 MHz
| top game Pole Position II (pack-in)
}}
The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it the first ever console with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different joystick than the 2600-standard CX40 and included Pole Position II as the pack-in game. The European model has a gamepad instead of a joystick. Most of the early releases for the system are ports of 1981–1983 arcade video games. The final wave of 7800 cartridges are closer in style to what was available on other late 1980s consoles, such as Scrapyard Dog and Midnight Mutants.
Designed by General Computer Corporation, the 7800 has graphics hardware similar to early 1980s arcade video games and is a significant improvement over Atari's previous consoles. It uses same Television Interface Adaptor chip that launched with the 2600 in 1977 to generate two-channel audio. In an effort to prevent the flood of poor quality games that contributed to the video game crash of 1983, cartridges had to be digitally signed by Atari.
The Atari 7800 was first announced by Atari, Inc. on May 21, 1984, but a general release was shelved until May 1986 due to the sale of the company. Atari Corporation dropped support for the 7800, along with the 2600 and the Atari 8-bit computers, on January 1, 1992. It was developed in 1983–84 with an intended mass market rollout in June 1984, but was canceled after the sale of the company to Tramel Technology Ltd on July 2, 1984. The project was originally called the Atari 3600.
With a background in creating arcade games such as Food Fight, GCC designed the new system with a graphics architecture similar to arcade machines of the time. The CPU is a slightly customized 6502 processor, the Atari SALLY, running at 1.79 MHz. By some measures the 7800 is more powerful, and by others less, than the 1983 Nintendo Entertainment System. It uses the 2600's Television Interface Adaptor chip, with the same restrictions, for generating two-channels of audio. Launch The 7800 was announced on May 21, 1984. Thirteen games were announced for the system's launch: Ms. Pac-Man, Pole Position II, Centipede, Joust, Dig Dug, Nile Flyer Track & Field, and Xevious. It was a significant technological leap over the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200.
On July 2, 1984, Warner Communications sold Atari's Consumer Division to Jack Tramiel. All projects were halted during an initial evaluation period. GCC had not been paid for their development of the 7800, and Warner and Tramiel fought over who was accountable. In May 1985, Tramiel relented and paid GCC. This led to additional negotiations regarding the launch titles GCC had developed, then an effort to find someone to lead their new video game division, which was completed in November 1985. The original production run of the Atari 7800 languished in warehouses until it was introduced in January 1986.
The console was released nationwide in May 1986 for $79.95 with games intended for the 7800's debut in 1984. It was aided by a marketing campaign with a budget in the "low millions" according to Atari Corporation officials. This was substantially less than the $9 million spent by Sega and the $16 million spent by Nintendo. The keyboard and high score cartridge planned by Warner were cancelled. The 7800 addressed many of the most common complaints with the preceding 5200, including a smaller size, built-in backward compatibility, and an improved controller design.
In February 1987, Computer Entertainer reported that 100,000 Atari 7800 consoles had been sold in the United States, including those which had been warehoused since 1984. This was less than the Master System's 125,000 and the NES's 1.1 million. Discontinuation On January 1, 1992, Atari Corporation announced the end of production and support for the 7800, 2600, and the 8-bit computer family including the Atari XEGS. At least one game, an unreleased port of Toki, was worked on past this date. By the time of the discontinuation, the Nintendo Entertainment System controlled 80% of the North American market while Atari had 12%. In Europe, last stocks of the 7800 were sold until summer/fall of 1995.
Retro Gamer magazine issue 132 reported that according to Atari UK Marketing Manager Darryl Still, "it was very well stocked by European retail; although it never got the consumer traction that the 2600 did, I remember we used to sell a lot of units through mail order catalogues and in the less affluent areas".
Technical specifications
* CPU: Atari SALLY (custom variant of the 6502)
** 1.79 MHz, which drops to 1.19 MHz when the Television Interface Adaptor or (6532 RAM-I/O-Timer) chips are accessed
** Unlike a standard 6502, SALLY can be halted in a known state with a single pin to let other devices control the bus.
** Sometimes referred to by Atari as "6502C", but not the same as the official MOS Technology 6502C.
* RAM: 4 KB
** Line buffer: 200 bytes (double buffering), 160 sprite pixels per scanline,
** Sprite/zone sizes: 4 to 160
* I/O: Joystick and console switch IO handled by 6532 RIOT and TIA
* Ports
**2 joystick ports
**cartridge port
**expansion connector
**power in
**RF output
* Sound: TIA as used in the 2600 for video and sound. In 7800 mode it is only used for sound.
** At least two games include a POKEY sound chip for improved audio. Graphics Graphics are generated by the custom MARIA chip, which uses an approach common in contemporary arcade system boards Sound
The 7800 uses the TIA chip for two channel audio, the same chip used in the 1977 Atari VCS, and the sound is of the same quality as that system. To compensate, GCC's engineers allowed games to include a POKEY audio chip in the cartridge. Only Ballblazer and Commando do this.
GCC planned to make a low-cost, high performance sound chip, GUMBY, which could also be placed in 7800 cartridges to enhance its sound capabilities further. This project was cancelled when Atari was sold to Jack Tramiel.
Digitally signed cartridges
Following the large number of low quality, third party games for the Atari 2600, Atari required that cartridges for the 7800 be digitally signed. When a cartridge is inserted into the system, the BIOS generates a signature of the cartridge ROM and compares it to the one stored on the cartridge. If they match, the console operates in 7800 mode, granting the game access to MARIA and other features, otherwise the console operates as a 2600. This digital signature code is not present in PAL 7800s, which use various heuristics to detect 2600 cartridges, due to export restrictions.
Backward compatibility
The 7800's compatibility with the Atari 2600 is made possible by including many of the same chips used in the 2600. When playing an Atari 2600 game, the 7800 uses a Television Interface Adaptor chip to generate graphics and sound. The processor is slowed to 1.19 MHz, to mirror the performance of the 2600's 6507 chip. RAM is limited to 128 bytes and cartridge data is accessed in 4K blocks.
When in 7800 mode (signified by the appearance of the full-screen Atari logo), the graphics are generated entirely by the MARIA graphics processing unit. All system RAM is available and cartridge data is accessed in larger 48K blocks. The system's SALLY 6502 runs at its normal 1.79 MHz. The 2600 chips are used to generate sound and to provide the interfaces to the controllers and console switches.
System revisions
*Initial version: two joystick ports on lower front panel. Side expansion port for upgrades and add-ons. Bundled with two CX24 Pro-Line joysticks, AC adapter, switchbox, RCA connecting cable, and Pole Position II cartridge.
*Second revision: Slightly revised motherboard. Expansion port connector removed from motherboard but is still etched. Shell has indentation of where expansion port was to be.
*Third revision: Same as above but with only a small blemish on the shell where the expansion port was.
Peripherals
of later European Atari 7800s with the thumbstick screwed in]]
The Atari 7800 came bundled with the Atari Pro-Line Joystick, a two-button controller with a joystick for movement. The Pro-Line was developed for the 2600 and advertised in 1983, but delayed until Atari proceeded with the 7800. The right fire button only works as a separate fire button for certain 7800 games; otherwise, it duplicates the left fire button, allowing either button to be used for 2600 games. While physically compatible, the 7800's controllers do not work with the Sega Master System, and Sega's controllers are unable to use the 7800's two-button mode.
In response to criticism over ergonomic issues with the Pro-Line controllers, Atari later released a joypad controller with the European 7800. Similar in style to controllers found on Nintendo and Sega systems, it was not available in the United States.
The Atari XG-1 light gun, bundled with the Atari XEGS and also sold separately, is compatible with the 7800. Atari released five 7800 light gun games: Alien Brigade, Barnyard Blaster, Crossbow, Meltdown, and Sentinel.
Cancelled peripherals
After the acquisition of the Atari Consumer Division by Jack Tramiel in 1984, several expansion options for the system were cancelled:
* The High Score Cartridge was designed to save high scores for up to 65 separate games. The cartridge was intended as a pass-through device, similar to the later Game Genie. Nine games were programmed to support the cartridge.
* The expansion port, to allow for the addition of a planned computer keyboard and connection to laserdisc players and other peripherals, was removed in the second and third revisions of the 7800.
* A dual joystick holder was designed for Robotron: 2084 and future games like Battlezone, but not produced. Games
While the system can play the over 400 games for the Atari 2600, there were only 59 official releases for the 7800. The lineup emphasized high-quality versions of games from the golden age of arcade video games. Pole Position II, Dig Dug, and Galaga, by the time of the 1986 launch, were three, four, and five years old, respectively. A raster graphics version of 1979's Asteroids was released in 1987. In 1988, Atari published a conversion of Nintendo's Donkey Kong, seven years after the original arcade game and five years after the Atari 8-bit computer cartridge. Atari also marketed a line of games called "Super Games" which were arcade and computer games previously not playable on a home console such as One-On-One Basketball and Impossible Mission.
Eleven games were developed and sold by three third-party companies under their own labels (Absolute Entertainment, Activision, and Froggo) with the rest published by Atari Corporation. Most of the games from Atari were developed by outside companies under contract.
Some NES games were developed by companies who had licensed their title from a different arcade manufacturer. While the creator of the NES version would be restricted from making a competitive version of an NES game, the original arcade copyright holder was not precluded from licensing out rights for a home version of an arcade game to multiple systems. Through this loophole, Atari 7800 conversions of Mario Bros., Double Dragon, Commando, Rampage, Xenophobe, Ikari Warriors, and Kung-Fu Master were licensed and developed.
A final batch of games was released by Atari in 1990: Alien Brigade, Basketbrawl, Fatal Run, Meltdown, Midnight Mutants, MotorPsycho, Ninja Golf, Planet Smashers, and Scrapyard Dog. Scrapyard Dog was later released for the Atari Lynx.
Legacy
Atari Flashback
In 2004, the Infogrames-owned version of Atari released the Atari Flashback console. It resembles a miniature Atari 7800 and has five 7800 and fifteen 2600 games built-in. Built using the NES-On-A-Chip hardware instead of recreating the Atari 7800 hardware, it was criticized for failing to properly replicate the actual gaming experience. A subsequent 7800 project was cancelled after prototypes were made.
Game development
The digital signature long prevented aftermarket games from being developed. The signing software was eventually found and released at Classic Gaming Expo in 2001.
Several new Atari 7800 games such as Beef Drop, B*nQ, Combat 1990, CrazyBrix, Failsafe, and Santa Simon have been released..Source codeIn July 2009, the source code to 13 games, the operating system, and Atari ST-hosted development tools, were released. Commented assembly language source code was made available for Centipede, Commando, Crossbow, Desert Falcon, Dig Dug, Food Fight, Galaga, Hat Trick, Joust, Ms. Pac-Man, Super Stunt Cycle, Robotron: 2084, and Xevious.Atari 7800+In late 2024, Atari Inc. and Plaion released the Atari 7800+, a microconsole designed as a smaller-scale replica of the 7800, specifically the European model. It includes support for physical cartridges of both the Atari 2600 and Atari 7800 though emulation. It is effectively a variant of the Atari 2600+, which was introduced in 2023.See also
* History of Atari
* List of Atari 7800 games
* List of Atari 2600 games
References
External links
* [http://www.atariage.com/software_search.html?SystemID7800 AtariAge – Comprehensive Atari 7800 database and information]
* [http://www.atari7800.org Atari 7800 Information & Resources]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/7800/7800menu/ Atari Museum – History of the Atari 7800 ProSystem]
* [http://7800.8bitdev.org/ Atari 7800 Development Wiki]
* [https://gstanton.github.io/ProSystem1_3/ ProSystem emulator] for Microsoft Windows
7800
Category:Home video game consoles
Category:Backward-compatible video game consoles
Category:Third-generation video game consoles
Category:1986 in video gaming
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1986
Category:Products introduced in 1986
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1992
Category:1980s toys
Category:65xx-based video game consoles
Category:Discontinued video game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_7800 | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.852948 |
2782 | Atari Jaguar | | lifespan = 1993–1996
| price
| successor = <!-- Do not add Atari VCS as a successor. The VCS was produced by a different company with the Atari name, and the Jaguar is not directly related to it in any way. -->
| related = Jaguar CD
| graphics = Tom chip (up to / , 16.8 million colors)
| sound = Jerry chip (16-bit, two DACs, wavetable and AM synthesis)
| display = Composite, S-Video, RGB, or RF TV out
}}
The Atari Jaguar is a home video game console developed by Atari Corporation and released in North America in November 1993. It is in the fifth generation of video game consoles, and it competed with fourth generation consoles, including the 16-bit Genesis, the 16-bit Super NES, and the 32-bit 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. Jaguar has a Motorola 68000 CPU and two custom 32-bit coprocessors named Tom and Jerry. Atari marketed it as the world's first 64-bit game system, emphasizing the blitter's 64-bit bus; however, none of its three processors have a 64-bit instruction set, as do later 64-bit consoles such as PlayStation 2 and Nintendo 64. which received mixed reviews. The system's library ultimately comprises only 50 licensed games.
Development started in the early 1990s by Flare Technology, which focused on the system after cancellation of the Panther console. The Jaguar was an important system for Atari after discontinuing Atari ST computers in favor of video games. However, game development was complicated by the multi-chip architecture, hardware bugs, and poor programming tools. Underwhelming sales further eroded third-party support. However, Jaguar could not compete against the Saturn and PlayStation, both released in 1995. Atari had internally abandoned the system by the end of that year, liquidating its inventory by 1996. Around 1989, work began on a new console leveraging technology from Atari ST computers. It was originally named the Super XE, following the XE Game System, and eventually became the Panther using either 16 or 32-bit architecture. A more advanced system codenamed Jaguar also began work. Atari was impressed by Flare's work on the Konix Multisystem, and persuaded them to close Flare and form a new company called Flare II, to be funded by Atari.
Work on the Jaguar design progressed faster than expected, so Atari canceled the Panther project in 1991 and its 32-bit or even 64-bit architecture. By this time the Atari ST had long been surpassed in popularity by the Amiga, while both Atari and Commodore became victims of Wintel, which became the dominant computer platform.LaunchThe Jaguar was launched on November 23, 1993, at , under a manufacturing deal with IBM. The system was initially available only in the test markets of New York City and San Francisco, with the slogan "Get bit by Jaguar", claiming superiority over competing 16-bit and 32-bit systems. During this test launch, Atari sold all units hoping it would rally support for the system. A nationwide release followed six months later, in early 1994. The Jaguar struggled to attain a substantial user base. Atari reported shipping 17,000 units as part of the test market in 1993. By the end of 1994, it reported that it had sold approximately 100,000 units.
Computer Gaming World wrote in January 1994 that the Jaguar was "a great machine in search of a developer/customer base", as Atari had to "overcome the stigma of its name (lack of marketing and customer support, as well as poor developer relations in the past)". Atari had "ventured late into third-party software support" for the Jaguar, but competing console 3DO's "18 month public relations blitz" resulted in "an avalanche of software support". The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for tepid adoption, because early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom, and Wolfenstein 3D. The most successful game during the Jaguar's first year was Alien vs. Predator. However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; GamePro concluded its rave review of Alien vs. Predator by remarking "If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase." Next Generation commented that "thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now." It further noted that though Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation. This claim is questioned by some, because the Motorola 68000 CPU and the Tom and Jerry coprocessors execute 32-bit instruction sets. Atari's reasoning that the 32-bit Tom and Jerry chips work in tandem to add up to a 64-bit system was ridiculed in a mini-editorial by Electronic Gaming Monthly, which commented that "If Sega did the math for the Sega Saturn the way Atari did the math for their 64-bit Jaguar system, the Sega Saturn would be a 112-bit monster of a machine." Next Generation, in a mostly negative review of the Jaguar, maintained that it is a true 64-bit system, because the data path from the DRAM to the CPU and Tom and Jerry chips is 64 bits wide.Arrival of Saturn and PlayStationIn early 1995, Atari announced that it had dropped the price of the Jaguar to , to be more competitive. Atari ran infomercials with enthusiastic salesmen touting the game system for most of 1995, but did not sell the remaining stock.
In 1995, CEO Sam Tramiel declared the Jaguar at least as powerful than the newly launched Saturn, and slightly weaker than the upcoming PlayStation. Next Generation received a deluge of letters in response to Tramiel's comments, particularly his threat to bring Sony to court for price dumping if the PlayStation entered the U.S. market at a retail price below $300. Many readers found this threat hollow and hypocritical, since Tramiel noted in the same interview that Atari was selling the Jaguar at a loss. The editor responded that price dumping does not have to do with a product being priced below cost, but its being priced much lower in one country than anotherwhich, as Tramiel said, is illegal. Tramiel and Next Generation agreed that the PlayStation's Japanese price converts to approximately $500. His remark, that the small number of third party Jaguar games was good for Atari's profitability, angered Jaguar owners already frustrated at the small library.
Atari's 1995 annual report noted: In addition, Atari had severely limited financial resources, and so could not create the level of marketing which has historically backed successful gaming consoles.
By November 1995, mass layoffs and insider statements were fueling journalistic speculation that Atari had ceased both development and manufacturing for the Jaguar and was simply trying to sell off existing stock before exiting the video game industry. Although Atari continued to deny these theories going into 1996, core Jaguar developers such as High Voltage Software and Beyond Games stated that they were no longer receiving communications from Atari regarding future Jaguar projects.
In its 10-K405 SEC Filing, filed April 12, 1996, On April 8, 1996, Atari Corporation agreed to merge with JTS, Inc. in a reverse takeover, thus forming JTS Corporation. The merger was finalized on July 30.
After the merger, the bulk of Jaguar inventory remained unsold On March 13, 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and properties to Hasbro Interactive.Technical specificationsFrom the Jaguar Software Reference manual, page 1:
Design specs for the console allude to the GPU or DSP being capable of acting as a CPU, leaving the Motorola 68000 to read controller inputs. Atari's Leonard Tramiel also specifically suggested that the 68000 not be used by developers. In practice, however, many developers use the Motorola 68000 to drive gameplay logic due to the greater developer familiarity of the 68000 and the adequacy of the 68000 for certain types of games. Most critically, a flaw in the memory controller means that certain obscure conventions must be followed for the RISC chips to be able to execute code from RAM.
The system was notoriously difficult to program for, because its multi-processor design is complex, development tools were released in an unfinished state, and the hardware had crippling bugs.
Processors
* Tom chip, 26.59 MHz
** Graphics processing unit (GPU) – 32-bit RISC architecture, 4 KB internal RAM, all graphical effects are software-based, with additional instructions intended for 3D operations
** Object Processor – 64-bit fixed-function video processor, converts display lists to video output at scan time.
** Blitter – 64-bit high speed logic operations, z-buffering and Gouraud shading, with 64-bit internal registers.
** DRAM controller, 8-, 16-, 32- and 64-bit memory management
* Jerry chip, 26.59 MHz
** Digital Signal Processor – 32-bit RISC architecture, 8 KB internal RAM
*** Similar RISC core as the GPU, additional instructions intended for audio operations
** CD-quality sound (16-bit stereo)
*** Number of sound channels limited by software
*** Two DACs (stereo) convert digital data to analog sound signals
*** Full stereo capabilities
** Wavetable synthesis and AM synthesis
** A clock control block, incorporating timers, and a UART
** Joystick control
* Motorola 68000 - system processor "used as a manager".
** General purpose 16-/32-bit control processor, 13.295 MHz
Other features
Jaguar]]
* RAM: 2 MB on a 64-bit bus using 4 16-bit fast-page-mode DRAMs (80 ns)
* Storage: ROM cartridges – up to 6 MB
* DSP-port (JagLink)
* Monitor-port (composite/S-Video/RGB)
* Antenna-port (UHF/VHF) - fixed at 591 MHz in Europe; not present on French model
* Support for ComLynx I/O
* NTSC/PAL machines can be identified by their power LED colour, Red: NTSC; Green: PAL.
COJAG arcade games
Atari Games licensed the Jaguar's chipset for use in its arcade games. The system, named CoJag (for "Coin-Op Jaguar"), replaced the 68000 with a 68020 or MIPS R3000-based CPU (depending on the board version), added more RAM, a full 64-bit wide ROM bus (Jaguar ROM bus is 32-bit), and optionally a hard drive (some games such as Freeze are ROM only). It runs the lightgun games Area 51 and Maximum Force, which were released as dedicated cabinets or as the Area 51 and Maximum Force combo machine. Other games were developed but never released: 3 On 3 Basketball, ''Fishin' Frenzy, Freeze, and Vicious Circle''.
Peripherals
Prior to the launch of the console in November 1993, Atari had announced a variety of peripherals to be released over the console's lifespan. This included a CD-ROM-based console, dial-up Internet access with support for online games, a virtual reality headset, and an MPEG-2 video card. However, due to the poor sales and eventual commercial failure of the Jaguar, most of the peripherals in development were canceled. The only peripherals and add-ons released by Atari for the Jaguar are a redesigned controller, an adapter for four players, a CD console add-on, and a link cable for local area network (LAN) gaming.
The redesigned second controller, the ProController by Atari, added three more face buttons and two triggers. It was created in response to the criticism of the original controller, said to lack enough buttons for fighting games in particular. It was never bundled with the system. The Team Tap multitap adds 4-controller support, compatible only with the optionally bundled ''White Men Can't Jump and NBA Jam Tournament Edition. Eight player gameplay with two Team Taps is possible
Jaguar CD
The Jaguar CD is a CD-ROM peripheral for games. It was released in September 1995, two years after the Jaguar's launch. Thirteen CD games were released during its manufacturing lifetime, with more being made later by homebrew developers. Each Jaguar CD unit has a Virtual Light Machine, which displays light patterns corresponding to music, if the user inserts an audio CD into the console. It was developed by Jeff Minter, after experimenting with graphics during the development of Tempest 2000. The program was deemed a spiritual successor to the Atari Video Music, a visualizer released in 1976.
The Memory Track is a cartridge accessory for the Jaguar CD, providing Jaguar CD games with 128 K EEPROM for persistent storage of data such as preferences and saved games. The Jaguar Duo (codenamed Jaguar III) was a proposal to integrate the Jaguar CD to make a new console, a concept similar to the TurboDuo and Genesis CDX. A prototype, described by journalists as resembling a bathroom scale, was unveiled at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, but the console was canceled before production.
Jaguar VR
A virtual reality headset compatible with the console, tentatively titled the Jaguar VR, was unveiled by Atari at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show. The development of the peripheral was a response to Nintendo's virtual reality console, the Virtual Boy, which had been announced the previous year. The headset was developed in cooperation with Virtuality, which had previously created many virtual reality arcade systems, and was already developing a similar headset for practical purposes, named Project Elysium, for IBM. The peripheral was targeted for a commercial release before Christmas 1995. However, the deal with Virtuality was abandoned in October 1995. After Atari's merger with JTS in 1996, all prototypes of the headset were allegedly destroyed. However, two working units, one low-resolution prototype with red and grey-colored graphics and one high-resolution prototype with blue and grey-colored graphics, have since been recovered, and are regularly showcased at retrogaming-themed conventions and festivals. Only one game was developed for the Jaguar VR prototype: a 3D-rendered version of the 1980 arcade game Missile Command, titled Missile Command 3D, and a demo of Virtuality's Zone Hunter was created. but was not actually released until mid-1995. The ICD CatBox plugs directly into the AV/DSP connectors located in the rear of the Jaguar console and provides three main functions. These are audio, video, and communications. It features six output formats, three for audio (Line level stereo, RGB monitor, headphone jack with volume control) and three for video (composite, S-Video, and RGB analog component video) making the Jaguar compatible with multiple high quality monitor systems and multiple monitors at the same time. It is capable of communications methods known as CatNet and RS-232 and DSP pass through, allowing the user to connect two or more Jaguars together for multiplayer games either directly or with modems. The ICD CatBox features a polished stainless steel casing The CatBox is also compatible with Atari's Jaglink Interface peripheral.
Game library
Reception
Reviewing the Jaguar just a few weeks prior to its launch, GamePro gave it a "thumbs sideways". They praised the power of the hardware but criticized the controller, and were dubious of how the software lineup would turn out, commenting that Atari's failure to secure support from key third party publishers such as Capcom was a bad sign. They concluded: "Like the 3DO, the Jaguar is a risky investment – just not quite as expensive."
The Jaguar won GameFans "Best New System" award for 1993.
The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for its failure in the marketplace. The pack-in game Cybermorph was one of the first polygon-based games for consoles, but was criticized for design flaws and a weak color palette, and compared unfavorably with the SNES's Star Fox. Other early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. The Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom and Wolfenstein 3D. Next Generation likewise commented that "thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now." They further noted that though Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation. They gave the system two out of five stars. to challenge the incumbent 16-bit game consoles, the Jaguar's appeal never grew beyond a small gaming audience. Digital Spy commented: "Like many failed hardware ventures, it still maintains something of a cult following but can only be considered a misstep for Atari."
In 2006, IGN editor Craig Harris rated the original Jaguar controller as the worst game controller ever, criticizing the unwarranted recycling of the 1980s "phone keypad" format and the small number of action buttons, which he found particularly unwise given that Atari was actively trying to court fighting game fans to the system. Ed Semrad of Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that many Jaguar games gratuitously used all of the controller's phone keypad buttons, making the controls much more difficult than they needed to be. GamePros The Watch Dog remarked: "The controller usually doesn't use the keypad, and for games that use the keypad extensively (Alien vs. Predator, Doom), a keypad overlay is used to minimize confusion. But yes, it is a lot of buttons for nuttin'." Atari added more action buttons for its Pro Controller, to improve performance in fighting games in particular.LegacyTelegames continued to publish games for the Jaguar after it was discontinued, and for a time was the only company to do so. On May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that it had released all patents to the Jaguar, declaring it an open platform, and enabling extensive homebrew development. Following the announcement, Songbird Productions joined Telegames in releasing unfinished Jaguar games alongside new games to satisfy the cult following. Hasbro Interactive, along with all the Atari properties, was sold to Infogrames on January 29, 2001.
In the United Kingdom in 2001, Telegames and retailer Game made a deal to bring the Jaguar to Game's retail outlets. It was initially sold for £29.99 new and software ranged between £9.99 for more common games such as Doom and Ruiner Pinball and £39.99 for rarer releases such as Defender 2000 and Checkered Flag. The machine had a presence in the stores until 2007, when remaining consoles were sold off for £9.99 and games were sold for as low as 97p.
In 2022, the compilation Atari 50 was released with a collection of Jaguar games, as one of the first instances of Jaguar software being officially re-released by Atari. Due to the unique design of the original Jaguar controller, the games feature reworked control layouts to allow them to work with modern hardware.MoldsIn 1997, Imagin Systems, a manufacturer of dental imaging equipment, purchased the Jaguar cartridge and console molds, including the molds for the CD add-on, from JTS. and the cartridge molds were reused to create an optional memory expansion card. In a retrospective, Imagin founder Steve Mortenson praised the design, but admitted that their device came at the time of the dental industry's transition to USB, and apart from a few prototypes, the molds went unused.
In December 2014, the molds were purchased from Imagin Systems by Mike Kennedy, owner of the Kickstarter funded Retro Videogame Magazine, to propose a new crowdfunded video game console, the Retro VGS, later rebranded the Coleco Chameleon with a licensing agreement with Coleco. The purchase of the molds was far cheaper than designing and manufacturing entirely new molds, and Kennedy described their acquisition as "the entire reason [the Retro VGS] is possible". However, the project was terminated in March 2016 following criticism of Kennedy and doubts regarding demand for the proposed console. Two "prototypes" were discovered to be fakes and Coleco withdrew from the project. After the project's termination, the molds were sold to Albert Yarusso, the founder of the AtariAge website.See also* Contiki, portable operating system, including a port for the Jaguar with GUI, TCP/IP, and web browser support.ReferencesExternal links
* [http://st-news.com/issues/st-news-volume-9-issue-2/previews/the-jaguar/ Atari Jaguar review, 1994]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070216161427/http://justclaws.atari.org/press.htm Atari Corp. press released related to Jaguar, 1993-1997 (archived)]
Category:Products introduced in 1993
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1996
Jaguar duo
Category:Home video game consoles
Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles
Category:1990s toys
Category:68k-based game consoles
Category:Discontinued video game consoles
Category:Regionless game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.884551 |
2783 | Atari Lynx | | manufacturer = Atari Corporation
| type = Handheld game console
| generation = Fourth
| releasedate =
| lifespan = 1989–1995
| price <!-- this is price at initial release, not the current price. -->
| unitssold = 2 million
| media = ROM cartridge
| cpu = "Mikey" (VLSI VL65NC02 8-bit CPU + Sound processor + LCD driver)
| graphics = "Suzy" (16-bit custom CMOS)
| memory = 64 KB RAM
| display = Backlit 3.5" color LCD; 160 × 102 standard resolution (16,320 addressable pixels)
| service = <!-- online service/s offered -->
| sound = 4 channels, 8-bit DAC or PSG sound
| discontinued = 1995
| top game = RoadBlasters
}}
The Atari Lynx is a 16-bit fourth-generation hand-held game console released by Atari Corporation in September 1989 in North America and 1990 in Europe and Japan. It was the first handheld game console with a color liquid-crystal display. Powered by a 4 MHz 65C02 8-bit CPU and a custom 16-bit blitter, the Lynx was more advanced than Nintendo's monochrome Game Boy, released two months earlier. It also competed with Sega's Game Gear and NEC's TurboExpress, released the following year.
The system was developed at Epyx by two former designers of the Amiga personal computers. The project was called the Handy Game or simply Handy. In 1991, Atari replaced the Lynx with a smaller model internally referred to as the Lynx II. Atari published a total of 73 games for the Lynx before it was discontinued in 1995.
History
The Lynx system was originally developed by Epyx as the Handy Game. In 1986, two former Amiga designers, RJ Mical and Dave Needle, had been asked by a former manager at Amiga, Dave Morse, to design a portable gaming system. Morse now worked at Epyx, a game software company with a recent string of hit games. Morse's son had asked him if he could make a portable gaming system, prompting a meeting with Mical and Needle to discuss the idea. Morse convinced Mical and Needle and they were hired by Epyx to be a part of the design team. Epyx first showed the Handy system at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 1989. Facing financial difficulties, Epyx sought partners. Nintendo, Sega, and other companies declined, but Atari and Epyx eventually agreed that Atari would handle production and marketing, and Epyx would handle software development. Epyx declared bankruptcy by the end of the year, so Atari essentially owned the entire project. Both Atari and others had to purchase Amigas from Atari arch-rival Commodore in order to develop Lynx software.
The Handy was designed to run games from the cartridge format, and the game data must be copied from ROM to RAM before it can be used. Thus, less RAM is then available and each game's initial loading is slow. There are trace remnants of a cassette tape interface physically capable of being programmed to read a tape. Lynx developers have noted that "there is still reference of the tape and some hardware addresses" and an updated vintage Epyx manual describes the bare existence of what could be utilized for tape support. A 2009 retrospective interview with Mical clarifies that there is no truth to some early reports claiming that games were loaded from tape, and elaborates, "We did think about hard disk a little."
The networking system was originally developed to run over infrared links and codenamed RedEye. This was changed to a cable-based networking system before the final release as the infrared beam was too easily interrupted when players walked through the beam, according to Peter Engelbrite. Engelbrite developed the first recordable eight-player co-op game, and the only eight-player game for the Lynx, ''Todd's Adventures in Slime World''. US sales in 1990 were approximately 500,000 units according to the Associated Press. In late 1991, it was reported that Atari sales estimates were about 800,000, which Atari claimed was within its expected projections. Lifetime sales by 1995 amount to fewer than 7 million units when combined with the Game Gear. because of its superior durability, pricing, battery life, and game library, notably the pack-in hit Tetris.
As with the console units, the game cartridge design evolved over the first year of the console's release. The first generation of cartridges are flat, and designed to be stackable for ease of storage. However, this design proved to be very difficult to remove from the console and was replaced by a second design. This style, called "tabbed" or "ridged", adds two small tabs on the underside to aid in removal. The original flat style cartridges can be stacked on top of the newer cartridges, but the newer cartridges can not be easily stacked on each other, nor were they stored easily. Thus a third style, the "curved lip" style was produced, and all official and third-party cartridges during the console's lifespan were released (or re-released) using this style.
In May 1991, Sega launched its Game Gear portable gaming handheld with a color screen. and would later merge with JTS, Inc. on July 30 of that year.FeaturesThe Atari Lynx has a backlit color LCD display, switchable right- and left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with other units via Comlynx cable. The maximum stable connection allowed is eight players.
** On Lynx I a VLSI 8-bit VL65NC02 processor (based on the MOS 6502) running at up to 4 MHz (3.6 MHz average).
*** 160×102 pixels resolution
*** 4,096 color (12-bit) palette
*** 16 simultaneous colors (4 bits) from palette per scanline
*** Variable frame rate (up to 75 frames/second)
** Eight system timers (two reserved for LCD timing, one for UART)
** Interrupt controller
** UART (for Comlynx) (fixed format 8E1, up to 62500 Bd / TurboMode 1,000,000Bd)
** 512 bytes of bootstrap and game-card loading ROM
* Suzy (16-bit VLSI custom CMOS chip running at )
** Unlimited number of blitter "sprites" with collision detection
** Hardware sprite scaling, distortion, and tilting effects
** Hardware decoding of compressed sprite data
** Hardware clipping and multi-directional scrolling
** Math engine
*** Hardware 16-bit × 16-bit → 32-bit multiply with optional accumulation; 32-bit ÷ 16-bit → 16-bit divide
*** Parallel processing of CPU
* RAM: 64 KB 120ns DRAM
* Cartridges: 128, 256, 512 KB and (with bank-switching) 1 MB
* Ports:
** Headphone port ( stereo; wired for mono on the original Lynx)
** ComLynx (multiple unit communications, serial)
* LCD Screen: 3.5" diagonal
* Battery holder (six AA) 4–5 hours (Lynx I) 5–6 hours (Lynx II)
Legacy
Telegames released several games in the late 1990s, including a port of Raiden and a platformer called Fat Bobby in 1997, and an action sports game called Hyperdrome in 1999.
On March 13, 1998, nearly three years after the Lynx's discontinuation, JTS Corporation sold all of the Atari assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million. On May 14, 1999, Hasbro, which held on to those properties until selling Hasbro Interactive to Infogrames in 2001, released into the public domain all rights to the Jaguar, opening up the platform for anyone to publish software on without Hasbro's interference. Internet theories say that the Lynx's rights may have been released to the public at the same time as the Jaguar, but this is clearly disputed. Nevertheless, since discontinuation, the Lynx, like the Jaguar, has continued to receive support from a grassroots community which would go on to produce many successful homebrew games such as T-Tris (the first Lynx game with a save-game feature), Alpine Games, and Zaku.
In 2008, Atari was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for pioneering the development of handheld games with the Lynx.
In 2022, the compilation Atari 50 released with a handful of popular Lynx titles, marking the first time that classic Lynx software would be officially rereleased by Atari. See also
* List of Atari Lynx games
* History of Atari
References
External links
* [https://www.atariage.com/software_search.php?SystemID=LYNX AtariAge – Comprehensive Lynx Database and information]
* [http://www.retrovideogamer.co.uk/index.php?page=atarilynx Guide to Atari Lynx games at Retro Video Gamer]
* [http://www.usgamer.net/articles/too-good-for-its-day-ataris-lynx-remains-a-fan-favorite-25-years-later Too Powerful for Its Own Good, Atari's Lynx Remains a Favorite 25 Years Later]
* [http://st-news.com/issues/st-news-volume-5-issue-1/reviews/the-atari-lynx/ Atari Lynx review, 1990]
* [https://www.monlynx.de/lynx/lynxdoc.html Atari Lynx Hardware Documentation]
* [https://atarilynxdev.net/doku.php/start Atari Lynx Development Wiki]
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1989
Category:Discontinued handheld game consoles
Category:Handheld game consoles
Category:Fourth-generation video game consoles
Lynx
Category:1980s toys
Category:1990s toys
Category:65xx-based video game consoles
Category:Public domain in the United States
Category:Regionless game consoles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Lynx | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.896738 |
2784 | Ahimsa | , the twenty-fourth tirthankara of Jainism, and "torch-bearer" of ahimsa]]
(, IAST: , ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.
(also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal virtues inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself.
is also related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already investigated and refined the principles of
, the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in . About , Valluvar emphasized and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural. Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of in modern times was Mahatma Gandhi.
's precept that humans should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words, and thoughts. disagree about what the principle of dictates when one is faced with war and other situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.EtymologyThe word —sometimes spelled —is derived from the Sanskrit root , meaning to strike; is injury or harm, while (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is non-harming or nonviolence.OriginsReverence for can be found in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist canonical texts. Lord Parshvanatha (the 23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism) is said to have preached as one of the four vows. No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as much as has Jainism.HinduismAncient Vedic texts as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts. The oldest scriptures indirectly mention . Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of was increasingly refined and emphasized until became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about ). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words (truthfulness) and in a prayer to deity Indra; later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between and , states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".
The term appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of "non-injury". The doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about .
John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word in these Upanishads. Other scholars Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism. Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names , along with (truthfulness), (sincerity), (charity), and (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).
The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: , , , , , , , , , and . According to Kaneda,
<blockquote><poem>
</poem></blockquote>
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of in Hinduism, and literally means:
<blockquote><poem>
is the highest , is the highest self-control,
is the greatest gift, is the best practice,
is the highest sacrifice, is the finest strength,
is the greatest friend, is the greatest happiness,
is the highest truth, and is the greatest teaching.
</poem></blockquote>
Some other examples where the phrase are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.
Self-defence, criminal law, and war
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.
; War
The precepts of in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment. is not meant to imply pacifism.
Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by , build principles similar to ideas of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa. According to this interpretation of in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.
; Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.
Other scholars In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the Rigveda, ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others. However, the text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas recommend "abstention from meat", in particular, "beef". According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.
Hindu texts dated to initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone. The late Vedic-era literature () condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds, and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.
Later texts of Hinduism declare as one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with , given the constraints of life and human needs. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in , in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.
Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of . In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.
Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.
The ancient Hindu texts discuss and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Scholars claim the principles of ecological nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been as its cardinal virtue.
The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the Tirukkural, written in three volumes, likely between , dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its first volume to the virtue of , emphasizing on moral vegetarianism and non-killing (). However, the Tirukkural also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".
In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of .Modern times
promoted the principle of by applying it to politics.]]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Shrimad Rajchandra and Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (). His non-violent resistance movement had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement's Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel. In Gandhi's thought, precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with . Gandhi believed to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find , "Divine Truth". Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.
Gandhi took the religious principle of ahimsa, and turned it into a non-violent tool for mass action. He used it to fight not only colonial rule, but social evils such as racial discrimination and untouchability as well.
Gandhi stated his belief that " is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam."
Studying 's history and philosophy influenced Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life". He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of , considering the prohibition against killing and harming "one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind". However, he noted that "not-killing" and "not-harming" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.
Yoga
is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali's eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy. Commentators on the Yoga Sutras II.30 emphasize that ahimsa is the most important and foundational yama of the five yamas. Vijnanabhiksu uses the analogy of an elephant to convey its importance, while Vyasa defines it as refraining from harming any living being at any time, emphasizing that all other yamas support and purify ahimsa.
is also one of the ten in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The significance of as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga () is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to , implying that success in can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the self-restraint of .
Jainism
which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.]]
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions like attachment is considered (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is (noninjury). The vow of is considered the foremost among the "five vows of Jainism". Other vows like truth () are meant for safeguarding the vow of .
In the practice of , the requirements are less strict for the lay persons () who have undertaken (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows".
The statement (or, "Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty/virtue/attribute/religion") is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. As in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.
When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in , was already an established, strictly observed rule. Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about . He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of . According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.
The Jain concept of is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith reject meat, fish, alcohol, and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.
Jain scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one's occupation. Certain Jain texts (according to Padmanabh Jaini, a Jainism scholar) forbid people of its faith from husbandry, agriculture, and trade in animal-derived products. For the layperson, the teaching has been of with – that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.
The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic community – and – the historically accepted practice has been to "willingly sacrifice one's own life" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of "total nonviolence". Such exemptions to is a relatively rare teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.
Mahatma Gandhi stated, "No religion in the World has explained the principle of so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on ".
Buddhism
<!--"Buddhist devotion#Chanting" is linking here.-->
In Buddhist texts (or its Pāli cognate ) is part of the Five Precepts (), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monastic community.
The precept is not a commandment, and transgressions did not for laypersons, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth. Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth. Buddhist texts not only recommend , but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:
Unlike with lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic code of conduct.
War
Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.
Nonviolence is an overarching theme within the Pāli Canon. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal ruler as a pacifist, such a ruler is nonetheless flanked by an army. It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled soldiers are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the ; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.
The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.
Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi of Kosala, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated Emperor Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him. Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.
According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent. Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.
According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging from the Buddha's doctrine, "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any." Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.LawsMaurya Emperor Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, hunting, slaughter of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible" and specific animal species, female goats, sheep and pigs nursing their young as well as their young up to the age of six months. Fishing was banned during Chaturmasya and Uposatha. Slave trade in the Maurya Empire was also banned by Ashoka.
The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar calendar's 1st, 5th, and 9th months. Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692. Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.
There were also bans after the death of emperors, after Buddhist and Taoist prayers, and after natural disasters such as Shanghai's 1926 summer drought, as well as an eight-day ban beginning August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.
People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others.
See also
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Category:Buddhist ethics
Category:Concepts in ethics
Category:Hindu ethics
Category:Hindu philosophical concepts
Category:Jain ethics
Category:Jain philosophical concepts
Category:Pacifism
Category:Sanskrit words and phrases
Category:Wholesome factors in Buddhism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.958882 |
2785 | Annals of Mathematics | Mathematische Annalen}}
The Annals of Mathematics is a mathematical journal published every two months by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study.
History
The journal was established as The Analyst in 1874 and with Joel E. Hendricks as the founding editor-in-chief. It was "intended to afford a medium for the presentation and analysis of any and all questions of interest or importance in pure and applied Mathematics, embracing especially all new and interesting discoveries in theoretical and practical astronomy, mechanical philosophy, and engineering". It was published in Des Moines, Iowa, and was the earliest American mathematics journal to be published continuously for more than a year or two. This incarnation of the journal ceased publication after its tenth year, in 1883, giving as an explanation Hendricks' declining health, but Hendricks made arrangements to have it taken over by new management, and it was continued from March 1884 as the Annals of Mathematics. The new incarnation of the journal was edited by Ormond Stone (University of Virginia). It moved to Harvard in 1899 before reaching its current home in Princeton in 1911.
An important period for the journal was 1928–1958 with Solomon Lefschetz as editor. Norman Steenrod characterized Lefschetz' impact as editor as follows: "The importance to American mathematicians of a first-class journal is that it sets high standards for them to aim at. In this somewhat indirect manner, Lefschetz profoundly affected the development of mathematics in the United States." and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 5.246, ranking it third out of 330 journals in the category "Mathematics".
References
External links
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Category:Mathematics journals
Category:Publications established in 1874
Category:English-language journals
Category:Bimonthly journals
Category:Princeton University publications
Category:Academic journals published by universities and colleges of the United States
Category:1874 establishments in Iowa
Category:Delayed open access journals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Mathematics | 2025-04-05T18:26:08.963920 |
2786 | Andrei Sakharov | | native_name_lang = ru
| image = RIAN archive 25981 Academician Sakharov.jpg
| image_size | caption Sakharov in March 1989
| birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name -->
| birth_date
| birth_place = Moscow, Russian SFSR
| death_date
| death_place = Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
| resting_place = Vostryakovskoye Cemetery
| citizenship = Soviet Union
| field = Physics
| thesis_title = Теория ядерных переходов типа 0→0
| thesis_url = https://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/saharov_nauchnye-trudy_1995/p427/
| thesis_year = 1947
| work_institutions | alma_mater
| doctoral_advisor = Igor Tamm
| doctoral_students | known_for
| influences | influenced
| spouse =
| prizes =
}}
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (; 21 May 192114 December 1989) was a Soviet physicist and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, which he was awarded in 1975 for emphasizing human rights around the world.
Although he spent his career in physics in the Soviet program of nuclear weapons, overseeing the development of thermonuclear weapons, Sakharov also did fundamental work in understanding particle physics, magnetism, and physical cosmology. Sakharov is mostly known for his political activism for individual freedom, human rights, civil liberties and reforms in the Soviet Union, for which he was deemed a dissident and faced persecution from the Soviet establishment.
In his memory, the Sakharov Prize was established and is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms.
Biography
Family background and early life
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was born in Moscow on 21 May 1921, to a Russian family. His father, Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, was a physics professor at the Second Moscow State University and an amateur pianist. His grandfather, Ivan, was a lawyer in the former Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment). Sakharov's mother, Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano, was a daughter of Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano, a general in the Tsarist Russian Army with Greek heritage.
Sakharov's parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality; his mother and grandmother were members of the Russian Orthodox Church, although his father was a non-believer. When Andrei was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe in God. However, despite being an atheist, he did believe in a "guiding principle" that transcends the physical laws.
After schooling, Sakharov studied physics at the Moscow State University in 1938 and, following evacuation in 1941 during the Eastern Front with Germany, he graduated in Aşgabat in Turkmenistan. In 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son. Klavdia would later die in 1969. In 1945, he joined the Theoretical Department of Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences under Igor Tamm in Moscow. In 1947, Sakharov was successful in defending his thesis for the Doctor of Sciences (lit. Doktor Nauk), which covered the topic of nuclear transmutation.
Soviet program of nuclear weapons
After World War II, he researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm. Sakharov's study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948. Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika, or layered cake. Sakharov's idea was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.
Sakharov saw "striking parallels" between his fate and those of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this "tragic confrontation of two outstanding people", both deserved respect, because "each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth." While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since "all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity."
Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had "known sin", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:
Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology
In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device.Magneto-implosive generators
In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators, compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MK (for MagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953.
Sakharov then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s. Sakharov later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 10<sup>23</sup> protons per second on a 1 mm<sup>2</sup> surface.
Particle physics and cosmology
After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology.
He tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to give a theoretical motivation for proton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and 1952.
Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already. Sakharov was the first to consider CPT-symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang:<blockquote>We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at <nowiki></nowiki>t<nowiki></nowiki> < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass "one through the other" at the instant <nowiki></nowiki>t<nowiki></nowiki> 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when <nowiki></nowiki>t<nowiki></nowiki> > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.</blockquote> His legacy in this domain are the famous conditions named after him: In those models, after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way: Sakharov considered three starting points, a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant, a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant, and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant. Those last two models feature what Sakharov calls a reversal of the time arrow, which can be summarized as follows: He considers times t > 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t 0 (which he calls "Friedman singularity" and denotes Φ) as well as times t < 0 before that singularity. He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t > 0 as well as when time decreases for t < 0, which constitutes his reversal of time. Then he considers the case when the universe at t < 0 is the image of the universe at t > 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so: the universe has a non-zero CPT charge at t 0 in this case. Sakharov considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity. In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t < 0 and t > 0.
In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity, allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov. Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model. Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity.Turn to activismSince the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow.
Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when the Soviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin, a follower of Trofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaign Lysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice, Sakharov, a member of the academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for "the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists." In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Nikita Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov.
Since 1967, after the Six Day War and the beginning of the Arab-Israeli conflict, he actively supported Israel, as he reported more than once in the press, and also maintained friendly relations with refuseniks who later made aliyah.
In May 1968, Sakharov completed an essay, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom". He described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After the essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics.
For 12 years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow. He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.
By 1973, Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment.]] -->In 1972, Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press. The writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence.
In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn for their pro-Western, anti-socialist positions.
Sakharov later described that it took "years" for him to "understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was" in the Soviet ideals. "At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries". Then he came, in his words, to "the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers.": On the day the prize was awarded, Sakharov was in Vilnius, where the human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried. In his Nobel lecture, "Peace, Progress, Human Rights", Sakharov called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them.
Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs, he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.
In May 1984, Sakharov's wife, Yelena Bonner, was detained, and Sakharov began a hunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized and force-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984, Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky.
In April 1985, Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment. He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August, the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov. He remained in the hospital until October 1985, when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986.
In December 1985, the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights.
On 19 December 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost, called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow.Political leader
Ronald Reagan in 1988]]
In 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union. He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on Sakharov's encouragement and support for the coal miners' strike in Vorkuta.
In December 1988, Sakharov visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact-finding mission. He concluded, "For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life and death".
Death
Soon after 9 p.m. on 14 December 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11 p.m. as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that Sakharov died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68. He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow. Influence Memorial prizes
The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to "those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov"; to "Laureates who, like Sakharov, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights."
An Andrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights".
The Andrei Sakharov Prize for Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990.
In 2004, with the approval of Yelena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia. Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins, now a businessman in the US, the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize "for journalism as an act of conscience" has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko.
Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center
The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University.
The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005. These documents are available online.
Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.
Legacy and remembrance
Places
, Armenia]]
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* A public Sakharov Center operated in Moscow until 2023.
* During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C. (which later became the Russian ambassador's residence) was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Plaza" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention.
* In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him.
* The Sakharov Gardens (est. 1990) are located at the entrance to Jerusalem, Israel, off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway. There is also a street named after him in Haifa, near the Haifa Hof HaCarmel train station.
* In Nizhny Novgorod, there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years; in 2014 his monument was erected near the house.
* In Saint Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park.
* In 1979, an asteroid, 1979 Sakharov, was named after him.
* A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov. The square was named on 16 March 1991, as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army.
* Andreja Saharova iela in the district of Pļavnieki in Riga, Latvia, is named after Sakharov.
* Andreij-Sacharow-Platz in downtown Nuremberg is named in honour of Sakharov.
* In Belarus, International Sakharov Environmental University was named after him.
* Intersection of Ventura Blvd and Laurel Canyon Blvd in Studio City, Los Angeles, is named Andrei Sakharov Square.
* In Arnhem, the bridge over the Nederrijn is called the Andrej Sacharovbrug.
* The Andrej Sacharovweg is a street in Assen, Netherlands. There are also streets named in his honour in other places in the Netherlands such as Amsterdam, Amstelveen, The Hague, Hellevoetsluis, Leiden, Purmerend, Rotterdam, Utrecht
* A street in Copenhagen, Denmark.
* Quai Andreï Sakharov in Tournai, Belgium, is named in honour of Sakharov.
* In Poland, streets named in his honour in Warsaw, Łódź and Kraków.
* Andreï Sakharov Boulevard in the district of Mladost in Sofia, Bulgaria, is named after him.
* In New York City, a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street in Manhattan reads Sakharov-Bonner Corner, in honor of Sakharov and his wife, Yelena Bonner. The corner is just down the block from the Soviet Mission to the United Nations (which later became the Russian mission) and was the scene of repeated anti-Soviet demonstrations.
* In Chisinau, the capital of Moldova, there is Academician Andrei Sakharov street.
Media
* In the 1984 made-for-TV film Sakharov starring Jason Robards.
* In the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, one of the Enterprise-D's Shuttlecraft is named after Sakharov, and is featured prominently in several episodes. This follows the Star Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists, and particularly in The Next Generation, physicists.
* The fictitious interplanetary spacecraft Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov from the novel 2010: Odyssey Two by Arthur C. Clarke is powered by a "Sakharov drive". The novel was published in 1982, when Sakharov was in exile in Nizhny Novgorod, and was dedicated both to Sakharov and to Alexei Leonov.
* Russian singer Alexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song "Памяти А. Д. Сахарова" ("In memory of Andrei Sakharov"), which features on his Live In "Russia" 2 (Живем в "России" 2) CD.
* The faction leader of the Ecologists in the PC game S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl and its prequel is a scientist named Professor Sakharov.
Honours and awards
* Hero of Socialist Labour (three times: 12 August 1953; 20 June 1956; 7 March 1962).
* Four Orders of Lenin.
* Lenin Prize (1956).
* Stalin Prize (1953).
* Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1969)
* Elected member of the National Academy of Sciences (1973)
In 1980, Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for "anti-Soviet activities". Later, during glasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently, Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree.
* Prix mondial Cino Del Duca (1974).
* Nobel Peace Prize (1975).
* Elected member of the American Philosophical Society (1978)
* Laurea Honoris Causa of the Sapienza University of Rome (1980).
* Grand Cross of Order of the Cross of Vytis (posthumously on January 8, 2003).
Bibliography
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See also
* Sakharov conditions
* Sakharov Prize
* List of peace activists
* Natan Sharansky
* Stanislaw Ulam
* Omid Kokabee
* Mordechai Vanunu
References
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111121192522/http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/collections/modern/sakharov.cfm The Andrei Sakharov Archives] at the Houghton Library.
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* [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/index.htm Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights] . Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics.
* [http://people.bu.edu/gorelik/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chrono/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology.html Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060528105739/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FSakharov%2C+Andrei Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library]
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Category:Eurasian economic integration | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.009885 |
2787 | Astrobiology | thumb|Nucleic acids may not be the only biomolecules in the universe capable of coding for life processes.
Astrobiology (also xenology or exobiology) is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyond Earth.
Research in astrobiology comprises three main areas: the study of habitable environments in the Solar System and beyond, the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life, and the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth.
The field of astrobiology has its origins in the 20th century with the advent of space exploration and the discovery of exoplanets. Early astrobiology research focused on the search for extraterrestrial life and the study of the potential for life to exist on other planets. This mission, along with other early space exploration missions, laid the foundation for the development of astrobiology as a discipline.
Regarding habitable environments, astrobiology investigates potential locations beyond Earth that could support life, such as Mars, Europa, and exoplanets, through research into the extremophiles populating austere environments on Earth, like volcanic and deep sea environments. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of the geosciences, especially geobiology, for astrobiological applications.
The search for biosignatures involves the identification of signs of past or present life in the form of organic compounds, isotopic ratios, or microbial fossils. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of planetary and environmental science, especially atmospheric science, for astrobiological applications, and is often conducted through remote sensing and in situ missions.
Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets. This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become the diverse array of organisms we see today. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology, for astrobiological applications.
Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research centres are present in many universities and research institutions around the world, and space agencies like NASA and ESA have dedicated departments and programs for astrobiology research.
Overview
The term astrobiology was first proposed by the Russian astronomer Gavriil Tikhov in 1953. It is etymologically derived from the Greek , "star"; , "life"; and , -logia, "study". A close synonym is exobiology from the Greek Έξω, "external"; , "life"; and , -logia, "study", coined by American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg; exobiology is considered to have a narrow scope limited to search of life external to Earth. Another associated term is xenobiology, from the Greek ξένος, "foreign"; , "life"; and -λογία, "study", coined by American science fiction writer Robert Heinlein in his work The Star Beast; xenobiology is now used in a more specialised sense, referring to 'biology based on foreign chemistry', whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (typically synthetic) origin.
While the potential for extraterrestrial life, especially intelligent life, has been explored throughout human history within philosophy and narrative, the question is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry; planetary scientist David Grinspoon calls it a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown in known scientific theory.
The modern field of astrobiology can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s with the advent of space exploration, when scientists began to seriously consider the possibility of life on other planets. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, which marked the beginning of the Space Age. This event led to an increase in the study of the potential for life on other planets, as scientists began to consider the possibilities opened up by the new technology of space exploration. In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded the Exobiology Program, now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program. In 1971, NASA funded Project Cyclops, part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, to search radio frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum for interstellar communications transmitted by extraterrestrial life outside the Solar System. In the 1960s-1970s, NASA established the Viking program, which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for metabolic signs of present life; the results were inconclusive.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the field began to expand and diversify as new discoveries and technologies emerged. The discovery of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, helped to clarify the feasibility of potential life existing in harsh conditions. The development of new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of stable isotopes, also played a significant role in the evolution of the field.
The contemporary landscape of astrobiology emerged in the early 21st century, focused on utilising Earth and environmental science for applications within comparate space environments. Missions included the ESA's Beagle 2, which failed minutes after landing on Mars, NASA's Phoenix lander, which probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars and researched the history of water, and NASA's Curiosity rover, currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars.
Theoretical foundations
Planetary habitability
Astrobiological research makes a number of simplifying assumptions when studying the necessary components for planetary habitability.
Carbon and Organic Compounds: Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and the energy required to make or break a bond is at just the appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules. As such, astrobiological research presumes that the vast majority of life forms in the Milky Way galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth. However, theoretical astrobiology entertains the potential for other organic molecular bases for life, thus astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the presence of organic compounds.
Liquid water: Liquid water is a common molecule that provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules, and is generally considered necessary for life as we know it to exist. Thus, astrobiological research presumes that extraterrestrial life similarly depends upon access to liquid water, and often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support liquid water. Some researchers posit environments of water-ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hypothetical types of biochemistry.
Environmental stability: Where organisms adaptively evolve to the conditions of the environments in which they reside, environmental stability is considered necessary for life to exist. This presupposes the necessity of a stable temperature, pressure, and radiation levels; resultantly, astrobiological research focuses on planets orbiting Sun-like red dwarf stars. whereas the long lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow the development of habitable environments on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant as red dwarfs are extremely common. (See also: Habitability of red dwarf systems).
Energy source: It is assumed that any life elsewhere in the universe would also require an energy source. Previously, it was assumed that this would necessarily be from a sun-like star, however with developments within extremophile research contemporary astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the availability of an energy source, such as the presence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon that could provide a source of heat and energy.
It is important to note that these assumptions are based on our current understanding of life on Earth and the conditions under which it can exist. As our understanding of life and the potential for it to exist in different environments evolves, these assumptions may change.
Methods
Studying terrestrial extremophiles
Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methods within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments, to understand the limits of life, and the conditions under which life might be able to survive on other planets. This includes, but is not limited to:
Deep-sea extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that live in the extreme environments of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. These organisms survive in the absence of sunlight, and some are able to survive in high temperatures and pressures, and use chemical energy instead of sunlight to produce food.
Desert extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts.
Microbes in extreme environments: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers and polar ice, and high-altitude environments.
Researching Earth's present environment
Research also regards the long-term survival of life on Earth, and the possibilities and hazards of life on other planets, including:
Biodiversity and ecosystem resilience: Scientists are studying how the diversity of life and the interactions between different species contribute to the resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover from disturbances.
Climate change and extinction: Researchers are investigating the impacts of climate change on different species and ecosystems, and how they may lead to extinction or adaptation. This includes the evolution of Earth's climate and geology, and their potential impact on the habitability of the planet in the future, especially for humans.
Human impact on the biosphere: Scientists are studying the ways in which human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species, are affecting the biosphere and the long-term survival of life on Earth.
Long-term preservation of life: Researchers are exploring ways to preserve samples of life on Earth for long periods of time, such as cryopreservation and genomic preservation, in the event of a catastrophic event that could wipe out most of life on Earth.
Finding biosignatures on other worlds
Emerging astrobiological research concerning the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life utilise methodologies within planetary sciences. These include:
The study of microbial life in the subsurface of Mars: Scientists are using data from Mars rover missions to study the composition of the subsurface of Mars, searching for biosignatures of past or present microbial life.
The study of liquid bodies on icy moons: Discoveries of surface and subsurface bodies of liquid on moons such as Europa, Titan and Enceladus showed possible habitability zones, making them viable targets for the search for extraterrestrial life. , missions like Europa Clipper and Dragonfly are planned to search for biosignatures within these environments. thumb|right|The interior of Europa
The study of the atmospheres of planets: Scientists are studying the potential for life to exist in the atmospheres of planets, with a focus on the study of the physical and chemical conditions necessary for such life to exist, namely the detection of organic molecules and biosignature gases; for example, the study of the possibility of life in the atmospheres of exoplanets that orbit red dwarfs and the study of the potential for microbial life in the upper atmosphere of Venus.
Telescopes and remote sensing of exoplanets: The discovery of thousands of exoplanets has opened up new opportunities for the search for biosignatures. Scientists are using telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite to search for biosignatures on exoplanets. They are also developing new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of remote sensing to search for biosignatures in the atmosphere of exoplanets.
Talking to extraterrestrials
SETI and CETI
Scientists search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations using radio and optical telescopes within the discipline of extraterrestrial intelligence communications (CETI). CETI focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as the Arecibo message, and computational approaches to detecting and deciphering 'natural' language communication. While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan, have advocated the transmission of messages, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens may raid Earth for its resources.
Investigating the early Earth
Emerging astrobiological research concerning the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth utilises methodologies within the palaeosciences. These include:
The study of the early atmosphere: Researchers are investigating the role of the early atmosphere in providing the right conditions for the emergence of life, such as the presence of gases that could have helped to stabilise the climate and the formation of organic molecules.
The study of the early magnetic field: Researchers are investigating the role of the early magnetic field in protecting the Earth from harmful radiation and helping to stabilise the climate. This research has immense astrobiological implications where the subjects of current astrobiological research like Mars lack such a field.
The study of prebiotic chemistry: Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of the building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions. thumb|right|Chart showing the theorized origin of the chemical elements that make up the human body
The study of impact events: Scientists are investigating the potential role of impact events- especially meteorites- in the delivery of water and organic molecules to early Earth.
The study of the primordial soup: Researchers are investigating the conditions and ingredients that were present on the early Earth that could have led to the formation of the first living organisms, such as the presence of water and organic molecules, and how these ingredients could have led to the formation of the first living organisms. This includes the role of water in the formation of the first cells and in catalysing chemical reactions.
The study of the role of minerals: Scientists are investigating the role of minerals like clay in catalysing the formation of organic molecules, thus playing a role in the emergence of life on Earth.
The study of the role of energy and electricity: Scientists are investigating the potential sources of energy and electricity that could have been available on the early Earth, and their role in the formation of organic molecules, thus the emergence of life.
The study of the early oceans: Scientists are investigating the composition and chemistry of the early oceans and how it may have played a role in the emergence of life, such as the presence of dissolved minerals that could have helped to catalyse the formation of organic molecules.
The study of hydrothermal vents: Scientists are investigating the potential role of hydrothermal vents in the origin of life, as these environments may have provided the energy and chemical building blocks needed for its emergence.
The study of plate tectonics: Scientists are investigating the role of plate tectonics in creating a diverse range of environments on the early Earth.
The study of the early biosphere: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in the early Earth, and how these organisms may have played a role in the emergence of life.
The study of microbial fossils: Scientists are investigating the presence of microbial fossils in ancient rocks, which can provide clues about the early evolution of life on Earth and the emergence of the first organisms.
Research
The systematic search for possible life outside Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor. However, hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary widely, and at the present, the development of hypotheses firmly grounded on science may be considered astrobiology's most concrete practical application. It has been proposed that viruses are likely to be encountered on other life-bearing planets, and may be present even if there are no biological cells.
Research outcomes
, no evidence of extraterrestrial life has been identified. Examination of the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, which was recovered in Antarctica in 1984 and originated from Mars, is thought by David McKay, as well as few other scientists, to contain microfossils of extraterrestrial origin; this interpretation is controversial.
thumb|left|Asteroid(s) may have transported life to Earth.
Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to some NASA scientists.
On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media. However, NASA formally distanced itself from Hoover's claim. According to American astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson: "At the moment, life on Earth is the only known life in the universe, but there are compelling arguments to suggest we are not alone."
Elements of astrobiology
Astronomy
thumb|right|Artist's impression of the extrasolar planet OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb orbiting its star 20,000 light-years from Earth; this planet was discovered with gravitational microlensing.
thumb|right|The NASA Kepler mission, launched in March 2009, searches for extrasolar planets.
Most astronomy-related astrobiology research falls into the category of extrasolar planet (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth, then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled. NASA launched the Kepler mission in March 2009, and the French Space Agency launched the COROT space mission in 2006. There are also several less ambitious ground-based efforts underway.
The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface. Given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory, is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.
An estimate for the number of planets with intelligent communicative extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the Drake equation, essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise:
N = R^{*} ~ \times ~ f_{p} ~ \times ~ n_{e} ~ \times ~ f_{l} ~ \times ~ f_{i} ~ \times ~ f_{c} ~ \times ~ L
where:
N = The number of communicative civilizations
R* = The rate of formation of suitable stars (stars such as the Sun)
fp = The fraction of those stars with planets (current evidence indicates that planetary systems may be common for stars like the Sun)
ne = The number of Earth-sized worlds per planetary system
fl = The fraction of those Earth-sized planets where life actually develops
fi = The fraction of life sites where intelligence develops
fc = The fraction of communicative planets (those on which electromagnetic communications technology develops)
L = The "lifetime" of communicating civilizations
However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable limits of error any time soon. The problem with the formula is that it is not used to generate or support hypotheses because it contains factors that can never be verified. The first term, R*, number of stars, is generally constrained within a few orders of magnitude. The second and third terms, fp, stars with planets and fe, planets with habitable conditions, are being evaluated for the star's neighborhood. Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments. Another associated topic is the Fermi paradox, which suggests that if intelligent life is common in the universe, then there should be obvious signs of it.
Another active research area in astrobiology is planetary system formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of the Solar System (for example, the presence of Jupiter as a protective shield) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on Earth.
Biology
thumb|upright|Hydrothermal vents support extremophile bacteria on Earth, provided an energy-rich environment for the origin of life, and may also support life in other parts of the cosmos.
Biology cannot state that a process or phenomenon, by being mathematically possible, has to exist forcibly in an extraterrestrial body. Biologists specify what is speculative and what is not.
Until the 1970s, life was thought to be entirely dependent on energy from the Sun. Plants on Earth's surface capture energy from sunlight to photosynthesize sugars from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen in the process that is then consumed by oxygen-respiring organisms, passing their energy up the food chain. Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did. The world's ability to support life was thought to depend on its access to sunlight. However, in 1977, during an exploratory dive to the Galapagos Rift in the deep-sea exploration submersible Alvin, scientists discovered colonies of giant tube worms, clams, crustaceans, mussels, and other assorted creatures clustered around undersea volcanic features known as black smokers. This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sunlight-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.
Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number of possible extraterrestrial habitats. Characterization of these organisms, their environments and their evolutionary pathways, is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi Rhizocarpon geographicum and Rusavskia elegans, the bacterium Bacillus safensis, Deinococcus radiodurans,
Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, Further, a scientist suggested that these compounds may have been related to the development of life on Earth and said that, "If this is the case, life on Earth may have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve as basic ingredients for life." PAHs are subjected to interstellar medium conditions and are transformed through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics—"a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively".
In October 2020, astronomers proposed the idea of detecting life on distant planets by studying the shadows of trees at certain times of the day to find patterns that could be detected through observation of exoplanets.
Philosophy
David Grinspoon called astrobiology a field of natural philosophy. Astrobiology intersects with philosophy by raising questions about the nature and existence of life beyond Earth. Philosophical implications include the definition of life itself, issues in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science in case intelligent life is found, epistemological questions about the nature of proof, ethical considerations of space exploration, along with the broader impact of discovering extraterrestrial life on human thought and society.
Dunér has emphasized philosophy of astrobiology as an ongoing existential exercise in individual and collective self-understanding, whose major task is constructing and debating concepts such as the concept of life. Key issues, for Dunér, are questions of resource money and monetary planning, epistemological questions regarding astrobiological knowledge, linguistics issues about interstellar communication, cognitive issues such as the definition of intelligence, along with the possibility of interplanetary contamination.
Persson also emphasized key philosophical questions in astrobiology. They include ethical justification of resources, the question of life in general, the epistemological issues and knowledge about being alone in the universe, ethics towards extraterrestrial life, the question of politics and governing uninhabited worlds, along with questions of ecology.
For von Hegner, the question of astrobiology and the possibility of astrophilosophy differs. For him, the discipline needs to bifurcate into astrobiology and astrophilosophy since discussions made possible by astrobiology, but which have been astrophilosophical in nature, have existed as long as there have been discussions about extraterrestrial life. Astrobiology is a self-corrective interaction among observation, hypothesis, experiment, and theory, pertaining to the exploration of all natural phenomena. Astrophilosophy consists of methods of dialectic analysis and logical argumentation, pertaining to the clarification of the nature of reality. Šekrst argues that astrobiology requires the affirmation of astrophilosophy, but not as a separate cognate to astrobiology. The stance of conceptual speciesm, according to Šekrst, permeates astrobiology since the very name astrobiology tries to talk about not just biology, but about life in a general way, which includes terrestrial life as a subset. This leads us to either redefine philosophy, or consider the need for astrophilosophy as a more general discipline, to which philosophy is just a subset that deals with questions such as the nature of the human mind and other anthropocentric questions.
Most of the philosophy of astrobiology deals with two main questions: the question of life and the ethics of space exploration. Kolb specifically emphasizes the question of viruses, for which the question whether they are alive or not is based on the definitions of life that include self-replication. Schneider tried to defined exo-life, but concluded that we often start with our own prejudices and that defining extraterrestrial life seems futile using human concepts. For Dick, astrobiology relies on metaphysical assumption that there is extraterrestrial life, which reaffirms questions in the philosophy of cosmology, such as fine-tuning or the anthropic principle.
Rare Earth hypothesis
The Rare Earth hypothesis postulates that multicellular life forms found on Earth may actually be more of a rarity than scientists assume. According to this hypothesis, life on Earth (and more, multi-cellular life) is possible because of a conjunction of the right circumstances (galaxy and location within it, planetary system, star, orbit, planetary size, atmosphere, etc.); and the chance for all those circumstances to repeat elsewhere may be rare. It provides a possible answer to the Fermi paradox which wonders: if extraterrestrial aliens are common, why aren't they obvious? It is apparently in opposition to the principle of mediocrity, assumed by famed astronomers Frank Drake, Carl Sagan, and others. The principle of mediocrity suggests that life on Earth is not exceptional, and it is more than likely to be found on innumerable other worlds.
Missions
Research into the environmental limits of life and the workings of extreme ecosystems is ongoing, enabling researchers to better predict what planetary environments might be most likely to harbor life. Missions such as the Phoenix lander, Mars Science Laboratory, ExoMars, Mars 2020 rover to Mars, and the Cassini probe to Saturn's moons aim to further explore the possibilities of life on other planets in the Solar System.
Viking program
The two Viking landers each carried four types of biological experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s. These were the only Mars landers to carry out experiments looking specifically for metabolism by current microbial life on Mars. The landers used a robotic arm to collect soil samples into sealed test containers on the craft. The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north. The result was inconclusive, and is still disputed by some scientists.
Norman Horowitz was the chief of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory bioscience section for the Mariner and Viking missions from 1965 to 1976. Horowitz considered that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival of life on other planets. However, he also considered that the conditions found on Mars were incompatible with carbon based life.
Beagle 2
thumb|Replica of the 33.2 kg Beagle-2 lander
thumb|Mars Science Laboratory rover concept artwork
Beagle 2 was an unsuccessful British Mars lander that formed part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission. Its primary purpose was to search for signs of life on Mars, past or present. Although it landed safely, it was unable to correctly deploy its solar panels and telecom antenna.
EXPOSE
EXPOSE is a multi-user facility mounted in 2008 outside the International Space Station dedicated to astrobiology. EXPOSE was developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) for long-term spaceflights that allow exposure of organic chemicals and biological samples to outer space in low Earth orbit.
Mars Science Laboratory
The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission landed the Curiosity rover that is currently in operation on Mars. It was launched 26 November 2011, and landed at Gale Crater on 6 August 2012. Mission objectives are to help assess Mars' habitability and in doing so, determine whether Mars is or has ever been able to support life, collect data for a future human mission, study Martian geology, its climate, and further assess the role that water, an essential ingredient for life as we know it, played in forming minerals on Mars.
Tanpopo
The Tanpopo mission is an orbital astrobiology experiment investigating the potential interplanetary transfer of life, organic compounds, and possible terrestrial particles in the low Earth orbit. The purpose is to assess the panspermia hypothesis and the possibility of natural interplanetary transport of microbial life as well as prebiotic organic compounds. Early mission results show evidence that some clumps of microorganism can survive for at least one year in space. This may support the idea that clumps greater than 0.5 millimeters of microorganisms could be one way for life to spread from planet to planet. however, technical and funding issues and the Russian invasion of Ukraine have forced ESA to repeatedly delay the rover's delivery to 2028.
Mars 2020
thumb|Artist's rendition of the Perseverance rover on Mars, with the mini-helicopter Ingenuity in front
Mars 2020 successfully landed its rover Perseverance in Jezero Crater on 18 February 2021. It will investigate environments on Mars relevant to astrobiology, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures and biomolecules within accessible geological materials. The Science Definition Team is proposing the rover collect and package at least 31 samples of rock cores and soil for a later mission to bring back for more definitive analysis in laboratories on Earth. The rover could make measurements and technology demonstrations to help designers of a human expedition understand any hazards posed by Martian dust and demonstrate how to collect carbon dioxide (CO2), which could be a resource for making molecular oxygen (O2) and rocket fuel.
Europa Clipper
Europa Clipper is a mission launched by NASA on 14 October 2024 that will conduct detailed reconnaissance of Jupiter's moon Europa beginning in 2030, and will investigate whether its internal ocean could harbor conditions suitable for life. It will also aid in the selection of future landing sites.
Dragonfly
Dragonfly is a NASA mission scheduled to land on Titan in 2036 to assess its microbial habitability and study its prebiotic chemistry. Dragonfly is a rotorcraft lander that will perform controlled flights between multiple locations on the surface, which allows sampling of diverse regions and geological contexts.
Proposed concepts
Icebreaker Life
Icebreaker Life is a lander mission that was proposed for NASA's Discovery Program for the 2021 launch opportunity, but it was not selected for development. It would have had a stationary lander that would be a near copy of the successful 2008 Phoenix and it would have carried an upgraded astrobiology scientific payload, including a 1-meter-long core drill to sample ice-cemented ground in the northern plains to conduct a search for organic molecules and evidence of current or past life on Mars. One of the key goals of the Icebreaker Life mission is to test the hypothesis that the ice-rich ground in the polar regions has significant concentrations of organics due to protection by the ice from oxidants and radiation.
Journey to Enceladus and Titan
Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET) is an astrobiology mission concept to assess the habitability potential of Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan by means of an orbiter.
Enceladus Life Finder
Enceladus Life Finder (ELF) is a proposed astrobiology mission concept for a space probe intended to assess the habitability of the internal aquatic ocean of Enceladus, Saturn's sixth-largest moon.
Life Investigation For Enceladus
Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE) is a proposed astrobiology sample-return mission concept. The spacecraft would enter into Saturn orbit and enable multiple flybys through Enceladus' icy plumes to collect icy plume particles and volatiles and return them to Earth on a capsule. The spacecraft may sample Enceladus' plumes, the E ring of Saturn, and the upper atmosphere of Titan.
Oceanus
Oceanus is an orbiter proposed in 2017 for the New Frontiers mission No. 4. It would travel to the moon of Saturn, Titan, to assess its habitability. Oceanus objectives are to reveal Titan's organic chemistry, geology, gravity, topography, collect 3D reconnaissance data, catalog the organics and determine where they may interact with liquid water.
Explorer of Enceladus and Titan
Explorer of Enceladus and Titan (E2T) is an orbiter mission concept that would investigate the evolution and habitability of the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan. The mission concept was proposed in 2017 by the European Space Agency.
See also
The Living Cosmos
Citations
General references
The International Journal of Astrobiology , published by Cambridge University Press, is the forum for practitioners in this interdisciplinary field.
Astrobiology, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that explores the origins of life, evolution, distribution, and destiny in the universe.
Loeb, Avi (2021). Extraterrestrial: The First Sign of Intelligent Life Beyond Earth. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Further reading
D. Goldsmith, T. Owen, The Search For Life in the Universe, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2001 (3rd edition).
Andy Weir's 2021 novel, Project Hail Mary, centers on astrobiology.
External links
Astrobiology.nasa.gov
UK Centre for Astrobiology
Spanish Centro de Astrobiología
Astrobiology Research at The Library of Congress
Astrobiology Survey – An introductory course on astrobiology
Summary - Search For Life Beyond Earth (NASA; 25 June 2021)
Category:Origin of life
Category:Astronomical sub-disciplines
Category:Branches of biology
Category:Speculative evolution | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.248115 |
2790 | Air show | thumb|upright|The AeroSuperBatics display team flying Boeing-Stearman PT-17 biplanes at a British air show
An air show (or airshow, air fair, air tattoo) is a public event where aircraft are exhibited. They often include aerobatics demonstrations, without which they are called "static air shows" with aircraft parked on the ground.
The largest air show measured by number of exhibitors and size of exhibit space is Le Bourget, followed by Farnborough, with the Dubai Airshow and Singapore Airshow both claiming third place. The largest air show or fly-in by number of participating aircraft is EAA AirVenture Oshkosh, with approximately 10,000 aircraft participating annually. The biggest military airshow in the world is the Royal International Air Tattoo, at RAF Fairford in England. On the other hand, FIDAE in II Air Brigade of the FACH, next to the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport in Santiago, Chile, is the largest aerospace fair in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere.
Outline
thumb|The Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne airshow in Reims, France in August 1909
Some airshows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities. Military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military.
thumb|Aviation Nation 2006 at Nellis Air Force Base, United States
Air "seasons" vary around the world. The United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons. In Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Air Self-Defense Force bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October. The Middle East, Australia, and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for many acts, the "off-season" does not mean a period of inactivity; pilots and performers use this time for maintenance and practice.
The type of displays seen at shows are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather and visibility. Most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions. Most exhibitors will plan "full", "rolling" and "flat" display for varying weather and airspace conditions.
The types of shows vary greatly. Some are large scale military events with large flying displays and ground exhibitions while others held at small local airstrips can often feature just one or two hours of flying with just a few stalls on the ground. Air displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Air shows often, but do not always, take place over airfields; some have been held over the grounds of stately homes or castles and over the sea at coastal resorts.
The first public international airshow, at which many types of aircraft were displayed and flown, was the Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne, held Aug. 22–29, 1909 in Reims. This had been preceded by what may have been the first ever gathering of enthusiasts, June 28 – July 19 of the same year at the airfield at La Brayelle, near Douai.
Attractions
thumb|The Red Bull Air Race held at Kemble Airfield, Gloucestershire. The aircraft fly singly, and pass between pairs of pylons.
Before World War II, air shows were associated with long-distance air races, often lasting many days and covering thousands of miles. While the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration.
Most air shows feature warbirds, aerobatics, and demonstrations of modern military aircraft, and many air shows offer a variety of other aeronautical attractions as well, such as wing-walking, radio-controlled aircraft, water/slurry drops from firefighting aircraft, simulated helicopter rescues and sky diving.
Specialist aerobatic aircraft have powerful piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates and accelerations. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end and perform manoeuvres during loops.
Larger airshows can be headlined by military jet demonstration teams, such as the United States Navy Blue Angels, United States Air Force Thunderbirds, Royal Canadian Air Force Snowbirds, Royal Air Force Red Arrows, and Swiss Air Force Patrouille Suisse, among many others.
thumb|RAAF F-111 Aardvark performing a dump-and-burn fuel dump at the Australian International Airshow|left
Solo military demos, also known as tactical demos, feature one aircraft. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of modern military aircraft. The display will usually demonstrate the aircraft's very short (and often very loud) rolls, fast speeds, slow approach speeds, as well as their ability to quickly make tight turns, to climb quickly, and their ability to be precisely controlled at a large range of speeds. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a high-speed pass, double Immelmans, and touch-and-gos. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect. Aircraft with special characteristics that give them unique capabilities will often display those in their demos; For example, Russian fighters with thrust vectoring may be used to perform the cobra maneuver or the Kulbit, while VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier may display such vertical capabilities or perform complex maneuvers with them. Some military air shows also feature demonstrations of aircraft ordnance in airstrikes and close air support, using either blanks or live munitions.
Safety
thumb|upright|U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds Captain Christopher Stricklin ejecting from his F-16 Fighting Falcon after realizing he could not pull up after a Split S maneuver, Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho, September 14, 2003. The aircraft crashed seconds later with no loss of life.
Air shows may present some risk to spectators and aviators. Accidents have occurred, sometimes with a large loss of life, such as the 1988 Ramstein air show disaster (70 deaths) in Germany and the 2002 Sknyliv air show disaster (77 deaths) in Ukraine.
Because of these accidents, the various aviation authorities around the world have set rules and guidance for those running and participating in air displays. For example, after the breakup of an aircraft at 1952 Farnborough air show (31 deaths), the separation between display and spectators was increased. Air displays are often monitored by aviation authorities to ensure safe procedures.
In the United Kingdom, local authorities will first need to approve any application for an event to which the public is admitted. The first priority must be to arrange insurance cover and details can be obtained from local authorities. An added complication is a whole raft of legislation concerning health & safety, in particular corporate manslaughter, which can involve the event organiser being charged with a criminal offence if any of the insurances and risk assessments are not fully completed well in advance of the event.
Rules govern the distance from the crowds that aircraft must fly. These vary according to the rating of the pilot/crew, the type of aircraft and the way the aircraft is being flown. For instance, slower, lighter aircraft are usually allowed closer and lower to the crowd than larger, faster types. Also, a fighter jet flying straight and level will be able to do so closer to the crowd and lower than if it were performing a roll or a loop.
Pilots can get authorizations for differing types of displays (e.g., limbo flying, basic aerobatics to unlimited aerobatics) and to differing minimum base heights above the ground. To gain such authorisations, the pilots will have to demonstrate to an examiner that they can perform to those limits without endangering themselves, ground crew or spectators.
Despite display rules and guidances, accidents have continued to happen. However, air show accidents are rare and where there is proper supervision air shows have impressive safety records. Each year, organizations such as International Council of Air Shows and European Airshow Council meet and discuss various subjects including air show safety where accidents are discussed and lessons learned.
See also
Fly-in
Flypast
Barnstorming
List of airshow accidents
List of air shows
Teardrop turn
Whifferdill turn
Bessie Coleman
References
Further reading
Brett Holman, "The militarisation of aerial theatre: air displays and airmindedness in Britain and Australia between the world wars", Contemporary British History, vol. 33, no. 4 (2019), pp. 483–506.
Air Show Accidents: "Reviewing the Notams Before the Show to Avoid Accidents"
External links
Airshow Display
International Council of Air Shows
Experimental Aircraft Association Calendar
Royal Aero Club Events
Flightglobal's Upcoming air shows
USAF Thunderbirds
Canadian Forces Snowbirds
Category:History of transport events | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_show | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.254168 |
2792 | Anthropic principle | In cosmology, the anthropic principle, also known as the observation selection effect, is the proposition that the range of possible observations that could be made about the universe is limited by the fact that observations are only possible in the type of universe that is capable of developing observers in the first place. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has the age and the fundamental physical constants necessary to accommodate intelligent life. If either had been significantly different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to be finely tuned for the existence of life.
There are many different formulations of the anthropic principle. Philosopher Nick Bostrom counts thirty, but the underlying principles can be divided into "weak" and "strong" forms, depending on the types of cosmological claims they entail.
Definition and basis
The principle was formulated as a response to a series of observations that the laws of nature and parameters of the universe have values that are consistent with conditions for life as it is known rather than values that would not be consistent with life on Earth. The anthropic principle states that this is an a posteriori necessity, because if life were impossible, no living entity would be there to observe it, and thus it would not be known. That is, it must be possible to observe some universe, and hence, the laws and constants of any such universe must accommodate that possibility.
The term anthropic in "anthropic principle" has been argued to be a misnomer. While singling out the currently observable kind of carbon-based life, none of the finely tuned phenomena require human life or some kind of carbon chauvinism. Any form of life or any form of heavy atom, stone, star, or galaxy would do; nothing specifically human or anthropic is involved.
The anthropic principle has given rise to some confusion and controversy, partly because the phrase has been applied to several distinct ideas. All versions of the principle have been accused of discouraging the search for a deeper physical understanding of the universe. Critics of the weak anthropic principle point out that its lack of falsifiability entails that it is non-scientific and therefore inherently not useful. Stronger variants of the anthropic principle which are not tautologies can still make claims considered controversial by some; these would be contingent upon empirical verification. Anthropic observations
In 1961, Robert Dicke noted that the age of the universe, as seen by living observers, cannot be random. Instead, biological factors constrain the universe to be more or less in a "golden age", neither too young nor too old. If the universe was one tenth as old as its present age, there would not have been sufficient time to build up appreciable levels of metallicity (levels of elements besides hydrogen and helium) especially carbon, by nucleosynthesis. Small rocky planets did not yet exist. If the universe were 10 times older than it actually is, most stars would be too old to remain on the main sequence and would have turned into white dwarfs, aside from the dimmest red dwarfs, and stable planetary systems would have already come to an end. Thus, Dicke explained the coincidence between large dimensionless numbers constructed from the constants of physics and the age of the universe, a coincidence that inspired Dirac's varying-G theory.
Dicke later reasoned that the density of matter in the universe must be almost exactly the critical density needed to prevent the Big Crunch (the "Dicke coincidences" argument). The most recent measurements may suggest that the observed density of baryonic matter, and some theoretical predictions of the amount of dark matter, account for about 30% of this critical density, with the rest contributed by a cosmological constant. Steven Weinberg gave an anthropic explanation for this fact: he noted that the cosmological constant has a remarkably low value, some 120 orders of magnitude smaller than the value particle physics predicts (this has been described as the "worst prediction in physics"). However, if the cosmological constant were only several orders of magnitude larger than its observed value, the universe would suffer catastrophic inflation, which would preclude the formation of stars, and hence life.
The observed values of the dimensionless physical constants (such as the fine-structure constant) governing the four fundamental interactions are balanced as if fine-tuned to permit the formation of commonly found matter and subsequently the emergence of life. A slight increase in the strong interaction (up to 50% for some authors) would bind the dineutron and the diproton and convert all hydrogen in the early universe to helium; likewise, an increase in the weak interaction also would convert all hydrogen to helium. Water, as well as sufficiently long-lived stable stars, both essential for the emergence of life as it is known, would not exist. More generally, small changes in the relative strengths of the four fundamental interactions can greatly affect the universe's age, structure, and capacity for life. Origin
The phrase "anthropic principle" first appeared in Brandon Carter's contribution to a 1973 Kraków symposium honouring Copernicus's 500th birthday. Carter, a theoretical astrophysicist, articulated the Anthropic Principle in reaction to the Copernican Principle, which states that humans do not occupy a privileged position in the Universe. Carter said: "Although our situation is not necessarily central, it is inevitably privileged to some extent." Specifically, Carter disagreed with using the Copernican principle to justify the Perfect Cosmological Principle, which states that all large regions and times in the universe must be statistically identical. The latter principle underlies the steady-state theory, which had recently been falsified by the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This discovery was unequivocal evidence that the universe has changed radically over time (for example, via the Big Bang).
Carter defined two forms of the anthropic principle, a "weak" one which referred only to anthropic selection of privileged spacetime locations in the universe, and a more controversial "strong" form that addressed the values of the fundamental constants of physics.
Roger Penrose explained the weak form as follows:
One reason this is plausible is that there are many other places and times in which humans could have evolved. But when applying the strong principle, there is only one universe, with one set of fundamental parameters, so what exactly is the point being made? Carter offers two possibilities: First, humans can use their own existence to make "predictions" about the parameters. But second, "as a last resort", humans can convert these predictions into explanations by assuming that there is'' more than one universe, in fact a large and possibly infinite collection of universes, something that is now called the multiverse ("world ensemble" was Carter's term), in which the parameters (and perhaps the laws of physics) vary across universes. The strong principle then becomes an example of a selection effect, exactly analogous to the weak principle. Postulating a multiverse is certainly a radical step, but taking it could provide at least a partial answer to a question seemingly out of the reach of normal science: "Why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another?"
Since Carter's 1973 paper, the term anthropic principle has been extended to cover a number of ideas that differ in important ways from his. Particular confusion was caused by the 1986 book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow and Frank Tipler, which distinguished between a "weak" and "strong" anthropic principle in a way very different from Carter's, as discussed in the next section.
Carter was not the first to invoke some form of the anthropic principle. In fact, the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace anticipated the anthropic principle as long ago as 1904: "Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required [...] in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man." In 1957, Robert Dicke wrote: "The age of the Universe 'now' is not random but conditioned by biological factors [...] [changes in the values of the fundamental constants of physics] would preclude the existence of man to consider the problem."
Ludwig Boltzmann may have been one of the first in modern science to use anthropic reasoning. Prior to knowledge of the Big Bang Boltzmann's thermodynamic concepts painted a picture of a universe that had inexplicably low entropy. Boltzmann suggested several explanations, one of which relied on fluctuations that could produce pockets of low entropy or Boltzmann universes. While most of the universe is featureless in this model, to Boltzmann, it is unremarkable that humanity happens to inhabit a Boltzmann universe, as that is the only place where intelligent life could be. Variants
Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Carter): "... our location in the universe is necessarily privileged to the extent of being compatible with our existence as observers."
Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Barrow and Tipler): "The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the universe be old enough for it to have already done so."<br />Unlike Carter they restrict the principle to carbon-based life, rather than just "observers". A more important difference is that they apply the WAP to the fundamental physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant, the number of spacetime dimensions, and the cosmological constant—topics that fall under Carter's SAP.
Strong anthropic principle (SAP) (Barrow and Tipler): "The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history."<br />This looks very similar to Carter's SAP, but unlike the case with Carter's SAP, the "must" is an imperative, as shown by the following three possible elaborations of the SAP, each proposed by Barrow and Tipler:
* "There exists one possible Universe 'designed' with the goal of generating and sustaining 'observers'."
*: This can be seen as simply the classic design argument restated in the garb of contemporary cosmology. It implies that the purpose of the universe is to give rise to intelligent life, with the laws of nature and their fundamental physical constants set to ensure that life emerges and evolves.
* "Observers are necessary to bring the Universe into being."
*: Barrow and Tipler believe that this is a valid conclusion from quantum mechanics, as John Archibald Wheeler has suggested, especially via his idea that information is the fundamental reality (see It from bit) and his Participatory anthropic principle (PAP) which is an interpretation of quantum mechanics associated with the ideas of John von Neumann and Eugene Wigner.
* "An ensemble of other different universes is necessary for the existence of our Universe."
*: By contrast, Carter merely says that an ensemble of universes is necessary for the SAP to count as an explanation.
The philosophers John Leslie and Nick Bostrom reject the Barrow and Tipler SAP as a fundamental misreading of Carter. For Bostrom, Carter's anthropic principle just warns us to make allowance for anthropic bias—that is, the bias created by anthropic selection effects (which Bostrom calls "observation" selection effects)—the necessity for observers to exist in order to get a result. He writes:
Strong self-sampling assumption (SSSA) (Bostrom): "Each observer-moment should reason as if it were randomly selected from the class of all observer-moments in its reference class."<br /> Analysing an observer's experience into a sequence of "observer-moments" helps avoid certain paradoxes; but the main ambiguity is the selection of the appropriate "reference class": for Carter's WAP this might correspond to all real or potential observer-moments in our universe; for the SAP, to all in the multiverse. Bostrom's mathematical development shows that choosing either too broad or too narrow a reference class leads to counter-intuitive results, but he is not able to prescribe an ideal choice.
According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the anthropic principle essentially just says that the conditional probability of finding yourself in a universe compatible with your existence is always 1. It does not allow for any additional nontrivial predictions such as "gravity won't change tomorrow". To gain more predictive power, additional assumptions on the prior distribution of alternative universes are necessary.
Playwright and novelist Michael Frayn describes a form of the strong anthropic principle in his 2006 book The Human Touch, which explores what he characterises as "the central oddity of the Universe":
Character of anthropic reasoning
Carter chose to focus on a tautological aspect of his ideas, which has resulted in much confusion. In fact, anthropic reasoning interests scientists because of something that is only implicit in the above formal definitions, namely that humans should give serious consideration to there being other universes with different values of the "fundamental parameters"—that is, the dimensionless physical constants and initial conditions for the Big Bang. Carter and others have argued that life would not be possible in most such universes. In other words, the universe humans live in is fine tuned to permit life. Collins & Hawking (1973) characterized Carter's then-unpublished big idea as the postulate that "there is not one universe but a whole infinite ensemble of universes with all possible initial conditions". If this is granted, the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe: the "typical" universe is not fine-tuned, but given enough universes, a small fraction will be capable of supporting intelligent life. Ours must be one of these, and so the observed fine tuning should be no cause for wonder.
Although philosophers have discussed related concepts for centuries, in the early 1970s the only genuine physical theory yielding a multiverse of sorts was the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. This would allow variation in initial conditions, but not in the truly fundamental constants. Since that time a number of mechanisms for producing a multiverse have been suggested: see the review by Max Tegmark. An important development in the 1980s was the combination of inflation theory with the hypothesis that some parameters are determined by symmetry breaking in the early universe, which allows parameters previously thought of as "fundamental constants" to vary over very large distances, thus eroding the distinction between Carter's weak and strong principles. At the beginning of the 21st century, the string landscape emerged as a mechanism for varying essentially all the constants, including the number of spatial dimensions.
The anthropic idea that fundamental parameters are selected from a multitude of different possibilities (each actual in some universe or other) contrasts with the traditional hope of physicists for a theory of everything having no free parameters. As Albert Einstein said: "What really interests me is whether God had any choice in the creation of the world." In 2002, some proponents of the leading candidate for a "theory of everything", string theory, proclaimed "the end of the anthropic principle" since there would be no free parameters to select. In 2003, however, Leonard Susskind stated: "... it seems plausible that the landscape is unimaginably large and diverse. This is the behavior that gives credence to the anthropic principle."
The modern form of a design argument is put forth by intelligent design. Proponents of intelligent design often cite the fine-tuning observations that (in part) preceded the formulation of the anthropic principle by Carter as a proof of an intelligent designer. Opponents of intelligent design are not limited to those who hypothesize that other universes exist; they may also argue, anti-anthropically, that the universe is less fine-tuned than often claimed, or that accepting fine tuning as a brute fact is less astonishing than the idea of an intelligent creator. Furthermore, even accepting fine tuning, Sober (2005) and Ikeda and Jefferys, argue that the anthropic principle as conventionally stated actually undermines intelligent design.
Paul Davies's book The Goldilocks Enigma (2006) reviews the current state of the fine-tuning debate in detail, and concludes by enumerating the following responses to that debate:
Clearly each of these hypotheses resolve some aspects of the puzzle, while leaving others unanswered. Followers of Carter would admit only option 3 as an anthropic explanation, whereas 3 through 6 are covered by different versions of Barrow and Tipler's SAP (which would also include 7 if it is considered a variant of 4, as in Tipler 1994).
The anthropic principle, at least as Carter conceived it, can be applied on scales much smaller than the whole universe. For example, Carter (1983) inverted the usual line of reasoning and pointed out that when interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account cosmological and astrophysical considerations. With this in mind, Carter concluded that given the best estimates of the age of the universe, the evolutionary chain culminating in Homo sapiens probably admits only one or two low probability links.
Observational evidence
No possible observational evidence bears on Carter's WAP, as it is merely advice to the scientist and asserts nothing debatable. The obvious test of Barrow's SAP, which says that the universe is "required" to support life, is to find evidence of life in universes other than ours. Any other universe is, by most definitions, unobservable (otherwise it would be included in our portion of this universe). Thus, in principle Barrow's SAP cannot be falsified by observing a universe in which an observer cannot exist.
Philosopher John Leslie states that the Carter SAP (with multiverse) predicts the following:
* Physical theory will evolve so as to strengthen the hypothesis that early phase transitions occur probabilistically rather than deterministically, in which case there will be no deep physical reason for the values of fundamental constants;
* Various theories for generating multiple universes will prove robust;
* Evidence that the universe is fine tuned will continue to accumulate;
* No life with a non-carbon chemistry will be discovered;
* Mathematical studies of galaxy formation will confirm that it is sensitive to the rate of expansion of the universe.
Hogan has emphasised that it would be very strange if all fundamental constants were strictly determined, since this would leave us with no ready explanation for apparent fine tuning. In fact, humans might have to resort to something akin to Barrow and Tipler's SAP: there would be no option for such a universe not to support life.
Probabilistic predictions of parameter values can be made given:
# a particular multiverse with a "measure", i.e. a well defined "density of universes" (so, for parameter X, one can calculate the prior probability P(X<sub>0</sub>) dX that X is in the range ), and
# an estimate of the number of observers in each universe, N(X) (e.g., this might be taken as proportional to the number of stars in the universe).
The probability of observing value X is then proportional to . A generic feature of an analysis of this nature is that the expected values of the fundamental physical constants should not be "over-tuned", i.e. if there is some perfectly tuned predicted value (e.g. zero), the observed value need be no closer to that predicted value than what is required to make life possible. The small but finite value of the cosmological constant can be regarded as a successful prediction in this sense.
One thing that would not count as evidence for the anthropic principle is evidence that the Earth or the Solar System occupied a privileged position in the universe, in violation of the Copernican principle (for possible counterevidence to this principle, see Copernican principle), unless there was some reason to think that that position was a necessary condition for our existence as observers.
Applications of the principle
The nucleosynthesis of carbon-12
Fred Hoyle may have invoked anthropic reasoning to predict an astrophysical phenomenon. He is said to have reasoned, from the prevalence on Earth of life forms whose chemistry was based on carbon-12 nuclei, that there must be an undiscovered resonance in the carbon-12 nucleus facilitating its synthesis in stellar interiors via the triple-alpha process. He then calculated the energy of this undiscovered resonance to be 7.6 million electronvolts. Willie Fowler's research group soon found this resonance, and its measured energy was close to Hoyle's prediction.
However, in 2010 Helge Kragh argued that Hoyle did not use anthropic reasoning in making his prediction, since he made his prediction in 1953 and anthropic reasoning did not come into prominence until 1980. He called this an "anthropic myth", saying that Hoyle and others made an after-the-fact connection between carbon and life decades after the discovery of the resonance.
Cosmic inflation
Don Page criticized the entire theory of cosmic inflation as follows. He emphasized that initial conditions that made possible a thermodynamic arrow of time in a universe with a Big Bang origin, must include the assumption that at the initial singularity, the entropy of the universe was low and therefore extremely improbable. Paul Davies rebutted this criticism by invoking an inflationary version of the anthropic principle. While Davies accepted the premise that the initial state of the visible universe (which filled a microscopic amount of space before inflating) had to possess a very low entropy value—due to random quantum fluctuations—to account for the observed thermodynamic arrow of time, he deemed this fact an advantage for the theory. That the tiny patch of space from which our observable universe grew had to be extremely orderly, to allow the post-inflation universe to have an arrow of time, makes it unnecessary to adopt any "ad hoc" hypotheses about the initial entropy state, hypotheses other Big Bang theories require. String theory
String theory predicts a large number of possible universes, called the "backgrounds" or "vacua". The set of these vacua is often called the "multiverse" or "anthropic landscape" or "string landscape". Leonard Susskind has argued that the existence of a large number of vacua puts anthropic reasoning on firm ground: only universes whose properties are such as to allow observers to exist are observed, while a possibly much larger set of universes lacking such properties go unnoticed. believes the anthropic principle may be appropriated by cosmologists committed to nontheism, and refers to that principle as a "turning point" in modern science because applying it to the string landscape "may explain how the constants of nature that we observe can take values suitable for life without being fine-tuned by a benevolent creator". Others—most notably David Gross but also Luboš Motl, Peter Woit, and Lee Smolin—argue that this is not predictive. Max Tegmark, Mario Livio, and Martin Rees argue that only some aspects of a physical theory need be observable and/or testable for the theory to be accepted, and that many well-accepted theories are far from completely testable at present.
Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000–2002) points out that Ray Solomonoff's theory of universal inductive inference and its extensions already provide a framework for maximizing our confidence in any theory, given a limited sequence of physical observations, and some prior distribution on the set of possible explanations of the universe.
Zhi-Wei Wang and Samuel L. Braunstein proved that life's existence in the universe depends on various fundamental constants. It suggests that without a complete understanding of these constants, one might incorrectly perceive the universe as being intelligently designed for life. This perspective challenges the view that our universe is unique in its ability to support life.
Dimensions of spacetime
There are two kinds of dimensions: spatial (bidirectional) and temporal (unidirectional). Let the number of spatial dimensions be N and the number of temporal dimensions be T. That and , setting aside the compactified dimensions invoked by string theory and undetectable to date, can be explained by appealing to the physical consequences of letting N differ from 3 and T differ from 1. The argument is often of an anthropic character and possibly the first of its kind, albeit before the complete concept came into vogue.
The implicit notion that the dimensionality of the universe is special is first attributed to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who in the Discourse on Metaphysics suggested that the world is "the one which is at the same time the simplest in hypothesis and the richest in phenomena". Immanuel Kant argued that 3-dimensional space was a consequence of the inverse square law of universal gravitation. While Kant's argument is historically important, John D. Barrow said that it "gets the punch-line back to front: it is the three-dimensionality of space that explains why we see inverse-square force laws in Nature, not vice-versa" (Barrow 2002:204).
In 1920, Paul Ehrenfest showed that if there is only a single time dimension and more than three spatial dimensions, the orbit of a planet about its Sun cannot remain stable. The same is true of a star's orbit around the center of its galaxy. Ehrenfest also showed that if there are an even number of spatial dimensions, then the different parts of a wave impulse will travel at different speeds. If there are <math>5 + 2k</math> spatial dimensions, where k is a positive whole number, then wave impulses become distorted. In 1922, Hermann Weyl claimed that Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism can be expressed in terms of an action only for a four-dimensional manifold. Finally, Tangherlini showed in 1963 that when there are more than three spatial dimensions, electron orbitals around nuclei cannot be stable; electrons would either fall into the nucleus or disperse.
Max Tegmark expands on the preceding argument in the following anthropic manner. If T differs from 1, the behavior of physical systems could not be predicted reliably from knowledge of the relevant partial differential equations. In such a universe, intelligent life capable of manipulating technology could not emerge. Moreover, if , Tegmark maintains that protons and electrons would be unstable and could decay into particles having greater mass than themselves. (This is not a problem if the particles have a sufficiently low temperature.)
In 2019, James Scargill argued that complex life may be possible with two spatial dimensions. According to Scargill, a purely scalar theory of gravity may enable a local gravitational force, and 2D networks may be sufficient for complex neural networks.
Metaphysical interpretations
Some of the metaphysical disputes and speculations include, for example, attempts to back Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's earlier interpretation of the universe as being Christ centered (compare Omega Point), expressing a creatio evolutiva instead the elder notion of creatio continua. From a strictly secular, humanist perspective, it allows as well to put human beings back in the center, an anthropogenic shift in cosmology. has laconically stated that
William Sims Bainbridge disagreed with de Chardin's optimism about a future Omega point at the end of history, arguing that logically, humans are trapped at the Omicron point, in the middle of the Greek alphabet rather than advancing to the end, because the universe does not need to have any characteristics that would support our further technical progress, if the anthropic principle merely requires it to be suitable for our evolution to this point.
The anthropic cosmological principle
A thorough extant study of the anthropic principle is the book The anthropic cosmological principle by John D. Barrow, a cosmologist, and Frank J. Tipler, a cosmologist and mathematical physicist. This book sets out in detail the many known anthropic coincidences and constraints, including many found by its authors. While the book is primarily a work of theoretical astrophysics, it also touches on quantum physics, chemistry, and earth science. An entire chapter argues that Homo sapiens is, with high probability, the only intelligent species in the Milky Way.
The book begins with an extensive review of many topics in the history of ideas the authors deem relevant to the anthropic principle, because the authors believe that principle has important antecedents in the notions of teleology and intelligent design. They discuss the writings of Fichte, Hegel, Bergson, and Alfred North Whitehead, and the Omega Point cosmology of Teilhard de Chardin. Barrow and Tipler carefully distinguish teleological reasoning from eutaxiological reasoning; the former asserts that order must have a consequent purpose; the latter asserts more modestly that order must have a planned cause. They attribute this important but nearly always overlooked distinction to an obscure 1883 book by L. E. Hicks.
Seeing little sense in a principle requiring intelligent life to emerge while remaining indifferent to the possibility of its eventual extinction, Barrow and Tipler propose the final anthropic principle (FAP): Intelligent information-processing must come into existence in the universe, and, once it comes into existence, it will never die out.
Barrow and Tipler submit that the FAP is both a valid physical statement and "closely connected with moral values". FAP places strong constraints on the structure of the universe, constraints developed further in Tipler's The Physics of Immortality. One such constraint is that the universe must end in a Big Crunch, which seems unlikely in view of the tentative conclusions drawn since 1998 about dark energy, based on observations of very distant supernovas.
In his review of Barrow and Tipler, Martin Gardner ridiculed the FAP by quoting the last two sentences of their book as defining a completely ridiculous anthropic principle (CRAP):
Reception and controversies
Carter has frequently expressed regret for his own choice of the word "anthropic", because it conveys the misleading impression that the principle involves humans in particular, to the exclusion of non-human intelligence more broadly. Others have criticised the word "principle" as being too grandiose to describe straightforward applications of selection effects.
A common criticism of Carter's SAP is that it is an easy deus ex machina that discourages searches for physical explanations. To quote Penrose again: "It tends to be invoked by theorists whenever they do not have a good enough theory to explain the observed facts."
Carter's SAP and Barrow and Tipler's WAP have been dismissed as truisms or trivial tautologies—that is, statements true solely by virtue of their logical form and not because a substantive claim is made and supported by observation of reality. As such, they are criticized as an elaborate way of saying, "If things were different, they would be different", which is a valid statement, but does not make a claim of some factual alternative over another.
Critics of the Barrow and Tipler SAP claim that it is neither testable nor falsifiable, and thus is not a scientific statement but rather a philosophical one. The same criticism has been leveled against the hypothesis of a multiverse, although some argue that it does make falsifiable predictions. A modified version of this criticism is that humanity understands so little about the emergence of life, especially intelligent life, that it is effectively impossible to calculate the number of observers in each universe. Also, the prior distribution of universes as a function of the fundamental constants is easily modified to get any desired result.
Many criticisms focus on versions of the strong anthropic principle, such as Barrow and Tipler's anthropic cosmological principle, which are teleological notions that tend to describe the existence of life as a necessary prerequisite for the observable constants of physics. Similarly, Stephen Jay Gould, Michael Shermer, and others claim that the stronger versions of the anthropic principle seem to reverse known causes and effects. Gould compared the claim that the universe is fine-tuned for the benefit of our kind of life to saying that sausages were made long and narrow so that they could fit into modern hotdog buns, or saying that ships had been invented to house barnacles. These critics cite the vast physical, fossil, genetic, and other biological evidence consistent with life having been fine-tuned through natural selection to adapt to the physical and geophysical environment in which life exists. Life appears to have adapted to the universe, and not vice versa.
Some applications of the anthropic principle have been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination, for tacitly assuming that carbon compounds and water are the only possible chemistry of life (sometimes called "carbon chauvinism"; see also alternative biochemistry). The range of fundamental physical constants consistent with the evolution of carbon-based life may also be wider than those who advocate a fine-tuned universe have argued. For instance, Harnik et al. propose a Weakless Universe in which the weak nuclear force is eliminated. They show that this has no significant effect on the other fundamental interactions, provided some adjustments are made in how those interactions work. However, if some of the fine-tuned details of our universe were violated, that would rule out complex structures of any kind—stars, planets, galaxies, etc.
Lee Smolin has offered a theory designed to improve on the lack of imagination that has been ascribed to anthropic principles. He puts forth his fecund universes theory, which assumes universes have "offspring" through the creation of black holes whose offspring universes have values of physical constants that depend on those of the mother universe.
The philosophers of cosmology John Earman, Ernan McMullin, and Jesús Mosterín contend that "in its weak version, the anthropic principle is a mere tautology, which does not allow us to explain anything or to predict anything that we did not already know. In its strong version, it is a gratuitous speculation". A further criticism by Mosterín concerns the flawed "anthropic" inference from the assumption of an infinity of worlds to the existence of one like ours:
See also
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Notes
Footnotes References
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* 5 chapters available [http://www.anthropic-principle.com/book/ online.]
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* Mosterín, Jesús (2005). "Anthropic explanations in cosmology". In P. Háyek, L. Valdés and D. Westerstahl (ed.), Logic, methodology and philosophy of science, Proceedings of the 12th international congress of the LMPS. London: King's college publications, pp. 441–473. .
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* A simple anthropic argument for why there are 3 spatial and 1 temporal dimensions.
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* Shows that some of the common criticisms of anthropic principle based on its relationship with numerology or the theological design argument are wrong.
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External links
* Nick Bostrom: [http://www.anthropic-principle.com/ web site] devoted to the anthropic principle.
* Friederich, Simon. [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fine-tuning/ Fine-tuning], review article of the discussion about fine-tuning, highlighting the role of the anthropic principles.
* Gijsbers, Victor. (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141102054638/http://www.positiveatheism.org/faq/anthropic.htm Theistic anthropic principle refuted] – Positive atheism magazine.
* Chown, Marcus, [http://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/toe_frames.html Anything Goes], New scientist, 6 June 1998. On Max Tegmark's work.
* Stephen Hawking, Steven Weinberg, Alexander Vilenkin, David Gross and Lawrence Krauss: [http://www.phys.cwru.edu/events/cerca_video_archive.php Debate on anthropic reasoning] Kavli-CERCA conference video archive.
* Sober, Elliott R. 2009, "[http://sober.philosophy.wisc.edu/selected-papers/PS-2009-AbsenseOfEvidenceAndEvidenceOfAbsence.pdf Absence of evidence and evidence of absence – Evidential transitivity in connection with fossils, fishing, fine-tuning, and firing squads.]" Philosophical Studies, 2009, 143: 63–90.
* "[http://www.starlarvae.org/Star_Larvae_Anthropic_Coincidence.html Anthropic coincidence]" – The anthropic controversy as a segue to Lee Smolin's theory of cosmological natural selection.
* Leonard Susskind and Lee Smolin debate the [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/smolin_susskind04/smolin_susskind.html anthropic principle].
* [https://arxiv.org/find/astro-ph/1/OR+ti:+AND+anthropic+principle+abs:+AND+anthropic+principle/0/1/0/all/0/1 Debate among scientists on arxiv.org.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060502002523/http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/13cards.htm Evolutionary probability and fine tuning]
* [https://archive.today/20130128125932/http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath252/kmath252.htm Benevolent design and the anthropic principle] at MathPages
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051223140116/http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_privileged_planet.htm Critical review of "The privileged planet"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070227160115/http://www.ipod.org.uk/reality/reality_anthropic_principle.asp The anthropic principle] – a review.
* Berger, Daniel, 2002, "[http://www.bluffton.edu/~bergerd/essays/impert.html An impertinent résumé of the Anthropic cosmological principle.] " A critique of Barrow & Tipler.
* Jürgen Schmidhuber: [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/computeruniverse.html Papers on algorithmic theories of everything] and the anthropic principle's lack of predictive power.
* Paul Davies: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030190754/http://www.wpr.org/book/070415a.html Cosmic jackpot] – Interview about the anthropic principle (starts at 40 min), 15 May 2007.
Category:Astronomical hypotheses
Category:Concepts in epistemology
Category:Physical cosmology
Category:Principles
Category:Religion and science | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.290650 |
2795 | Australian Army | | branch = Army
| type | website
| role = Land warfare
| size 28,524 (Regular)<br />15,711 (Active Reserve)
| command_structure = Australian Defence Force
| garrison | garrison_label
| nickname | patron
| motto | colours
| colours_labels | march "The Army March"
| mascot | equipment
| equipment_label | battles * Second Boer War
* Boxer Rebellion
* First World War
* Second World War
* Korean War
* Malayan Emergency
* Indonesian Confrontation
* Vietnam War
* Second Malayan Emergency
* 1999 East Timorese crisis
* 2006 East Timorese crisis
* Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands
* War in Afghanistan
* Iraq War
| anniversaries | decorations
| battle_honours =
<!-- Commanders -->
| commander1 | commander1_label
| commander2 = Admiral David Johnston
| commander2_label = Chief of the Defence Force
| commander3 = Lieutenant General Simon Stuart
| commander3_label = Chief of Army
| commander4 = Major General Chris Smith
| commander4_label = Deputy Chief of Army
| commander5 = Major General Susan Coyle
| commander5_label = Commander Forces Command
<!-- Insignia -->
| identification_symbol | identification_symbol_label Australian Army flag
| identification_symbol_2 | identification_symbol_2_label Roundel <br /> (aviation)
| identification_symbol_3 | identification_symbol_3_label Roundel <br /> (armoured vehicles)
| identification_symbol_4 | identification_symbol_4_label
<!-- Aircraft -->
| aircraft_attack | aircraft_bomber
| aircraft_electronic | aircraft_fighter
| aircraft_helicopter | aircraft_interceptor
| aircraft_patrol | aircraft_recon
| aircraft_trainer | aircraft_transport
}}
The Australian Army is the principal land warfare force of Australia. It is a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF), along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Army is commanded by the Chief of Army (CA), who is subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) who commands the ADF. The CA is also directly responsible to the Minister for Defence, with the Department of Defence administering the ADF and the Army.
Formed in 1901, as the Commonwealth Military Forces, through the amalgamation of the colonial forces of Australia following the Federation of Australia. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout Australia's history, only during the Second World War has Australian territory come under direct attack.
The Australian Army was initially composed almost completely of part-time soldiers, where the vast majority were in units of the Citizens Military Force (CMF or Militia) (1901–1980) during peacetime, with limits set on the regular Army. Since all reservists were barred from forcibly serving overseas, volunteer expeditionary forces (1st AIF, ANMEF, 2nd AIF) were formed to enable the Army to send large numbers of soldiers to serve overseas during periods of war. This period lasted from federation until post-1947, when a standing peacetime regular army was formed and the Australian Army Reserve (1980–present) began to decline in importance.
During its history, the Australian Army has fought in a number of major wars, including the Second Boer War, the First and Second World Wars, Korean War, Malayan Emergency, Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Vietnam War, the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and the Iraq War. Since 1947, the Australian Army has also been involved in many peacekeeping operations, usually under the auspices of the United Nations. Today, it participates in multilateral and unilateral military exercises and provides emergency disaster relief and humanitarian aid in response to domestic and international crises.
History
Formation
Formed in March 1901, following federation, the Australian Army initially consisted of the six, disbanded and separate, colonial military forces' land components. Due to the Army being continuation of the colonial armies, it became immediately embroiled in conflict as contingents had been committed to fight for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the Second Boer War. The Army gained command of these contingents and even supplied federal units to reinforce their commitment at the request of the British government.
The Defence Act 1903, established the operation and command structure of the Australian Army. In 1911, the Universal Service Scheme was implemented, introducing conscription for the first time in Australia, with males aged 14–26 assigned into cadet and CMF units; though the scheme did not prescribe or allow overseas service outside the states and territories of Australia. This restriction would be primarily, and continually, bypassed through the process of raising separate volunteer forces until the mid-20th century; this solution was not without its drawbacks, as it caused logistical dilemmas. World War I
After the declaration of war on the Central Powers, the Australian Army raised the all volunteer First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) which had an initial recruitment of 52,561 out of a promised 20,000 men. A smaller expeditionary force, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (ANMEF), dealt with the issue of the German Pacific holdings. ANMEF recruitment began on 10 August 1914, and operations started 10 days later. On 11 September, the ANMEF landed at Rabaul to secure German New Guinea, with no German outposts in the Pacific left by November 1914. During the AIF's preparations to depart Australia, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers; thereby receiving declarations of war from the Allies of World War I in early November 1914.
After initial recruitment and training, the AIF departed for Egypt where they underwent further preparations, and where the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed. Their presence in Egypt was due to the planned Gallipoli campaign, an invasion of the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli. On 25 April, the AIF landed at ANZAC Cove, which signaled the start of Australia's contribution to the campaign. Following little initial success, fighting quickly devolved into trench warfare, which precipitated a stalemate. On 15 December 1915, after eight months of fighting, the evacuation of Gallipoli commenced; it was completed 5 days later with no casualties recorded. After regrouping in Egypt, the AIF was split into two groups and further expanded with reinforcements. This division would see a majority of the Australian Light Horse fight the Ottomans in Arabia and the Levant, whereas
the rest of the AIF would go to the Western Front.
Western Front
The AIF arrived in France with the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions; which comprised, in part, I ANZAC Corps and, in full, II ANZAC Corps. The 3rd Division would not arrive until November 1916, as it underwent training in England after its transfer from Australia. In July 1916, the AIF commenced operations with the Battle of the Somme, and more specifically with the Attack at Fromelles. Soon after, the 1st, 2nd and 4th Divisions became tied down in actions at the Battle of Pozières and Mouquet Farm. In around six weeks, the operations caused 28,000 Australian casualties. Due to these losses and pressure from the United Kingdom to maintain the AIF's manpower, Prime Minister Billy Hughes introduced the first conscription plebiscite. It was defeated by a narrow margin and created a bitter divide on the issue of conscription throughout the 20th century.
Following the German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line in March 1917, which was better defended and eased manpower restraints, the first Australian assault on the Hindenburg Line occurred on 11 April 1917 with the First Battle of Bullecourt. On 20 September, the Australian contingent joined the Third Battle of Ypres with the Battle of Menin Road, and continued on to fight in the Battle of Polygon Wood, which lasted until 3 October; in total, these tow operations cost roughly 11,000 in Australian casualties. Until 15 November 1917, multiple attacks at the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge and the Battle of Passchendaele occurred, but, failed to take their objectives following the start of the rain and subsequent muddying of the fields.
On 21 March 1918, the Germans attempted a breakout through the Michael Offensive, which was part of the much larger German spring offensive; the AIF suffered 15,000 casualties due to this effort. During this operation, Australian troops conducted a series of local defences and offensives to hold and retake Villers–Brettoneux over the period 4 to 25 April 1918. After the cessation of offensives by the German Army, the Australian Corps began participating in "Peaceful penetration" operations, which were localised raids designed to harass and gain small tracts of territory; these proved so effective that several major operational objectives were captured.
On 4 July 1918, the Battle of Hamel saw the first successful use of tanks alongside Australians, with the battleplan of John Monash completed three minutes over the planned 90 minute operation. Following this success, the Battle of Amiens was launched on 8 August 1918, in conjunction with the Canadian Corps and the British III Corps, and concluded on 12 August 1918; General Erich Ludendorff described it as "the black day of the German Army". On 29 August 1918, following territorial advances and pursuits, the AIF attacked Pèronne and subsequently initiated the Battle of Mont St Quentin. Another operation around Épehy was planned for 18 September 1918, which aimed to retake the British trenches and, potentially, capture their most ambitious objective of the Hindenburg's outpost line – which they achieved.
Following news of a three-month furlough for certain soldiers, seven AIF battalions were disbanded; consequently, members of these battalions mutinied. Soon after the penetration of the Hindenburg Line, plans for the breakthrough of the main trench, with the Australian Corps as the vanguard, were completed. However, due to manpower issues, only the 3rd and 5th Divisions participated, with the American Expeditionary Forces' 27th and 30th Divisions given as reinforcements. On 29 September, following a three day long bombardment, the Battle of the Hindenburg Line commenced, wherein the corps attacked and captured more of the line. On 5 October 1918, after furious fighting, the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the front, as the entire corps had been operating continuously since 8 August 1918. They would not return to the battlefield, as Germany signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ultimately ended the war on the Western Front. Middle East The Australian mounted units, composed of the ANZAC Mounted Division and eventually the Australian Mounted Division, participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. They were originally stationed there to protect the Suez Canal from the Turks, and following the threat of its capture passing, they started offensive operations and helped in the re-conquest of the Sinai Desert. This was followed by the Battles of Gaza, wherein on the 31 October 1917 the 4th and 12th Light Horse took Beersheba through the last charge of the Light Horse. They continued on to capture Jerusalem on 10 December 1917 and then eventually Damascus on 1 October 1918 whereby, a few days later on 10 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire surrendered. the Australian Army raised the Second Australian Imperial Force, a 20,000-strong volunteer expeditionary force, which initially consisted of the 6th Division; later increased to include the 7th and 9th Divisions, alongside the 8th Division which was sent to Singapore. In October 1939, compulsory military training recommenced for unmarried men aged 21, who had to complete three months of training. This was followed by supplying Australian units to defend against the Axis in the Battle of Greece. After the evacuation of Greece, Australian troops took part in the Battle of Crete which, though more successful, still failed and another withdrawal was ordered. During the Greek Campaign, the Allies were pushed back to Egypt and the Siege of Tobruk began. Tobruk's primary defence personnel were Australians of the 9th Division; the so-called 'Rats of Tobruk'. Additionally, the AIF participated in the Syria–Lebanon campaign. The 9th Division fought in the First and Second Battle of El Alamein before also being shipped home to fight the Japanese. Pacific In December 1941, following the Bombing of Pearl Harbor, Australia declared war on Japan. Consequently, the AIF was requested to return home, as the subsequent rapid conquest of Southeast Asia extremely concerned Australian policymakers, and the militia was mobilised. After the Fall of Singapore, and the consequent capture of the entire 8th Division as POWs, this concern only grew. These events hastened the relief of the Rats of Tobruk, while the other divisions were immediately recalled to reinforce New Guinea.
The Imperial Japanese Navy's failure in the Battle of the Coral Sea, was the impetus for the Imperial Japanese Army to try to capture Port Moresby via the Owen Stanley Range. On 21 July 1942, the Japanese began the Kokoda Campaign after landing at Gona; attempts to defeat them by Australian battalions were met with eventual success. Resultant offensive operations concluded with the Japanese being driven out of New Guinea entirely. In parallel with these defences, the Battle of Milne Bay was waged, and when the Japanese were repulsed, it was considered their first significant reversal for the war. In November 1942, the campaign ended after the Japanese withdrawal, with Australian advances leading to the Battle of Buna–Gona.
in September 1942]]
In early 1943, the Salamaua–Lae campaign began, with operations against the entrenched Japanese aimed towards recapturing the eponymous towns. This culminated in the capture of Lae, held by the 7th Division in early September 1943, from a successful combined amphibious landing at Lae and an airborne landing at Nadzab. The seaborne assault was notable as it was the first large–scale amphibious operation since Gallipoli. Subsequently, Salamaua was taken days later on 11 September 1943, by a separate joint Australia–US attack. The Battle of Lae was additionally part of the wider Huon Peninsula campaign. Following Lae's capture, the Battle of Finschhafen commenced with a relatively swift control of objectives, with subsequent Japanese counterattacks beaten off. On 17 November 1943, a major offensive that began with the Battle of Sattelberg, continued with the Battle of Wareo, and concluded with the Battle of Sio on 15 January 1944, was unleashed. The momentum of this advance was continued by the 8th Brigade, as they pursued the enemy in retreat, which culminated with the Battle of Madang.
In mid-1944, Australian forces took over the garrisoning of Torokina from the US with this changeover giving Australian command responsibility over the Bougainville campaign. Soon after arriving in November of the same year, the commander of II Corps, Lieutenant-General Stanley Savige, began an offensive to retake the island with the 3rd Division alongside the 11th and 23rd Brigades. The campaign lasted until the Japanese surrender, with controversy surrounding its little apparent significance to the war's conclusion, and the number of casualties incurred; this was one of Australia's most costliest campaigns in the Second World War.
In October 1944, Australian participation in the Aitape–Wewak campaign began with the replacement of US forces at Aitape with the Australian 6th Division. US forces had previously captured the position, and had held it passively, though Australian command found this unsuitable. On 2 November 1944, the 2/6th Cavalry Commando Regiment was tasked with patrolling the area, wherein minor engagements were reported. In early December, the commandos were sent inland to establish access to the Torricelli Range, while the 19th Brigade handled patrolling, consequently, the amount of fierce fighting and territory secured increased. Following this success, thought was given for the capture of Maprik and Wewak, though supply became a major issue in this period. On 10 February 1945, the campaign's major offensive was underway, which resulted in both falling in quick succession on 22 April 1945. Smaller operations to secure the area continued, and all significant actions ceased by July.
The Borneo campaign was a series of three distinct amphibious operations that were undertaken by the 7th and 9th Divisions. The campaign began with the Battle of Tarakan on 1 May 1945, followed six weeks later by the Battle of Labuan, and concluded with the Battle of Balikpapan. The purpose of capturing Tarakan was to establish airfields, and the island was taken seven weeks following the initial amphibious landing. On 10 June 1945, the operation at Labuan commenced, and was tasked to secure resources and a naval base, and would continue until Japan's surrender. On 1 July 1945, the Balikpapan engagement commenced, with all its major objectives being acquired by war's end; this operation remains the largest amphibious operation undertaken by Australian forces, with 33,000 Australian servicemen participating. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, ending the Second World War.
Cold War
Korean War
After the surrender of Japan, Australia provided a contingent to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) which included the 34th Brigade. The units that composed the brigade would eventually become the nucleus of the regular army, with the battalions and brigade being renumbered to reflect this change. Following the start of the Korean War, the Australian Army committed troops to fight against the North Korean forces; the units came from the Australian contribution to BCOF. The 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3RAR) arrived in Pusan on 28 September 1950. Australian troop numbers would increase and continue to be deployed up until the armistice, with 3RAR being eventually joined by the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR). For a brief period, between 1951 and 1959, the Menzies Government reinstituted conscription and compulsory military training with the National Service Scheme, which required all males of eighteen years of age to serve for specified period in either the Australian Regular Army (ARA) or CMF.
Malayan Emergency
The Australian military entered the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) in October 1955, committing the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2RAR) to fight alongside Commonwealth forces. The 2RAR fought against the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), a communist led guerrilla army whose goal was to turn Malaya into a socialist republic, and whose leaders had previously been trained and funded by Britain to resist the Japanese occupation of Malaya. Australian military operations in Malaya consisted of patrolling actions and guarding infrastructure, though they rarely saw combat as the emergency was nearly over by the time of their deployment. All three original Royal Australian Regiment battalions would complete at least one tour before the end of operations. In August 1963, Australia ended deployments to Malaya, three years after the emergency's official end. Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
In 1962, the Borneo Confrontation began, due to Indonesia's opposition to the formation of Malaysia. It was an undeclared war that entailed a series of border conflicts between Indonesian-backed forces and British–Malaysian allies. Initial Australian support in the conflict began, and continued throughout, with the training and supply of Malaysian troops; Australian soldiers only saw combat during defensive operations. In January 1965, permission was granted for the deployment of 3RAR, with extensive operations conducted in Sarawak from March until their withdrawal in July 1965. The subsequent deployment of 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (4RAR), in April 1966, was less intensive, with the battalion withdrawn in August. This is not to mention the efforts of several other corps and units in the conflict. Vietnam War
The Australian Army commenced its involvement in the Vietnam War by sending military advisors in 1962, which was then increased by sending in combat troops, specifically 1RAR, on 27 May 1965. Just before the official start of hostilities, the Australian Army was augmented with the reintroduction of conscription, which was based on a 'birthday ballot' selection process for all registered 20-year-old males. These men were required to register, unless they gave a legitimate reason for their exemption, else they faced penalties. This scheme would prove to be one of the most controversial implementations of conscription in Australia, with large protests against its adoption. In January 1993, the Australian Army deployed 26 personnel on an ongoing rotational basis to the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), as part of a non-United Nations peacekeeping organisation that observes and enforces the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt.
Australia's largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 with the International Force for East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping in the Sinai (as part of MFO), and the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (as part of Operation Paladin since 1956). Humanitarian relief after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, ended on 24 March 2005. Afghanistan and Iraq Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, Australia promised troops to any military operations that the US commenced in response to the attacks. Subsequently, the Australian Army committed combat troops to Afghanistan in Operation Slipper. This combat role continued until the end of 2013 when it was replaced by a training contingent operating under Operation Highroad until 2021.
After the Gulf War the UN imposed heavy restrictions on Iraq to stop them producing any Weapon of mass destruction. In the early 21st century, the US accused Iraq of possessing these weapons, and requested that the UN invade the country in response, a motion which Australia supported. The UN denied this motion, however, it did not stop a coalition, that Australia joined, invading the country; thus starting the Iraq War on 19 March 2003.
Between April 2015 and June 2020, the Army deployed a 300-strong element to Iraq, designated as Task Group Taji, as part of Operation Okra. In support of a capacity building mission, Task Group Taji's main role was to provide training to Iraqi forces, during which Australian troops have served alongside counterparts from New Zealand.
In 2020 an investigation of allegations of war crimes committed during Australian military operations in Afghanistan was concluded with the release of the Brereton Report. The report identified 25 ADF personnel that were involved directly or indirectly in the murder of 39 civilians and prisoners, with 19 referred to the Australian Federal Police to be criminally investigated. A 'warrior culture' in the SAS was specifically criticised with investigators 'frustrated by outright deceit by those who knew the truth and, not infrequently, misguided resistance to inquiries and investigations by their superiors'.
Organisation
1st (Australian) Division
Beginning 1 July 2023, the division was renamed the 1st Australian Division. The 1st, 3rd and 7th Brigades were placed under the direct control of the division's headquarters. This reform aimed to improve the connections between the divisional headquarters and the brigades it commands during deployments.
* 1 Brigade – Light Combat Brigade based in Darwin.
* 3 Brigade – Armoured Combat Brigade based in Townsville.
Additionally, Forces Command includes the following training and support establishments:
* Army Recruit Training Centre at Kapooka, NSW;
* Royal Military College, Duntroon in the ACT;
* Combined Arms Training Centre at Puckapunyal, Victoria;
* Army Logistic Training Centre at Bonegilla and Bandiana, Victoria;
* Defence Command Support Training Centre at Macleod, Victoria;
* Combat Training Centre at Townsville, Queensland.
* 39th Operational Support Battalion at Sydney, NSW.
2nd (Australian) Division
Administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney.
* 4 Brigade – based in Victoria and Tasmania.
*5 Brigade – based in New South Wales.
*9 Brigade – based in South Australia.
* 16 Aviation Brigade – brigade based in Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera, Brisbane.
* Army Aviation Training Centre at Oakey, Queensland
Special Forces
Special Operations Command is a command formation of equal status to the other commands in the ADF and includes all of Army's special forces units. Special Operations Command comprises:
* Special Forces Group - a brigade-level headquarters.
Colours, standards and guidons
Infantry, and some other combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the King's Colour and the Regimental Colour, known as "the Colours". Armoured units carry Standards and Guidons – flags smaller than Colours and traditionally carried by Cavalry, Lancer, Light Horse and Mounted Infantry units. The 1st Armoured Regiment is the only unit in the Australian Army to carry a Standard, in the tradition of heavy armoured units. Artillery units' guns are considered to be their Colours, and on parade are provided with the same respect. Non-combat units (combat service support corps) do not have Colours, as Colours are battle flags and so are only available to combat units. As a substitute, many have Standards or Banners. Units awarded battle honours have them emblazoned on their Colours, Standards and Guidons. They are a link to the unit's past and a memorial to the fallen. Artillery do not have Battle Honours – their single Honour is "Ubique" which means "Everywhere" – although they can receive Honour Titles.
The Army is the guardian of the National Flag and as such, unlike the Royal Australian Air Force, does not have a flag or Colours. The Army, instead, has a banner, known as the Army Banner. To commemorate the centenary of the Army, the Governor General Sir William Deane, presented the Army with a new Banner at a parade in front of the Australian War Memorial on 10 March 2001. The banner was presented to the Regimental Sergeant Major of the Army (RSM-A), Warrant Officer Peter Rosemond.
The Army Banner bears the Australian Coat of Arms on the obverse, with the dates "1901–2001" in gold in the upper hoist. The reverse bears the Rising Sun badge of the Australian Army, flanked by seven campaign honours on small gold-edged scrolls: South Africa, World War I, World War II, Korea, Malaya-Borneo, South Vietnam, and Peacekeeping. The banner is trimmed with gold fringe, has gold and crimson cords and tassels, and is mounted on a pike with the usual British royal crest finial.PersonnelStrengthAs of June 2022 the Army had 28,387 permanent (regular) members and 20,742 reservists (part-time); all of whom are volunteers. As of June 2022, women made up 15.11% of the Army, with a target set for 18% 2025. Gender based restrictions for frontline combat or training roles were lifted in January 2013. Also as of June 2022, Indigenous Australians made up 3.7% of the Army.Rank and insignia
The ranks of the Australian Army are based on the ranks of the British Army, and carry mostly the same actual insignia. For officers the ranks are identical except for the shoulder title "Australia". The Non-Commissioned Officer insignia are the same up until Warrant Officer, where they are stylised for Australia (for example, using the Australian, rather than the British coat of arms).
The ranks of the Australian Army are as follows:
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#f7f8ff; text-align:center; padding:5px;"
|-bgcolor=#CCCCCC
!Width=12%|NATO Code
|Width=7%|OF-10
|Width=7%|OF-9
|Width=7%|OF-8
|Width=7%|OF-7
|Width=7%|OF-6
|Width=8%|OF-5
|Width=8%|OF-4
|Width=8%|OF-3
|Width=8%|OF-2
|Width14% colspan2|OF-1
|Width14% colspan2|OF(D)
|-
! Australia Officer rank insignia
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Width=7%|
|Width=7%|
|Width=7%|
|Width=7%|
|-
!Rank title:
|Field Marshal
|General
|Lieutenant General
|Major General
|Brigadier
|Colonel
|Lieutenant Colonel
|Major
|Captain
|Lieutenant
|Second Lieutenant
|Officer Cadet
|Staff Cadet
|-
!Abbreviation:
|FM
|GEN
|LTGEN
|MAJGEN
|BRIG
|COL
|LTCOL
|MAJ
|CAPT
|LT
|2LT
|OCDT
|SCDT
|}
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#f7f8ff; text-align:center; padding:5px;"
|-bgcolor=#CCCCCC
!Width=10%|NATO Code
|Width27% colspan2|OR-9
|Width18% colspan1|OR-8
|Width=9%|OR-7
|OR-6
|OR-5
|Width=9%|OR-4
|OR-3
|OR-2
|OR-1
|-
! Australia Other Ranks Insignia
|
|
|
|
|colspan1 width9%|
|
|
|colspan3 width9%|No insignia
|-
!Rank Title:
|Regimental Sergeant Major of the Army
|colspan=1|Warrant Officer class 1
|colspan=1|Warrant Officer class 2
|Staff Sergeant
|colspan=1|Sergeant
|Corporal
|Lance Corporal
|colspan=2|Private
|Recruit
|-
!Abbreviation:
|RSM-A
|colspan=1|WO1
|colspan=1|WO2
|SSgt
|colspan=1|Sgt
|Cpl
|LCpl
|colspan=2|Pte
|Rec
|}
Uniforms and Dress
The Australian Army uniforms are detailed in the Australian Army Dress Manual and are grouped into nine general categories, each ranging from ceremonial dress, to general duties dress, to battle dress (in addition there are a number of special categories specific to uniforms that are only worn when posted to specific locations, like ADFA or RMC-D), these are further divided into individual 'Dress Orders' denoted by alphabetical suffixes that detail the specific items of clothing, embellishment and accoutrements, i.e. ''Dress Order No. 1A - 'Ceremonial Parade Service Dress','' Dress Order No. 2G - 'General Duty Office Dress', Dress Order No 4C 'Combat Dress (AMCU)' . The slouch hat or beret are the regular service and general duties hat, while the field hat, or combat helmet is for use in the field while training, on exercise, or on operations. In December 2013 the Chief of Army reversed a previous ban on berets as general duties headwear for all personnel except Special Forces personnel (SASR, CDO Regiments). Australian Multi-cam Camouflage Uniform is the camouflage pattern for Australian Army camouflage uniforms, and was introduced in 2014, replacing the Disruptive Pattern Camouflage Uniform (DPCU), and Disruptive Pattern Desert Uniform (DPDU) for all Australian Army orders of dress.
Equipment
, the main battle tank used by the Army]]
Firearms and artillery
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Small arms
| Enhanced F88 Austeyr (EF88) (service rifle), F89 Minimi (support weapon), Browning Hi-Power (sidearm), MAG-58 (general purpose machine gun), HK417, SR-98 (sniper rifle), Maximi and AW50F.
|-
| Special forces
| M4 carbine, Heckler & Koch USP, SR-25, F89 Minimi, MP5, SR-98, Maximi, HK416, HK417, Blaser R93 Tactical, Barrett M82 and Mk14 EBR.
|-
| Artillery
| 48 M777A2 Howitzer, 176 M252A1 81mm Mortar, and M224A1 60mm Mortar.
|}
Vehicles
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Main battle tanks
| 59 M1A1 Abrams, to be replaced by 75 M1A2 SEPv3 Abrams.
|-
| Armoured recovery vehicles
| 13 M88A2 Hercules Armoured Recovery Vehicles.
|-
| Reconnaissance vehicles
| 257 ASLAVs, to be replaced beginning in 2019 with 211 Boxers.
|-
| Armoured Personnel Carriers
| 431 M113s upgraded to M113AS3/4 standard, to be replaced with the Hanwha Redback.
|-
| Infantry Mobility Vehicles
| Bushmaster (Protected Mobility Vehicle - Medium), 31 HMT Extenda Mk1 Nary vehicles and 89 HMT Extenda Mk2.
|-
| Light Utility Vehicles
| G-Wagon 4x4 and 6x6 and Hawkei (Protected Mobility Vehicle - Light).
|-
| Trucks
| Rheinmetall MAN HX series.
|}
Support
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Radar
| AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radar, AMSTAR Ground Surveillance RADAR, AN/TPQ-48 Lightweight Counter Mortar Radar, GIRAFFE FOC, Portable Search and Target Acquisition Radar – Extended Range.
|-
| Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
|RQ-7B Shadow 200, Wasp AE, and PD-100 Black Hornet.
|}
Aircraft
{| class="wikitable"
|Transport helicopters
|14 Boeing CH-47F Chinook heavy transport helicopters. 12 Sikorsky UH-60M Black Hawk helicopters for medium lift/utility. A further 7 are to be delivered in 2025, with a total of 40 to be delivered by 2030.
|-
|Attack helicopters
|22 Eurocopter Tiger Armed Reconnaissance Helicopters (ARH), to be replaced with 29 Boeing AH-64E v6 Apache Guardians from 2025.
|-
|Training helicopters
|15 Eurocopter EC-135T2+ training helicopters, jointly shared with Navy.
|}
<gallery widths"160" style"font-size:92%; line-height:130%">
File:Australian Army (A38-017) Eurocopter Tiger ARH display at the 2015 Australian International Airshow.jpg|Australian Army Tiger ARH
File:CH-47F Chinook A15-303 operating with watercraft in June 2018.jpg|Australian Army CH-47F Chinook
</gallery>
Bases
The Army's operational headquarters, Forces Command, is located at Victoria Barracks in Sydney. The Australian Army's three regular brigades are based at Robertson Barracks near Darwin, Lavarack Barracks in Townsville, and Gallipoli Barracks in Brisbane. The Deployable Joint Force Headquarters is also located at Gallipoli Barracks.
Other important Army bases include the Army Aviation Centre near Oakey, Queensland, Holsworthy Barracks near Sydney, Lone Pine Barracks in Singleton, New South Wales and Woodside Barracks near Adelaide, South Australia. The SASR is based at Campbell Barracks Swanbourne, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia.
Puckapunyal, north of Melbourne, houses the Australian Army's Combined Arms Training Centre, Land Warfare Development Centre, and three of the five principal Combat Arms schools. Further barracks include Steele Barracks in Sydney, Keswick Barracks in Adelaide, and Irwin Barracks at Karrakatta in Perth. Dozens of Australian Army Reserve depots are located across Australia.Australian Army JournalSince June 1948, the Australian Army has published its own journal titled the Australian Army Journal. The journal's first editor was Colonel Eustace Keogh, and initially, it was intended to assume the role that the Army Training Memoranda had filled during the Second World War, although its focus, purpose, and format has shifted over time. Covering a broad range of topics including essays, book reviews and editorials, with submissions from serving members as well as professional authors, the journal's stated goal is to provide "...the primary forum for Army's professional discourse... [and]... debate within the Australian Army... [and improve the]... intellectual rigor of that debate by adhering to a strict and demanding standard of quality". In 1976, the journal was placed on hiatus as the Defence Force Journal began publication; however, publishing of the Australian Army Journal began again in 1999 and since then the journal has been published largely on a quarterly basis, with only minimal interruptions.
See also
* Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia
* Australian military slang
* Battle and theatre honours of the Australian Army
* Conscription in Australia
* List of Australian Army units
* List of Australian military memorials
*List of military weapons of Australia
*Army (newspaper)
References
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Citations
Notes
Bibliography
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External links
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* [https://www.army.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-08/Army-Dress-Manual-AL5.pdf Australian Army Dress Manual – AL5 (2013)]
Category:1901 establishments in Australia
Category:Cold War history of Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Army | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.338825 |
2799 | American Registry for Internet Numbers | | founder | location Chantilly, Virginia, United States<br>
| origins | key_people John Curran<br><br>Richard Jimmerson<br>
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| product | focus Allocation and registration of IP address space
| method | revenue
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| parent = Number Resource Organization
| Non-profit_slogan | homepage
| dissolved | footnotes
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The American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) is the regional Internet registry for the United States, Canada, and many Caribbean and North Atlantic islands. ARIN manages the distribution of Internet number resources, including IPv4 and IPv6 address space and AS numbers. ARIN opened for business on December 22, 1997 after incorporating on April 18, 1997. ARIN is a nonprofit corporation with headquarters in Chantilly, Virginia, United States.
ARIN is one of five regional Internet registries in the world. Like the other regional Internet registries, ARIN:
*Provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources
*Facilitates policy development by its members and stakeholders
*Participates in the international Internet community
*Is a nonprofit, community-based organization
*Is governed by an executive board elected by its membership
Services
ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The nature of these services is described in ARIN's mission statement:
:Applying the principles of stewardship, ARIN, a nonprofit corporation, allocates Internet Protocol resources; develops consensus-based policies; and facilitates the advancement of the Internet through information and educational outreach.
These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, Organization, and Policy Development.
Registration services
Registration services pertain to the technical coordination and inventory management of Internet number resources. Services include:
*IPv4 address allocation and assignment
*IPv6 address allocation and assignment
*AS number assignment
*Directory services including:
**Registration transaction information (WHOIS)
**Routing information (Internet routing registry)
*DNS (Reverse)
For information on requesting Internet number resources from ARIN, see https://www.arin.net/resources/index.html. This section includes the request templates, specific distribution policies, and guidelines for requesting and managing Internet number resources.
Organization services
Organization services pertain to interaction between stakeholders, ARIN members, and ARIN. Services include:
*Elections
*Members meetings
*Information publication and dissemination
*Education and training
Policy development services
Policy development services facilitate the development of policy for the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources.
All ARIN policies are set by the community. Everyone is encouraged to participate in the policy development process at public policy meetings and on the Public Policy Mailing List. The ARIN Board of Trustees ratifies policies only after:
#discussion on mailing lists and at meetings;
#ARIN Advisory Council recommendation;
#community consensus in favor of the policy; and
#full legal and fiscal review.
Membership is not required to participate in ARIN's policy development process or to apply for Internet number resources.
Services include:
*Maintaining discussion e-mail lists
*Conducting public policy meetings
*Publishing policy documents
Organizational structure
ARIN consists of the Internet community within its region, its members, a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15-member Advisory Council, and a professional staff of about 50. The board of trustees and Advisory Council are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms.
Board of trustees
The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees (BoT), which has ultimate responsibility for the business affairs and financial health of ARIN, and manages ARIN's operations in a manner consistent with the guidance received from the Advisory Council and the goals set by the registry's members. The BoT is responsible for determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure all services are provided in an equitable manner. The BoT ratifies proposals generated from the membership and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive decisions are carried out following approval by the BoT. The BoT consists of 7 members consisting of a President and CEO, a chairman, a Treasurer, and others.Advisory CouncilIn addition to the BoT, ARIN has an advisory council that advises ARIN and the BoT on IP address allocation policy and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the advisory council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the BoT for ratification. The advisory council consists of 15 elected members consisting of a chair, Vice Chair, and others.
History
The organization was formed in December 1997 to "provide IP registration services as an independent, nonprofit corporation." Until this time, IP address registration (outside of RIPE and APNIC regions) was done in accordance with policies set by the IETF by Network Solutions corporation as part of the InterNIC project. The National Science Foundation approved the plan for the creation of the not-for-profit organization to "give the users of IP numbers (mostly Internet service providers, corporations and other large institutions) a voice in the policies by which they are managed and allocated within the North American region.". As part of the transition, Network Solutions corporation transitioned these tasks as well as initial staff and computer infrastructure to ARIN.
The initial Board of Trustees consisted of Scott Bradner, John Curran, Kim Hubbard, Don Telage, Randy Bush, Raymundo Vega Aguilar, and Jon Postel (IANA) as an ex-officio member.
The first president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from 1997 until 2000. Kim was succeeded by Raymond "Ray" Plzak until the end of 2008. Trustee John Curran was acting president until July 1, 2009, when he assumed the CEO role permanently.
Until late 2002 it served Mexico, Central America, South America and all of the Caribbean. LACNIC now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa was part of its region until April 2005, when AfriNIC was officially recognized by ICANN as the fifth regional Internet registry.
On 24 September 2015 ARIN has declared exhaustion of the ARIN IPv4 addresses pool.
In 2022, ARIN changed its membership structure to allow end user customers to be considered service members, and in 2024 ARIN updated its membership structure to that ASN-only customers are treated as service members as well, while allowing any of these customers to participate in ARIN governance by requesting General Membership. As a result, all organizations with Internet number resources under an ARIN agreement can participate in ARIN's governance.Service region
The countries in the ARIN service region are:
Former service regions
ARIN formerly covered Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe until AfriNIC was formed.
ARIN formerly covered Argentina, Aruba, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands (UK), French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela until LACNIC was formed.
References
External links
*[https://www.arin.net ARIN Home Page]
Category:Organizations established in 1997
Category:1997 establishments in the United States
Category:International organizations based in the United States
Category:Organizations based in Fairfax County, Virginia
ARIN
Category:Internet in Canada
Category:Internet in the United States
Category:Internet exchange points in North America | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Registry_for_Internet_Numbers | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.346661 |
2800 | Asimov (disambiguation) | Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) was a writer.
Asimov may also refer to:
People
Stanley Asimov, Isaac Asimov's brother.
Eric Asimov, Isaac Asimov's nephew.
Places
Asimov (crater), an impact crater on Mars, named after Isaac Asimov
5020 Asimov, an asteroid named after Isaac Asimov
Other
Asimov (surname)
Asimov's Science Fiction, an American science fiction magazine named after Isaac Asimov
Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine, a short-lived American science fiction magazine named after Isaac Asimov
Isaac Asimov Awards, four separate awards established in honor of Isaac Asimov
See also
ASIMO
Azimov, Russian last name | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asimov_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.347484 |
2802 | Akihabara | | native_name_lang = ja
| map_caption = Akihabara (Tokyo City)
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = City
| subdivision_name1 =
| subdivision_type2 = Ward
| subdivision_name2 = Chiyoda, Taitō
}}
is a neighborhood in the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo, Japan, generally considered to be the area surrounding Akihabara Station (nicknamed Akihabara Electric Town). This area is part of the and Kanda-Sakumachō districts of Chiyoda. There is an administrative district called Akihabara (part of Taitō ward), located north of Akihabara Electric Town surrounding Akihabara Neribei Park.
The name Akihabara is a shortening of , which comes from , named after a fire-controlling deity of a firefighting shrine built after the area was destroyed by a fire in 1869. Akihabara gained the nickname shortly after World War II for being a major shopping center for household electronic goods and the post-war black market.
Akihabara is considered by many to be the centre of Japanese otaku culture, and is a major shopping district for video games, anime, manga, electronics and computer-related goods. Icons from popular anime and manga are displayed prominently on the shops in the area, and numerous maid cafés and some arcades are found throughout the district.
Geography
The main area of Akihabara is located on a street just west of Akihabara Station.
Since its opening in 1890, Akihabara Station became a major freight transit point, which allowed a vegetable and fruit market to spring up. In the 1920s, the station saw a large volume of passengers after opening for public transport. After World War II, the black market thrived in the absence of a strong government. This disconnection of Akihabara from government authority allowed the district to grow as a market city.
As household electronics began to lose their futuristic appeal in the 1980s, the shops of Akihabara shifted their focus to home computers, at a time when they were only used by specialists and hobbyists. This brought in a new type of consumer, computer nerds or otaku.Otaku culture
The streets of Akihabara are covered with anime and manga icons, and cosplayers line the sidewalks handing out advertisements, especially for maid cafés. Release events, special events, and conventions are common in Akihabara. Architects design the stores of Akihabara to be opaque and closed, to reflect the desire of many otaku to live in their anime worlds rather than display their interests.
Akihabara's role as a free market has allowed a large amount of amateur work to find an audience. Doujinshi (amateur or fanmade manga) has been growing in Akihabara since the 1970s. bus and car.
Akihabara Station
* Keihin-Tohoku Line (JK-28)
* Yamanote Line (JY-03)
* Chūō-Sōbu Line (JB-19)
* Hibiya Line (H-16)
* Tsukuba Express (TX01)
Iwamotocho Station
* Toei Shinjuku Line (S-08)
Suehirocho Station
* Ginza Line (G-14)
See also
*Akiba-kei
*Akihabara Trilogy
*Kanda Shrine, Shinto shrine near Akihabara
*Nipponbashi, in Osaka
*Ōsu, in Nagoya
*Tourism in Japan
References
External links
* [http://akihabara-japan.com/ Akihabara Area Tourism Organization]
* [http://www.akiba.or.jp/english/ Akihabara Electrical Town Organization website]
* [https://www.gotokyo.org/en/destinations/central-tokyo/akihabara/index.html Go Tokyo Akihabara Guide]
Category:Chiyoda, Tokyo
Category:Electronics districts
Category:Neighborhoods of Tokyo
Category:Otaku
Category:Shopping districts and streets in Japan
Category:Taitō
Category:Tourist attractions in Tokyo
Category:Akiha faith | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihabara | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.352444 |
2807 | Active Directory | Active Directory (AD) is a directory service developed by Microsoft for Windows domain networks. Windows Server operating systems include it as a set of processes and services. Originally, only centralized domain management used Active Directory. However, it ultimately became an umbrella title for various directory-based identity-related services.
A domain controller is a server running the Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) role. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain-type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer which is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or a non-admin user. Furthermore, it allows the management and storage of information, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Certificate Services, Active Directory Federation Services, Lightweight Directory Services, and Rights Management Services.
Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft's version of Kerberos, and DNS.
Robert R. King defined it in the following way:
History
Like many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Requests for Comments (RFCs). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) oversees the RFC process and has accepted numerous RFCs initiated by widespread participants. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also, X.500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that uses those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early as 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on the LDAP API, August 1995), RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533.
Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003. Active Directory support was also added to Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT 4.0 via patch, with some unsupported features. Additional improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server. In Windows Server 2008, Microsoft added further services to Active Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services. The part of the directory in charge of managing domains, which was a core part of the operating system, According to Byron Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Active Directory's banner.
Lightweight Directory Services
Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), previously called Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM), implements the LDAP protocol for AD DS. It runs as a service on Windows Server and offers the same functionality as AD DS, including an equal API. However, AD LDS does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Data Store for storing directory data and a Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike AD DS, multiple AD LDS instances can operate on the same server.
Certificate Services
Active Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on-premises public key infrastructure. It can create, validate, revoke and perform other similar actions, public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can be used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System), emails (per S/MIME standard), and network traffic (when used by virtual private networks, Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol).
AD CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name was simply Certificate Services.
AD CS requires an AD DS infrastructure.
Federation Services
Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a single sign-on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web-based services (e.g. internet forum, blog, online shopping, webmail) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a central location, as opposed to having to be granted a dedicated set of credentials for each service. AD FS uses many popular open standards to pass token credentials such as SAML, OAuth or OpenID Connect. AD FS supports encryption and signing of SAML assertions. AD FS's purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and use the devices that are part of the same network, using one set of credentials. The former enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network.
As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity.
AD FS requires an AD DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not.
Rights Management Services
Active Directory Rights Management Services (AD RMS), previously known as Rights Management Services or RMS before Windows Server 2008, is server software that allows for information rights management, included with Windows Server. It uses encryption and selective denial to restrict access to various documents, such as corporate e-mails, Microsoft Word documents, and web pages. It also limits the operations authorized users can perform on them, such as viewing, editing, copying, saving, or printing. IT administrators can create pre-set templates for end users for convenience, but end users can still define who can access the content and what actions they can take.
Logical structure
Active Directory is a service comprising a database and executable code. It is responsible for managing requests and maintaining the database. The Directory System Agent is the executable part, a set of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later. Accessing the objects in Active Directory databases is possible through various interfaces such as LDAP, ADSI, messaging API, and Security Accounts Manager services.
Objects used
thumb|A simplified example of a publishing company's internal network. The company has four groups with varying permissions to the three shared folders on the network.Active Directory structures consist of information about objects classified into two categories: resources (such as printers) and security principals (which include user or computer accounts and groups). Each security principal is assigned a unique security identifier (SID). An object represents a single entity, such as a user, computer, printer, or group, along with its attributes. Some objects may even contain other objects within them. Each object has a unique name, and its definition is a set of characteristics and information by a schema, which determines the storage in the Active Directory.
Administrators can extend or modify the schema using the schema object when needed. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing them can fundamentally alter or disrupt a deployment. Modifying the schema affects the entire system automatically, and new objects cannot be deleted, only deactivated. Changing the schema usually requires planning.
Forests, trees, and domains
In an Active Directory network, the framework that holds objects has different levels: the forest, tree, and domain. Domains within a deployment contain objects stored in a single replicable database, and the DNS name structure identifies their domains, the namespace. A domain is a logical group of network objects such as computers, users, and devices that share the same Active Directory database.
On the other hand, a tree is a collection of domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. The forest is at the top of the structure, a collection of trees with a standard global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration. The forest is a secure boundary that limits access to users, computers, groups, and other objects.
File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-Boston File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-New York File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-Philly File:Icons-mini-page tree.gif Tree-Southern File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-Atlanta File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-Dallas
File:Icons-mini-page url.gif Domain-Dallas File:Icons-mini-folder.gif OU-Marketing File:Icons-mini-icon user.gif Hewitt File:Icons-mini-icon user.gif Aon File:Icons-mini-icon user.gif Steve File:Icons-mini-folder.gif OU-Sales File:Icons-mini-icon user.gif Bill File:Icons-mini-icon user.gif Ralph Example of the geographical organizing of zones of interest within trees and domains
Organizational units
The objects held within a domain can be grouped into organizational units (OUs). OUs can provide hierarchy to a domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the organization's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and simplifying the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well.
Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical SamAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This is because SamAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same common name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as "fred.staff-ou.domain" and "fred.student-ou.domain", where "staff-ou" and "student-ou" are the OUs.
In general, the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager. Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.
As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as "first initial, middle initial, last name" (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family names like Li (李), Smith or Garcia. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student ID numbers to use as account names in place of actual users' names and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy.
Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within a domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network.
Shadow groups
thumb|In Active Directory, organizational units (OUs) cannot be assigned as owners or trustees. Only groups are selectable, and members of OUs cannot be collectively assigned rights to directory objects.
In Microsoft's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. It represents a design limitation specific to Active Directory, and other competing directories, such as Novell NDS, can set access privileges through object placement within an OU.
Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a group member also within that OU. Using only the OU location to determine access permissions is unreliable since the entity might not have been assigned to the group object for that OU yet.
A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their Directory. The scripts run periodically to update the group to match the OU's account membership. However, they cannot instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories, as security is directly implemented into the Directory. Such groups are known as shadow groups. Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools. Microsoft's Server 2008 reference documentation mentions shadow groups but does not provide instructions on creating them. Additionally, there are no available server methods or console snap-ins for managing these groups.
An organization must determine the structure of its information infrastructure by dividing it into one or more domains and top-level OUs. This decision is critical and can base on various models such as business units, geographical locations, IT service, object type, or a combination of these models. The immediate purpose of organizing OUs is to simplify administrative delegation and, secondarily, to apply group policies. While OUs serve as an administrative boundary, the forest itself is the only security boundary. All other domains must trust any administrator in the forest to maintain security.
Partitions
The Active Directory database is organized in partitions, each holding specific object types and following a particular replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts. The 'Schema' partition defines object classes and attributes within the forest. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). Both replicate all domains in the forest. The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within it.
Physical structure
Sites are physical (rather than logical) groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. AD also defines connections, distinguishing low-speed (e.g., WAN, VPN) from high-speed (e.g., LAN) links. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU structure and are shared across the forest. Sites play a crucial role in managing network traffic created by replication and directing clients to their nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Administrators can also define policies at the site level.
The Active Directory information is physically held on one or more peer domain controllers, replacing the NT PDC/BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Member servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. In the domain partition, a group of objects acts as copies of domain controllers set up as global catalogs. These global catalog servers offer a comprehensive list of all objects in the forest.
Global Catalog servers replicate all objects from all domains to themselves, providing an international listing of entities in the forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated, called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking features for replication to the GC. Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP/IP—DNS. To fully operate, the DNS server must support SRV resource records, also known as service records.
Replication
Active Directory uses multi-master replication to synchronize changes, meaning replicas pull changes from the server where the change occurred rather than being pushed to them. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) uses defined sites to manage traffic and create a replication topology of site links. Intra-site replication occurs frequently and automatically due to change notifications, which prompt peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Replication intervals between different sites are usually less consistent and don't usually use change notifications. However, it's possible to set it up to be the same as replication between locations on the same network if needed.
Each DS3, T1, and ISDN link can have a cost, and the KCC alters the site link topology accordingly. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges if the price is low. However, KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. A bridgehead server in each zone can send updates to other DCs in the exact location to replicate changes between sites. To configure replication for Active Directory zones, activate DNS in the domain based on the site.
To replicate Active Directory, Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC/IP) are used. SMTP is used to replicate between sites but only for modifications in the Schema, Configuration, or Partial Attribute Set (Global Catalog) GCs. It's not suitable for reproducing the default Domain partition.
Implementation
Generally, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory are possible for a network with a single domain controller. However, Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory. Domain controllers are ideally single-purpose for directory operations only and should not run any other software or role.
Since certain Microsoft products, like SQL Server and Exchange, can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, isolation of these products on additional Windows servers is advised. Combining them can complicate the configuration and troubleshooting of the domain controller or the other installed software more complex. If planning to implement Active Directory, a business should purchase multiple Windows server licenses to have at least two separate domain controllers. Administrators should consider additional domain controllers for performance or redundancy and individual servers for tasks like file storage, Exchange, and SQL Server since this will guarantee that all server roles are adequately supported.
One way to lower the physical hardware costs is by using virtualization. However, for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.
Database
The Active-Directory database, the directory store, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98). Each domain controller's database is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects (but only 1 billion security principals). Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. NT4's Security Account Manager could support up to 40,000 objects. It has two main tables: the data table and the link table. Windows Server 2003 added a third main table for security descriptor single instancing. via the COM interfaces provided by Active Directory Service Interfaces.
Trusting
To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts.
Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest.
Terminology
One-way trust
One domain allows access to users on another domain, but the other domain does not allow access to users on the first domain.
Two-way trust
Two domains allow access to users on both domains.
Trusted domain
The domain that is trusted; whose users have access to the trusting domain.
Transitive trust
A trust that can extend beyond two domains to other trusted domains in the forest.
Intransitive trust
A one way trust that does not extend beyond two domains.
Explicit trust
A trust that an admin creates. It is not transitive and is one way only.
Cross-link trust
An explicit trust between domains in different trees or the same tree when a descendant/ancestor (child/parent) relationship does not exist between the two domains.
Shortcut
Joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way.
Forest trust
Applies to the entire forest. Transitive, one- or two-way.
Realm
Can be transitive or nontransitive (intransitive), one- or two-way.
External
Connect to other forests or non-Active Directory domains. Nontransitive, one- or two-way.
PAM trust
A one-way trust used by Microsoft Identity Manager from a (possibly low-level) production forest to a (Windows Server 2016 functionality level) 'bastion' forest, which issues time-limited group memberships.
Management tools
Microsoft Active Directory management tools include:
Active Directory Administrative Center (Introduced with Windows Server 2012 and above),
Active Directory Users and Computers,
Active Directory Domains and Trusts,
Active Directory Sites and Services,
ADSI Edit,
Local Users and Groups,
Active Directory Schema snap-ins for Microsoft Management Console (MMC),
SysInternals ADExplorer.
These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in large environments. Some third-party tools extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration process, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc.
Unix integration
Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix-like operating systems (including Unix, Linux, Mac OS X or Java and Unix-based programs) through standards-compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one-way trusts.
Third parties offer Active Directory integration for Unix-like platforms, including:
PowerBroker Identity Services, formerly Likewise (BeyondTrust, formerly Likewise Software) – Allows a non-Windows client to join Active Directory
ADmitMac (Thursby Software Systems)
The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely enough to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, support these attributes directly. The default schema for group membership complies with RFC 2307bis (proposed). Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Console snap-in that creates and edits the attributes.
An alternative option is to use another directory service as non-Windows clients authenticate to this while Windows Clients authenticate to Active Directory. Non-Windows clients include 389 Directory Server (formerly Fedora Directory Server, FDS), ViewDS v7.2 XML Enabled Directory, and Sun Microsystems Sun Java System Directory Server. The latter two are both able to perform two-way synchronization with Active Directory and thus provide a "deflected" integration.
Another option is to use OpenLDAP with its translucent overlay, which can extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched.
Administration (querying, modifying, and monitoring) of Active Directory can be achieved via many scripting languages, including PowerShell, VBScript, JScript/JavaScript, Perl, Python, and Ruby. Free and non-free Active Directory administration tools can help to simplify and possibly automate Active Directory management tasks.
Since October 2017 Amazon AWS offers integration with Microsoft Active Directory.
See also
AGDLP (implementing role based access controls using nested groups)
Apple Open Directory
Flexible single master operation
FreeIPA
List of LDAP software
System Security Services Daemon (SSSD)
Univention Corporate Server
References
External links
Microsoft Technet: White paper: Active Directory Architecture (Single technical document that gives an overview about Active Directory.)
Microsoft Technet: Detailed description of Active Directory on Windows Server 2003
Microsoft MSDN Library: [MS-ADTS: Active Directory Technical Specification] (part of the Microsoft Open Specification Promise)
Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM)
Microsoft MSDN: [AD-LDS: Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services]
Microsoft TechNet: [AD-LDS: Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services]
Microsoft MSDN: Active Directory Schema
Microsoft TechNet: Understanding Schema
Microsoft TechNet Magazine: Extending the Active Directory Schema
Microsoft MSDN: Active Directory Certificate Services
Microsoft TechNet: Active Directory Certificate Services
Category:Directory services
Category:Public key infrastructure
Category:Microsoft server technology
Category:Windows components
Category:Windows 2000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Directory | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.419369 |
2809 | Arian (disambiguation) | Arianism is a nontrinitarian Christological doctrine.
Arian may also refer to:
Pertaining to Arius
A follower of Arius, a Christian presbyter in the 3rd and 4th century
Arian controversy, several controversies which divided the early Christian church
Arian fragment, Arian palimpsest
People
Groups of people
Arians or Areians, ancient people living in Ariana (origin of the modern name Iran)
Aryan, a term associated with the Proto-Indo-Iranians
Aryan race, the racial concept
An inhabitant of Aria (today's Herat, Afghanistan), used by the ancient and medieval Greeks (as Ἄρ(ε)ιοι/Ar(e)ioi) and Romans (as Arii)
Given name
Arian Asllani (born 1983), American rapper known as Action Bronson
Arian Bimo (born 1959), Albanian footballer
Arian Çuliqi, Albanian television director and screenwriter
Arian Foster (born 1986), American football player
Arian Hametaj (born 1957), Albanian footballer
Arián Iznaga, Cuban Paralympian sprinter
Arian Kabashi (born 1996), Kosovan footballer
Arian Kabashi (born 1997), Swedish footballer
Arlan Lerio (born 1976), Filipino boxer
Arian Leviste (born 1970), American electronic music artist, producer, and DJ
Arian Moayed (born 1980), Iranian-born American actor and theater producer
Arian Moreno (born 2003), Venezuelan footballer
Arian Nik (born 1994), British actor
Arian Smith (born 2001), American football player
Surname
Arian is a surname that originated in Ancient Persia
Arman Arian (born 1981), Iranian author, novelist and researcher
Asher Arian (1938–2010), American political scientist
Asma Arian, German-Qatari human rights activist
Laila Al-Arian (born 1980s), American broadcast journalist
Sami Al-Arian (born 1958), Palestinian-American civil rights activist
Praskovia Arian (1864–1949) Russian and Soviet writer and feminist
Bruce Arians (born 1952), American football coach and former player
Jake Arians (born 1978), American football player
Other
Arian (band), a pop band in Iran
Arian (newspaper), an Iranian newspaper since 1914
Arian, an outsider's name for a member of the Polish Brethren
Arian, a person born under the constellation Aries (astrology)
See also
Arian Kartli, ancient Georgian country
Al-Arian, an Arab village in northern Israel
Aaryan, a given name and surname
Ariane (disambiguation), the French spelling of Ariadne, a character in Greek mythology
Ariann Black, Canadian-American female magician
Ariano (disambiguation)
Arien (disambiguation)
Arius (disambiguation)
Ariyan A. Johnson
Arrian, Greek historian
Aryan (name)
Ghamar Ariyan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arian_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.421714 |
2810 | Aldona of Lithuania | | birth_place | death_date
| death_place = Kraków, Kingdom of Poland
| place of burial = Wawel Cathedral, Kraków
| spouse = Casimir III
| issue = Elisabeth<br />Cunigunde
| house = Gediminas
| father = Gediminas
| mother = Jewna
}}
Aldona (baptized Ona or Anna; her pagan name, Aldona, is known only from the writings of Maciej Stryjkowski; Casimir was seeking allies in the dispute over Pomerania with the Order. Gediminas had just undertaken an unsuccessful attempt to Christianize Lithuania. This coalition was a prelude to the Union of Krewo in 1385, and the Union of Lublin in 1569, which resulted in the creation of a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The details of the agreement are not known; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish captives, some 25,000 people, who returned to Poland. The alliance was put into effect when joint Polish–Lithuanian forces organized an attack against the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1326. Her husband Casimir is known for his romantic affairs: after Aldona's death he married three more times.
Issue
Aldona had two daughters:
* Cunigunde of Poland (died in 1357); married on 1 January 1345 Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
* Elisabeth (1326–1361); married Bogislaus V, Duke of Pomerania. Elisabeth's daughter, Elizabeth of Pomerania, was the fourth wife of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
In popular culture
Film
Queen Aldona Anna is one of the main characters in the first season of Polish historical TV drama series "Korona Królów" ("The Crown of the Kings"). She is played by Marta Bryła.
See also
* Family of Gediminas – family tree of Aldona
* Gediminids
* Aldona (fungus) (family Parmulariaceae), was named after her in 1900.
References
Category:1300s births
Category:1339 deaths
Category:14th-century Polish nobility
Category:Queens consort of Poland
Category:Gediminids
Category:Piast dynasty
Category:14th-century Lithuanian nobility
Category:14th-century Lithuanian women
Category:14th-century Polish women
Category:Lithuanian princesses
Category:Casimir III the Great | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldona_of_Lithuania | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.424937 |
2812 | Aron Nimzowitsch | | birth_place = Riga, Governorate of Livonia, Russian Empire
| death_date
| death_place = Copenhagen, Denmark
| citizenship = Russian Empire (until 1917)<br/>Stateless (1917–1922)<br/>Denmark (1922–1935)
| occupation = Chess player
| notable_works = My System
}}
Aron Nimzowitsch (; , Aron Isayevich Nimtsovich; 7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935) was a Latvian-born Danish chess player and writer. In the late 1920s, Nimzowitsch was one of the best chess players in the world. He was the foremost figure amongst the hypermoderns and wrote a very influential book on chess theory: My System (1925–1927). Nimzowitsch's seminal work Chess Praxis, originally published in German in 1929, was purchased by a pre-teen and future World Champion Tigran Petrosian and was to have a great influence on his development as a chess player. Life Born in Riga, then part of the Russian Empire, the Jewish Yiddish-speaking Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy family, where he learned chess from his father Shaya Abramovich Nimzowitsch (1860, Pinsk – 1918), who was a timber merchant. By 1897, the family lived in Dvinsk. Mother's name: Esphir Nohumovna Nimzowitsch (born Rabinovich, 1865, Polotsk – 1937), sister – Tsilya-Kreyna Pevzner, brothers Yakov, Osey and Benno. In 1904, he travelled to Berlin to study philosophy, but set aside his studies soon and began a career as a professional chess player that same year. He won his first international tournament at Munich 1906. Then, he tied for first with Alexander Alekhine at Saint Petersburg 1913/14 (the eighth All-Russian Masters' Tournament).
During the 1917 Russian Revolution, Nimzowitsch was in the Baltic war zone. He escaped being drafted into one of the armies by feigning madness, insisting that a fly was on his head. He then escaped to Berlin, and gave his first name as Arnold, possibly to avoid anti-Semitic persecution.
Nimzowitsch eventually moved to Copenhagen in 1922, where he lived for the rest of his life in one small rented room. In Copenhagen, he won the Nordic Championship twice, in 1924 and in 1934. He obtained Danish citizenship and lived in Denmark until his death in 1935.
Chess career
The height of Nimzowitsch's career was the late 1920s and early 1930s. Chessmetrics places him as the third best player in the world from 1927 to 1931, behind Alexander Alekhine and José Capablanca. His most notable successes were first-place finishes at Copenhagen 1923, Marienbad 1925, Dresden 1926, Hanover 1926, the Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament, and second place behind Alekhine at the San Remo 1930 chess tournament. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play, though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine, but the match consisted of only two games and took place in 1914, thirteen years before Alekhine became world champion.
Nimzowitsch never beat Capablanca (+0−56), but fared better against Alekhine (+3−99). He even beat Alekhine with the black pieces, in their short 1914 match at St. Petersburg. One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games is his celebrated immortal zugzwang game against Sämisch at Copenhagen 1923. Another game on this theme is his win over Paul Johner at Dresden 1926. When in form, Nimzowitsch was very dangerous with the black pieces, scoring many fine wins over top players.
Legacy
Nimzowitsch is considered one of the most important players and writers in chess history. His works influenced numerous other players, including Savielly Tartakower, Milan Vidmar, Richard Réti, Akiba Rubinstein, Mikhail Botvinnik, Bent Larsen, Viktor Korchnoi and Tigran Petrosian, and his influence is still felt today.
He wrote three books on chess strategy: Mein System (My System), 1925; Die Praxis meines Systems (The Practice of My System), 1929, commonly known as Chess Praxis; and Die Blockade (The Blockade), 1925, although much in this book is generally held to be a rehash of material already presented in Mein System. Mein System is considered to be one of the most influential chess books of all time. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas, while his second most influential work, Chess Praxis, elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games accompanied by his idiosyncratic, hyperbolic commentary which is often as entertaining as instructive.
Nimzowitsch's chess theories, when first propounded, flew in the face of widely held orthodoxies enunciated by the dominant theorist of the era, Siegbert Tarrasch, and his disciples. Tarrasch's rigid generalizations drew on the earlier work of Wilhelm Steinitz, and were upheld by Tarrasch's sharp tongue when dismissing the opinions of doubters. While the greatest players of the time, among them Alekhine, Emanuel Lasker and Capablanca, clearly did not allow their play to be hobbled by blind adherence to general concepts that the center had to be controlled by pawns, that development had to happen in support of this control, that rooks always belong on open files, that wing openings were unsound—core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy as popularly understood—beginners were taught to think of these generalizations as unalterable principles.
Nimzowitsch supplemented many of the earlier simplistic assumptions about chess strategy by enunciating in his turn a further number of general concepts of defensive play aimed at achieving one's own goals by preventing realization of the opponent's plans. Notable in his "system" were concepts such as overprotection of pieces and pawns under attack, control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockading of opposing pieces (notably the passed pawns) and prophylaxis. His aforementioned game versus Paul Johner in 1926 (listed in the notable games below) is a great example of Nimzowitsch's concept of 'first restrain, then blockade and finally destroy'. He manoeuvres the black queen from its starting point to h7 to form a part of king-side blockade along with the knight on f6 and h-pawn to stop any attacking threats from White. He was also a leading exponent of the fianchetto development of bishops. Perhaps most importantly, he formulated the terminology still in use for various complex chess strategies. Others had used these ideas in practice, but he was the first to present them systematically as a lexicon of themes accompanied by extensive taxonomical observations.
Raymond Keene writes that Nimzowitsch "was one of the world's leading grandmasters for a period extending over a quarter of a century, and for some of that time he was the obvious challenger for the world championship. ... [He was also] a great and profound chess thinker second only to Steinitz, and his works – Die Blockade, My System and Chess Praxis – established his reputation as one of the father figures of modern chess." GM Robert Byrne called him "perhaps the most brilliant theoretician and teacher in the history of the game." GM Jan Hein Donner called Nimzowitsch "a man who was too much of an artist to be able to prove he was right and who was regarded as something of a madman in his time. He would be understood only long after his death."
Many chess openings and variations are named after Nimzowitsch, the most famous being the Nimzo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played Nimzowitsch Defence (1.e4 Nc6). Nimzowitsch biographer GM Raymond Keene and others have referred to 1.Nf3 followed by 2.b3 as the Nimzowitsch–Larsen Attack. Keene wrote a book about the opening with that title. These openings all exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces instead of pawns. He was also vital in the development of two important systems in the French Defence, the Winawer Variation (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the Advance Variation (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5). He also pioneered two provocative variations of the Sicilian Defence: the Nimzowitsch Variation, 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6, which invites 3.e5 Nd5 (similar to Alekhine's Defence) and 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 d5?! (the latter regarded as dubious today). International Master John L. Watson has dubbed the line 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4 the "Nimzo-English", employing this designation in Chapter 11 of his book Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 3. Personality
There are many entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitsch—some less savory than others. An article by Hans Kmoch and Fred Reinfeld entitled "Unconventional Surrender" on page 55 of the February 1950 Chess Review tells of the "... example of Nimzowitsch, who ... once missed first prize in a tournament in Berlin by losing to Sämisch, and when it became clear he was going to lose the game, Nimzowitsch stood up on the table and shouted, 'Gegen diesen Idioten muss ich verlieren!' ('I must lose to this idiot!')".
Nimzowitsch was annoyed by his opponents' smoking. A popular, but probably apocryphal, story is that once when an opponent laid an unlit cigar on the table, he complained to the tournament arbiters, "He is threatening to smoke, and as an old player you must know that the threat is stronger than the execution."
Nimzowitsch had lengthy and somewhat bitter dogmatic conflicts with Tarrasch over whose ideas constituted 'proper' chess.
Nimzowitsch's vanity and faith in his ideas of overprotection provoked Hans Kmoch to write a parody about him in February 1928 in the Wiener Schachzeitung. This consisted of a mock game against the fictional player "Systemsson", supposedly played and annotated by Nimzowitsch himself. The annotations gleefully exaggerate the idea of overprotection, as well as asserting the true genius of the wondrous idea. Kmoch was in fact a great admirer of Nimzowitsch, and Nimzowitsch was amused at the effort.
Kmoch also wrote an article about his nine years with Nimzowitsch: He is buried in Bispebjerg Cemetery in Copenhagen.
Notable games
* Friedrich Sämisch vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Copenhagen 1923, 0–1
* Paul Johner vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Dresden 1926, 0–1 This game was chosen by Bent Larsen as his favourite game in Learn from the Grandmasters.
* Richard Réti vs Aron Nimzowitsch, Berlin 1928, 0–1
* Efim Bogoljubov vs Aron Nimzowitsch, San Remo 1930, 0–1 <ref nameReinhardt2016/> See also
* List of chess games
* List of Jewish chess players
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140829153028/http://home.swipnet.se/~w-148618/spellings.htm A.N.'s Alternative Spellings of Names]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~wimnij/bio.html Nimzowitsch related articles]
Category:1886 births
Category:1935 deaths
Category:Chess players from the Russian Empire
Category:Danish chess players
Category:Jewish chess players
Category:Chess players from Riga
Category:Latvian Jews
Category:Danish Ashkenazi Jews
Category:Danish people of Russian-Jewish descent
Category:Chess theoreticians
Category:Danish chess writers
Category:Danish male writers
Category:Deaths from cancer in Denmark
Category:Immigrants to Denmark
Category:Russian emigrants to Denmark
Category:Burials at East Bispebjerg Cemetery
Category:Chess players from Copenhagen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aron_Nimzowitsch | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.433563 |
2813 | Aragonese language | | pronunciation =
| ethnicity = Aragonese
| states = Spain
| region = Aragon; northern and central Huesca and northern Zaragoza
| speakers = Active speakers: 10,000–12,000
| date = 2017
| ref It is the only modern language which survived from medieval Navarro-Aragonese in a form distinct from Spanish.
Historically, people referred to the language as ('talk' or 'speech'). Native Aragonese people usually refer to it by the names of its local dialects such as (from Valle de Hecho) or (from the Benasque Valley).
History
Aragonese, which developed in portions of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages similar to modern Basque might have been previously spoken. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded southward from the mountains, pushing the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language.
The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two territories; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west, with the boundaries blurred by dialectal continuity. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended with the cession of Murcia by James I of Aragon to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess.
The best-known proponent of the Aragonese language was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote an extensive catalog of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).
The spread of Castilian (Spanish), the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Castilian (Spanish) and Aragonese facilitated the recession of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera.
In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in schools and the establishment of Castilian (Spanish) as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707.
In recent times, Aragonese was mostly regarded as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. Compulsory education undermined its already weak position; for example, pupils were punished for using it. However, the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy heralded literary works and studies of the language.
Modern Aragonese
Aragonese is the native language of the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the comarcas of Somontano, Jacetania, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza. Cities and towns in which Aragonese is spoken are Huesca, Graus, Monzón, Barbastro, Bielsa, Chistén, Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, Benasque, Campo, Sabiñánigo, Jaca, Plan, Ansó, Ayerbe, Broto, and El Grado.
It is spoken as a second language by inhabitants of Zaragoza, Huesca, Ejea de los Caballeros, or Teruel. According to recent polls, there are about 25,500 speakers (2011) Some of the legislation was repealed by a new law in 2013 (Law 3/2013). [See Languages Acts of Aragon for more information on the subject]
Dialects
*Western dialect: Ansó, Valle de Hecho, Chasa, Berdún, Chaca
*Central dialect: Panticosa, Biescas, Torla, Broto, Bielsa, Yebra de Basa, Aínsa-Sobrarbe
*Eastern dialect: Benás, Plan, Bisagorri, Campo, Perarrúa, Graus, Estadilla
*Southern dialect: Agüero, Ayerbe, Rasal, Bolea, Lierta, Uesca, Almudévar, Nozito, Labata, Alguezra, Angüés, Pertusa, Balbastro, Nabal Phonology TraitsAragonese has many historical traits in common with Catalan. Some are conservative features that are also shared with the Asturleonese languages and Galician–Portuguese, where Spanish innovated in ways that did not spread to nearby languages.Shared with Catalan
*Romance initial f- is preserved, e.g. > ('son', Sp. , Cat. , Pt. ).
*Romance groups cl-, fl- and pl- are preserved and in most dialects do not undergo any change, e.g. clavis > clau ('key', Sp. llave, Cat. clau, Pt. chave). However, in some transitional dialects from both sides (Ribagorzano in Aragonese and Ribagorçà and Pallarès in Catalan) it becomes cll-, fll- and pll-, e.g. clavis > cllau.
*Romance palatal approximant (ge-, gi-, i-) consistently became medieval , as in medieval Catalan and Portuguese. This becomes modern ch , as a result of the devoicing of sibilants (see below). In Spanish, the medieval result was either /, (modern ), , or nothing, depending on the context. e.g. > ('young man', Sp. , Cat. ), > ('to freeze', Sp. , Cat. ).
*Romance groups -lt-, -ct- result in , e.g. > ('done', Sp. , Cat. , Gal./Port. ), > ('many, much', Sp. , Cat. , Gal. , Port. ).
*Romance groups -x-, -ps-, scj- result in voiceless palatal fricative ix , e.g. > ('crippled', Sp. , Cat. ).
*Romance groups -lj-, ''-c'l-, -t'l- result in palatal lateral ll'' , e.g. > ('woman', Sp. , Cat. ), > ('needle', Sp. , Cat. ).
Shared with Catalan and Spanish
*Open o, e from Romance result systematically in diphthongs , , e.g. > ('old woman', Sp. , Cat. , Pt. ). This includes before a palatal approximant, e.g. > ('eight', Sp. , Cat. , Pt. oito). Spanish diphthongizes except before yod, whereas Catalan only diphthongizes before yod.
*Voiced stops may be lenited to approximants .
Shared with Spanish
*Loss of final unstressed -e but not -o, e.g. > ('big'), > ('done'). Catalan loses both -e and -o (Cat. , ); Spanish preserves -o and sometimes -e (Sp. , ~ ).
*Former voiced sibilants become voiceless (, ).
*The palatal is most often realized as a fricative .Shared with neither
*Latin -b- is maintained in past imperfect endings of verbs of the second and third conjugations: ('he had', Sp. , Cat. ), ('he was sleeping', Sp. , Cat. ).
*High Aragonese dialects () and some dialects of Gascon have preserved the voicelessness of many intervocalic stop consonants, e.g. > ('sheep hurdle', Cat. , Fr. ), > ('crested lark', Sp. , Cat. ).
*Several Aragonese dialects maintain Latin -ll- as geminate .
*The mid vowels can be as open as , mainly in the Benasque dialect.
*No native word can begin with an , a trait shared with Gascon and Basque.Vowels{| class"wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes
|-
!
!Front
!Central
!Back
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Close
| || ||
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Mid
| || ||
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Open
| || ||
|}
Consonants
{| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center
|-
|+Consonant phonemes
! colspan=2|
! Labial
! Dental
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! colspan=2| Nasal
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosive
!
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2| Fricative
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2| Approximant
!
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2| Flap
|
|
|
|
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|-
! colspan=2| Trill
|
|
|
|
|
|}
Orthography
Before 2023, Aragonese had three orthographic standards:
* The , codified in 1987 by the Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa (CFA) at a convention in Huesca, is used by most Aragonese writers. It has a more uniform system of assigning letters to phonemes, with less regard for etymology; words traditionally written with and are uniformly written with in the Uesca system. Similarly, , , and before and are all written . It uses letters associated with Spanish, such as .
* The , devised in 2004 by the Sociedat de Lingüistica Aragonesa (SLA), is used by some Aragonese writers. It uses etymological forms which are closer to Catalan, Occitan, and medieval Aragonese sources; trying to come closer to the original Aragonese and the other Occitano-Romance languages. In the SLA system , , , , and before and are distinct, and the digraph replaces .
* In 2010, the Academia de l'Aragonés (founded in 2006) established an orthographic standard to modernize medieval orthography and to make it more etymological.
During the 16th century, Aragonese Moriscos wrote aljamiado texts (Romance texts in Arabic script), possibly because of their inability to write in Arabic. The language in these texts has a mixture of Aragonese and Castilian traits, and they are among the last known written examples of the Aragonese formerly spoken in central and southern Aragon.
|-
! Sounds and features
! Academia de l'Aragonés
! Grafía SLA
! Grafía de Uesca (1987)
|-
|
| a
| a
| a
|-
|
| b, v according to Latin etymology <br />Ex: bien, servicio, val, activo, cantaba, debant
| b, v according to Medieval etymology, as in Catalan and Occitan<br />Ex: bien, servício, val, activo, cantava, devant
| b<br />Ex: bien, serbizio, bal, autibo, cantaba, debán
|-
|
|
* c
* qu before e, i
|
* c
* qu before e, i
|
* c
* qu before e, i
|-
|
| If there is an etymological q, as in Catalan and a bit in Occitan:
* qu before a, o
* qü before e, i<br />Ex: quan, qüestión
| If there is an etymological q, as in Catalan and a bit in Occitan:
* qu before a, o
* qü before e, i<br />Ex: quan, qüestion
| cu as in Spanish<br />Ex: cuan, cuestión
|-
|
|
* z before a, o, u
* c before e, i (except some loanwords that have z in their etyma)
* z in final position (but tz as a grapheme reflecting the t+s that became ts in Benasquese in various plurals and verb forms)<!-- NOTE: I'm not sure if the current text is accurate; the original text, which is kind of hard to understand, is as follows: "but tz as a grapheme for plurals and verb forms from t+s that in Benasquese become ts"-->
<br />Ex: zona, Provenza, fetz, centro, servicio, realizar, verdatz
|
* z before a, o, u, in initial position
* ç before a, o, u, in inner position
* z in final position
* c before e, i
* z in international formations (learned Greek words and loans that have z in their etyma)<br />Ex: zona, Provença, fez, centro, servício, realizar, verdaz
| z<br />Ex: zona, Probenza, fez, zentro, serbizio, realizar, berdaz
|-
|
| d
| d
| d
|-
|
| e
|e
| e
|-
|
| f
| f
| f
|-
|
|
* g
* gu before e, i
|
* g
* gu before e, i
|
* g
* gu before e, i
|-
|
|
* gu before a, o
* gü before e, i
|
* gu before a, o
* gü before e, i
|
* gu before a, o
* gü before e, i
|-
|
| ch<br />Ex: chaminera, minchar, chusticia, cheografía
|
* ch
* j (g before e, i) according to etymology, as in Catalan and Occitan<br />Ex: chaminera, minjar, justícia, geografia
| ch<br />Ex: chaminera, minchar, chustizia, cheografía
|-
| Etymological h<br />
| Written according to Latin etymology<br />Ex: historia, hibierno
| Written as in Medieval Aragonese and Catalan<br />Ex: história, hivierno
| Not written<br />Ex: istoria, ibierno
|-
|
|
* i
* y as a copulative conjunction
|
* i
* y as a copulative conjunction
|
* i
* y as a copulative conjunction
|-
|
| l
| l
| l
|-
|
| ll
| ll
| ll
|-
|
| m
| m
| m
|-
|
| n
| n
| n
|-
|
| ny as in Medieval Aragonese and Catalan<br />Ex: anyada
| ny as in Medieval Aragonese and Catalan<br />Ex: anyada
| ñ as in Spanish<br />Ex: añada
|-
|
| o
| o
| o
|-
|
| p
| p
| p
|-
|
| r
| r
| r
|-
|
|
* rr
* r- (word-initially)
|
* rr
* r- (word-initially)
|
* rr
* r- (word-initially)
|-
|
| s (also between two vowels, never *ss)
| s (also between two vowels, never *ss)
| s (also between two vowels, never *ss)
|-
|
| t
| t
| t
|-
| Etymological final -t<br />
| Written as in Medieval Aragonese, Catalan and Occitan<br />Ex: sociedat, debant, chent
| Written as in Medieval Aragonese, Catalan and Occitan<br />Ex: sociedat, devant, gent
| Not written<br />Ex: soziedá, debán, chen
|-
|
| u
| u
| u
|-
| and
| ix as unifying grapheme for all dialects<br />Ex: baixo
x as in xoriguer and xilófono
|
* x in most words and ix in some words (for Eastern dialects)
* x in most words (for Western dialects)<br />Ex: baixo (Eastern) = baxo (Western)
| x<br />Ex: baxo
|-
|
|
* y initial and between vowels
* i in other cases
|
* y initial and between vowels
* i in other cases
|
* y initial and between vowels
* i in other cases
|-
| Learned Greco-Roman words
| Assimilatory tendencies not written<br />Ex: dialecto, extension, and lexico
| Not all assimilatory tendencies written<br />Ex: dialecto, extension, and lexico
| Assimilatory tendencies written<br />Ex: dialeuto, estensión, but lecsico
|-
| Accent mark for stress<br />
| Spanish model, but with the possibility for oxytones to not be accented<!-- NOTE: I assume they meant that some oxytones *can* be written without an accent mark, but they did not give any examples; the only oxytone given as an example has the stressed vowel marked. Even with text from the Aragonese and Spanish versions of this article, I cannot quite determine what was meant. – Espreon ... Original text: "Spanish model, just in acute words [= oxytones], being permitted non-accentuation"--><br />Ex:
* historia, gracia, servicio
* mitolochía, cheografía, María, río
* atención
* choven, cantaban
| Portuguese, Catalan and Occitan model<br />Ex:
* história, grácia, servício
* mitologia, geografia, Maria, rio
* atencion
* joven, cantavan
| Spanish model<br />Ex:
* istoria, grazia, serbizio
* mitolochía, cheografía, María, río
* atenzión
* choben, cantaban
|}
In 2023, a new orthographic standard has been published by the Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua. This version is close to the Academia de l'Aragonés orthography, but with the following differences: is always spelled ⟨cu⟩, e. g. cuan, cuestión (exception is made for some loanwords: quad, quadrívium, quark, quásar, quáter, quórum); is spelled ⟨ny⟩ or ⟨ñ⟩ by personal preference; final ⟨z⟩ is not written as ⟨tz⟩.
The marginal phoneme (only in loanwords, e. g. jabugo) is spelled j in the Uesca, Academia de l'Aragonés and Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua standards (not mentioned in the SLA standard). Additionally, the Academia de l'Aragonés and Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua orthographies allow the letter j in some loanwords internationally known with it (e. g. jazz, jacuzzi, which normally have in the Aragonese pronunciation) and also mention the letters k and w, also used only in loanwords (w may represent or ).
Grammar
Aragonese grammar has a lot in common with Occitan and Catalan, but also Spanish.
Articles
The definite article in Aragonese has undergone dialect-related changes, with definite articles in Old Aragonese similar to their present Spanish equivalents. There are two main forms:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Masculine
! Feminine
|-
! Singular
| el
| la
|-
! Plural
| els/es
| las/les
|}
These forms are used in the eastern and some central dialects.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Masculine
! Feminine
|-
! Singular
| lo/ro/o
| la/ra/a
|-
! Plural
| los/ros/os
| las/ras/as
|}
These forms are used in the western and some central dialects.
Lexicology
Neighboring Romance languages have influenced Aragonese. Catalan and Occitan influenced Aragonese for many years. Since the 15th century, Spanish has most influenced Aragonese; it was adopted throughout Aragon as the first language, limiting Aragonese to the northern region surrounding the Pyrenees. French has also influenced Aragonese; Italian loanwords have entered through other languages (such as Catalan), and Portuguese words have entered through Spanish. Germanic words came with the conquest of the region by Germanic peoples during the fifth century, and English has introduced a number of new words into the language.
Gender
Words that were part of the Latin second declension—as well as words that joined it later on—are usually masculine:
* > ('son')
* + > ('squirrel')
Words that were part of the Latin first declension are usually feminine:
* > ('daughter').
Some Latin neuter plural nouns joined the first declension as singular feminine nouns:
* > ('leaf').
Words ending in -or are feminine:
* , , , and (in Medieval Aragonese)
The names of fruit trees usually end in -era (a suffix derived from Latin -aria) and are usually feminine:
* a perera, a manzanera, a nuquera, , / , a olivera, a ciresera, ''l'almendrera
The genders of river names vary:
* Many ending in -a are feminine: /, , , , , , , , etc. The last was known as during the 16th century.
* Many from the second and the third declension are masculine: L'Ebro, O Galligo'', , .
Pronouns
Just like most other Occitano-Romance languages, Aragonese has partitive and locative clitic pronouns derived from the Latin and : / and //; unlike Ibero-Romance.
Such pronouns are present in most major Romance languages (Catalan and , Occitan and , French and , and Italian and /).
/ is used for:
* Partitive objects: ("I haven't seen anything like that", literally 'Not (of it) I have seen like that').
* Partitive subjects: ("It hurts so much", literally '(of it) it causes so much of pain')
* Ablatives, places from which movements originate: ("Memory goes away", literally '(away from [the mind]) memory goes')
// is used for:
* Locatives, where something takes place: ("There was one of them"), literally '(Of them) there was one')
* Allatives, places that movements go towards or end: ('Go there (imperative)')
Literature
Aragonese was not written until the 12th and 13th centuries; the history , , an Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea also exists, differing also in its content and written in the late 14th century called .Early modern periodSince 1500, Spanish has been the cultural language of Aragon; many Aragonese wrote in Spanish, and during the 17th century the Argensola brothers went to Castile to teach Spanish.
Aragonese became a popular village language. During the 17th century, popular literature in the language began to appear. In a 1650 Huesca literary contest, Aragonese poems were submitted by Matías Pradas, Isabel de Rodas and "Fileno, montañés".
Contemporary literature
The 19th and 20th centuries have seen a renaissance of Aragonese literature in several dialects. In 1844, Braulio Foz's novel was published in the Almudévar (southern) dialect. The 20th century featured Domingo Miral's costumbrist comedies and Veremundo Méndez Coarasa's poetry, both in Hecho (western) Aragonese; Cleto Torrodellas' poetry and Tonón de Baldomera's popular writings in the Graus (eastern) dialect and Arnal Cavero's costumbrist stories and Juana Coscujuela's novel , also in the southern dialect.
Aragonese in modern education
The 1997 Aragonese law of languages stipulated that Aragonese (and Catalan) speakers had a right to the teaching of and in their own language. Following this, Aragonese lessons started in schools in the 1997–1998 academic year. However, whilst legally schools can choose to use Aragonese as the language of instruction, as of the 2013–2014 academic year, there are no recorded instances of this option being taken in primary or secondary education.
Secondary school education
There is no officially approved program or teaching materials for the Aragonese language at the secondary level, and though two non-official textbooks are available ( (Benítez, 2007) and (Campos, 2014)) many instructors create their own learning materials. Further, most schools with Aragonese programs that have the possibility of being offered as an examinative subject have elected not to do so.
As of 2007 it is possible to use Aragonese as a language of instruction for multiple courses; however, no program is yet to instruct any curricular or examinative courses in Aragonese.
As of the 2014–2015 academic year there were 14 Aragonese language students at the secondary level.Higher education
Aragonese is not currently a possible field of study for a bachelor's or postgraduate degree in any official capacity, nor is Aragonese used as a medium of instruction. A bachelor's or master's degree may be obtained in Magisterio (teaching) at the University of Zaragoza; however, no specialization in Aragonese language is currently available. As such those who wish to teach Aragonese at the pre-school, primary, or secondary level must already be competent in the language by being a native speaker or by other means. Further, prospective instructors must pass an ad hoc exam curated by the individual schools at which they wish to teach in order to prove their competence, as there are no recognized standard competency exams for the Aragonese language.
Since the 1994–1995 academic year, Aragonese has been an elective subject within the bachelor's degree for primary school education at the University of Zaragoza's Huesca campus.
See also
*Academia de l'Aragonés
*Arredol – Electronic Aragonese newspaper
*Rosario Ustáriz Borra
References
Further reading
*
External links
*[http://www.consello.org/pdf_temporal/repertoriopublicazions.pdf Catalogue of Aragonese publications]
*[http://www.academiadelaragones.org/ Academia de l'Aragonés]
*[http://www.consello.org/ Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa]
*[http://www.fablans.org/ Ligallo de Fablans de l'Aragonés]
*[http://www.nogara-religada.org/ A.C. Nogará]
*[http://sites.google.com/site/sociedat/ Sociedat de Lingüistica Aragonesa]
*[http://www.charrando.com/ Aragonese language]
Category:Culture of Aragon
Category:Pyrenean-Mozarabic languages
Category:Subject–verb–object languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonese_language | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.793979 |
2815 | Advanced Mobile Phone System | 8000X TACS mobile phone]]
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was an analog mobile phone system standard originally developed by Bell Labs and later modified in a cooperative effort between Bell Labs and Motorola. It was officially introduced in the Americas on October 13, 1983, and was deployed in many other countries too, including Israel in 1986, Australia in 1987, Singapore in 1988, and Pakistan in 1990. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon Communications have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000, in India by October 2004, in Israel by January 2010, and Brazil by 2010. History
The first cellular network efforts began at Bell Labs and with research conducted at Motorola.
In 1960, John F. Mitchell
became Motorola's chief engineer for its mobile-communication products, and oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors.
Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for automobiles, but these large and heavy models consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile's engine running. Mitchell's team, which included Dr. Martin Cooper, developed portable cellular telephony. Cooper and Mitchell were among the Motorola employees granted a patent for this work in 1973. The first call on the prototype connected, reportedly, to a wrong number.
While Motorola was developing a cellular phone, from 1968 to 1983 Bell Labs worked out a system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), which became the first cellular network standard in the United States. The Bell system deployed ASTM in Chicago, Illinois, first as an equipment test serving approximately 100 units in 1978, and subsequently as a service test planned for 2,000 billed units. Motorola and others designed and built the cellular phones for this and other cellular systems. Louis M. Weinberg, a marketing director at AT&T, was named the first president of the AMPS corporation. He served in this position during the startup of the AMPS subsidiary of AT&T.
Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the first cellular handset in 1973 and made the first phone call from it. In 1983 Motorola introduced the DynaTAC 8000x, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried. He later introduced the so-called Bag Phone.
In 1992, the first smartphone, called IBM Simon, used AMPS. Frank Canova led its design at IBM and it was demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer-industry trade-show. A refined version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the first device that can be properly referred to as a "smartphone", even though that term was not yet coined.
Technology
AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels", for each conversation. It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older "0G" Improved Mobile Telephone Service it replaced, but used considerably more computing power to select frequencies, hand off conversations to land lines, and handle billing and call setup.
What really separated AMPS from older systems is the "back end" call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used, without interference, if locations were separated enough. The channels were grouped so a specific set was different of the one used on the cell nearby. This allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term "cellular" because of its use of small hexagonal "cells" within a system.
AMPS suffered from many weaknesses compared to today's digital technologies. As an analog standard, it was susceptible to static and noise, and there was no protection from 'eavesdropping' using a scanner or an older TV set that could tune into channels 70–83.
Cloning
of Motorola in 2007, reenacting the first private handheld mobile-phone call on a larger prototype model in 1973.]]
In the 1990s, an epidemic of "cloning" cost the cellular carriers millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handset's ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and MDN or CTN (Mobile Directory Number or Cellular Telephone Number). The Electronic Serial Number, a 12-digit number sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, uniquely identified that phone on the network. The system then allowed or disallowed calls and/or features based on its customer file. A person intercepting an ESN/MDN pair could clone the combination onto a different phone and use it in other areas for making calls without paying.
Cellular phone cloning became possible with off-the-shelf technology in the 1990s. Would-be cloners required three key items :
# A radio receiver, such as the Icom PCR-1000, that could tune into the Reverse Channel (the frequency on which AMPS phones transmit data to the tower)
# A PC with a sound card and a software program called Banpaia
# A phone that could easily be used for cloning, such as the Oki 900
The radio, when tuned to the proper frequency, would receive the signal transmitted by the cell phone to be cloned, containing the phone's ESN/MDN pair. This signal would feed into the sound-card audio-input of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN/MDN pair from this signal and display it on the screen. The hacker could then copy that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, after which the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original phone whose signal had been received. This gave the cloner, through the Oki phone, the ability to use the mobile-phone service of the legitimate subscriber whose phone was cloned – just as if that phone had been physically stolen, except that the subscriber retained his or her phone, unaware that the phone had been cloned—at least until that subscriber received his or her next bill.
The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls. Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, whereby it could determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain changes to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and/or antenna.
The Oki 900 could listen in to AMPS phone-calls right out-of-the-box with no hardware modifications.
Standards
AMPS was originally standardized by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as EIA/TIA/IS-3. EIA/TIA/IS-3 was superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem of cloning <!-- in this what was meant, that cloning was the 'problem'? --> has virtually disappeared.
Frequency bands
AMPS cellular service operated in the 850 MHz Cellular band. For each market area, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed two licensees (networks) known as "A" and "B" carriers. Each carrier within a market used a specified "block" of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company, and the A (non-wireline) license was given to wireless telephone providers.
At the inception of cellular in 1983, the FCC had granted each carrier within a market 333 channel pairs (666 channels total). By the late 1980s, the cellular industry's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the FCC granted carriers an expansion from the previous 666 channels to the final 832 (416 pairs per carrier). The additional frequencies were from the band held in reserve for future (inevitable) expansion. These frequencies were immediately adjacent to the existing cellular band. These bands had previously been allocated to UHF TV channels 70–83.
Each duplex channel was composed of 2 frequencies. 416 of these were in the 824–849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869–894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site used a different subset of these channels than its neighbors to avoid interference. This significantly reduced the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems. Each AMPS channel had a one way bandwidth of 30 kHz, for a total of 60 kHz for each duplex channel.
Laws were passed in the US which prohibited the FCC type acceptance and sale of any receiver which could tune the frequency ranges occupied by analog AMPS cellular services. Though the service is no longer offered, these laws remain in force (although they may no longer be enforced).
Narrowband AMPS
In 1991, Motorola proposed an AMPS enhancement known as narrowband AMPS (NAMPS or N-AMPS).
Digital AMPS
Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to D-AMPS, often referred to as TDMA (though TDMA is a generic term that applies to many 2G cellular systems). D-AMPS, commercially deployed since 1993, was a digital, 2G standard used mainly by AT&T Mobility and U.S. Cellular in the United States, Rogers Wireless in Canada, Telcel in Mexico, Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM) in Brazil, VimpelCom in Russia, Movilnet in Venezuela, and Cellcom in Israel. In most areas, D-AMPS is no longer offered and has been replaced by more advanced digital wireless networks.Successor technologiesAMPS and D-AMPS have now been phased out in favor of either CDMA2000 or GSM, which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as WAP, Multimedia Messaging System (MMS), and wireless Internet access. There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, D-AMPS and GSM all in one phone (using the GAIT standard).Analog AMPS being replaced by digital
In 2002, the FCC decided to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS service as of February 18, 2008. All AMPS carriers have converted to a digital standard such as CDMA2000 or GSM. Digital technologies such as GSM and CDMA2000 support multiple voice calls on the same channel and offer enhanced features such as two-way text messaging and data services.
Unlike in the United States, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Industry Canada have not set any requirement for maintaining AMPS service in Canada. Rogers Wireless has dismantled their AMPS (along with IS-136) network; the networks were shut down May 31, 2007. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, who operated AMPS networks in Canada, announced that they would observe the same timetable as outlined by the FCC in the United States, and as a result would not begin to dismantle their AMPS networks until after February 2008.
OnStar relied heavily on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because, when the system was developed, AMPS offered the most comprehensive wireless coverage in the US. In 2006, ADT asked the FCC to extend the AMPS deadline due to many of their alarm systems still using analog technology to communicate with the control centers. Cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) were required to provide analog service until February 18, 2008. After that point, however, most cellular companies were eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for digital services. OnStar transitioned to digital service with the help of data transport technology developed by Airbiquity, but warned customers who could not be upgraded to digital service that their service would permanently expire on January 1, 2008.
Commercial deployments of AMPS by country
{| class="wikitable"
!Country
!Main Cellular Operator
!Launch date
!End of service
!Notes
|-
|
|
|1983
|2008
|
* Verizon Wireless—Formerly operated an AMPS network. On February 18, 2008, Verizon discontinued all AMPS service. Initially migrated to CDMA2000, but now operates on LTE and 5G.
* U.S. Cellular—Formerly operated an AMPS & D-AMPS network. On February 10, 2009, U.S. Cellular discontinued all AMPS & D-AMPS service. Initially migrated to CDMA2000, but now operates on LTE and 5G.
*Alltel—In 2005 disclosed that only 15% of their total customer base are still using the existing analog network. The company has posted a three-phase turn down schedule, which was completed in September 2008. With the acquisition of Western Wireless, Alltel now took the claim of the "largest network in America." The claim was true, oddly enough because of wide analog coverage in rural areas. All Alltel AMPS and D-AMPS service was discontinued in September 2008
* Coastel Offshore Cellular—Operated an AMPS network in the Gulf of Mexico that stretched from south of Corpus Christi, TX to south of Gulf Shores, AL. In 2006 Coastel was the only carrier in the US whose entire customer base was still 100% analog based. In 2007 Coastel was merged with Petrocom and SOLA Communications to form Broadpoint Inc. and the network was converted to GSM.
* AT&T Mobility – In areas where AT&T Mobility previously had D-AMPS operating on 1900 MHz frequencies, no analog AMPS network existed, and the D-AMPS network on the 1900 MHz frequency was shut down on July 15, 2007. Service on the remaining 850 MHz AMPS markets was discontinued along with 850 MHz D-AMPS service on February 18, 2008, except in areas where service was provided by Dobson Communications. The Dobson AMPS and TDMA networks were shut down on March 1, 2008.
|-
|
|
|1984
|
|
* SaskTel – operated an AMPS network in Saskatchewan, Canada. It was the third-largest AMPS network, by subscribers, in the world at the time of its turndown. It was officially shutdown site by site starting at 00:00 on January 2, 2010, after twenty-one years of service. SaskTel continues to run UMTS networks.
|-
|
|
|1984
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|1989
|
|
| Singtel decommissioned its AMPS network in 1994 after GSM was implemented.
|-
|
|
|1987
|2007
|
|-
|
|
|1989
|
|
|-
|
|
|1994
|
|
|-
|
|Uzdunrobita
|1994
|
|
|}
See also
*History of mobile phones
Citations
References
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070616083306/http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/aboutus/history_center/oral_history/pdfs/Engel366.pdf Interview of Joel Engel]
Category:First generation mobile telecommunications
Category:History of mobile phones
Category:Mobile radio telephone systems
Category:Telecommunications-related introductions in 1983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.838070 |
2819 | Aerodynamics | 300px|thumb|upright=1.6|A NASA wake turbulence study at Wallops Island in 1990. A vortex is created by passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated with the study of aerodynamics.
Aerodynamics ( aero (air) + (dynamics)) is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics, and is an important domain of study in aeronautics. The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed a rational basis for the development of heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers and has become increasingly computational in nature.
History
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes. making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica in which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli's principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier–Stokes equations. The Navier–Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow but are difficult to solve for the flow around all but the simplest of shapes.
thumb|A replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center. Wind tunnels were key in the development and validation of the laws of aerodynamics.
In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined the path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903.
During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers.
thumb|A Ministry of Aircraft Production poster on aerodynamics
As aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near the speed of sound. The differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves, and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter. The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow. Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical Mach number and Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.
By the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists' understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an ever-evolving line of high-performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it interacts predictably with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems, continues to motivate new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations.
Fundamental concepts
thumb|Forces of flight on a powered aircraft in unaccelerated level flight
Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, which may be functions of position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or calculated starting with the equations for conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.
Flow classification
Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which the air speed field is always below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions in which the local flow speed is greater than the local speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow.
Compressible flow accounts for varying density within the flow. Subsonic flows are often idealized as incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and calculations that neglect the changes of density in these flow fields will yield inaccurate results.
Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages inside solid objects (e.g. through a jet engine).
Continuum assumption
Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of the collisions of many individual of gas molecules between themselves and with solid surfaces. However, in most aerodynamics applications, the discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows fluid properties such as density and flow velocity to be defined everywhere within the flow.
The validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers and where the body is orders of magnitude larger. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For such applications, the continuum assumption is reasonable. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km) or satellites in Low Earth orbit. In those cases, statistical mechanics is a more accurate method of solving the problem than is continuum aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics.
Conservation laws
The assumption of a fluid continuum allows problems in aerodynamics to be solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws. Three conservation principles are used:
Conservation of mass Conservation of mass requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed within a flow; the mathematical formulation of this principle is known as the mass continuity equation.
Conservation of momentum The mathematical formulation of this principle can be considered an application of Newton's Second Law. Momentum within a flow is only changed by external forces, which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional) forces, and body forces, such as weight. The momentum conservation principle may be expressed as either a vector equation or separated into a set of three scalar equations (x,y,z components).
Conservation of energy The energy conservation equation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed within a flow, and that any addition or subtraction of energy to a volume in the flow is caused by heat transfer, or by work into and out of the region of interest.
Together, these equations are known as the Navier–Stokes equations, although some authors define the term to only include the momentum equation(s). The Navier–Stokes equations have no known analytical solution and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques. Because computational methods using high speed computers were not historically available and the high computational cost of solving these complex equations now that they are available, simplifications of the Navier–Stokes equations have been and continue to be employed. The Euler equations are a set of similar conservation equations which neglect viscosity and may be used in cases where the effect of viscosity is expected to be small. Further simplifications lead to Laplace's equation and potential flow theory. Additionally, Bernoulli's equation is a solution in one dimension to both the momentum and energy conservation equations.
The ideal gas law or another such equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined system that allows the solution for the unknown variables.
Branches of aerodynamics
thumb|computational modelling
Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and viscosity. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.
Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the assumption that density is constant may be made. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the flow is called compressible. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F (16 °C)). Above Mach 0.3, the problem flow should be described using compressible aerodynamics.
Compressible aerodynamics
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if the density changes along a streamline. This means that – unlike incompressible flow – changes in density are considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach 0.3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point (the point on the object where flow speed is zero), while the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible flows.
Transonic flow
The term Transonic refers to a range of flow velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, while some of the airflow is not supersonic.
Supersonic flow
Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties – temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes.
Hypersonic flow
In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.
Associated terminology
thumb|Different types flow analysis around an airfoil:
The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.
Boundary layers
The concept of a boundary layer is important in many problems in aerodynamics. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This assumption makes the description of such aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically.
Turbulence
In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic property changes in the flow. These include low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow.
Aerodynamics in other fields
Engineering design
Aerodynamics is a significant element of vehicle design, including road cars and trucks where the main goal is to reduce the vehicle drag coefficient, and racing cars, where in addition to reducing drag the goal is also to increase the overall level of downforce. Aerodynamics is also important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges, and wind turbines.
The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.
Environmental design
Urban aerodynamics are studied by town planners and designers seeking to improve amenity in outdoor spaces, or in creating urban microclimates to reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes ways in which atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems.
Aerodynamic equations are used in numerical weather prediction.
Ball-control in sports
Sports in which aerodynamics are of crucial importance include soccer, table tennis, cricket, baseball, and golf, in which most players can control the trajectory of the ball using the "Magnus effect".
See also
Aeronautics
Aerostatics
Aviation
Insect flight – how bugs fly
List of aerospace engineering topics
List of engineering topics
Nose cone design
Fluid dynamics
Computational fluid dynamics
References
Further reading
General aerodynamics
Subsonic aerodynamics
Obert, Ed (2009). . Delft; About practical aerodynamics in industry and the effects on design of aircraft. .
Transonic aerodynamics
Supersonic aerodynamics
Hypersonic aerodynamics
History of aerodynamics
Aerodynamics related to engineering
Ground vehicles
Fixed-wing aircraft
Helicopters
Missiles
Model aircraft
Related branches of aerodynamics
Aerothermodynamics
Aeroelasticity
Boundary layers
Turbulence
External links
NASA's Guide to Aerodynamics. .
Aerodynamics for Students
Aerodynamics for Pilots (archived)
Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning (archived)
Aerodynamic Related Projects. .
eFluids Bicycle Aerodynamics. .
Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1) (archived)
Aerodynamics in Car Racing. .
Aerodynamics of Birds. .
NASA Aerodynamics Index
Category:Aerodynamics
Category:Aerospace engineering
Category:Energy in transport | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.892114 |
2820 | Andreas Schlüter | thumb|250px|right|Portrait in Hamburg town hall
thumb|250px|right|Triumph of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus from Krasiński Palace in Warsaw
thumb|250px|right|Equestrian statue of Great Elector in Berlin
thumb|250px|right|Berlin City Palace
thumb|250px|right|Amber Room
Andreas Schlüter (1659 – ) was a German baroque sculptor and architect, active in the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia.
Biography
Andreas Schlüter was born probably in Hamburg. His early life is obscure as at least three different persons of that name are documented. The records of St. Michaelis Church, Hamburg show that an Andreas Schlüter, son of sculptor Gerhart Schlüter, had been baptized there on 22 May 1664. Documents from Gdańsk reported that an Andreas Schlüter (senior) had worked 1640–1652 in Gdańsk's Jopengasse lane (today's ulica Piwna). Possibly born in 1640, an Andres Schliter is recorded as apprentice on 9 May 1656 by the mason's guild. Other sources state 1659 as year of birth.
He probably did spend several years abroad as Journeyman. His first work, in 1675, may have been epitaphs of the Dukes Sambor and Mestwin in the dome of Pelplin monastery.
Schlüter's first known work was the decoration of the facade of the Gdańsk Royal Chapel, in 1681. He later created statues for King John III Sobieski's Wilanów Palace in Warsaw and sepulchral sculptures in Zhovkva. In 1689, he moved to Warsaw and made the pediment reliefs and sculptural work of Krasiński Palace.
Schlüter was invited to Berlin in 1694 by Eberhard von Danckelmann to work as court sculptor at the armory (Zeughaus) for Elector Frederick III. His sculpted decorations are a masterpiece of baroque expression and pathos. While the more visible reliefs on the outside had to praise fighting, the statues of dying warriors in the interior denounced war and gave an indication of his pacifist religious beliefs (he is said to have been a Mennonite). Travelling through Italy in 1696, he studied the work of masters like Michelangelo Buonarroti and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
Schlüter also worked as an architect and built many state buildings in Berlin in his role as "Hofbaumeister" (Court Architect), which he lost when one tower showed signs of a weak fundament. He also served as director of the Prussian Academy of Arts from 1702 to 1704, after which he began concentrating on sculpting again, as "Hofbildhauer" (Court Sculptor). His most important equestrian sculpture is that of the "Great Elector", Frederick William of Brandenburg, cast in 1708 and placed at "Lange Brücke" near the Berlin City Palace, now situated in the honor court before Charlottenburg Palace.
The Berlin City Palace, and many of his works, were partially destroyed by bombing in World War II and by the subsequent Communist regime. A similar fate probably befell the Amber Room, made between 1701 and 1709, Schlüter's most famous work of architecture.
The Berlin City Palace was reconstructed between 2013 and 2020.
In 1713, Schlüter's fame brought him to work for Tsar Peter I of Russia in Saint Petersburg, where he died of an illness after creating several designs. Together with Johann Friedrich Braunstein, he designed the Grand Palace and Monplaisir Palace in Peterhof Palace Complex. Also the city's oldest building, Kikin Hall, and the reliefs at the Summer Palace are attributed to him. This way he became an important figure of Petrine Baroque.
Extant works
Facade of the Royal Chapel, Gdańsk, 1681
Sculptures on the facade of Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, after 1681
Sculptures on the pediment of Krasiński Palace, Warsaw, 1682–83, 1689–1693
Epitaph of Adam Zygmunt Konarski, St. Mary's Cathedral of the Assumption, Frombork near Gdańsk, after 1683
Altar and crucifix in church, Węgrów near Warsaw, 1688–1690
Altar in Czerniaków church, Warsaw, 1690
Portrait bishop Jan Małachowski in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków 1693
Aepulchral sculptures of the Sobieski family, Zhovkva near Lviv, 1692–93
Equestrian statue of Elector Frederick William, courtyard of Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin, 1689–1703, with a copy in the Berlin Bode-Museum
Sculptures on the facade of the Zeughaus in Berlin, 1695–1706
Berlin City Palace, 1699–1706
Amber Room (reconstruction) in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg, 1701
Pulpit, St. Mary's Church, Berlin, 1703
Sarcophagi of Friedrich I and Sophia Charlotte, King and Queen in Prussia in the Berlin Cathedral
References
External links
Biography, by Heinz Ladendorf, 1935
Article in Morgenpost newspaper
dhm.de: Schlüter bio at Zeughaus
English site about Kikin's Palace (Mansion House)
Category:1664 births
Category:1714 deaths
Category:German Baroque architects
Category:Polish Baroque architects
Category:Russian Baroque architects
Category:17th-century German architects
Category:18th-century German architects
Category:German Baroque sculptors
Category:Polish Baroque sculptors
Category:Polish male sculptors
Category:Ukrainian Baroque sculptors
Category:17th-century German sculptors
Category:18th-century German sculptors
Category:18th-century German male artists
Category:German male sculptors
Category:17th-century Russian sculptors
Category:18th-century sculptors from the Russian Empire
Category:Russian male sculptors
Category:Artists from Gdańsk
Category:Architects from Hamburg
Category:People from Royal Prussia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Schlüter | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.918431 |
2822 | Ash | }}
}}
]]
Ash is the solid remnants of fires. Specifically, ash refers to all non-aqueous, non-gaseous residues that remain after something burns. In analytical chemistry, to analyse the mineral and metal content of chemical samples, ash is the non-gaseous, non-liquid residue after complete combustion.
Ashes as the end product of incomplete combustion are mostly mineral, but usually still contain an amount of combustible organic or other oxidizable residues. The best-known type of ash is wood ash, as a product of wood combustion in campfires, fireplaces, etc. The darker the wood ashes, the higher the content of remaining charcoal from incomplete combustion. The ashes are of different types. Some ashes contain natural compounds that make soil fertile. Others have chemical compounds that can be toxic but may break up in soil from chemical changes and microorganism activity.
Like soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent (alkaline). The World Health Organization recommends ash or sand as alternative for handwashing when soap is not available. Before industrialization, ash soaked in water was the primary means of obtaining potash.
Natural occurrence
Ash occurs naturally from any fire that burns vegetation, and may disperse in the soil to fertilise it, or clump under it for long enough to carbonise into coal.
Composition
The composition of the ash varies depending on the product burned and its origin. The "ash content" or "mineral content" of a product is derived its incineration under temperatures ranging from to . The color of the ash comes from small proportions of inorganic minerals such as iron oxides and manganese. The oxidized metal elements that constitute wood ash are mostly considered alkaline.
For example, ash collected from wood boilers is composed of
* 17–33% calcium in the form of calcium oxide ()
* 2–6% potassium in the form of potassium oxide ()
* 2.5–4.6% magnesium in the form of magnesium oxide ()
* 1–6% phosphorus in the form of phosphorus pentoxide ()
* 3% in total of oxides such as iron oxide, manganese oxide, and sodium oxide
The pH of the ash is between 10 and 13, mostly due to the fact that the oxides of calcium, potassium, and sodium are strong bases. Acidic components such as carbon dioxide, phosphoric acid, silicic acid, and sulfuric acid are rarely present and, in the presence of the previously mentioned bases, are generally found in the form of salts, respectively carbonates, phosphates, silicates and sulphates.
Strictly speaking, calcium and potassium salts produce the aforementioned calcium oxide (also known as quicklime) and potassium during the combustion of organic matter. But, in practice, quicklime is only obtained via lime-kiln, and potash (from potassium carbonate) or baking soda (from sodium carbonate) is extracted from the ashes.
Other substances such as sulfur, chlorine, iron or sodium only appear in small quantities. Still others are rarely found in wood, such as aluminum, zinc, and boron. (depending on the trace elements drawn from the soil by the incinerated plants).
Mineral content in ash depends on the species of tree burned, even in the same soil conditions. More chloride is found in conifer trees than broadleaf trees, with seven times as much found in spruces than in oak trees. There is twice as much phosphoric acid in the European aspen than in oaks and twice as much magnesium in elm trees than in the Scotch pine.
Ash composition also varies by which part of the tree was burnt. Silicon and calcium salts are more abundant in bark than in wood, while potassium salts are primarily found in wood. Compositional variation also occurred based on the season in which the tree died.
Specific types
ash. With wind and dispersion, the size of particulates decreases, while the number of particles increases.]]
Cremation ashes
Cremation ashes, also called cremated remains or "cremains," are the bodily remains left from cremation. They often take the form of a grey powder resembling coarse sand. While often referred to as ashes, the remains primarily consist of powdered bone fragments due to the cremation process, which eliminates the body's organic materials. People often store these ashes in containers like urns, although they are also sometimes buried or scattered in specific locations.Food ashesIn food processing, mineral and ash content is used to characterize the presence of organic and inorganic components in food for monitoring quality, nutritional quantification and labeling, analyzing microbiological stability, and more. This process can be used to measure minerals like calcium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus as well as metal content such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and aluminum.
Joss paper ash
Analysis of the contents of ash samples from Vietnam and Singapore shows that joss paper burning can emit many pollutants detrimental to air quality. There is a significant amount of heavy metals in the dust fume and bottom ash, e.g., aluminium, iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and cadmium. Slash-and-burn ash
Wildfire ash High levels of heavy metals, including lead, arsenic, cadmium, and copper were found in the ash debris following the 2007 Californian wildfires. A national clean-up campaign was organised ... In the devastating California Camp Fire (2018) that killed 85 people, lead levels increased by around 50 times in the hours following the fire at a site nearby (Chico). Zinc concentration also increased significantly in Modesto, 150 miles away. Heavy metals such as manganese and calcium were found in numerous California fires as well.
Others
* Ashes from
** Stubble burning
** Open burning of waste
* Cigarette or cigar ash
* Incinerator bottom ash, a form of ash produced in incinerators
* Products of coal combustion
** Bottom ash
** Fly ash
* Volcanic ash, ash that consists of fragmented glass, rock, and minerals that appears during an eruption.
* Wood ash
Other properties
Aging process
Global distillation
UsesFertilizer
Ashes have been used since the Neolithic period as fertilizer because they are rich in minerals, especially potash and essential nutrients. They are the main fertilizer in slash-and-burn agriculture, which eventually evolved into controlled burn and forest clearing practices. People in ancient history already possessed extensive knowledge of the nutrients produced by (from social 10th textbook)(manufacturing industries) different ashes. For clay soil in particular, using ash without modification or using , ash whose minerals have been washed with water, was necessary.
Laundry
Because ashes contain potash, they can be used to make biodegradable laundry detergent. The demand for organic products has led to renewed interest for laundry using ash derived from wood. The French word for laundry is from the Latin word , which means a substance made from ash and used to wash laundry. This usage also developed into a small, traditional architectural structure to the west of Rhône mainstem: the , a masonry structure built with stone or cob, that looks like a cabinet and that carries dirty laundry and fireplace ash; when the is full, the laundry and ash are moved to a laundry container and boiled in water.
Laundry using ash derived from wood has the benefit of being free, easy to produce, sustainable, and as efficient as standard laundry washing methods.
Health effects
Effect on precipitation
"Particles of dust or smoke in the atmosphere are essential for precipitation. These particles, called 'condensation nuclei,' provide a surface for water vapor to condense upon. This helps water droplets gather together and become large enough to fall to the earth."
Effect on climate change
See also
* Aerosol
* Ash (analytical chemistry)
* Black carbon
* Carbon, basic component of ashes
* Carbon black
* Charcoal, carbon residue after heating wood mainly used as traditional fuel
* Cinereous, consisting of ashes, ash-colored or ash-like
* Coal, consisting of carbon as ash, and ash can be converted into coal
* Construction waste
* Dust | Fugitive dust
* Potash, a term for many useful potassium salts that traditionally derived from plant ashes, but today are typically mined from underground deposits
References
Category:Combustion | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.952269 |
2823 | Antiderivative | of <math>F(x) = \frac{x^3}{3} - \frac{x^2}{2} - x + c</math>, showing three of the infinitely many solutions that can be produced by varying the arbitrary constant .]]
In calculus, an antiderivative, inverse derivative, primitive function, primitive integral or indefinite integral of a continuous function is a differentiable function whose derivative is equal to the original function . This can be stated symbolically as . The process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration), and its opposite operation is called differentiation, which is the process of finding a derivative. Antiderivatives are often denoted by capital Roman letters such as and .
Antiderivatives are related to definite integrals through the second fundamental theorem of calculus: the definite integral of a function over a closed interval where the function is Riemann integrable is equal to the difference between the values of an antiderivative evaluated at the endpoints of the interval.
In physics, antiderivatives arise in the context of rectilinear motion (e.g., in explaining the relationship between position, velocity and acceleration). The discrete equivalent of the notion of antiderivative is antidifference.ExamplesThe function <math>F(x) \tfrac{x^3}{3}</math> is an antiderivative of <math>f(x) x^2</math>, since the derivative of <math>\tfrac{x^3}{3}</math> is <math>x^2</math>. Since the derivative of a constant is zero, <math>x^2</math> will have an infinite number of antiderivatives, such as <math>\tfrac{x^3}{3}, \tfrac{x^3}{3}+1, \tfrac{x^3}{3}-2</math>, etc. Thus, all the antiderivatives of <math>x^2</math> can be obtained by changing the value of in <math>F(x) \tfrac{x^3}{3}+c</math>, where is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. The graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other, with each graph's vertical location depending upon the value .
More generally, the power function <math>f(x) x^n</math> has antiderivative <math>F(x) \tfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + c</math> if , and <math>F(x) \ln |x| + c</math> if .
In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity, because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so on). For some elementary functions, it is impossible to find an antiderivative in terms of other elementary functions. To learn more, see elementary functions and nonelementary integral.
There exist many properties and techniques for finding antiderivatives. These include, among others:
* The linearity of integration (which breaks complicated integrals into simpler ones)
* Integration by substitution, often combined with trigonometric identities or the natural logarithm
* The inverse chain rule method (a special case of integration by substitution)
* Integration by parts (to integrate products of functions)
* Inverse function integration (a formula that expresses the antiderivative of the inverse }} of an invertible and continuous function , in terms of }} and the antiderivative of ).
* The method of partial fractions in integration (which allows us to integrate all rational functions—fractions of two polynomials)
* The Risch algorithm
* Additional techniques for multiple integrations (see for instance double integrals, polar coordinates, the Jacobian and the Stokes' theorem)
* Numerical integration (a technique for approximating a definite integral when no elementary antiderivative exists, as in the case of )
* Algebraic manipulation of integrand (so that other integration techniques, such as integration by substitution, may be used)
*Cauchy formula for repeated integration (to calculate the -times antiderivative of a function) <math display"block"> \int_{x_0}^x \int_{x_0}^{x_1} \cdots \int_{x_0}^{x_{n-1}} f(x_n) \,\mathrm{d}x_n \cdots \, \mathrm{d}x_2\, \mathrm{d}x_1 \int_{x_0}^x f(t) \frac{(x-t)^{n-1}}{(n-1)!}\,\mathrm{d}t.</math>
Computer algebra systems can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy. Integrals which have already been derived can be looked up in a table of integrals.
Of non-continuous functions
Non-continuous functions can have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:
* Some highly pathological functions with large sets of discontinuities may nevertheless have antiderivatives.
* In some cases, the antiderivatives of such pathological functions may be found by Riemann integration, while in other cases these functions are not Riemann integrable.
Assuming that the domains of the functions are open intervals:
* A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a function to have an antiderivative is that have the intermediate value property. That is, if is a subinterval of the domain of and is any real number between and , then there exists a between and such that . This is a consequence of Darboux's theorem.
* The set of discontinuities of must be a meagre set. This set must also be an F-sigma set (since the set of discontinuities of any function must be of this type). Moreover, for any meagre F-sigma set, one can construct some function having an antiderivative, which has the given set as its set of discontinuities.
* If has an antiderivative, is bounded on closed finite subintervals of the domain and has a set of discontinuities of Lebesgue measure 0, then an antiderivative may be found by integration in the sense of Lebesgue. In fact, using more powerful integrals like the Henstock–Kurzweil integral, every function for which an antiderivative exists is integrable, and its general integral coincides with its antiderivative.
* If has an antiderivative on a closed interval <math>[a,b]</math>, then for any choice of partition <math>ax_0 <x_1 <x_2 <\dots <x_nb,</math> if one chooses sample points <math>x_i^*\in[x_{i-1},x_i]</math> as specified by the mean value theorem, then the corresponding Riemann sum telescopes to the value <math>F(b)-F(a)</math>. <math display="block">\begin{align}
\sum_{i1}^n f(x_i^*)(x_i-x_{i-1}) & \sum_{i=1}^n [F(x_i)-F(x_{i-1})] \\
& F(x_n)-F(x_0) F(b)-F(a)
\end{align}</math> However, if is unbounded, or if is bounded but the set of discontinuities of has positive Lebesgue measure, a different choice of sample points <math>x_i^*</math> may give a significantly different value for the Riemann sum, no matter how fine the partition. See Example 4 below.
Some examples
{{ordered list
|1= The function
<math display"block">f(x)2x\sin\left(\frac{1}{x}\right)-\cos\left(\frac{1}{x}\right)</math>
with <math>f(0)0</math> is not continuous at <math>x0</math> but has the antiderivative
<math display"block">F(x)x^2\sin\left(\frac{1}{x}\right)</math>
with <math>F(0)0</math>. Since is bounded on closed finite intervals and is only discontinuous at 0, the antiderivative may be obtained by integration: <math>F(x)\int_0^x f(t)\,\mathrm{d}t</math>.
|2= The function
<math display"block">f(x)2x\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)-\frac{2}{x}\cos\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)</math>
with <math>f(0)0</math> is not continuous at <math>x0</math> but has the antiderivative
<math display"block">F(x)x^2\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)</math>
with <math>F(0)=0</math>. Unlike Example 1, is unbounded in any interval containing 0, so the Riemann integral is undefined.
|3= If is the function in Example 1 and is its antiderivative, and <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math> is a dense countable subset of the open interval <math>(-1,1),</math> then the function
<math display"block">g(x)\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{f(x-x_n)}{2^n}</math>
has an antiderivative
<math display"block">G(x)\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{F(x-x_n)}{2^n}.</math>
The set of discontinuities of is precisely the set <math>\{x_n\}_{n \ge 1}</math>. Since is bounded on closed finite intervals and the set of discontinuities has measure 0, the antiderivative may be found by integration.
|4= Let <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math> be a dense countable subset of the open interval <math>(-1,1).</math> Consider the everywhere continuous strictly increasing function
<math display"block">F(x)\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{2^n}(x-x_n)^{1/3}.</math>
It can be shown that
<math display"block">F'(x)\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{3\cdot2^n}(x-x_n)^{-2/3}</math>
for all values where the series converges, and that the graph of has vertical tangent lines at all other values of . In particular the graph has vertical tangent lines at all points in the set <math>\{ x_n \}_{n \ge 1}</math>.
Moreover <math>F(x) \ge 0</math> for all where the derivative is defined. It follows that the inverse function <math>G = F^{-1}</math> is differentiable everywhere and that
<math display"block">g(x) G'(x) = 0</math>
for all in the set <math>\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}</math> which is dense in the interval <math>[F(-1),F(1)].</math> Thus has an antiderivative . On the other hand, it can not be true that
<math display"block">\int_{F(-1)}^{F(1)}g(x)\,\mathrm{d}xGF(1)-GF(-1)=2,</math>
since for any partition of <math>[F(-1),F(1)]</math>, one can choose sample points for the Riemann sum from the set <math>\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}</math>, giving a value of 0 for the sum. It follows that has a set of discontinuities of positive Lebesgue measure. Figure 1 on the right shows an approximation to the graph of where <math>\{x_n=\cos(n)\}_{n\ge1}</math> and the series is truncated to 8 terms. Figure 2 shows the graph of an approximation to the antiderivative , also truncated to 8 terms. On the other hand if the Riemann integral is replaced by the Lebesgue integral, then Fatou's lemma or the dominated convergence theorem shows that does satisfy the fundamental theorem of calculus in that context.
|5= In Examples 3 and 4, the sets of discontinuities of the functions are dense only in a finite open interval <math>(a,b).</math> However, these examples can be easily modified so as to have sets of discontinuities which are dense on the entire real line <math>(-\infty,\infty)</math>. Let
<math display"block">\lambda(x) \frac{a+b}{2} + \frac{b-a}{\pi}\tan^{-1} x.</math>
Then <math>g(\lambda(x))\lambda'(x)</math> has a dense set of discontinuities on <math>(-\infty,\infty)</math> and has antiderivative <math>G\cdot\lambda.</math>
|6= Using a similar method as in Example 5, one can modify in Example 4 so as to vanish at all rational numbers. If one uses a naive version of the Riemann integral defined as the limit of left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums over regular partitions, one will obtain that the integral of such a function over an interval <math>[a,b]</math> is 0 whenever and are both rational, instead of <math>G(b) - G(a)</math>. Thus the fundamental theorem of calculus will fail spectacularly.
|7= A function which has an antiderivative may still fail to be Riemann integrable. The derivative of Volterra's function is an example.
}}
Basic formulae
* If <math>{\mathrm{d} \over \mathrm{d}x} f(x) g(x)</math>, then <math>\int g(x) \mathrm{d}x f(x) + C</math>.
* <math>\int 1\ \mathrm{d}x = x + C</math>
* <math>\int a\ \mathrm{d}x = ax + C</math>
* <math>\int x^n \mathrm{d}x = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C;\ n \neq -1</math>
* <math>\int \sin{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = -\cos{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \cos{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = \sin{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \sec^2{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = \tan{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \csc^2{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = -\cot{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \sec{x}\tan{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = \sec{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \csc{x}\cot{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = -\csc{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int \frac{1}{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = \ln|x| + C</math>
* <math>\int \mathrm{e}^{x} \mathrm{d}x = \mathrm{e}^{x} + C</math>
* <math>\int a^{x} \mathrm{d}x = \frac{a^{x}}{\ln a} + C;\ a > 0,\ a \neq 1</math>
* <math>\int \frac{1}\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}\ \mathrm{d}x = \arcsin\left(\frac{x}{a}\right) + C</math>
* <math>\int \frac{1}{a^2 + x^2}\ \mathrm{d}x \frac{1}{a}\arctan\left(\frac{x}{a}\right) + C</math>See also
* Antiderivative (complex analysis)
* Formal antiderivative
* Jackson integral
* Lists of integrals
* Symbolic integration
* Area
Notes
ReferencesFurther reading* Introduction to Classical Real Analysis, by Karl R. Stromberg; Wadsworth, 1981 (see [https://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/browse_frm/thread/8d900a2d79429d43/0ba4ff0d46efe076?lnkst&q&rnum19&hl=en#0ba4ff0d46efe076 also])
* [https://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/msg/814be41b1ea8c024 Historical Essay On Continuity Of Derivatives] by Dave L. Renfro
External links
* [https://www.wolframalpha.com/calculators/integral-calculator/ Wolfram Integrator] — Free online symbolic integration with Mathematica
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en Function Calculator] from WIMS
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/integ.html Integral] at HyperPhysics
* [https://www.khanacademy.org/video/antiderivatives-and-indefinite-integrals Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals] at the Khan Academy
* [http://www.symbolab.com/solver/integral-calculator Integral calculator] at Symbolab
* [http://www-math.mit.edu/~djk/calculus_beginners/chapter16/section01.html The Antiderivative] at MIT
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/math/calcab/introductiontointegrals/section1.rhtml Introduction to Integrals] at SparkNotes
* [https://www.math.hmc.edu/calculus/tutorials/antiderivatives/ Antiderivatives] at Harvy Mudd College
Category:Integral calculus
Category:Linear operators in calculus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative | 2025-04-05T18:26:09.996315 |
2824 | The ABC Song | "The ABC Song" or "ABC" , as well as "The Alphabet Song", "The Alphabet", "Alphabet Song" or "Alphabet".}} is the best-known song used to recite the English alphabet in alphabetical order. It is commonly used to teach the alphabet to children in English-speaking countries. "The ABC Song" was first copyrighted in 1835 by Boston music publisher Charles Bradlee. The melody is from a 1761 French music book and is also used in other nursery rhymes like "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", while the author of the lyrics is unknown. Songs set to the same melody are also used to teach the alphabets of other languages.
History
The melody of "The ABC Song" was first published in the French book of music ''Les Amusements d'une Heure et Demy ('') (1761) without lyrics. It was adapted in Mozart's Twelve Variations and used in many nursery rhymes around the world, including "Ah! vous dirai-je, maman", "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star" and later "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep", before being used in this song. The author of the lyrics is unknown.
"The ABC Song" was first copyrighted in 1835 by Boston music publisher Charles Bradlee under the title "The A.B.C., a German air with variations for the flute with an easy accompaniment for the piano forte." The melody was attributed to 18th-century composer Louis Le Maire.
"The ABC Song" is commonly used in preschools across English-speaking countries. Due to the speed at which '<nowiki/>L, M, N, O, P<nowiki/>' is spoken, it is a common misconception among children still learning the alphabet to believe that it is in fact its own letter called "elemenopee". Some have proposed teaching slower versions of the song to avoid this issue, but attempts to do so have been criticized for lacking the end rhymes and the 'L, M, N, O, P" part being an essential part of the song. The television series Sesame Street has covered the song many times, collaborating with popular artists such as Stevie Wonder, Katy Perry, Nina Simone and Usher.
Composition and variations
Lyrics: (each line represents two measures, or eight beats)
:A, B, C, D, E, F, G... ()
:H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P... (; "L, M, N, O" spoken twice as quickly as rest of rhyme)
:Q, R, S.../ T, U, V... (; pause between S and T, though in some variants, "and" is inserted)
:W... X.../ Y and(/&) Z. (; pause between X and Y, and W and X last for two beats)
:Now I know my ABCs.
:''Next time, won't you sing with me?''
<score lang"lilypond" sound"1">\relative c' {
\key c \major \time 4/4
c4 c4 g'4 g4 \bar "|" a4 a4 g2 \bar "|"
f4 f4 e4 e4 \bar "|" d8 d8 d8 d8 c2 \bar "|" \break
g'4 g4 f2 \bar "|" e4 e4 d2 \bar "|"
g8 g8 g4 f2 \bar "|" e4 e4 d2 \bar "|" \break
c4 c4 g'4 g4 \bar "|" a4 a4 g2 \bar "|"
f4 f4 e4 e4 \bar "|" d4 d4 c2 \bar "|."
}
\addlyrics {
A B C D E F G,
H I J K L M N O P,
Q R S, T U V,
W X, Y and Z.
Now I know my A B Cs.
Next time, won't you sing with me?
}</score>
Lyrics for the alternate Zed version: (each line represents two measures or eight beats)
:A, B, C, D, E, F, G... ()
:H, I, J, K, L, M, N... ()
:O, P, Q, R, S, T, U... ()
:V, W... X, Y and(/&) Z. (; W lasts for two beats)
:Now I know my ABCs.
:''Next time, won't you sing with me?''
<score sound="1">{ \time 4/4 c'4 c' g' g' | a' a' g'2 | f'4 f' e' e' | d' d' c'2 | g'4 g' f' f' | e' e' d'2 | g'4 \times 2/3 { f'8 f' f' } e'4 d' | c' r r2 | \bar "|." } \addlyrics { A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V dub- a- U X Y "Z(ed)" }</score>
:a-b-c-d-e-f-g
:h-i-j-k-l-m-n
:o-p-q-r-s-t-u
:v-w-x-y-z(ed)
This version does not have a closing line, and the tune is modified accordingly. The W is not lengthened in this version.
Backwards alphabet
Several versions exist covering the alphabet backward, i.e., Z to A. One version is shown below.
:z-y-x and(/&) w
:v-u-t, s-r-q
:p-o-n-m-l-k-j
:i-h-g-f-e-d-c-b-a
:Now you know your ZYXs
:''I bet that's not what you expected!
The e-d-c-b part is as fast as the l-m-n-o part in the normal alphabet song.
Versions for other languages
The same melody used for "The ABC Song" has also been used for the Spanish, German, French, and Arabic alphabets. A French-language version of the song is also taught in Canada, with generally no alterations to the melody except in the final line that requires adjustment to accommodate the two-syllable pronunciation of the French y. See also Traditional alphabet songs in other languages
* "A Haka Mana" recites the syllabary of the Māori language to the tune of "Stupid Cupid"
* "Alef-Bet" by Debbie Friedman, a song commonly used in American Hebrew school classrooms to teach the letters of the Hebrew alphabet
* "Iroha", a recital of the Japanese syllabary
* "Shiva Sutra", Sanskrit
* "Thousand Character Classic", Chinese and Korean Hanja
* "Ganada" (), Korean Hangul
* "Zengő ABC" by Ferenc Móra, Hungarian
* "Adalama" ( A, da, la, ma...''), devised for Fulani speakers in West Africa to memorise the Adlam script.
* There are several recordings of the Cherokee syllabary with this melody.
* A singable version for memorising the Déné/Carrier syllabics chart. Notes References
Category:Songs about language
Category:Children's songs
Category:Early childhood education
Song
Category:Traditional children's songs
Category:American children's songs
Category:American nursery rhymes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_ABC_Song | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.036096 |
2826 | Antigonid dynasty | | common_name = Antigonid Macedonia
| era = Hellenistic
| government_type = Monarchy
| status = Empire
| status_text | year_start 306 BC
| date_event1 | year_end 168 BC
| event_start | event1
| event_end = Defeat by Rome
| p1 = Macedonian Empire
| flag_p1 = Vergina Sun WIPO.svg
| border_p1 = no
| p2 = Achaemenid Empire
| flag_p2 = Standard of Cyrus the Great (Achaemenid Empire).svg
| s1 = Macedonia (Roman province)Roman Macedonia
| flag_s1 | s2 Seleucid Empire
| flag_s2 | image_s2
| s3 | flag_s3
| image_s3 | image_coat Perseus of Macedonia Tetradrachm 90060057.jpg
| coa_size = 175px
| symbol | symbol_type Tetradrachm with the Eagle of Zeus and the inscription , "[coin] of King Perseus"
| stat_year1 301 BC
| stat_area1 | stat_year2
| stat_area2 | stat_year3
| stat_area3 | stat_year4
| stat_area4 | image_map Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png
| image_map_caption = Antigonid Empire c. 200 BC
| capital = Antigonia (Antigonus I) <br>Demetrias (Demetrius I) <br>Pella (since Antigonus II)
| common_languages = Greek
| religion = Ancient Greek / Hellenistic
| leader1 = Antigonus I Monophthalmus
| leader2 = Perseus of Macedon
| year_leader1 = 306 BC – 301 BC
| year_leader2 = 179 BC – 168 BC
| title_leader = Basileus
}}
The Antigonid dynasty (; ) was a Macedonian Greek royal house which ruled the kingdom of Macedon during the Hellenistic period. Founded by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, a general and successor of Alexander the Great, the dynasty first came to power after the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC and ruled much of Hellenistic Greece from 294 until their defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC (Third Macedonian War), after which Macedon came under the control of the Roman Republic.
The wars of the Diadochi witnessed the fall of the Argead dynasty in Macedon resulting in a power vacuum, which the Antigonid and Antipatrid dynasties sought to occupy. The Antigonid family first rose to power when Demetrius I Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus I, ousted Cassander's governor of Athens in 306 BC giving his father control over a land spanning from the Aegean Sea to the Middle East. Despite the subsequent instability and loss of the Asian territory, the family managed to maintain its power in mainland Greece and the islands, with Antigonus II Gonatas ultimately solidifying Antigonid rule over Hellenistic Macedon –a territory also known as the Antigonid Empire. Antigonus III Doson further expanded Macedonian influence in southern Greece reestablishing the Hellenic Alliance with himself as the president. Under Philip V, Antigonid Macedon first came into conflict with Rome, which had become a decisive power in the eastern Mediterranean. In the second century BC, the last Antigonid king, Perseus, became known as the champion of Greek resistance against Rome, albeit Rome's control over Antigonid Greece began to steadily expand, culminating in the fall of the dynasty in 168.
History
The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (<abbr>r.</abbr> 305 – 297 BC), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by Antigonus I Monophthalmus (<abbr>r.</abbr> 306 – 301 BC) and his son, the future king Demetrius I Poliorcetes (<abbr>r.</abbr> 294 – 288 BC). After the power crisis in Macedon, which culminated in Philip III's and Euridice's death, Cassander managed to seize control from Olympias and began to establish his authority in the kingdom; in 316 BC he buried Philip III and Euridice at Aegae and married Philip II's daughter, Thessalonica, thus becoming a member of the Argead dynasty. In 310/309 BC, Cassander commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV, son of Alexander the Great, and his mother Roxane and the Macedonian Argead dynasty became extinct.
In 307 BC, Demetrius I successfully ousted Cassander's governor of Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum, and after defeating Ptolemy I at the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC he conquered the island Cyprus. Following that victory, Demetrius' father, Antigonus I, assumed the title of Basileus ("King" of Alexander's Empire) by the assembled armies and gained control over the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean, and most of the Middle East. Demetrius I survived the battle and in 294 BC –during the struggles between Casander's sons Alexander V and Antipater I– he managed to seize control of Athens and establish himself as king of Macedon. In 288 BC, he was driven out by Pyrrhus and Lysimachus and eventually died as a prisoner of Seleucus I Nicator. After a long period of instability, Demetrius' son Antigonus II Gonatas was able to establish the family's control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC.]]
Legacy
The Antigonid was one of four dynasties established by Alexander's successors, the others being the Seleucid dynasty, Ptolemaic dynasty and Antipatrid dynasty. The last scion of the dynasty, Perseus of Macedon, who reigned between 179 and 168 BC, proved unable to stop the advancing Roman legions and Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna signaled the end of the dynasty.
Dynasty
The ruling members of the Antigonid dynasty were:
{| class"wikitable" align"center" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Antigonid rulers
!width"123px"|King !! align"center" width"123px"|Reign (BC) !! width"123px" |Consort(s) !! |Comments
|-
| Antigonus I Monophthalmus (Western Asian Antigonid kingdom)||306–301 BC || Stratonice ||One of Alexander the Great's top generals; a major participant in the so-called "funeral games" following that king's death.
"Monophthalmus" is Greek for "One-eyed," a reference to a disfiguring battle scar.
|-
| Demetrius I Poliorcetes (Macedon, Cicilia) || 294–287 BC || Phila <br/> Ptolemais <br/> Deïdameia <br/> Lanassa <br/> ?Eurydice <br/> ?Unnamed Illyrian woman ||Son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus. Demetrius' wife Phila was a daughter of Antipater, and ancestor of all subsequent Antigonid kings of Macedon, except Antigonus III Doson, through her son Antigonus II Gonatas. Antigonus III Doson was descended from the marriage of Demetrius and Ptolemais, who was a daughter of Ptolemy I Soter and mother of Doson's father, Demetrius the Fair, the ephemeral King of Cyrene. Deïdameia was a daughter of Aeacides of Epirus and sister of Pyrrhus, she had one son, Alexander, by Demetrius. Demetrius had a further two sons, Demetrius the Thin and Corrhagus, the former by an unnamed Illyrian woman, the latter by a woman named Eurydice. Demetrius I Poliorcetes was the first Antigonid king of Macedon.
|-
| Antigonus II Gonatas (Macedon) || 276–239 BC || Phila || Son of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Phila, grandson of Antigonus I Monophthalmus. His wife, Phila, was the daughter of his sister, Stratonice. Only one known legitimate child, Demetrius II Aetolicus.
|-
| Demetrius the Fair (Cyrene) || c. 250 BC || Olympias of Larissa <br/> Berenice II || Son of Demetrius I Poliorcetes and Ptolemaïs. Father of Antigonus III Doson and, apparently, Echecrates by Olympias.
|-
| Demetrius II Aetolicus (Macedon) || 239–229 BC || Stratonice of Macedon <br/> Phthia of Epirus <br/> Nicaea of Corinth <br/> Chryseis || Son of Antigonus II and Phila. Stratonice of Macedon was a daughter of Antiochus I Soter and Stratonice. Phthia of Epirus was a daughter of Alexander II of Epirus and Olympias II of Epirus. Nicaea of Corinth was the widow of Demetrius' cousin, Alexander of Corinth. Chryseis was a former captive of Demetrius. Only known son, Philip by Chryseis, also had a daughter by Stratonice of Macedon, Apama III.
|-
| Antigonus III Doson (Macedon) || 229–221 BC || Chryseis || Son of Demetrius the Fair and Olympias of Larissa. Children unknown.
|-
|<br/> Philip V (Macedon) || 221–179 BC || Polycratia of Argos || Son of Demetrius II and Chryseis.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> At least four children: Perseus of Macedon, Apame, Demetrius and Philippus.
|-
|<br/> Perseus (Macedon) || 179–168 BC<br/> || Laodice V || The last ruler of Macedon. Laodice V was a daughter of the Seleucid king, Seleucus IV Philopator. At least two sons, Philip and Alexander.
|}
The Greek rebel against Rome and last King of Macedonia, Andriscus, claimed to be the son of Perseus.
Family tree of Antigonids
Coin gallery
{|align"center" class"toccolours"
|+ style="background-color:#f8eaba; text-align:center"| Antigonid dynasty coins
|-
|
<gallery>
Antigone le Borgne (pièce).jpg|Coin of Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed") (382–301 BC).
Démétrios Ier Poliorcète (pièce).jpg|Coin of Demetrius I of Macedon ("The Besieger"), (337–283 BC), son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Tetradrachm of Antigonus Doson.jpg|Coin of Antigonus II Gonatas
Philip VI Andriskos.jpg|Coin of Philip VI Andriscus. Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ (King Philip).
</gallery>
|-
|}
See also
* List of kings of Macedon
References
Further reading
* Adams, Winthrop Lindsay. 2010. "Alexander's Successors to 221 BC." In A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, 208–224. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
* Anson, Edward M. 2014. ''Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
* Edson, Charles F. 1934. "The Antigonids, Heracles, and Beroia." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'' 45:213–246.
* O'Neil, James L. 2003. "The Ethnic Origins of the Friends of the Antigonid Kings of Macedon." The Classical Quarterly 53, no. 2: 510–22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3556219.
* The Antigonid Network. https://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/theantigonidnetwork/. Containing information about academic research, seminars, and related bibliographies and links.
Category:Ancient Macedonian dynasties
Category:3rd century BC in Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Category:2nd century BC in Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Category:300s BC establishments
Category:306 BC
Category:4th-century BC establishments
Category:2nd-century BC disestablishments
Category:168 BC | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.062428 |
2827 | Abingdon | Abingdon may refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire
Abingdon (UK Parliament constituency) 1558–1983
Abingdon railway station (closed)
United States
Abingdon, Iowa
Abingdon, Illinois
Abingdon, Maryland
Abingdon, Virginia
Abingdon (plantation), Virginia
Other countries
Abingdon Downs, Queensland, Australia
Abingdon Airport
Abingdon, Ontario, Canada
Abingdon Island, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador
Other uses
Abingdon (1902 automobile)
Abingdon (1922 automobile)
Abingdon Arms, in Oxford, England
Abingdon Health, a British manufacturer of diagnostic tests
Abingdon Motorcycles, a former British motorcycle manufacturer
Abingdon Press, publishing house of the United Methodist Church
Abingdon Road, in Oxford, England
Abingdon School, in Abingdon-on-Thames, England
Earl of Abingdon, a title in the Peerage of England
, a U.S. Navy ship
See also
Abington (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abingdon | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.090474 |
2830 | Abjuration | Abjuration is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon oath, often the renunciation of citizenship or some other right or privilege. The term comes from the Latin abjurare, "to forswear".
Abjuration of the realm
Abjuration of the realm was a type of abjuration in ancient English law. The person taking the oath swore to leave the country directly and promptly, never to return to the kingdom unless by permission of the sovereign. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken sanctuary:
English Commonwealth
Near the start of the English Civil War, on 18 August 1643 Parliament passed "An Ordinance for Explanation of a former Ordinance for Sequestration of Delinquents Estates with some Enlargements." The enlargements included an oath which became known as the "Oath of Abjuration":
In 1656–7, it was reissued in what was for Catholics an even more objectionable form. Everyone was to be "adjudged a Papist" who refused this oath, and the consequent penalties began with the confiscation of two-thirds of the recusant's goods, and went on to deprive him of almost every civic right.
The Catholic Encyclopaedia makes the point that the oath and the penalties were so severe that it stopped the efforts of the Gallicanizing party among the English Catholics, who had been ready to offer forms of submission similar to the old oath of Allegiance, which was condemned anew about this time by Pope Innocent X.
Scotland
thumb|Edinburgh May 8th 1685 Our Soveraign Lord and the Estates of Parliament, do here by Declare that the giving or taking of the National Covenant as explained in the Year 1638 or of the League and Covenant, so commonly called, or writing in defence thereof or owning them as Lawful or Obligatory on themselves or others shall infer the Crime and pains of Treason.
During The Killing Time of the 1680s an Abjuration Oath could be put to suspects where they were given the option to abjure or renounce their allegiances. The terms of the oath were deliberately designed to offend the consciences of the Presbyterian Covenanters. Those who would not swear "whether they have arms, or not" could be "immediately killed" by field trial "before two witnesses" on a charge of high treason. John Brown was included among those executed in this judicial process by John Graham (Bluidy Clavers) on 1 May 1685. The wives and children of such men could also be put out of their houses if they had spoken to the suspect or refused the oath themselves.
Great Britain and Ireland
In England (and after 1707 Great Britain) the Oath of Abjuration denied the royal title of James II's heirs (i.e. the direct Catholic descendant of the House of Stuart exiled after the Glorious Revolution in 1688). In England, an Oath of Abjuration was taken by Members of Parliament, clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current British monarch and repudiated the right of the Stuarts and other claimants to the throne. This oath was imposed under William III, George I and George III. It was superseded by the oath of allegiance. In Ireland, the oath was imposed of state officeholders, teachers, lawyers, and on the clergy of the established church in from 1703, the following year it was on all Irish voters and from 1709 it could be demanded of any adult male by a magistrate.
Bilino Polje abjuration
The Bilino Polje abjuration, also known as "Confessio Christianorum bosniensis", was an act of alleged heresy abjuration by clergy of the Bosnian Church in presence of the Bosnian ruler, Ban Kulin, and Giovanni da Casamari. It affirmed the primacy of the pope and related to errors of practice, stemming from ignorance, rather than heretical doctrines. It was signed by seven Bosnian priors, on 8 April 1203 at Bilino Polje field, near today town of Zenica, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The same document was brought to Buda, in 30 April by Giovanni da Casamari, Ban Kulin and two abbots, where it was examined by Emeric, King of Hungary, and the high clergy.
The Netherlands
Another famous abjuration was brought about by the Plakkaat van Verlatinghe of July 26, 1581, the formal Act of Abjuration or declaration of independence of the Low Countries from the Spanish king, Philip II. This oath was the climax of the Eighty Years' War (Dutch Revolt).
See also
English post-Reformation oaths
Papists Act 1716
Notes
External links
Category:Latin legal terminology
Category:Oaths | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjuration | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.119853 |
2833 | Abitibi | Abitibi may refer to:
Election districts in Canada
Abitibi—Témiscamingue (electoral district)
Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou
Abitibi (provincial electoral district)
Places in Canada
Abitibi Canyon, Ontario, community on the Abitibi River
Abitibi Canyon Generating Station, hydroelectric power plant
Abitibi County, Quebec, historical county in southwestern Quebec
Abitibi gold belt, a gold mining region spanning the border of Ontario and Quebec
Abitibi Regional County Municipality, Quebec
Abitibi River
Abitibi-Ontario Band of Abitibi Indians, or Abitibi, former name of Wahgoshig First Nation
Abitibi-Témiscamingue, administrative region in Quebec
Lake Abitibi
Other uses
AbitibiBowater, former name of Resolute Forest Products, a pulp and paper manufacturing company
Abitibi-Consolidated, the company that merged with Bowater to create AbitibiBowater
Abitibi (train), former name of the Montreal–Senneterre train in Canada
Abitibi Eskimos, former name of the Timmins Rock, an ice hockey team in Canada | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abitibi | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.146183 |
2834 | A Vindication of the Rights of Woman | A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects , is a 1792 feminist essay written by British philosopher and women's rights advocate Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), and is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the eighteenth century who did not believe women should receive a rational education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord's 1791 report to the French National Assembly, which stated that women should only receive domestic education. From her reaction to this specific event, she launched a broad attack against double standards, indicting men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion. Wollstonecraft hurried to complete the work in direct response to ongoing events; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it.
While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, especially morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist; the word itself did not emerge until decades after her death.
Although it is commonly assumed that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received, this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). The Rights of Woman was generally received well when it was first published in 1792. Biographer Emily W. Sunstein called it "perhaps the most original book of [Wollstonecraft's] century". Wollstonecraft's work had significant impact on advocates for women's rights in the nineteenth century, particularly the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention which produced the Declaration of Sentiments laying out the aims of the women's suffrage movement in the United States.
Historical context
, by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon]]
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain. In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war, now referred to as the Revolution controversy, British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state, many of these issues having been raised in France first. Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men, a response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). In his Reflections, Burke criticized the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution. While they saw the revolution as analogous to Britain's own Glorious Revolution in 1688, which had restricted the powers of the monarchy, Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War (1642–1651) in which CharlesI had been executed in 1649. He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government. In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government because civilization is the result of social and political consensus; its traditions cannot be continually challengedthe result would be anarchy. One of the key arguments of Wollstonecraft's Rights of Men, published just six weeks after Burke's Reflections, is that rights cannot be based on tradition; rights, she argues, should be conferred because they are reasonable and just, regardless of their basis in tradition.
When Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord presented his ''Rapport sur l'instruction publique'' (1791) to the National Assembly in France, Wollstonecraft was galvanized to respond. In his recommendations for a national system of education, Talleyrand had written:
<blockquote>Let us bring up women, not to aspire to advantages which the Constitution denies them, but to know and appreciate those which it guarantees them... Men are destined to live on the stage of the world. A public education suits them: it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life: only the proportions are different. The paternal home is better for the education of women; they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others, than to accustom themselves to a calm and secluded life.</blockquote>
]]
Wollstonecraft dedicated the Rights of Woman to Talleyrand: "Having read with great pleasure a pamphlet which you have lately published, I dedicate this volume to you; to induce you to reconsider the subject, and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education." At the end of 1791, French feminist Olympe de Gouges had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, and the question of women's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain. The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Themes
The Rights of Woman is a long (almost 87,000 words) essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them, each time from a different point of view. It also adopts a hybrid tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility. Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to eighteenth-century philosophical writing.
Hysteria was once seen as a physical phenomenonphysicians and anatomists believed that the more "sensitive" people's "nerves", the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings. Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men, it was believed that women were more emotional than men. The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion: those with sensibility could easily sympathise with people in pain. Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts, such as the movement to abolish the slave trade. But sensibility also paralysed those who had too much of it; as scholar G. J. Barker-Benfield explains, "an innate refinement of nerves was also identifiable with greater suffering, with weakness, and a susceptibility to disorder". Sensibility, which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy, was now viewed as "profoundly separatist"; novels, plays, and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights, sexual freedom, and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling. Furthermore, as Janet Todd, another scholar of sensibility, argues, "to many in Britain the cult of sensibility seemed to have feminized the nation, given women undue prominence, and emasculated men".
Rational education
One of Wollstonecraft's central arguments in the Rights of Woman is that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society. In the eighteenth century, it was often assumed by educational philosophers and conduct book writers, who wrote what one might think of as early self-help books, that women were incapable of rational or abstract thought. Women, it was believed, were too susceptible to sensibility and too fragile to be able to think clearly. Wollstonecraft, along with other female reformers such as Catharine Macaulay and Hester Chapone, maintained that women were indeed capable of rational thought and deserved to be educated. She argued this point in her own conduct book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), in her children's book, Original Stories from Real Life (1788), as well as in the Rights of Woman.
Stating in her preface that "my main argument is built on this simple principle, that if [woman] be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue; for truth must be common to all", Wollstonecraft contends that society will degenerate without educated women, particularly because mothers are the primary educators of young children. She attributes the problem of uneducated women to men and "a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men who [consider] females rather as women than human creatures". Women are capable of rationality; it only appears that they are not, because men have refused to educate them and encouraged them to be frivolous (Wollstonecraft describes silly women as "spaniels" and "toys").
Wollstonecraft attacks conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory as well as educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argue that a woman does not need a rational education. (Rousseau argues in Emile [1762] that women should be educated for the pleasure of men; Wollstonecraft, infuriated by this argument, attacks not only it but also Rousseau himself.) Intent on illustrating the limitations that contemporary educational theory placed upon women, Wollstonecraft writes, "taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison", implying that without this damaging ideology, which encourages young women to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, they could achieve much more. Wives could be the rational "companions" of their husbands and even pursue careers should they so choose: "women might certainly study the art of healing, and be physicians as well as nurses. And midwifery, decency seems to allot to them... they might, also, study politics... Business of various kinds, they might likewise pursue."
For Wollstonecraft, "the most perfect education" is "an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart. Or, in other words, to enable the individual to attach such habits of virtue as will render it independent." In addition to her broad philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft lays out a specific plan for national education to counter Talleyrand's. In Chapter 12, "On National Education", she proposes that children be sent to free day schools as well as given some education at home "to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures". She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, contending that men and women, whose marriages are "the cement of society", should be "educated after the same model".
Feminism
; "Woman, the victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in The Rights of Women ".]]
It is debatable to what extent the Rights of Woman is a feminist text; because the definitions of feminist vary, different scholars have come to different conclusions. The words feminist and feminism were not coined until the 1890s, and there was no feminist movement to speak of during Wollstonecraft's lifetime. Rights of Woman is often considered the source or original, "the ur-document of modern liberal feminism". In the introduction to her work on Wollstonecraft's thought, Barbara Taylor writes:
<blockquote>Describing [Wollstonecraft's philosophy] as feminist is problematic, and I do it only after much consideration. The label is of course anachronistic... Treating Wollstonecraft's thought as an anticipation of nineteenth and twentieth-century feminist argument has meant sacrificing or distorting some of its key elements. Leading examples of this... have been the widespread neglect of her religious beliefs, and the misrepresentation of her as a bourgeois liberal, which together have resulted in the displacement of a religiously inspired utopian radicalism by a secular, class-partisan reformism as alien to Wollstonecraft's political project as her dream of a divinely promised age of universal happiness is to our own. Even more important however has been the imposition on Wollstonecraft of a heroic-individualist brand of politics utterly at odds with her own ethically driven case for women's emancipation. Wollstonecraft's leading ambition for women was that they should attain virtue, and it was to this end that she sought their liberation.</blockquote>
In the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft does not make the claim for gender equality using the same arguments or the same language that late nineteenth- and twentieth-century feminists later would. For instance, rather than unequivocally stating that men and women are equal, Wollstonecraft contends that men and women are equal in the eyes of God, which means that they are both subject to the same moral law. For Wollstonecraft, men and women are equal in the most important areas of life. While such an idea may not seem revolutionary to twenty-first-century readers, its implications were revolutionary during the eighteenth century. For example, it implied that both men and womennot just womenshould be modest and respect the sanctity of marriage. Wollstonecraft's argument exposed the sexual double standard of the late eighteenth century and demanded that men adhere to the same virtues demanded of women. Wollstonecraft states:
<blockquote>Let it not be concluded, that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequentially, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God.</blockquote>
Wollstonecraft calls on men, rather than women, to initiate the social and political changes she outlines in the Rights of Woman. Because women are uneducated, they cannot alter their own situationmen must come to their aid. Wollstonecraft writes at the end of her chapter "Of the Pernicious Effects Which Arise from the Unnatural Distinctions Established in Society":
<blockquote>I then would fain convince reasonable men of the importance of some of my remarks; and prevail on them to weigh dispassionately the whole tenor of my observations... I appeal to their understandings; and, as a fellow-creature, claim, in the name of my sex, some interest in their hearts. I entreat them to assist to emancipate their companion, to make her a help meet for them! Would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothersin a word, better citizens.</blockquote>
Wollstonecraft's last novel, Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), the fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman, is usually considered her most radical feminist work.
Sensibility
One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing criticisms in the Rights of Woman is against false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are "blown about by every momentary gust of feeling"; because these women are "the prey of their senses", they cannot think rationally. Not only do they do harm to themselves but they also do harm to all of civilization: these are not women who can refine civilizationthese are women who will destroy it. But reason and feeling are not independent for Wollstonecraft; rather, she believes that they should inform each other. For Wollstonecraft the passions underpin all reason. This was a theme that she would return to throughout her career, but particularly in her novels Mary: A Fiction (1788) and Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman. For the eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher David Hume, reason is dominated by the passions. He held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming in A Treatise of Human Nature that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions".
As part of her argument that women should not be overly influenced by their feelings and emotions, Wollstonecraft emphasises that they should not be constrained by or made slaves to their bodies or their sexual feelings. This particular argument has led many modern feminists to suggest that Wollstonecraft intentionally avoids granting women any sexual desire. Cora Kaplan argues that the "negative and prescriptive assault on female sexuality" is a leitmotif of the Rights of Woman. For example, Wollstonecraft advises her readers to "calmly let passion subside into friendship" in the ideal companionate marriage (that is, in the ideal of a love-based marriage that was developing at the time). It would be better, she writes, when "two virtuous young people marry . . . if some circumstances checked their passion". According to Wollstonecraft, "love and friendship cannot subsist in the same bosom". If women are not interested in sexuality, they cannot be dominated by men. Wollstonecraft worries that women are consumed with "romantic wavering", that is, they are interested only in satisfying their lusts. Because the Rights of Woman eliminates sexuality from a woman's life, Kaplan contends, it "expresses a violent antagonism to the sexual" while at the same time "exaggerat[ing] the importance of the sensual in the everyday life of women". Wollstonecraft was so determined to wipe sexuality from her picture of the ideal woman that she ended up foregrounding it by insisting upon its absence. But as Kaplan and others have remarked, Wollstonecraft may have been forced to make this sacrifice: "it is important to remember that the notion of woman as politically enabled and independent [was] fatally linked [during the eighteenth century] to the unrestrained and vicious exercise of her sexuality."
Republicanism
by Eugène Delacroix (1833)]]
Claudia Johnson, a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar, has called the Rights of Woman'' "a republican manifesto". Johnson contends that Wollstonecraft is hearkening back to the Commonwealth tradition of the seventeenth century and attempting to reestablish a republican ethos. In Wollstonecraft's version, there would be strong, but separate, masculine and feminine roles for citizens. According to Johnson, Wollstonecraft "denounces the collapse of proper sexual distinction as the leading feature of her age, and as the grievous consequence of sentimentality itself. The problem undermining society in her view is feminized men". If men feel free to adopt both the masculine position and the sentimental feminine position, she argues, women have no position open to them in society. Johnson therefore sees Wollstonecraft as a critic, in both the Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman, of the "masculinization of sensitivity" in such works as Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France.
In the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft adheres to a version of republicanism that includes a belief in the eventual overthrow of all titles, including the monarchy. She also suggests that all men and women should be represented in government. But the bulk of her "political criticism", as Chris Jones, a Wollstonecraft scholar, explains, "is couched predominantly in terms of morality". Her definition of virtue focuses on the individual's happiness rather than, for example, the good of society.
Class
In many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world, as is its direct predecessor the Rights of Men. Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle class, which she calls the "most natural state". She also frequently praises modesty and industry, virtues which, at the time, were associated with the middle class. From her position as a middle-class writer arguing for a middle-class ethos, Wollstonecraft also attacks the wealthy, criticizing them using the same arguments she employs against women. She points out the "false-refinement, immorality, and vanity" of the rich, calling them "weak, artificial beings, raised above the common wants and affections of their race, in a premature unnatural manner [who] undermine the very foundation of virtue, and spread corruption through the whole mass of society".
But Wollstonecraft's criticisms of the wealthy do not necessarily reflect a concomitant sympathy for the poor. For her, the poor are fortunate because they will never be trapped by the snares of wealth: "Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with; for these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices, merely from idleness!" She contends that charity has only negative consequences because, as Jones puts it, she "sees it as sustaining an unequal society while giving the appearance of virtue to the rich".
In her national plan for education, she retains class distinctions (with an exception for the intelligent), suggesting that: "After the age of nine, girls and boys, intended for domestic employments, or mechanical trades, ought to be removed to other schools, and receive instruction, in some measure appropriated to the destination of each individual... The young people of superior abilities, or fortune, might now be taught, in another school, the dead and living languages, the elements of science, and continue the study of history and politics, on a more extensive scale, which would not exclude polite literature."
Rhetoric and style
's Emile (1762)]]
In attempting to navigate the cultural expectations of female writers and the generic conventions of political and philosophical discourse, Wollstonecraft, as she does throughout her oeuvre, constructs a unique blend of masculine and feminine styles in the Rights of Woman. She uses the language of philosophy, referring to her work as a "treatise" with "arguments" and "principles".
Although Wollstonecraft argues against excessive sensibility, the rhetoric of the Rights of Woman is at times heated and attempts to provoke the reader. Many of the most emotional comments in the book are directed at Rousseau. For example, after excerpting a long passage from Emile (1762), Wollstonecraft pithily states, "I shall make no other comments on this ingenious passage, than just to observe, that it is the philosophy of lasciviousness." A mere page later, after indicting Rousseau's plan for female education, she writes "I must relieve myself by drawing another picture." These terse exclamations are meant to draw the reader to her side of the argument (it is assumed that the reader will agree with them). While she claims to write in a plain style so that her ideas will reach the broadest possible audience, she actually combines the plain, rational language of the political treatise with the poetic, passionate language of sensibility to demonstrate that one can combine rationality and sensibility in the same self.
In her efforts to vividly describe the condition of women within society, Wollstonecraft employs several different analogies. She often compares women to slaves, arguing that their ignorance and powerlessness places them in that position. But at the same time, she also compares them to "capricious tyrants" who use cunning and deceit to manipulate the men around them. At one point, she reasons that a woman can become either a slave or tyrant, which she describes as two sides of the same coin. Wollstonecraft also compares women to soldiers; like military men, they are valued only for their appearance and obedience. And like the rich, women's "softness" has "debased mankind".
Revision
Wollstonecraft was forced to write the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond to Talleyrand and ongoing events. Upon completing the work, she wrote to her friend William Roscoe: "I am dissatisfied with myself for not having done justice to the subject... Do not suspect me of false modestyI mean to say that had I allowed myself more time I could have written a better book, in every sense of the word... I intend to finish the next volume before I begin to print, for it is not pleasant to have the Devil coming for the conclusion of a sheet fore it is written." When Wollstonecraft revised the Rights of Woman for the second edition, she took the opportunity not only to fix small spelling and grammar mistakes but also to bolster the feminist claims of her argument. She changed some of her statements regarding female and male difference to reflect a greater equality between the sexes.
Wollstonecraft never wrote the second part to the Rights of Woman, although William Godwin published her "Hints", which were "chiefly designed to have been incorporated in the second part of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman", in the posthumous collection of her works. However, she did begin writing the novel Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, which most scholars consider a fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman. It was unfinished at her death and also included in the Posthumous Works published by Godwin.
Reception and legacy
When it was first published in 1792, the Rights of Woman was reviewed favourably by the Analytical Review, the General Magazine, the Literary Magazine, New York Magazine, and the Monthly Review, although the assumption persists that Rights of Woman received hostile reviews. It was almost immediately released in a second edition in 1792, several American editions appeared, and it was translated into French. Taylor writes that "it was an immediate success". Moreover, other writers such as Mary Hays and Mary Robinson specifically alluded to Wollstonecraft's text in their own works. Hays cited the Rights of Woman in her novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney (1796) and modelled her female characters after Wollstonecraft's ideal woman.
Although female conservatives such as Hannah More excoriated Wollstonecraft personally, they actually shared many of the same values. As the scholar Anne Mellor has shown, both More and Wollstonecraft wanted a society founded on "Christian virtues of rational benevolence, honesty, personal virtue, the fulfillment of social duty, thrift, sobriety, and hard work". During the early 1790s, many writers within British society were engaged in an intense debate regarding the position of women in society. For example, the respected poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld and Wollstonecraft sparred back and forth; Barbauld published several poems responding to Wollstonecraft's work and Wollstonecraft commented on them in footnotes to the Rights of Woman. The work also provoked outright hostility. The bluestocking Elizabeth Carter was unimpressed with the work. Thomas Taylor, the Neoplatonist translator who had been a landlord to the Wollstonecraft family in the late 1770s, swiftly wrote a satire called A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes: if women have rights, why not animals too?
Wollstonecraft's ideas became associated with her life story and women writers felt that it was dangerous to mention her in their texts. Hays, who had previously been a close friend and an outspoken advocate for Wollstonecraft and her Rights of Woman, for example, did not include her in the collection of Illustrious and Celebrated Women she published in 1803. Maria Edgeworth specifically distances herself from Wollstonecraft in her novel Belinda (1802); she caricatures Wollstonecraft as a radical feminist in the character of Harriet Freke. But, like Jane Austen, she does not reject Wollstonecraft's ideas. Both Edgeworth and Austen argue that women are crucial to the development of the nation; moreover, they portray women as rational beings who should choose companionate marriage.
The negative views towards Wollstonecraft persisted for over a century. The Rights of Woman was not reprinted until the middle of the nineteenth century and it still retained an aura of ill-repute. George Eliot wrote "there is in some quarters a vague prejudice against the Rights of Woman as in some way or other a reprehensible book, but readers who go to it with this impression will be surprised to find it eminently serious, severely moral, and withal rather heavy". The suffragist (i.e. moderate reformer, as opposed to suffragette) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman, cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments, twentieth-century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft's life story, rather than her texts, for inspiration; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new "experiments in living", as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft. However, there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a feminist who is critical of Islam's dictates regarding women, cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel, writing that she was "inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights". Miriam Schneir also includes this text in her anthology Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings, labelling it as one of the essential feminist works. Further evidence of the enduring legacy of Wollstonecraft's A Vindication may be seen by direct references in recent historical fiction set: for example, in The Silk Weaver (1998) set in the late eighteenth century among Dublin silk weavers, author Gabrielle Warnock (1998) intervenes as narrator to hold up ‘Rights of Woman’ for the reader to reflect upon the politics, morals, and feelings of her female characters. In Death Comes to Pemberley (2011), set in 1803, P. D. James has one male character reference Rights of Woman in reproving another (Darcy) for denying voice to the woman in matters that concern her.
See also
*"On the Equality of the Sexes"
*Timeline of Mary Wollstonecraft
Notes
Bibliography
Modern reprints
*Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler. 7 vols. London: William Pickering, 1989. .
*Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Vindications: The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman. Eds. D.L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf. Toronto: Broadview Literary Texts, 1997.
*Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. Miriam Brody Kramnick. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2004. .
*Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. Deidre Shauna Lynch. 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2009. .
*Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. Sylvana Tomaselli. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. .
Contemporary reviews
<!--Please do not link to a journal unless you check its dates and are sure it is the correct one.-->
*Analytical Review 12 (1792): 241–249; 13 (1792): 418–489.
*Christian Miscellany 1 (1792): 209–212.
*Critical Review New Series 4 (1792): 389–398; 5 (1792): 132–141.
*General Magazine and Imperial Review 6.2 (1792): 187–191.
*Literary Magazine and British Review 8 (1792); 133–139.
*Monthly Review New Series 8 (1792): 198–209.
*New Annual Register 13 (1792): 298.
*New-York Magazine 4 (1793): 77–81.
*Scots Magazine 54 (1792): 284–290.
*Sentimental and Masonic Magazine 1 (1792): 63–72.
*Town and Country Magazine 24 (1792): 279.
Secondary sources
*Barker-Benfield, G.J. The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. .
*DeLucia, JoEllen. "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman". The Literary Encyclopedia, Volume 1.2.1.06: English Writing and Culture of the Romantic Period, 1789–1837, 2011.
*Gordon, Lyndall. Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Great Britain: Virago, 2005. .
*Hume, David. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180712120258/http://www.davidhume.org/texts/thn.html A Treatise of Human Nature 1]. London: John Noon, 1739. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
*Janes, R.M. "On the Reception of Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman". Journal of the History of Ideas 39 (1978): 293–302.
*Johnson, Claudia L. Equivocal Beings: Politics, Gender, and Sentimentality in the 1790s. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. .
*Jones, Chris. "Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindications and their political tradition". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. .
*Kaplan, Cora. "Mary Wollstonecraft's reception and legacies". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. .
*Kaplan, Cora. "Pandora's Box: Subjectivity, Class and Sexuality in Socialist Feminist Criticism". Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism. London: Verso, 1986. .
*Kaplan, Cora. "Wild Nights: Pleasure/Sexuality/Feminism". Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism. London: Verso, 1986. .
*Kelly, Gary. Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft. New York: St. Martin's, 1992. .
*Mellor, Anne K. "Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and the women writers of her day". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. .
*Pennell, Elizabeth Robins. Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1884.
*Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley and Jane Austen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. .
*Sapiro, Virginia. A Vindication of Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. .
*Sunstein, Emily W. A Different Face: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. New York: Harper and Row, 1975. .
*Taylor, Barbara. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. .
*Todd, Janet. Sensibility: An introduction. London: Methuen, 1986. .
*Wardle, Ralph M. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1951.
External links
*
* [https://archive.org/details/avindicationrig01wollgoog 1796 edition of Rights of Woman]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3420 Rights of Woman] at Project Gutenberg
*
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/wollstonecraft_01.shtml Mary Wollstonecraft: A 'Speculative and Dissenting Spirit'] by Janet Todd at www.bbc.co.uk
*[https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbc0001.2008amimp11328/ A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects] From the Collections at the Library of Congress
Category:1792 non-fiction books
Category:Books by Mary Wollstonecraft
Category:Feminist books
Category:Women's rights
Category:History of education in France
Category:1792 in England
Category:First-wave feminism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.168284 |
2835 | Afghan Hound | | country = Afghanistan
| collapse_standards_and_traits | fcistd http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/228g10-en.pdf <!-----Traits----->
| weight
| femaleweight | height
| femaleheight | coat Long and fine
| colour =
| litter_size = 6–8 puppies
| life_span = 11.1 years
}}
The Afghan Hound is a hound distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat, and a tail with a ring curl at the end. The breed originates in the cold mountains of Afghanistan. Its local name is ( ) or ( ). Other names for this breed are Tāzī, Balkh Hound, Baluchi Hound, and Barakzai Hound.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) describes the breed as among the most eye-catching of all. The Afghan Hound is an "aloof and dignified aristocrat of sublime beauty." Despite their regal appearance, the Afghan possesses an "endearing streak of silliness and a profound loyalty."
Admired since ancient times for their beauty, the Afghan Hound's distinctive coat was developed as protection from the harsh mountain climate. Their huge paw-pads served as shock absorbers on the rocky terrain.
Connections with other types and breeds from the same area may provide clues to the history. A name for a desert coursing Afghan Hound, Tazi (Sag-e-Tazi), suggests a shared ancestry with the very similar Tazy breed from the Caspian Sea area of Russia and Turkmenistan. Other types or breeds of similar appearance are the Taigan from the mountainous Tian Shan region on the Chinese border of Afghanistan, and the Barakzay, or Kurram Valley Hound.
Once out of Afghanistan, the history of the Afghan Hound breed became entwined with that of the very earliest dog shows and the Kennel Club (UK). Various sighthounds were brought to England in the 1800s by army officers returning from British India and were exhibited at dog shows, which were then just becoming popular, under various names, such as Barukzy hounds. They were also called "Persian Greyhounds" by the English, in reference to their own indigenous sighthound.
One dog in particular, Zardin, was brought in 1907 from India by Captain John Barff. Zardin became the early ideal for the breed type still referred to as the Persian Greyhound. Zardin was the basis of the writing for the first breed standard in 1912, but this breeding cycle was stopped by World War I. These dogs were of the "steppe" or “desert” type and were less heavily coated.
The second strain was a group of dogs from a kennel in Kabul owned by Mrs. Mary Amps, which she shipped to England in 1925. She and her husband came to Kabul after the Afghan war in 1919, and the foundation sire of her kennel (named Ghazni) in Kabul was a dog that closely resembled Zardin. Her Ghazni strain were the more heavily coated mountain type. Most of the Afghans in the United States were developed from the Ghazni strain from England. The first Afghans in Australia were imported from the United States in 1934, also of the Ghazni strain. The mountain and steppe strains became mixed into the modern Afghan Hound breed, and a new standard was written in 1948, which is still used today.
The beauty of Afghan Hound dogs caused them to become highly desirable show dogs and pets, and they are recognised by all of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world. One of the Amps Ghazni, Sirdar, won best in show at Crufts in 1928 and 1930. An Afghan Hound was featured on the cover of Life Magazine on November 26, 1945. Afghan Hounds were the most popular in Australia in the 1970s, and won most of the major shows. Afghan Hounds were BIS at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1957 and again in 1983.
The Afghan Hound breed is no longer used for hunting, although it can be seen in the sport of lure coursing.
On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully clone a dog, an Afghan Hound named Snuppy. In 2006 Hwang Woo-Suk was dismissed from his university position for fabricating data in his research. Snuppy, nonetheless, was a genuine clone, and thus the first cloned dog in history.
Description
; however, the photo shows it with a reddish tinge to the coat, which can occur in a black-coated dog.]]
The dogs in this breed occur in many different coat colors. A study that mapped the genes of Afghan Hounds and discussed the effect of genes on coat colour in the breed was published in the Journal of Heredity in 2010.
The Afghan Hound is tall, standing in height and weighing . The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. A specimen may have a beard on the lower jaw, known as a "mandarin". Some Afghan Hounds are almost white, but parti-color hounds (white with islands of red or black) are penalized in the AKC standard, but not by the FCI.
Their long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back of the dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed.
The temperament of the typical Afghan Hound can be aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. This breed, as tends to be the case with sighthounds, has a high prey drive and may kill small animals and livestock. Genomic studies have pointed to the Afghan Hound as one of the oldest of dog breeds.
The breed has a reputation among dog trainers of having a relatively slow "obedience intelligence"; Stanley Coren, in his book The Intelligence of Dogs, ranked the breed last among 138 breeds mentioned in ability to understand and obey commands, requiring more than 80 repetitions to understand a new command and obeying on the first command less than 25% of the time. Coren noted that Afghan Hounds were consistently ranked among the least obedient dog breeds among all of the trainers he consulted, with a majority (121 out of 199) ranking the Afghan Hound in the lowest ten breeds out of 133 listed.
Variants
Khalag Tazi
The Khalag Tazi is a variety of the Afghan Hound introduced to Europe in 1920, when an Indian Army officer, Major G Bell-Murray, brought some animals back from Afghanistan.
Bakhmull
Bakhmull (also Bakhmull Tazi or Tazi Bakhmull, also called the Aboriginal Afghan Hound) is a long-haired variety of sighthound. It has been bred mostly in Russia and claimed to represent an Afghan Hound aboriginal to Afghanistan. applied in reference to the dog's silky coat, which is rather abundant and long on the whole body, except the "saddle" (middle to lower back), front parts of all four legs, and the muzzle. Its color is always fawn, ivory, or white, with a darker "saddle", thus it produces an impression of a (yellowish) dog whose coat color matches the khaki sandstone and limestone of the Hindu Kush mountain landscape and deserts. The following colors are not permissible: red, red with white spots, black, and black with white spots.
Since the 1980s, the centre of Bakhmull breeding has been Russia, beginning in Moscow, then spreading to various other places in the CIS. The foundation stock was brought to Russia in the 1970s by military men returning from Afghanistan. Natalia Gherasiova (a breeder, of the Blue Dale el Bark Bakhmull kennel, and dog show judge) established the National Bakhmull Club, affiliated with the Russian Federation for Hunting Dogs (RFOS) and Russian Kynological Federation (RKF). A breed standard was first published in 1985, and a shared RFOS–RKF revision was produced in 1997.
Bakhmulls hunt solo and in couples. Although its coat is long, it does not require much grooming. Paws are well protected from injuries by "feathering" (thick additional paw fur). Its long, velvety coat and its stamina makes more suitable than many breeds for harsh weather. The breed standard calls for "aristocratic gait and a beautiful head with gazelle-like ... eyes". The eyes should be large, brown, slanting upwards, and of almond shape, with rims outlined black. Black coloration is required on the nose and lips for both white and fawn bakhmulls. The dog's height should be between , for bitches. The height at the withers is higher than at the croup.Health concernsMajor health issues are allergies, cancer, and hip dysplasia. Like other sighthounds, the Afghan Hound is sensitive to anesthesia, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat. Afghan Hounds are also among the dog breeds most likely to develop chylothorax, a rare condition which causes the thoracic ducts to leak, allowing large quantities of chyle fluid to enter the dog's chest cavity. This condition commonly results in a lung-lobe torsion (in which the dog's lung twists within the chest cavity, requiring emergency surgery), due to the breed's typically deep, "barrel"-shaped chest. If not corrected through surgery, chylothorax can ultimately cause fibrosing pleuritis, or a hardening of the organs, due to scar tissue forming around the organs to protect them from the chyle fluid. Chylothorax is often fatal.
Among other health problems are laryngeal paralysis, dilated cardiomyopathy (twice as common in males as females), and dermatological issues such as testosterone-responsive dermatosis of male dogs (often seen in castrated males), nasal depigmentation (also known as Dudley nose), and skin tumours. Afghans are also prone to Central diabetes insipidus (CDI), hypothyroidism and tricholemmoma, a rare condition which mainly affects older dogs in the Middle Ages. Ocular conditions that can occur include medial canthal pocket syndrome (breed predisposition due to shape of head), corneal dystrophy, cataract and generalized progressive retinal atrophy (GPRA). Afghan myelopathy (causing pelvic limb ataxia) is sometimes reported.
The Afghan Hound has been represented in multiple animated feature films and TV shows, including Universal Pictures' Balto (Sylvie), Disney's ''Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure'' (Ruby), Hasbro Studios's Pound Puppies (Twiggy) and ABC Kids' Bluey (Indy). An Afghan Hound also appeared in the films One Hundred and One Dalmatians, 101 Dalmatians, ''102 Dalmatians, and 101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure. Other examples include Prince Amir of Kinjan from What-a-Mess, Persia from Road Rovers, Burt from Foofur, Laila from Roadside Romeo, and Brainy Barker from Krypto the Superdog. Malory Archer in the show Archer also had an Afghan Hound named Duchess at some point in her childhood.
In the 1941 novel Between the Acts'', Virginia Woolf uses an Afghan Hound named Sohrab to represent aspects of one of the book's human characters.
The Afghan Hound features prominently in the avant-garde music video of French band M83's, "Set in Stone (M83 Remix)".
See also
* List of dog breeds
* Saluki
References
Further reading
* Afghan Hounds (The World of Dogs) Race L., publisher Kingdom Books, PO Box 15, Waterlooville PO7 6BQ, 1999, England, 240 pages, ch 4, pages 81–83, contributed by Natalia Ghersiova, Russia.
* Encyclopedia "Russian Hunting". Scientific edition, publisher "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 1998, pp. 11–12, 187–188
* Indigenous Lop Eared SightHounds From Central Africa To China By Dr. Dominique de Caprona (C) de Caprona 2011
* The reviving and breeding of the ancient Bakhmuul breed from Afghanistan in Russia was appreciated in the US and several respective articles were published in the world known The Afghan Hound Review International Issue November–December 1992 p. 128
* "Two Afghan Hound Breeds In Russia!" The Afghan Hound Review July–August 1995 pp. 102, 104 "The Russian Scene" and in The Afghan Hound Review May–June 2002 pp. 22, 24, 26, 28 "Aboriginal Afghan Hounds".
External links
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* [https://barkingroyalty.com/afghan-hound/ Afghan Hound – Full Breed Profile]
Category:FCI breeds
Category:Sighthounds
Category:Dog breeds originating in Asia
Category:Animal breeds originating in Afghanistan
Category:Rare dog breeds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Hound | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.201490 |
2836 | Azawakh | The Azawakh is a breed of dog from West Africa. With ancient origins, it is raised throughout the Sahelian zone of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. This region includes the Azawagh Valley for which the breed is named. While commonly associated with the nomadic Tuareg people, the dogs are also bred and owned by other ethnic groups, such as the Peulh, Bella, and Hausa. The Azawakh is more related to the Sloughi than it is to the Saluki.
Description
thumb|left|A male Azawakh
Appearance
Slim and elegant, with bone structure and muscles showing through thin skin. Eyes are almond-shaped.
The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles are "dry", meaning that they are quite flat, unlike the Greyhound and Whippet. In this respect it is similar in type to the Saluki.
Colours
Colours permitted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Since 2015 white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in the FCI member countries, as is a white collar or half collar (Irish marked).
Some conservationists support the idea that in Africa, Azawakhs are still found in a variety of colours such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black with various white markings including Irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white). Because of this wide color variation in the native population, the American standard used by the AKC and UKC allows any color combination found in Africa.
Movement
thumb|right|Azawakh in motion
thumb|Azawakh in movement
The Azawakh's light, supple, lissome gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is an upright double suspension gallop.
Temperament
Bred by the Tuareg, Fula and various other nomads of the Sahara and sub-Saharan Sahel in the countries of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and southern Algeria, the breed known by the Tuaregs as ”Oska” was used there as a guard dog and to hunt gazelle and hare at speeds up to . The austerity of the Sahel environment has ensured that only the most fit dogs survive and has accentuated the breed's ruggedness and independence. Unlike some other sighthounds, the Azawakh is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. In role of a guard dog, if an Azawakh senses danger it will bark to alert the other members of the pack, and they will gather together as a pack under the lead of the alpha dog, then chase off or attack the predator.
Unlike other sighthounds, the primary function of the Azawakh in its native land is that of a guard dog. It develops an intense bond with its owner, and tend to be reserved with strangers.
Azawakh have high energy and tremendous endurance. They are excellent training companions for runners. Many Azawakh dislike rain and cold weather.
Azawakh are pack oriented and form complex social hierarchies. They have tremendous memories and are able to recognize each other after long periods of separation. They can often be found sleeping on top of each other for warmth and companionship.
Breed history
thumb|right|Azawakh among the Tuareg
The breed is relatively uncommon in Europe and North America but there is a growing band of devotees. Azawakh may be registered with the FCI in the USA via the Federación Canófila de Puerto Rico (FCPR). European FCI clubs and the AKC recognize the FCPR as an acceptable registry. The AKC recognized the Azawakh a member of the Hound group in 2019. The American Azawakh Association (AAA) is the AKC Parent Club for the Azawakh. Azawakh may be registered with the UKC and ARBA. The breed is not yet registered by CKC. Azawakh are eligible for ASFA and AKC lure coursing and NOFCA open field coursing events.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
References
External links
Rare Breed Network: The Azawakh
American Azawakh Association
Foundation Azawakhs and Other Imports from Africa
Category:FCI breeds
Category:Sighthounds
Category:Tuareg
Category:Dog breeds originating in Africa
Category:Rare dog breeds
Category:Dog breeds domesticated by Indigenous peoples | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azawakh | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.212187 |
2838 | Acrylic paint | Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted with water, or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor, a gouache, or an oil painting, or it may have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media.
Water-based acrylic paints are used as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, PVA, and others), filler, pigment, and water. Exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, because of its elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is even cheaper, so paint companies make many different combinations of them to match the market. History German chemist Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which led to the development of acrylic paint. In 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, and patented by Rohm and Haas. The synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, displaying some properties of both oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint. These were mineral spirit-based paints.
Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints.
Over the 1960s Lancelot Ribeiro pioneered the use of acrylic paints for art in the UK because of his "increasing impatience" of the time it took for oil paints to dry, as also its "lack of brilliance in its colour potential." He took to the new synthetic plastic bases that commercial paints were beginning to use and soon got help from manufacturers like ICI, Courtaulds, and Geigy. The companies supplied him samples of their latest paints in quantities that he was using three decades later, according to the paper. Initially, the firms thought the PVA compounds would not be needed in commercially viable quantities. But they quickly recognised the potential demand and "so Ribeiro became the godfather of generations of artists using acrylics as an alternative to oils."
In 1956, José L. Gutiérrez produced ''Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico, and Henry Levison of Cincinnati-based Permanent Pigments Co. produced Liquitex colors. These two product lines were the first acrylic emulsion artists' paints, with modern high-viscosity paints becoming available in the early 1960s. Painting with acrylics Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface by using acrylic medium or simply by adding water. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to modify their binding characteristics. Acrylics can be used on paper, canvas, and a range of other materials; however, their use on engineered woods such as medium-density fiberboard can be problematic because of the porous nature of those surfaces. In these cases, it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. The process of sealing acrylic painting is called varnishing. Artists use removable varnishes over isolation coat to protect paintings from dust, UV, scratches, etc. This process is similar to varnishing an oil painting.
Acrylics can be applied in thin layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors and other water-based mediums. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint — gel and molding paste are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features. Acrylic paints are also used in hobbies such as trains, cars, houses, DIY projects, and human models. People who make such models use acrylic paint to build facial features on dolls or raised details on other types of models. Wet acrylic paint is easily removed from paintbrushes and skin with water, whereas oil paints require the use of a hydrocarbon.
Acrylics are the most common paints used in grattage, a surrealist technique that began to be used with the advent of this type of paint. Acrylics are used for this purpose because they easily scrape or peel from a surface.
Painting techniques
Acrylic artists' paints may be thinned with water or acrylic medium and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but unlike watercolor the washes are not rehydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to the color lifting techniques of gum arabic-based watercolor paints. Instead, the paint is applied in layers, sometimes diluting with water or acrylic medium to allow layers underneath to partially show through. Using an acrylic medium gives the paint more of a rich and glossy appearance, whereas using water makes the paint look more like watercolor and have a matte finish.
Acrylic paints with gloss or matte finishes are common, although a satin (semi-matte) sheen is most common. Some brands exhibit a range of finishes (e.g. heavy-body paints from Golden, Liquitex, Winsor & Newton and Daler-Rowney); Politec acrylics are fully matte. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size or shape can affect the paint sheen. Matting agents can also be added during manufacture to dull the finish. If desired, the artist can mix different media with their paints and use topcoats or varnishes to alter or unify sheen.
When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable from a solid surface if it adheres to the surface. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint may result in removal of all of the paint layers (acrylic gesso, et cetera). Oils and warm, soapy water can remove acrylic paint from skin. Acrylic paint can be removed from nonporous plastic surfaces such as miniatures or models using cleaning products such as Dettol (containing chloroxylenol 4.8% v/w).
An acrylic sizing should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic paints, to prevent Support Induced Discoloration (SID). Acrylic paint contains surfactants that can pull up discoloration from a raw canvas, especially in transparent glazed or translucent gelled areas. Gesso alone will not stop SID; a sizing must be applied before using a gesso.
The viscosity of acrylic can be successfully reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to slow drying and extend workability time, and flow releases to increase color-blending ability.
Properties
Grades
Commercial acrylic paints come in two grades by manufacturers:
* Artist acrylics (professional acrylics) are created and designed to resist chemical reactions from exposure to water, ultraviolet light, and oxygen. Professional-grade acrylics have the most pigment, which allows for more medium manipulation and limits the color shift when mixed with other colors or after drying.
* Student acrylics have working characteristics similar to artist acrylics, but with lower pigment concentrations, less-expensive formulas, and fewer available colors. More expensive pigments are generally replicated by hues. Colors are designed to be mixed even though color strength is lower. Hues may not have exactly the same mixing characteristics as full-strength colors.
*Medium viscosity acrylics – Fluid acrylics, Soft body acrylics, or High Flow acrylics – have a lower viscosity but generally the same pigmentation as the Heavy Body acrylics. Available in either Artist quality or Craft quality, the cost and quality vary accordingly. These paints are good for watercolor techniques, airbrush application, or when smooth coverage is desired. Fluid acrylics can be mixed with any medium to thicken them for impasto work, or to thin them for glazing applications.
*Open acrylics were created to address the one major difference between oil and acrylic paints: the shortened time it takes acrylic paints to dry. Designed by Golden Artist Colors, Inc. with a hydrophilic acrylic resin, these paints can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days, or even weeks, to dry completely, depending on paint thickness, support characteristics, temperature, and humidity.
*Iridescent, pearl and interference acrylic colors combine conventional pigments with powdered mica (aluminium silicate) or powdered bronze to achieve complex visual effects. Colors have shimmering or reflective characteristics, depending on the coarseness or fineness of the powder. Iridescent colors are used in fine arts and crafts.
*Acrylic gouache is like traditional gouache because it dries to a matte, opaque finish. However, unlike traditional gouache, the acrylic binder makes it water-resistant once it dries. Like craft paint, it will adhere to a variety of surfaces, not only canvas and paper. This paint is typically used by water-colorists, cartoonists, or illustrators, and for decorative or folk art applications.
*Craft acrylics can be used on surfaces besides canvas, such as wood, metal, fabrics, and ceramics. They are used in decorative painting techniques and faux finishes to decorate objects of ordinary life. Although colors can be mixed, pigments are often not specified. Each color line is formulated instead to achieve a wide range of premixed colors. Craft paints usually employ vinyl or PVA resins to increase adhesion and lower cost.
*Interactive acrylics are all-purpose acrylic artists' colors which have the characteristic fast-drying nature of artists' acrylics, but are formulated to allow artists to delay drying when they need more working time, or re-wet their work when they want to do more wet blending.
*Exterior acrylics are paints that can withstand outdoor conditions. Like craft acrylics, they adhere to many surfaces. They are more resistant to both water and ultraviolet light. This makes them the acrylic of choice for architectural murals, outdoor signs, and many faux-finishing techniques.
*Acrylic glass paint is water-based and semi-permanent, making it a suitable paint for temporary displays on glass windows.
*Acrylic enamel paint creates a smooth, hard shell. It can be oven-baked or air dried. It can be permanent if kept away from harsh conditions such as dishwashing. Approximate "hue" color formulations, that do not contain the historical pigments, are typically offered as substitutes.
Because of acrylic paint's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between layers, an artist does not have to follow the same rules of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. It usually takes 10–20 minutes for one to two layers of acrylic paint to dry, depending on the brand, quality, and humidity levels of the surrounding environment. Some professional grades of acrylic paint can take 20–30 minutes or even more than an hour.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints. Acrylics are very useful in mixed media, allowing the use of pastel (oil and chalk), charcoal and pen (among others) on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible—sand, rice, and even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student grade acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of premixed tints straight from the tube or tin, and thereby presenting the painter with a vast color range at their disposal. This versatility is also illustrated by the variety of additional artistic uses for acrylics. Specialized acrylics have been manufactured and used for linoblock printing, face painting, airbrushing, watercolor-like techniques, and fabric screen printing.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paint is the cleanup. Acrylic paint can be cleaned out of a brush with any soap, while oil paint needs a specific type to be sure to get all the oil out of the brushes. Also, it is easier to let a palette with oil paint dry and then scrape the paint off, whereas one can easily clean wet acrylic paint with water.
Difference between acrylic and watercolor paint
The biggest difference is that acrylic paint is opaque, whereas watercolor paint is translucent in nature. Watercolors take about 5 to 15 minutes to dry while acrylics take about 10 to 20 minutes. In order to change the tone or shade of a watercolor pigment, one changes the percentage of water mixed in to the color. For brighter colors, one adds more water. For darker colors, one adds less water. In order to create lighter or darker colors with acrylic paints, one adds white or black.
Another difference is that watercolors must be painted onto a porous surface, primarily watercolor paper. Acrylic paints can be used on many different surfaces. See also * Notes References External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612154523/http://inthelightart.com/fine-art/ Handling and Care Tips for paintings]
Category:American inventions
Category:Visual arts materials
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Category:Watermedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_paint | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.243781 |
2839 | Angular momentum | | baseunits = kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>⋅s<sup>−1</sup>
| dimension = wikidata
| extensive | intensive
| conserved = yes
| transformsas | derivations
}}
Angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a conserved quantity – the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant. Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved. Bicycles and motorcycles, flying discs, rifled bullets, and gyroscopes owe their useful properties to conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum is also why hurricanes form spirals and neutron stars have high rotational rates. In general, conservation limits the possible motion of a system, but it does not uniquely determine it.
The three-dimensional angular momentum for a point particle is classically represented as a pseudovector , the cross product of the particle's position vector (relative to some origin) and its momentum vector; the latter is in Newtonian mechanics. Unlike linear momentum, angular momentum depends on where this origin is chosen, since the particle's position is measured from it.
Angular momentum is an extensive quantity; that is, the total angular momentum of any composite system is the sum of the angular momenta of its constituent parts. For a continuous rigid body or a fluid, the total angular momentum is the volume integral of angular momentum density (angular momentum per unit volume in the limit as volume shrinks to zero) over the entire body.
Similar to conservation of linear momentum, where it is conserved if there is no external force, angular momentum is conserved if there is no external torque. Torque can be defined as the rate of change of angular momentum, analogous to force. The net external torque on any system is always equal to the total torque on the system; the sum of all internal torques of any system is always 0 (this is the rotational analogue of Newton's third law of motion). Therefore, for a closed system (where there is no net external torque), the total torque on the system must be 0, which means that the total angular momentum of the system is constant.
The change in angular momentum for a particular interaction is called angular impulse, sometimes twirl. Angular impulse is the angular analog of (linear) impulse.
Examples
The trivial case of the angular momentum <math>L</math> of a body in an orbit is given by
<math display"block">L 2 \pi M f r^2</math>
where <math>M</math> is the mass of the orbiting object, <math>f</math> is the orbit's frequency and <math>r</math> is the orbit's radius.
The angular momentum <math>L</math> of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, instead, is given by
<math display"block">L \frac{4}{5} \pi M f r^2 </math>
where <math>M</math> is the sphere's mass, <math>f</math> is the frequency of rotation and <math>r</math> is the sphere's radius.
Thus, for example, the orbital angular momentum of the Earth with respect to the Sun is about 2.66 × 10<sup>40</sup> kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>⋅s<sup>−1</sup>, while its rotational angular momentum is about 7.05 × 10<sup>33</sup> kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>⋅s<sup>−1</sup>.
In the case of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, if, instead of its mass, its density is known, the angular momentum <math>L</math> is given by
<math display"block">L \frac{16}{15} \pi^2 \rho f r^5</math>
where <math>\rho</math> is the sphere's density, <math>f</math> is the frequency of rotation and <math>r</math> is the sphere's radius.
In the simplest case of a spinning disk, the angular momentum <math>L</math> is given by
<math display"block">L \pi M f r^2</math>
where <math>M</math> is the disk's mass, <math>f</math> is the frequency of rotation and <math>r</math> is the disk's radius.
If instead the disk rotates about its diameter (e.g. coin toss), its angular momentum <math>L</math> is given by Angular momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum is proportional to mass and linear speed ,}}
<math display"block" qidQ41273>p = mv,</math>
angular momentum is proportional to moment of inertia and angular speed measured in radians per second.
<math display"block" qidQ161254>L = I\omega.</math>
Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia depends also on the position of the axis of rotation and the distribution of the matter. Unlike linear velocity, which does not depend upon the choice of origin, orbital angular velocity is always measured with respect to a fixed origin. Therefore, strictly speaking, should be referred to as the angular momentum relative to that center.
In the case of circular motion of a single particle, we can use <math>I r^2m</math> and <math>\omega {v}/{r}</math> to expand angular momentum as <math>L = r^2 m \cdot {v}/{r},</math> reducing to:
<math display"block">L rmv,</math>
the product of the radius of rotation and the linear momentum of the particle <math>p mv</math>, where <math>v r\omega</math> is the linear (tangential) speed.
This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if one uses the component of the motion perpendicular to the radius vector:
<math display"block">L rmv_\perp,</math>
where <math>v_\perp v\sin(\theta)</math> is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, <math>L rmv\sin(\theta),</math> rearranging, <math>L = r\sin(\theta)mv,</math> and reducing, angular momentum can also be expressed,
<math display"block">L r_\perp mv,</math>
where <math>r_\perp r\sin(\theta)</math> is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin onto the path of the particle. It is this definition, , to which the term moment of momentum refers.
Scalar angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics
Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum (also called canonical momentum) of the angular coordinate <math>\phi</math> expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass <math>m</math> constrained to move in a circle of radius <math>r</math> in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is
<math display"block" qid"Q46276">T \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \omega^2 \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \dot{\phi}^2.</math>
And the potential energy is
<math display"block">U 0.</math>
Then the Lagrangian is
<math display"block">\mathcal{L}\left(\phi, \dot{\phi}\right) T - U = \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \dot{\phi}^2.</math>
The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to" the coordinate <math>\phi</math> is defined by
<math display"block">p_\phi \frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{\phi}} mr^2 \dot{\phi} I\omega L.</math> Orbital angular momentum in three dimensions
(F), torque (τ), momentum (p), and angular momentum (L) vectors in a rotating system. r is the position vector.]]
To completely define orbital angular momentum in three dimensions, it is required to know the rate at which the position vector sweeps out angle, the direction perpendicular to the instantaneous plane of angular displacement, and the mass involved, as well as how this mass is distributed in space. By retaining this vector nature of angular momentum, the general nature of the equations is also retained, and can describe any sort of three-dimensional motion about the center of rotation – circular, linear, or otherwise. In vector notation, the orbital angular momentum of a point particle in motion about the origin can be expressed as:
<math display"block">\mathbf{L} I\boldsymbol{\omega},</math>
where
* <math>I = r^2m</math> is the moment of inertia for a point mass,
* <math qidQ161635>\boldsymbol{\omega}\frac{\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}}{r^2}</math> is the orbital angular velocity of the particle about the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{r}</math> is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, and <math>r=\left\vert\mathbf{r}\right\vert</math>,
* <math>\mathbf{v}</math> is the linear velocity of the particle relative to the origin, and
* <math>m</math> is the mass of the particle.
This can be expanded, reduced, and by the rules of vector algebra, rearranged:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= \left(r^2m\right)\left(\frac{\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}}{r^2}\right) \\
&= m\left(\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}\right) \\
&= \mathbf{r}\times m\mathbf{v} \\
&= \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p},
\end{align}</math>
which is the cross product of the position vector <math>\mathbf{r}</math> and the linear momentum <math>\mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v}</math> of the particle. By the definition of the cross product, the <math>\mathbf{L}</math> vector is perpendicular to both <math>\mathbf{r}</math> and <math>\mathbf{p}</math>. It is directed perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, as indicated by the right-hand rule – so that the angular velocity is seen as counter-clockwise from the head of the vector. Conversely, the <math>\mathbf{L}</math> vector defines the plane in which <math>\mathbf{r}</math> and <math>\mathbf{p}</math> lie.
By defining a unit vector <math>\mathbf{\hat{u}}</math> perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, a scalar angular speed <math>\omega</math> results, where
<math display"block">\omega\mathbf{\hat{u}} \boldsymbol{\omega},</math> and
<math display"block">\omega \frac{v_\perp}{r},</math> where <math>v_\perp</math> is the perpendicular component of the motion, as above.
The two-dimensional scalar equations of the previous section can thus be given direction:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= I\boldsymbol{\omega}\\
&= I\omega\mathbf{\hat{u}}\\
&= \left(r^2m\right)\omega\mathbf{\hat{u}}\\
&= rmv_\perp \mathbf{\hat{u}}\\
&= r_\perp mv\mathbf{\hat{u}},
\end{align}</math>
and <math>\mathbf{L} = rmv\mathbf{\hat{u}}</math> for circular motion, where all of the motion is perpendicular to the radius <math>r</math>.
In the spherical coordinate system the angular momentum vector expresses as
: <math>\mathbf{L} m \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{v} m r^2 \left(\dot\theta\,\hat{\boldsymbol\varphi} - \dot\varphi \sin\theta\,\mathbf{\hat{\boldsymbol\theta}}\right).
</math>
Analogy to linear momentum
Angular momentum can be described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Like linear momentum it involves elements of mass and displacement. Unlike linear momentum it also involves elements of position and shape.
Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point—can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it? Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion—a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
(\text{amount of inertia}) \times (\text{amount of displacement})&=\text{amount of (inertia⋅displacement)}\\
\text{mass} \times \text{velocity} &= \text{momentum}\\
m \times v &= p\\
\end{align}
</math>
is the matter's momentum. Referring this momentum to a central point introduces a complication: the momentum is not applied to the point directly. For instance, a particle of matter at the outer edge of a wheel is, in effect, at the end of a lever of the same length as the wheel's radius, its momentum turning the lever about the center point. This imaginary lever is known as the moment arm. It has the effect of multiplying the momentum's effort in proportion to its length, an effect known as a moment. Hence, the particle's momentum referred to a particular point,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
(\text{moment arm}) \times (\text{amount of inertia}) \times (\text{amount of displacement})&=\text{moment of (inertia⋅displacement)}\\
\text{length} \times \text{mass} \times \text{velocity} &= \text{moment of momentum}\\
r \times m \times v &= L\\
\end{align}
</math>
is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The equation <math>L rmv</math> combines a moment (a mass <math>m</math> turning moment arm <math>r</math>) with a linear (straight-line equivalent) speed <math>v</math>. Linear speed referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance <math>r</math> and the angular speed <math>\omega</math> versus the point: <math>vr\omega,</math> another moment. Hence, angular momentum contains a double moment: <math>L rmr \omega.</math> Simplifying slightly, <math>L r^2 m\omega,</math> the quantity <math>r^2m</math> is the particle's moment of inertia, sometimes called the second moment of mass. It is a measure of rotational inertia.
(shown here), and therefore angular momentum, is different for each shown configuration of mass and axis of rotation.]]
The above analogy of the translational momentum and rotational momentum can be expressed in vector form:
* <math display"inline">\mathbf p m\mathbf v</math> for linear motion
* <math>\mathbf L = I\boldsymbol\omega</math> for rotation
The direction of momentum is related to the direction of the velocity for linear movement. The direction of angular momentum is related to the angular velocity of the rotation.
Because moment of inertia is a crucial part of the spin angular momentum, the latter necessarily includes all of the complications of the former, which is calculated by multiplying elementary bits of the mass by the squares of their distances from the center of rotation. Therefore, the total moment of inertia, and
the angular momentum, is a complex function of the configuration of the matter about the center of rotation and the orientation of the rotation for the various bits.
For a rigid body, for instance a wheel or an asteroid, the orientation of rotation is simply the position of the rotation axis versus the matter of the body. It may or may not pass through the center of mass, or it may lie completely outside of the body. For the same body, angular momentum may take a different value for every possible axis about which rotation may take place. It reaches a minimum when the axis passes through the center of mass.
For a collection of objects revolving about a center, for instance all of the bodies of the Solar System, the orientations may be somewhat organized, as is the Solar System, with most of the bodies' axes lying close to the system's axis. Their orientations may also be completely random.
In brief, the more mass and the farther it is from the center of rotation (the longer the moment arm), the greater the moment of inertia, and therefore the greater the angular momentum for a given angular velocity. In many cases the moment of inertia, and hence the angular momentum, can be simplified by,
<math display"block" qidQ165618>I=k^2m,</math>where <math>k</math> is the radius of gyration, the distance from the axis at which the entire mass <math>m</math> may be considered as concentrated.
Similarly, for a point mass <math>m</math> the moment of inertia is defined as,
<math display"block">Ir^2m</math>where <math>r</math> is the radius of the point mass from the center of rotation, and for any collection of particles <math>m_i</math> as the sum,
<math display"block">\sum_i I_i \sum_i r_i^2m_i .</math>
Angular momentum's dependence on position and shape is reflected in its units versus linear momentum: kg⋅m<sup>2</sup>/s or N⋅m⋅s for angular momentum versus kg⋅m/s or N⋅s for linear momentum. When calculating angular momentum as the product of the moment of inertia times the angular velocity, the angular velocity must be expressed in radians per second, where the radian assumes the dimensionless value of unity. (When performing dimensional analysis, it may be productive to use orientational analysis which treats radians as a base unit, but this is not done in the International system of units). The units if angular momentum can be interpreted as torque⋅time. An object with angular momentum of can be reduced to zero angular velocity by an angular impulse of .
The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass is sometimes called the invariable plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences, are considered. One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System.
Angular momentum and torque
Newton's second law of motion can be expressed mathematically,
<math display"block">\mathbf{F} m\mathbf{a},</math>
or force = mass × acceleration. The rotational equivalent for point particles may be derived as follows:
<math display"block">\mathbf{L} I\boldsymbol{\omega}</math>
which means that the torque (i.e. the time derivative of the angular momentum) is
<math display"block" qidQ48103>\boldsymbol{\tau} = \frac{dI}{dt}\boldsymbol{\omega} + I\frac{d\boldsymbol{\omega}}{dt}. </math>
Because the moment of inertia is <math>mr^2</math>, it follows that <math>\frac{dI}{dt} 2mr\frac{dr}{dt} 2rp_{||}</math>, and <math>\frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = I\frac{d\boldsymbol{\omega}}{dt} + 2rp_{||}\boldsymbol{\omega},</math> which, reduces to
<math display"block">\boldsymbol{\tau} I\boldsymbol{\alpha} + 2rp_{||}\boldsymbol{\omega}.</math>
This is the rotational analog of Newton's second law. Note that the torque is not necessarily proportional or parallel to the angular acceleration (as one might expect). The reason for this is that the moment of inertia of a particle can change with time, something that cannot occur for ordinary mass.
Conservation of angular momentum <span class"anchor" id"conservation_of_angr_mntm_anchor"></span>
<!-- This section is linked from Conservation law and Conservation of angular momentum -->
in a spin uses conservation of angular momentum – decreasing her moment of inertia by drawing in her arms and legs increases her rotational speed.]]
General considerations
A rotational analog of Newton's third law of motion might be written, "In a closed system, no torque can be exerted on any matter without the exertion on some other matter of an equal and opposite torque about the same axis."
Seen another way, a rotational analogue of Newton's first law of motion might be written, "A rigid body continues in a state of uniform rotation unless acted upon by an external influence." Thus with no external influence to act upon it, the original angular momentum of the system remains constant.
The conservation of angular momentum is used in analyzing central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, as all of the force is directed along the radius vector, and none is perpendicular to the radius. Mathematically, torque <math>\boldsymbol{\tau} \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F} \mathbf{0}, </math> because in this case <math>\mathbf{r}</math> and <math>\mathbf{F}</math> are parallel vectors. Therefore, the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. This is the case with gravitational attraction in the orbits of planets and satellites, where the gravitational force is always directed toward the primary body and orbiting bodies conserve angular momentum by exchanging distance and velocity as they move about the primary. Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom.
For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day, and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year.
caused by the two opposing forces F<sub>g</sub> and −F<sub>g</sub> causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque (since torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This causes the top to precess.]]
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as they bring their arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of the mass of their body closer to the axis, they decrease their body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity, if the angular momentum remains constant (is conserved), then the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater must increase.
The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars.
Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets, star(s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that the angular momentum of the system is conserved.
Noether's theorem states that every conservation law is associated with a symmetry (invariant) of the underlying physics. The symmetry associated with conservation of angular momentum is rotational invariance. The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved. Relation to Newton's second law of motion
While angular momentum total conservation can be understood separately from Newton's laws of motion as stemming from Noether's theorem in systems symmetric under rotations, it can also be understood simply as an efficient method of calculation of results that can also be otherwise arrived at directly from Newton's second law, together with laws governing the forces of nature (such as Newton's third law, Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force). Indeed, given initial conditions of position and velocity for every point, and the forces at such a condition, one may use Newton's second law to calculate the second derivative of position, and solving for this gives full information on the development of the physical system with time. Note, however, that this is no longer true in quantum mechanics, due to the existence of particle spin, which is angular momentum that cannot be described by the cumulative effect of point-like motions in space.
As an example, consider decreasing of the moment of inertia, e.g. when a figure skater is pulling in their hands, speeding up the circular motion. In terms of angular momentum conservation, we have, for angular momentum L, moment of inertia I and angular velocity ω:
<math display"block"> 0 dL d (I\cdot \omega) dI \cdot \omega + I \cdot d\omega </math>
Using this, we see that the change requires an energy of:
<math display"block"> dE d \left(\tfrac{1}{2} I\cdot \omega^2\right) \tfrac{1}{2} dI \cdot \omega^2 + I \cdot \omega \cdot d\omega -\tfrac{1}{2} dI \cdot \omega^2</math>
so that a decrease in the moment of inertia requires investing energy.
This can be compared to the work done as calculated using Newton's laws. Each point in the rotating body is accelerating, at each point of time, with radial acceleration of:
<math display="block">-r\cdot \omega^2</math>
Let us observe a point of mass m, whose position vector relative to the center of motion is perpendicular to the z-axis at a given point of time, and is at a distance z. The centripetal force on this point, keeping the circular motion, is:
<math display="block">-m\cdot z\cdot \omega^2</math>
Thus the work required for moving this point to a distance dz farther from the center of motion is:
<math display"block">dW -m\cdot z\cdot \omega^2\cdot dz = -m\cdot \omega^2\cdot d\left(\tfrac{1}{2} z^2\right)</math>
For a non-pointlike body one must integrate over this, with m replaced by the mass density per unit z. This gives:
<math display"block">dW - \tfrac{1}{2}dI \cdot \omega^2</math>
which is exactly the energy required for keeping the angular momentum conserved.
Note, that the above calculation can also be performed per mass, using kinematics only. Thus the phenomena of figure skater accelerating tangential velocity while pulling their hands in, can be understood as follows in layman's language: The skater's palms are not moving in a straight line, so they are constantly accelerating inwards, but do not gain additional speed because the accelerating is always done when their motion inwards is zero. However, this is different when pulling the palms closer to the body: The acceleration due to rotation now increases the speed; but because of the rotation, the increase in speed does not translate to a significant speed inwards, but to an increase of the rotation speed.
Stationary-action principle
In classical mechanics it can be shown that the rotational invariance of action functionals implies conservation of angular momentum. The action is defined in classical physics as a functional of positions, <math>x_i (t)</math> often represented by the use of square brackets, and the final and initial times. It assumes the following form in cartesian coordinates:<math display"block">S\left([x_{i}];t_{1},t_{2}\right)\equiv\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\left(\frac{1}{2}m\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\ \frac{d x_{i}}{d t}-V(x_{i})\right)</math>where the repeated indices indicate summation over the index. If the action is invariant of an infinitesimal transformation, it can be mathematically stated as: <math display"inline">\delta S S\left([x_{i}+\delta x_i];t_{1},t_{2}\right)-S\left([x_{i}];t_{1},t_{2}\right)0</math>.
Under the transformation, <math>x_i \rightarrow x_i + \delta x_i </math>, the action becomes:
<math display"block">S\left([x_{i}+\delta x_i];t_{1},t_{2}\right)\!\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\left(\frac{1}{2}m\frac{d(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{d t}\frac{d(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{d t}-V(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})\right)</math>
where we can employ the expansion of the terms up-to first order in <math display="inline">\delta x_i</math>:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\frac{d(x_i+\delta x_i)}{d t} \frac{d( x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{ d t } &\simeq\frac{d x_{i}}{d t} \frac{d x_{i}}{d t}-2\frac{d^{2}x_{i}}{d t^{2}}\delta x_{i}+2\frac{d}{d t}\left(\delta x_{i}\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\right)\\
V(x_{i}+\delta x_{i}) & \simeq V(x_{i})+\delta x_{i}\frac{\partial V}{\partial x_i}\\
\end{align}</math>giving the following change in action:
<math display="block">S[x_{i}+\delta x_{i}]\simeq S[x_{i}]+\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\,\delta x_{i}\left(- \frac{\partial V}{\partial x_i}-m{\frac{d^{2}x_{i}}{d t^{2}}}\right)+m\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t{\frac{d}{d t}}\left(\delta x_{i}{\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}}\right).</math>
Since all rotations can be expressed as matrix exponential of skew-symmetric matrices, i.e. as <math>R(\hat n,\theta) = e^{M \theta}</math> where <math>M </math> is a skew-symmetric matrix and <math>\theta </math> is angle of rotation, we can express the change of coordinates due to the rotation <math>R(\hat n,\delta \theta )</math>, up-to first order of infinitesimal angle of rotation, <math>\delta \theta </math> as:
<math display"block">\delta x_i M_{ij} x_j \delta \theta . </math>
Combining the equation of motion and rotational invariance of action, we get from the above equations that:<math display"block">0\delta S\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\frac{d}{d t}\left(m\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\delta x_{i}\right) M_{i j}\,\delta \theta \, m \,x_{j}\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\Bigg\vert_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}</math>Since this is true for any matrix <math>M_{ij} </math> that satisfies <math>M_{ij} = - M_{ji} , </math> it results in the conservation of the following quantity:
<math display"block">\ell_{ij}(t) : m\left(x_i \frac{dx_j}{dt}-x_j \frac{dx_i}{dt}\right),</math>
as <math>\ell_{ij}(t_1)\ell_{ij}(t_2)</math>. This corresponds to the conservation of angular momentum throughout the motion.
Lagrangian formalism
In Lagrangian mechanics, angular momentum for rotation around a given axis, is the conjugate momentum of the generalized coordinate of the angle around the same axis. For example, <math>L_z</math>, the angular momentum around the z axis, is:
<math display"block">L_z \frac{\partial \cal{L}}{\partial \dot\theta_z}</math>
where <math>\cal{L}</math> is the Lagrangian and <math>\theta_z</math> is the angle around the z axis.
Note that <math>\dot\theta_z</math>, the time derivative of the angle, is the angular velocity <math>\omega_z</math>. Ordinarily, the Lagrangian depends on the angular velocity through the kinetic energy: The latter can be written by separating the velocity to its radial and tangential part, with the tangential part at the x-y plane, around the z-axis, being equal to:
<math display"block">\sum_i \tfrac{1}{2}m_i {v_T}_i^2 \sum_i \tfrac{1}{2} m_i \left(x_i^2 + y_i^2\right) { {\omega_z}_i}^2</math>
where the subscript i stands for the i-th body, and m, v<sub>T</sub> and ω<sub>z</sub> stand for mass, tangential velocity around the z-axis and angular velocity around that axis, respectively.
For a body that is not point-like, with density ρ, we have instead:
<math display"block">\frac{1}{2}\int \rho(x,y,z) \left(x_i^2 + y_i^2\right) { {\omega_z}_i}^2\,dx\,dy \frac{1}{2} {I_z}_i { {\omega_z}_i}^2</math>
where integration runs over the area of the body, and I<sub>z</sub> is the moment of inertia around the z-axis.
Thus, assuming the potential energy does not depend on ω<sub>z</sub> (this assumption may fail for electromagnetic systems), we have the angular momentum of the ith object:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
{L_z}_i &\frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\omega_z}_i} } \frac{\partial E_k}{\partial { {\omega_z}_i} } \\
&= {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i
\end{align}</math>
We have thus far rotated each object by a separate angle; we may also define an overall angle θ<sub>z</sub> by which we rotate the whole system, thus rotating also each object around the z-axis, and have the overall angular momentum:
<math display"block">L_z \sum_i {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i</math>
From Euler–Lagrange equations it then follows that:
<math display"block">0 \frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } - \frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\dot\theta_z}_i}}\right) = \frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } - \frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt}</math>
Since the lagrangian is dependent upon the angles of the object only through the potential, we have:
<math display"block">\frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt} \frac{\partial \cal{L}}{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} }</math>
which is the torque on the ith object.
Suppose the system is invariant to rotations, so that the potential is independent of an overall rotation by the angle θ<sub>z</sub> (thus it may depend on the angles of objects only through their differences, in the form <math>V({\theta_z}_i, {\theta_z}_j) = V({\theta_z}_i - {\theta_z}_j)</math>). We therefore get for the total angular momentum:
<math display"block">\frac{d L_z}{dt} -\frac{\partial V}{\partial {\theta_z} } = 0 </math>
And thus the angular momentum around the z-axis is conserved.
This analysis can be repeated separately for each axis, giving conversation of the angular momentum vector. However, the angles around the three axes cannot be treated simultaneously as generalized coordinates, since they are not independent; in particular, two angles per point suffice to determine its position. While it is true that in the case of a rigid body, fully describing it requires, in addition to three translational degrees of freedom, also specification of three rotational degrees of freedom; however these cannot be defined as rotations around the Cartesian axes (see Euler angles). This caveat is reflected in quantum mechanics in the non-trivial commutation relations of the different components of the angular momentum operator.
Hamiltonian formalism
Equivalently, in Hamiltonian mechanics the Hamiltonian can be described as a function of the angular momentum. As before, the part of the kinetic energy related to rotation around the z-axis for the ith object is:
<math display"block">\frac{1}{2} {I_z}_i { {\omega_z}_i}^2 \frac{ { {L_z}_i}^2}{2 {I_z}_i}</math>
which is analogous to the energy dependence upon momentum along the z-axis, <math>\frac{ { {p_z}_i}^2}{ {2m}_i}</math>.
Hamilton's equations relate the angle around the z-axis to its conjugate momentum, the angular momentum around the same axis:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\frac{d{\theta_z}_i}{dt} &\frac{\partial \mathcal{H} }{\partial {L_z}_i} \frac{ {L_z}_i}{ {I_z}_i} \\
\frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt} &-\frac{\partial \mathcal{H} }{\partial {\theta_z}_i} -\frac{\partial V}{\partial {\theta_z}_i}
\end{align}</math>
The first equation gives
<math display"block">{L_z}_i {I_z}_i \cdot { {\dot{\theta}_z}_i} = {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i</math>
And so we get the same results as in the Lagrangian formalism.
Note, that for combining all axes together, we write the kinetic energy as:
<math display="block">
E_k \frac{1}{2}\sum_i \frac{|\mathbf{p}_i|^2}{2m_i} \sum_i \left(\frac{ {p_r}_i^2}{2m_i} + \frac{1}{2} {\mathbf{L}_i}^\textsf{T}{I_i}^{-1} \mathbf{L}_i\right)
</math>
where p<sub>r</sub> is the momentum in the radial direction, and the moment of inertia is a 3-dimensional matrix; bold letters stand for 3-dimensional vectors.
For point-like bodies we have:
<math display"block">E_k \sum_i \left(\frac{ {p_r}_i^2}{2m_i} + \frac{|{\mathbf{L}_i}|^2}{2m_i {r_i}^2}\right)</math>
This form of the kinetic energy part of the Hamiltonian is useful in analyzing central potential problems, and is easily transformed to a quantum mechanical work frame (e.g. in the hydrogen atom problem).
Angular momentum in orbital mechanics
While in classical mechanics the language of angular momentum can be replaced by Newton's laws of motion, it is particularly useful for motion in central potential such as planetary motion in the solar system. Thus, the orbit of a planet in the solar system is defined by its energy, angular momentum and angles of the orbit major axis relative to a coordinate frame.
In astrodynamics and celestial mechanics, a quantity closely related to angular momentum is defined as
<math display"block">\mathbf{h} \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{v}, </math>
called specific angular momentum. Note that <math>\mathbf{L} m\mathbf{h}.</math> Mass is often unimportant in orbital mechanics calculations, because motion of a body is determined by gravity. The primary body of the system is often so much larger than any bodies in motion about it that the gravitational effect of the smaller bodies on it can be neglected; it maintains, in effect, constant velocity. The motion of all bodies is affected by its gravity in the same way, regardless of mass, and therefore all move approximately the same way under the same conditions. Solid bodies
Angular momentum is also an extremely useful concept for describing rotating rigid bodies such as a gyroscope or a rocky planet.
For a continuous mass distribution with density function ρ(r), a differential volume element dV with position vector r within the mass has a mass element dm = ρ(r)dV. Therefore, the infinitesimal angular momentum of this element is:
<math display"block">d\mathbf{L} \mathbf{r}\times dm \mathbf{v} \mathbf{r}\times \rho(\mathbf{r}) dV \mathbf{v} dV \mathbf{r}\times \rho(\mathbf{r}) \mathbf{v}</math>
and integrating this differential over the volume of the entire mass gives its total angular momentum:
<math display"block">\mathbf{L}\int_V dV \mathbf{r}\times \rho(\mathbf{r}) \mathbf{v}</math>
In the derivation which follows, integrals similar to this can replace the sums for the case of continuous mass.
Collection of particles
For a collection of particles in motion about an arbitrary origin, it is informative to develop the equation of angular momentum by resolving their motion into components about their own center of mass and about the origin. Given,
* <math>m_i</math> is the mass of particle <math>i</math>,
* <math>\mathbf{R}_i</math> is the position vector of particle <math>i</math> w.r.t. the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{V}_i</math> is the velocity of particle <math>i</math> w.r.t. the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{R}</math> is the position vector of the center of mass w.r.t. the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{V}</math> is the velocity of the center of mass w.r.t. the origin,
* <math>\mathbf{r}_i</math> is the position vector of particle <math>i</math> w.r.t. the center of mass,
* <math>\mathbf{v}_i</math> is the velocity of particle <math>i</math> w.r.t. the center of mass,
The total mass of the particles is simply their sum,
<math display"block">M\sum_i m_i.</math>
The position vector of the center of mass is defined by,
<math display"block">M\mathbf{R}\sum_i m_i \mathbf{R}_i.</math>
By inspection,
: <math>\mathbf{R}_i \mathbf{R} + \mathbf{r}_i</math> and <math>\mathbf{V}_i \mathbf{V} + \mathbf{v}_i.</math>
The total angular momentum of the collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle,
{{Equation box 1 |indent: |equation<math>\mathbf{L} = \sum_i \left( \mathbf{R}_i \times m_i \mathbf{V}_i \right)</math> () }}
Expanding <math>\mathbf{R}_i</math>,
: <math>\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= \sum_i \left[\left(\mathbf{R} + \mathbf{r}_i\right) \times m_i\mathbf{V}_i \right] \\
&= \sum_i \left[ \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V}_i + \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{V}_i \right]
\end{align}</math>
Expanding <math>\mathbf{V}_i</math>,
: <math>\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= \sum_i \left[ \mathbf{R} \times m_i\left(\mathbf{V} + \mathbf{v}_i\right) + \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i(\mathbf{V} + \mathbf{v}_i) \right ]\\
&= \sum_i \left[ \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i + \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i \right]\\
&= \sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i + \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i
\end{align}</math>
It can be shown that (see sidebar),
{| class"toccolours" style"float:right; margin-left:0.5em; margin-right:0.5em; font-size:84%; background:white; color:black; width:30em; max-width:30%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align:center;" |
Prove that <math>\sum_i m_i\mathbf{r}_i = \mathbf{0}</math>
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{r}_i &= \mathbf{R}_i - \mathbf{R} \\
m_i\mathbf{r}_i &= m_i\left(\mathbf{R}_i - \mathbf{R}\right) \\
\sum_i m_i\mathbf{r}_i &= \sum_i m_i\left(\mathbf{R}_i - \mathbf{R}\right)\\
&= \sum_i (m_i\mathbf{R}_i - m_i\mathbf{R})\\
&= \sum_i m_i\mathbf{R}_i - \sum_i m_i\mathbf{R}\\
&= \sum_i m_i\mathbf{R}_i - \left( \sum_i m_i \right) \mathbf{R}\\
&= \sum_i m_i\mathbf{R}_i - M\mathbf{R}
\end{align}</math>
which, by the definition of the center of mass, is <math>\mathbf{0},</math> and similarly for <math display="inline">\sum_i m_i \mathbf{v}_i.</math>
|}
: <math>\sum_i m_i\mathbf{r}_i \mathbf{0}</math> and <math>\sum_i m_i\mathbf{v}_i \mathbf{0},</math>
therefore the second and third terms vanish,
: <math>\mathbf{L} = \sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i .</math>
The first term can be rearranged,
: <math>\sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} \mathbf{R} \times \sum_i m_i\mathbf{V} \mathbf{R} \times M\mathbf{V},</math>
and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is finally,
{{Equation box 1 |indent: |equation<math>\mathbf{L} = \mathbf{R} \times M\mathbf{V} + \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i </math> () }}
The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass relative to the origin. Similar to , below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to , below. The result is general—the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body.
Rearranging equation () by vector identities, multiplying both terms by "one", and grouping appropriately,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= M(\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V}) + \sum_i \left[m_i\left(\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i\right)\right], \\
&= \frac{R^2}{R^2}M\left(\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V}\right) + \sum_i \left[ \frac{r_i^2}{r_i^2}m_i\left(\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i\right)\right] , \\
&= R^2M \left( \frac{\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V} }{R^2} \right) + \sum_i \left[ r_i^2 m_i \left( \frac{\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i}{r_i^2} \right) \right] , \\
\end{align}</math>
gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia <math>I</math> and angular velocity <math>\boldsymbol{\omega}</math>,
{{Equation box 1 |indent: |equation<math>\mathbf{L} I_R\boldsymbol{\omega}_R + \sum_i I_i\boldsymbol{\omega}_i.</math> () }} Single particle case
In the case of a single particle moving about the arbitrary origin,
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{r}_i &\mathbf{v}_i \mathbf{0}, \\
\mathbf{r} &= \mathbf{R}, \\
\mathbf{v} &= \mathbf{V}, \\
m &= M,
\end{align}</math>
<math display"block">\sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i \mathbf{0},</math>
<math display"block">\sum_i I_i\boldsymbol{\omega}_i \mathbf{0},</math> and equations () and () for total angular momentum reduce to,
<math display"block">\mathbf{L} \mathbf{R} \times m\mathbf{V} I_R\boldsymbol{\omega}_R.</math> Case of a fixed center of mass
For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin,
<math display"block">\mathbf{V} \mathbf{0},</math>
<math display"block">\mathbf{R} \times M\mathbf{V} \mathbf{0},</math>
<math display"block">I_R\boldsymbol{\omega}_R \mathbf{0},</math> and equations () and () for total angular momentum reduce to,
<math display"block">\mathbf{L} \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i = \sum_i I_i\boldsymbol{\omega}_i.</math>
Angular momentum in general relativity
(plane element) and axial vector, of a particle of mass m with instantaneous 3-position x and 3-momentum p.]]
In modern (20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum (not including any intrinsic angular momentum – see below) is described using a different formalism, instead of a classical pseudovector. In this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance. As a result, angular momentum is generally not conserved locally for general curved spacetimes, unless they have rotational symmetry; whereas globally the notion of angular momentum itself only makes sense if the spacetime is asymptotically flat. If the spacetime is only axially symmetric like for the Kerr metric, the total angular momentum is not conserved but <math>p_{\phi}</math> is conserved which is related to the invariance of rotating around the symmetry-axis, where note that <math>p_{\phi}g_{\mu \phi}p^{\phi}mg_{\mu \phi} dX^{\mu}/d\tau</math> where <math>g_{\mu\nu}</math> is the metric, <math>m\sqrt{|p_\mu p^{\mu}|}</math> is the rest mass, <math>dX^{\mu}/d\tau</math> is the four-velocity, and <math>X^{\mu}(t,r,\theta,\phi)</math> is the four-position in spherical coordinates.
In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a plane element:
<math display"block">\mathbf{L} \mathbf{r} \wedge \mathbf{p} \,,</math>
in which the exterior product (∧) replaces the cross product (×) (these products have similar characteristics but are nonequivalent). This has the advantage of a clearer geometric interpretation as a plane element, defined using the vectors x and p, and the expression is true in any number of dimensions. In Cartesian coordinates:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\mathbf{L} &= \left(xp_y - yp_x\right)\mathbf{e}_x \wedge \mathbf{e}_y + \left(yp_z - zp_y\right)\mathbf{e}_y \wedge \mathbf{e}_z + \left(zp_x - xp_z\right)\mathbf{e}_z \wedge \mathbf{e}_x\\
&= L_{xy}\mathbf{e}_x \wedge \mathbf{e}_y + L_{yz}\mathbf{e}_y \wedge \mathbf{e}_z + L_{zx}\mathbf{e}_z \wedge \mathbf{e}_x \,,
\end{align}</math>
or more compactly in index notation:
<math display"block">L_{ij} x_i p_j - x_j p_i\,.</math>
The angular velocity can also be defined as an anti-symmetric second order tensor, with components ω<sub>ij</sub>. The relation between the two anti-symmetric tensors is given by the moment of inertia which must now be a fourth order tensor:
<math display"block">L_{ij} I_{ijk\ell} \omega_{k\ell} \,. </math>
Again, this equation in L and ω as tensors is true in any number of dimensions. This equation also appears in the geometric algebra formalism, in which L and ω are bivectors, and the moment of inertia is a mapping between them.
In relativistic mechanics, the relativistic angular momentum of a particle is expressed as an anti-symmetric tensor of second order:
<math display"block">M_{\alpha\beta} X_\alpha P_\beta - X_\beta P_\alpha</math>
in terms of four-vectors, namely the four-position X and the four-momentum P, and absorbs the above L together with the moment of mass, i.e., the product of the relativistic mass of the particle and its center of mass, which can be thought of as describing the motion of its center of mass, since mass–energy is conserved.
In each of the above cases, for a system of particles the total angular momentum is just the sum of the individual particle angular momenta, and the center of mass is for the system.
Angular momentum in quantum mechanics
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum (like other quantities) is expressed as an operator<!-- note that angular momentum operator is linked from #In quantum mechanics-->, and its one-dimensional projections have quantized eigenvalues. Angular momentum is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, implying that at any time, only one projection (also called "component") can be measured with definite precision; the other two then remain uncertain. Because of this, the axis of rotation of a quantum particle is undefined. Quantum particles do possess a type of non-orbital angular momentum called "spin", but this angular momentum does not correspond to a spinning motion. In relativistic quantum mechanics the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator.
Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum
upright=1.25|thumb|Angular momenta of a classical object.
]]
The classical definition of angular momentum as <math>\mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}</math> can be carried over to quantum mechanics, by reinterpreting r as the quantum position operator and p as the quantum momentum operator. L is then an operator, specifically called the orbital angular momentum operator. The components of the angular momentum operator satisfy the commutation relations of the Lie algebra so(3). Indeed, these operators are precisely the infinitesimal action of the rotation group on the quantum Hilbert space. (See also the discussion below of the angular momentum operators as the generators of rotations.)
However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum, represented by the spin operator S. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin (possibly zero), and almost all elementary particles have nonzero spin. For example electrons have "spin 1/2" (this actually means "spin ħ/2"), photons have "spin 1" (this actually means "spin ħ"), and pi-mesons have spin 0.
Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of all particles and fields. (For one particle, L + S}}.) Conservation of angular momentum applies to J, but not to L or S; for example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total remaining constant. Electrons and photons need not have integer-based values for total angular momentum, but can also have half-integer values.
In molecules the total angular momentum F is the sum of the rovibronic (orbital) angular momentum N, the electron spin angular momentum S, and the nuclear spin angular momentum I. For electronic singlet states the rovibronic angular momentum is denoted J rather than N. As explained by Van Vleck, the components of the molecular rovibronic angular momentum referred to molecule-fixed axes have different commutation relations from those for the components about space-fixed axes.
Quantization
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where <math>\hbar</math> is the reduced Planck constant and <math>\hat n</math> is any Euclidean vector such as x, y, or z:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| If you measure...
| The result can be...
|-
| <math>L_\hat{n}</math>
| <math>\ldots, -2\hbar, -\hbar, 0, \hbar, 2\hbar, \ldots</math>
|-
| <math>S_\hat{n}</math> or <math>J_\hat{n}</math>
| <math>\ldots, -\frac{3}{2}\hbar, -\hbar, -\frac{1}{2}\hbar, 0, \frac{1}{2}\hbar, \hbar, \frac{3}{2}\hbar, \ldots</math>
|-
| <math>\begin{align}
&L^2 \\
={} &L_x^2 + L_y^2 + L_z^2
\end{align}</math>
| <math>\left[\hbar^2 n(n + 1)\right]</math>, where <math>n = 0, 1, 2, \ldots</math>
|-
| <math>S^2</math> or <math>J^2</math>
| <math>\left[\hbar^2 n(n + 1)\right]</math>, where <math>n = 0, \tfrac{1}{2}, 1, \tfrac{3}{2}, \ldots</math>
|}
on a circular string, the circle is broken into exactly 8 wavelengths. A standing wave like this can have 0, 1, 2, or any integer number of wavelengths around the circle, but it cannot have a non-integer number of wavelengths like 8.3. In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized for a similar reason.]]
The reduced Planck constant <math>\hbar</math> is tiny by everyday standards, about 10<sup>−34</sup> J s, and therefore this quantization does not noticeably affect the angular momentum of macroscopic objects. However, it is very important in the microscopic world. For example, the structure of electron shells and subshells in chemistry is significantly affected by the quantization of angular momentum.
Quantization of angular momentum was first postulated by Niels Bohr in his model of the atom and was later predicted by Erwin Schrödinger in his Schrödinger equation.
Uncertainty
In the definition <math>\mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}</math>, six operators are involved: The position operators <math>r_x</math>, <math>r_y</math>, <math>r_z</math>, and the momentum operators <math>p_x</math>, <math>p_y</math>, <math>p_z</math>. However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these quantities to be known simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis.
The uncertainty is closely related to the fact that different components of an angular momentum operator do not commute, for example <math>L_xL_y \neq L_yL_x</math>. (For the precise commutation relations, see angular momentum operator.)
Total angular momentum as generator of rotations
As mentioned above, orbital angular momentum L is defined as in classical mechanics: <math>\mathbf{L}\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}</math>, but total angular momentum J is defined in a different, more basic way: J is defined as the "generator of rotations". More specifically, J is defined so that the operator
<math display="block">R(\hat{n},\phi) \equiv \exp\left(-\frac{i}{\hbar}\phi\, \mathbf{J}\cdot \hat{\mathbf{n} }\right)</math>
is the rotation operator that takes any system and rotates it by angle <math>\phi</math> about the axis <math>\hat{\mathbf{n}}</math>. (The "exp" in the formula refers to operator exponential.) To put this the other way around, whatever our quantum Hilbert space is, we expect that the rotation group SO(3) will act on it. There is then an associated action of the Lie algebra so(3) of SO(3); the operators describing the action of so(3) on our Hilbert space are the (total) angular momentum operators.
The relationship between the angular momentum operator and the rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras and Lie groups in mathematics. The close relationship between angular momentum and rotations is reflected in Noether's theorem that proves that angular momentum is conserved whenever the laws of physics are rotationally invariant.
Angular momentum in electrodynamics
When describing the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, the canonical momentum P (derived from the Lagrangian for this system) is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum L = r × P is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called kinetic momentum (used throughout this article), is (in SI units)
<math display"block"> \mathbf{p} m\mathbf{v} = \mathbf{P} - e \mathbf{A} </math>
where e is the electric charge of the particle and A the magnetic vector potential of the electromagnetic field. The gauge-invariant angular momentum, that is kinetic angular momentum, is given by
<math display"block">\mathbf{K} \mathbf{r} \times ( \mathbf{P} - e\mathbf{A} )</math>
The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
Angular momentum in optics
In classical Maxwell electrodynamics the Poynting vector
is a linear momentum density of electromagnetic field.
<math display"block">\mathbf{S}(\mathbf{r}, t) \epsilon_0 c^2 \mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}, t) \times \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}, t).
</math>
The angular momentum density vector <math>\mathbf{L}(\mathbf{r}, t)</math> is given by a vector product
as in classical mechanics:
<math display"block">\mathbf{L}(\mathbf{r}, t) \epsilon_0 \mu_0 \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{S}(\mathbf{r}, t).
</math>
The above identities are valid locally, i.e. in each space point <math>\mathbf{r}</math> in a given moment <math>t</math>.
Angular momentum in nature and the cosmos
Tropical cyclones and other related weather phenomena involve conservation of angular momentum in order to explain the dynamics. Winds revolve slowly around low pressure systems, mainly due to the coriolis effect. If the low pressure intensifies and the slowly circulating air is drawn toward the center, the molecules must speed up in order to conserve angular momentum. By the time they reach the center, the speeds become destructive.</blockquote>He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia, saying:<blockquote>From such kind of reflexions also sometimes arise the circular motions of bodies about their own centers. But these are cases which I do not consider in what follows; and it would be too tedious to demonstrate every particular that relates to this subject.</blockquote>However, his geometric proof of the law of areas is an outstanding example of Newton's genius, and indirectly proves angular momentum conservation in the case of a central force.
Law of Areas
Newton's derivation
As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his second law of planetary motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler's laws.
During the first interval of time, an object is in motion from point A to point B. Undisturbed, it would continue to point c during the second interval. When the object arrives at B, it receives an impulse directed toward point S. The impulse gives it a small added velocity toward S, such that if this were its only velocity, it would move from B to V during the second interval. By the rules of velocity composition, these two velocities add, and point C is found by construction of parallelogram BcCV. Thus the object's path is deflected by the impulse so that it arrives at point C at the end of the second interval. Because the triangles SBc and SBC have the same base SB and the same height Bc or VC, they have the same area. By symmetry, triangle SBc also has the same area as triangle SAB, therefore the object has swept out equal areas SAB and SBC in equal times.
At point C, the object receives another impulse toward S, again deflecting its path during the third interval from d to D. Thus it continues to E and beyond, the triangles SAB, SBc, SBC, SCd, SCD, SDe, SDE all having the same area. Allowing the time intervals to become ever smaller, the path ABCDE approaches indefinitely close to a continuous curve.
Note that because this derivation is geometric, and no specific force is applied, it proves a more general law than Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It shows that the Law of Areas applies to any central force, attractive or repulsive, continuous or non-continuous, or zero.
Conservation of angular momentum in the law of areas
The proportionality of angular momentum to the area swept out by a moving object can be understood by realizing that the bases of the triangles, that is, the lines from S to the object, are equivalent to the radius , and that the heights of the triangles are proportional to the perpendicular component of velocity . Hence, if the area swept per unit time is constant, then by the triangular area formula (base)(height)}}, the product and therefore the product are constant: if and the base length are decreased, and height must increase proportionally. Mass is constant, therefore angular momentum is conserved by this exchange of distance and velocity.
In the case of triangle SBC, area is equal to (SB)(VC). Wherever C is eventually located due to the impulse applied at B, the product (SB)(VC), and therefore remain constant. Similarly so for each of the triangles.
Another areal proof of conservation of angular momentum for any central force uses Mamikon's sweeping tangents theorem.
After Newton
Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Patrick d'Arcy all understood angular momentum in terms of conservation of areal velocity, a result of their analysis of Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It is unlikely that they realized the implications for ordinary rotating matter.
In 1736 Euler, like Newton, touched on some of the equations of angular momentum in his Mechanica without further developing them.
Bernoulli wrote in a 1744 letter of a "moment of rotational motion", possibly the first conception of angular momentum as we now understand it.
In 1799, Pierre-Simon Laplace first realized that a fixed plane was associated with rotation—his invariable plane.
Louis Poinsot in 1803 began representing rotations as a line segment perpendicular to the rotation, and elaborated on the "conservation of moments".
In 1852 Léon Foucault used a gyroscope in an experiment to display the Earth's rotation.
William J. M. Rankine's 1858 Manual of Applied Mechanics defined angular momentum in the modern sense for the first time:<blockquote>... a line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the angular momentum, and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the body and of the fixed point, and such, that when the motion of the body is viewed from the extremity of the line, the radius-vector of the body seems to have right-handed rotation.</blockquote>In an 1872 edition of the same book, Rankine stated that "The term angular momentum was introduced by Mr. Hayward," probably referring to R.B. Hayward's article On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to Axes moveable in any manner in Space with Applications, which was introduced in 1856, and published in 1864. Rankine was mistaken, as numerous publications feature the term starting in the late 18th to early 19th centuries. However, Hayward's article apparently was the first use of the term and the concept seen by much of the English-speaking world. Before this, angular momentum was typically referred to as "momentum of rotation" in English.
See also
References
Further reading
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External links
* [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/football-science-shapes/ "What Do a Submarine, a Rocket and a Football Have in Common?] Why the prolate spheroid is the shape for success" (Scientific American, November 8, 2010)
* [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ch15/ch15.html Conservation of Angular Momentum] – a chapter from an online textbook
* [http://www.hakenberg.de/diffgeo/collision_resolution.htm Angular Momentum in a Collision Process] – derivation of the three-dimensional case
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160531064811/https://www.thepracticeset.com/physics-1-angular-momentum-rolling-motion-question-list/ Angular Momentum and Rolling Motion] – more momentum theory
Category:Mechanical quantities
Category:Rotation
Category:Conservation laws
Category:Moment (physics)
Category:Angular momentum | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.314214 |
2840 | Plum pudding model | The plum pudding model is an obsolete scientific model of the atom. It was first proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904 following his discovery of the electron in 1897, and was rendered obsolete by Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the atomic nucleus in 1911. The model tried to account for two properties of atoms then known: that there are electrons, and that atoms have no net electric charge. Logically there had to be an equal amount of positive charge to balance out the negative charge of the electrons. As Thomson had no idea as to the source of this positive charge, he tentatively proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, and that the atom was spherical. This was the mathematically simplest hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. In such a sphere, the negatively charged electrons would distribute themselves in a more or less even manner throughout the volume, simultaneously repelling each other while being attracted to the positive sphere's center.
Despite Thomson's efforts, his model couldn't account for emission spectra and valencies. Based on experimental studies of alpha particle scattering (in the gold foil experiment), Ernest Rutherford developed an alternative model for the atom featuring a compact nucleus where the positive charge is concentrated.
Thomson's model is popularly referred to as the "plum pudding model" with the notion that the electrons are distributed uniformly like raisins in a plum pudding. Neither Thomson nor his colleagues ever used this analogy. It seems to have been coined by popular science writers to make the model easier to understand for the layman. The analogy is perhaps misleading because Thomson likened the positive sphere to a liquid rather than a solid since he thought the electrons moved around in it.
Significance
Thomson's model was the first atomic model to describe an internal structure. Before this, atoms were simply the basic units of weight by which the chemical elements combined, and their only properties were valency and relative weight to hydrogen. The model had no properties which concerned physicists, such as electric charge, magnetic moment, volume, or absolute mass, and because of this some physicists had doubted atoms even existed.
Thomson hypothesized that the quantity, arrangement, and motions of electrons in the atom could explain its physical and chemical properties, such as emission spectra, valencies, reactivity, and ionization. He was on the right track, though his approach was based on classical mechanics and he did not have the insight to incorporate quantized energy into it.
Background
Throughout the 19th century evidence from chemistry and statistical mechanics accumulated that matter was composed of atoms. The structure of the atom was discussed, and by the end of the century the leading model By 1890, J.J. Thomson had his own version called the "nebular atom" hypothesis, in which atoms were composed of immaterial vortices and suggested similarities between the arrangement of vortices and periodic regularity found among the chemical elements.
Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897 changed his views. Thomson called them "corpuscles" (particles), but they were more commonly called "electrons", the name G. J. Stoney had coined for the "fundamental unit quantity of electricity" in 1891. However even late in 1899, few scientists believed in subatomic particles.
Another emerging scientific theme of the 19th century was the discovery and study of radioactivity. Thomson discovered the electron by studying cathode rays, and in 1900 Henri Becquerel determined that the radiation from uranium, now called beta particles, had the same charge/mass ratio as cathode rays. Prout's hypothesis was dismissed by chemists when by the 1830s it was found that some elements seemed to have a non-integer atomic weight—e.g. chlorine has an atomic weight of about 35.45. But the idea continued to intrigue scientists. The discrepancies were eventually explained with the discovery of isotopes in 1912.
A few months after Thomson's paper appeared, George FitzGerald suggested that the corpuscle identified by Thomson from cathode rays and proposed as parts of an atom was a "free electron", as described by physicist Joseph Larmor and Hendrik Lorentz. While Thomson did not adopt the terminology, the connection convinced other scientists that cathode rays were particles, an important step in their eventual acceptance of an atomic model based on sub-atomic particles.
In 1899 Thomson reiterated his atomic model in a paper that showed that negative electricity created by ultraviolet light landing on a metal (known now as the photoelectric effect) has the same mass-to-charge ratio as cathode rays; then he applied his previous method for determining the charge on ions to the negative electric particles created by ultraviolet light. He estimated that the electron's mass was 0.0014 times that of the hydrogen ion (as a fraction: ). In the conclusion of this paper he writes:
He then gives a detailed mechanical analysis of such a system, distributing the electrons uniformly around a ring. The attraction of the positive electrification is balanced by the mutual repulsion of the electrons. His analysis focuses on stability, looking for cases where small changes in position are countered by restoring forces.
After discussing his many formulae for stability he turned to analysing patterns in the number of electrons in various concentric rings of stable configurations. These regular patterns Thomson argued are analogous to the periodic law of chemistry behind the structure of the periodic table. This concept, that a model based on subatomic particles could account for chemical trends, encouraged interest in Thomson's model and influenced future work even if the details Thomson's electron assignments turned out to be incorrect.
Thomson at this point believed that all the mass of the atom was carried by the electrons. This would mean that even a small atom would have to contain thousands of electrons, and the positive electrification that encapsulated them was without mass.
1905 lecture on electron arrangements
In a lecture delivered to the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1905, Thomson explained that it was too computationally difficult for him to calculate the movements of large numbers of electrons in the positive sphere, so he proposed a practical experiment. This involved magnetised pins pushed into cork discs and set afloat in a basin of water. The pins were oriented such that they repelled each other. Above the centre of the basin was suspended an electromagnet that attracted the pins. The equilibrium arrangement the pins took informed Thomson on what arrangements the electrons in an atom might take.
For instance, he observed that while five pins would arrange themselves in a stable pentagon around the centre, six pins could not form a stable hexagon. Instead, one pin would move to the centre and the other five would form a pentagon around the centre pin, and this arrangement was stable. As he added more pins, they would arrange themselves in concentric rings around the centre.
The experiment functioned in two dimensions instead of three, but Thomson inferred the electrons in the atom arranged themselves in concentric shells and the could move within these shells but did not move from one shell to another them except when electrons were added or subtracted from the atom.
1906 Estimating electrons per atom
Before 1906 Thomson considered the atomic weight to be due to the mass of the electrons (which he continued to call "corpuscles"). Based on his own estimates of the electron mass, an atom would need tens of thousands electrons to account for the mass. In 1906 he used three different methods, X-ray scattering, beta ray absorption, or optical properties of gases, to estimate that "number of corpuscles is not greatly different from the atomic weight". This reduced the number of electrons to tens or at most a couple of hundred and that in turn meant that the positive sphere in Thomson's model contained most of the mass of the atom. This meant that Thomson's mechanical stability work from 1904 and the comparison to the periodic table were no longer valid. This meant that almost all of the atom's mass had to be carried by the positive sphere, whatever it was made of.
Thomson in this book estimated that a hydrogen atom is 1,700 times heavier than an electron (the current measurement is 1,837). Thomson noted that no scientist had yet found a positively charged particle smaller than a hydrogen ion. He also wrote that the positive charge of an atom is a multiple of a basic unit of positive charge, equal to the negative charge of an electron. Thomson refused to jump to the conclusion that the basic unit of positive charge has a mass equal to that of the hydrogen ion, arguing that scientists first had to know how many electrons an atom contains. For all he could tell, a hydrogen ion might still contain a few electrons—perhaps two electrons and three units of positive charge.
1910 Multiple scattering
Thomson's difficulty with beta scattering in 1906 lead him to renewed interest in the topic. He encouraged J. Arnold Crowther to experiment with beta scattering through thin foils and, in 1910, Thomson produced a new theory of beta scattering. The two innovations in this paper was the introduction of scattering from the positive sphere of the atom and analysis that multiple or compound scattering was critical to the final results. Thomson therefore came close to deducing the existence of the proton, which was something Rutherford eventually did. In Rutherford's model of the atom, the protons are clustered in a very small nucleus, but in Thomson's alternative model, the positive units were spread throughout the atom.
Thomson's 1910 beta scattering model
In his 1910 paper "On the Scattering of rapidly moving Electrified Particles", Thomson presented equations that modelled how beta particles scatter in a collision with an atom. Consider a beta particle passing through the positive sphere with its initial trajectory at a lateral distance b from the centre. The path is assumed to have a very small deflection and therefore is treated here as a straight line.
Inside a sphere of uniformly distributed positive charge the force exerted on the beta particle at any point along its path through the sphere would be directed along the radius with magnitude:
<math display"block">F \frac{k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3}</math>
The component of force perpendicular to the trajectory and thus deflecting the path of the particle would be:
<math display"block">F_\text{y} \frac{k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3} \cdot \cos\varphi = \frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3}</math>
The lateral change in momentum p<sub>y</sub> is therefore
<math display"block">\Delta p_\text{y} F_\text{y} t =\frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v}</math>
The resulting angular deflection, <math>\theta_2</math>, is given by
<math display"block">\tan\theta_2 \frac{\Delta p_\text{y}}{p_\text{x}} = \frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v} \cdot \frac{1}{mv}</math>
where p<sub>x</sub> is the average horizontal momentum taken to be equal to the incoming momentum. Since we already know the deflection is very small, we can treat <math>\tan\theta_2</math> as being equal to <math>\theta_2</math>.
To find the average deflection angle <math>\bar\theta_2</math>, the angle for each value of b and the corresponding L are added across the face sphere, then divided by the cross-section area. <math>L2\sqrt{R^2 -b^2}</math> per Pythagorean theorem. This should not have been possible according to the Thomson model: the scattering into large angles should have been negligible. The odds of a beta particle being scattered by more than 90° under such circumstances is astronomically small, and since alpha particles typically have much more momentum than beta particles, their deflection should be smaller still. The Thomson models simply could not produce electrostatic forces of sufficient strength to cause such large deflection. The charges in the Thomson model were too diffuse. This led Rutherford to discard the Thomson for a new model where the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus.
Rutherford went on to make more compelling discoveries. In Thomson's model, the positive charge sphere was just an abstract component, but Rutherford found something concrete to attribute the positive charge to: particles he dubbed "protons". Whereas Thomson believed that the electron count was roughly correlated to the atomic weight, Rutherford showed that (in a neutral atom) it is exactly equal to the atomic number.
Thomson hypothesised that the arrangement of the electrons in the atom somehow determined the spectral lines of a chemical element. He was on the right track, but it had nothing to do with how atoms circulated in a sphere of positive charge. Scientists eventually discovered that it had to do with how electrons absorb and release energy in discrete quantities, moving through energy levels which correspond to emission and absorption spectra. Thomson had not incorporated quantum mechanics into his atomic model, which at the time was a very new field of physics. Niels Bohr and Erwin Schroedinger later incorporated quantum mechanics into the atomic model.
Rutherford's nuclear model
Rutherford's 1911 paper on alpha particle scattering showed that Thomson's scattering model could not explain the large angle scattering and it showed that multiple scattering was not necessary to explain the data. However, in the years immediately following its publication few scientists took note.Origin of the nickname
, not Thomson's preferred analogy for his atomic model]]
The first known writer to compare Thomson's model to a plum pudding was an anonymous reporter in an article for the British pharmaceutical magazine The Chemist and Druggist in August 1906.
The analogy was never used by Thomson nor his colleagues. It seems to have been coined by popular science writers to make the model easier to understand for the layman.<ref nameHonGoldstein2013/>ReferencesBibliography*
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Category:Foundational quantum physics
Category:Atoms
Category:Electron
Category:Periodic table
Category:Obsolete theories in physics
Category:1904 in science | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plum_pudding_model | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.363295 |
2844 | History of atomic theory | <!-- This page has been automatically assigned the correct protection templates by User:Lowercase sigmabot. If the protection templates are wrong, please fix them. Thanks. -->
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Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of particles called atoms. The definition of the word "atom" has changed over the years in response to scientific discoveries. Initially, it referred to a hypothetical concept of there being some fundamental particle of matter, too small to be seen by the naked eye, that could not be divided. Then the definition was refined to being the basic particles of the chemical elements, when chemists observed that elements seemed to combine with each other in ratios of small whole numbers. Then physicists discovered that these particles had an internal structure of their own and therefore perhaps did not deserve to be called "atoms", but renaming atoms would have been impractical by that point.
Atomic theory is one of the most important scientific developments in history, crucial to all the physical sciences. At the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, physicist and Nobel laureate Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept.
Philosophical atomism
The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many ancient cultures. The word atom is derived from the ancient Greek word atomos, which means "uncuttable". This ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning. Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts. In the early 19th century, the scientist John Dalton noticed that chemical substances seemed to combine with each other by discrete and consistent units of weight, and he decided to use the word atom to refer to these units.GroundworkWorking in the late 17th century, Robert Boyle developed the concept of a chemical element as substance different from a compound. Lavoisier also defined the law of conservation of mass, which states that in a chemical reaction, matter does not appear nor disappear into thin air; the total mass remains the same even if the substances involved were transformed.
Dalton's law of multiple proportions
John Dalton studied data gathered by himself and by other scientists. He noticed a pattern that later came to be known as the law of multiple proportions: in compounds which contain two particular elements, the amount of Element A per measure of Element B will differ across these compounds by ratios of small whole numbers. This suggested that each element combines with other elements in multiples of a basic quantity.
In 1804, Dalton explained his atomic theory to his friend and fellow chemist Thomas Thomson, who published an explanation of Dalton's theory in his book A System of Chemistry in 1807. According to Thomson, Dalton's idea first occurred to him when experimenting with "olefiant gas" (ethylene) and "carburetted hydrogen gas" (methane). Dalton found that "carburetted hydrogen gas" contains twice as much hydrogen per measure of carbon as "olefiant gas", and concluded that a molecule of "olefiant gas" is one carbon atom and one hydrogen atom, and a molecule of "carburetted hydrogen gas" is one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms. In reality, an ethylene molecule has two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>), and a methane molecule has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH<sub>4</sub>). In this particular case, Dalton was mistaken about the formulas of these compounds, but he got them right in the following examples:
Example 1 — tin oxides: Dalton identified two types of tin oxide. One is a grey powder that Dalton referred to as "the protoxide of tin", which is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen. The other is a white powder which Dalton referred to as "the deutoxide of tin", which is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin, and in the white powder there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. These compounds are known today as tin(II) oxide (SnO) and tin(IV) oxide (SnO<sub>2</sub>). In Dalton's terminology, a "protoxide" is a molecule containing a single oxygen atom, and a "deutoxide" molecule has two. The modern equivalents of his terms would be monoxide and dioxide.
Example 2 — iron oxides:'' Dalton identified two oxides of iron. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which Dalton referred to as "the protoxide of iron", which is 78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen. The other iron oxide is a red powder, which Dalton referred to as "the intermediate or red oxide of iron" which is 70.4% iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron. 28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. These compounds are iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide and their formulas are FeO and Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> respectively. Iron(II) oxide's formula is normally written as FeO, but since it is a crystalline substance one could alternately write it as Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, and when we contrast that with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, the 2:3 ratio stands out plainly. Dalton described the "intermediate oxide" as being "2 atoms protoxide and 1 of oxygen", which adds up to two atoms of iron and three of oxygen. That averages to one and a half atoms of oxygen for every iron atom, putting it midway between a "protoxide" and a "deutoxide".
Example 3 — nitrogen oxides: Dalton was aware of three oxides of nitrogen: "nitrous oxide", "nitrous gas", and "nitric acid". These compounds are known today as nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, and nitrogen dioxide respectively. "Nitrous oxide" is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, which means it has 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. "Nitrous gas" is 44.05% nitrogen and 55.95% oxygen, which means there is 160 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. "Nitric acid" is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen, which means it has 320 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. 80 g, 160 g, and 320 g form a ratio of 1:2:4. The formulas for these compounds are N<sub>2</sub>O, NO, and NO<sub>2</sub>.
Dalton defined an atom as being the "ultimate particle" of a chemical substance, and he used the term "compound atom" to refer to "ultimate particles" which contain two or more elements. This is inconsistent with the modern definition, wherein an atom is the basic particle of a chemical element and a molecule is an agglomeration of atoms. The term "compound atom" was confusing to some of Dalton's contemporaries as the word "atom" implies indivisibility, but he responded that if a carbon dioxide "atom" is divided, it ceases to be carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide "atom" is indivisible in the sense that it cannot be divided into smaller carbon dioxide particles.
Dalton made the following assumptions on how "elementary atoms" combined to form "compound atoms" (what we today refer to as molecules). When two elements can only form one compound, he assumed it was one atom of each, which he called a "binary compound". If two elements can form two compounds, the first compound is a binary compound and the second is a "ternary compound" consisting of one atom of the first element and two of the second. If two elements can form three compounds between them, then the third compound is a "quaternary" compound containing one atom of the first element and three of the second. Dalton thought that water was a "binary compound", i.e. one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom. Dalton did not know that in their natural gaseous state, the ultimate particles of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen exist in pairs (O<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, and H<sub>2</sub>). Nor was he aware of valencies. These properties of atoms were discovered later in the 19th century.
Because atoms were too small to be directly weighed using the methods of the 19th century, Dalton instead expressed the weights of the myriad atoms as multiples of the hydrogen atom's weight, which Dalton knew was the lightest element. By his measurements, 7 grams of oxygen will combine with 1 gram of hydrogen to make 8 grams of water with nothing left over, and assuming a water molecule to be one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, he concluded that oxygen's atomic weight is 7. In reality it is 16. Aside from the crudity of early 19th century measurement tools, the main reason for this error was that Dalton didn't know that the water molecule in fact has two hydrogen atoms, not one. Had he known, he would have doubled his estimate to a more accurate 14. This error was corrected in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies). Avogadro's hypothesis, now usually called Avogadro's law, provided a method for deducing the relative weights of the molecules of gaseous elements, for if the hypothesis is correct relative gas densities directly indicate the relative weights of the particles that compose the gases. This way of thinking led directly to a second hypothesis: the particles of certain elemental gases were pairs of atoms, and when reacting chemically these molecules often split in two. For instance, the fact that two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature) suggested that a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two molecules of water. The formula of water is H<sub>2</sub>O, not HO. Avogadro measured oxygen's atomic weight to be 15.074.Opposition to atomic theoryDalton's atomic theory attracted widespread interest but not everyone accepted it at first. The law of multiple proportions was shown not to be a universal law when it came to organic substances, whose molecules can be quite large. For instance, in oleic acid there is 34 g of hydrogen for every 216 g of carbon, and in methane there is 72 g of hydrogen for every 216 g of carbon. 34 and 72 form a ratio of 17:36, which is not a ratio of small whole numbers. We know now that carbon-based substances can have very large molecules, larger than any the other elements can form. Oleic acid's formula is C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>34</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and methane's is CH<sub>4</sub>. The law of multiple proportions by itself was not complete proof, and atomic theory was not universally accepted until the end of the 19th century. Amedeo Avogadro did the opposite: he exclusively used the word "molecule" in his writings, eschewing the word "atom", instead using the term "elementary molecule". Jöns Jacob Berzelius used the term "organic atoms" to refer to particles containing three or more elements, because he thought this only existed in organic compounds. Jean-Baptiste Dumas used the terms "physical atoms" and "chemical atoms"; a "physical atom" was a particle that cannot be divided by physical means such as temperature and pressure, and a "chemical atom" was a particle that could not be divided by chemical reactions.
The modern definitions of atom and molecule—an atom being the basic particle of an element, and a molecule being an agglomeration of atoms—were established in the late half of the 19th century. A key event was the Karlsruhe Congress in Germany in 1860. As the first international congress of chemists, its goal was to establish some standards in the community. A major proponent of the modern distinction between atoms and molecules was Stanislao Cannizzaro.
Cannizzaro criticized past chemists such as Berzelius for not accepting that the particles of certain gaseous elements are actually pairs of atoms, which led to mistakes in their formulation of certain compounds. Berzelius believed that hydrogen gas and chlorine gas particles are solitary atoms. But he observed that when one liter of hydrogen reacts with one liter of chlorine, they form two liters of hydrogen chloride instead of one. Berzelius decided that Avogadro's law does not apply to compounds. Cannizzaro preached that if scientists just accepted the existence of single-element molecules, such discrepancies in their findings would be easily resolved. But Berzelius did not even have a word for that. Berzelius used the term "elementary atom" for a gas particle which contained just one element and "compound atom" for particles which contained two or more elements, but there was nothing to distinguish H<sub>2</sub> from H since Berzelius did not believe in H<sub>2</sub>. So Cannizzaro called for a redefinition so that scientists could understand that a hydrogen molecule can split into two hydrogen atoms in the course of a chemical reaction.
A second objection to atomic theory was philosophical. Scientists in the 19th century had no way of directly observing atoms. They inferred the existence of atoms through indirect observations, such as Dalton's law of multiple proportions. Some scientists adopted positions aligned with the philosophy of positivism, arguing that scientists should not attempt to deduce the deeper reality of the universe, but only systemize what patterns they could directly observe.
Isomerism
Scientists discovered some substances have the exact same chemical content but different properties. For instance, in 1827, Friedrich Wöhler discovered that silver fulminate and silver cyanate are both 107 parts silver, 12 parts carbon, 14 parts nitrogen, and 16 parts oxygen (we now know their formulas as both AgCNO). In 1830 Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced the term isomerism to describe the phenomenon. In 1860, Louis Pasteur hypothesized that the molecules of isomers might have the same set of atoms but in different arrangements.
In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff proposed that the carbon atom bonds to other atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Working from this, he explained the structures of organic molecules in such a way that he could predict how many isomers a compound could have. Consider, for example, pentane (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>). In van 't Hoff's way of modelling molecules, there are three possible configurations for pentane, and scientists did go on to discover three and only three isomers of pentane.
Isomerism was not something that could be fully explained by alternative theories to atomic theory, such as radical theory and the theory of types.
Mendeleev's periodic table
Dmitrii Mendeleev noticed that when he arranged the elements in a row according to their atomic weights, there was a certain periodicity to them. For instance, the second element, lithium, had similar properties to the ninth element, sodium, and the sixteenth element, potassium — a period of seven. Likewise, beryllium, magnesium, and calcium were similar and all were seven places apart from each other on Mendeleev's table. Using these patterns, Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of new elements, which were later discovered in nature: scandium, gallium, and germanium.
from 1871.]]
The elements on the periodic table were originally arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. However, in a number of places chemists chose to swap the positions of certain adjacent elements so that they appeared in a group with other elements with similar properties. For instance, tellurium is placed before iodine even though tellurium is heavier (127.6 vs 126.9) so that iodine can be in the same column as the other halogens. The modern periodic table is based on atomic number, which is equivalent to the nuclear charge, a change had to wait for the discovery of the nucleus.
James Clerk Maxwell, a vocal proponent of atomism, revived the kinetic theory in 1860 and 1867. His key insight was that the velocity of particles in a gas would vary around an average value, introducing the concept of a distribution function. Ludwig Boltzmann and Rudolf Clausius expanded his work on gases and the laws of thermodynamics especially the second law relating to entropy. In the 1870s, Josiah Willard Gibbs extended the laws of entropy and thermodynamics and coined the term "statistical mechanics."
Boltzmann defended the atomistic hypothesis against major detractors from the time like Ernst Mach or energeticists like Wilhelm Ostwald, who considered that energy was the elementary quantity of reality.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein independently reinvented Gibbs' laws, because they had only been printed in an obscure American journal. Einstein later commented that had he known of Gibbs' work, he would "not have published those papers at all, but confined myself to the treatment of some few points [that were distinct]." All of statistical mechanics and the laws of heat, gas, and entropy took the existence of atoms as a necessary postulate.Brownian motionIn 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a mathematical model to describe it. This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, who used Einstein's equations to measure the size of atoms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Kinetic diameters of various simple molecules
|-
! Molecule !! Perrin's measurements !! Modern measurements
|-
| Helium || 1.7 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 2.6 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Argon || 2.7 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 3.4 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Mercury || 2.8 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 3 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Hydrogen || 2 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 2.89 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Oxygen || 2.6 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 3.46 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Nitrogen || 2.7 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 3.64 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|-
| Chlorine || 4 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m || 3.20 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Atomic masses in kilograms
|-
! Molecule !! Perrin's measurements
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by electric fields and magnetic fields, which meant that these rays were not a form of light but were composed of very light charged particles, and their charge was negative. Thomson called these particles "corpuscles". He measured their mass-to-charge ratio to be several orders of magnitude smaller than that of the hydrogen atom, the smallest atom. This ratio was the same regardless of what the electrodes were made of and what the trace gas in the tube was.
In contrast to those corpuscles, positive ions created by electrolysis or X-ray radiation had mass-to-charge ratios that varied depending on the material of the electrodes and the type of gas in the reaction chamber, indicating they were different kinds of particles. In 1899, he showed that negative electricity created by ultraviolet light landing on a metal (known now as the photoelectric effect) has the same mass-to-charge ratio as cathode rays; then he applied his previous method for determining the charge on ions to the negative electric particles created by ultraviolet light. These "corpuscles" were so light yet carried so much charge that Thomson concluded they must be the basic particles of electricity, and for that reason other scientists decided that these "corpuscles" should instead be called electrons following an 1894 suggestion by George Johnstone Stoney for naming the basic unit of electrical charge.
In 1904, Thomson published a paper describing a new model of the atom. Electrons reside within atoms, and they transplant themselves from one atom to the next in a chain in the action of an electrical current. When electrons do not flow, their negative charge logically must be balanced out by some source of positive charge within the atom so as to render the atom electrically neutral. Having no clue as to the source of this positive charge, Thomson tentatively proposed that the positive charge was everywhere in the atom, the atom being shaped like a sphere—this was the mathematically simplest model to fit the available evidence (or lack of it). The balance of electrostatic forces would distribute the electrons throughout this sphere in a more or less even manner. Thomson further explained that ions are atoms that have a surplus or shortage of electrons.
Thomson's model is popularly known as the plum pudding model, based on the idea that the electrons are distributed throughout the sphere of positive charge with the same density as raisins in a plum pudding. Neither Thomson nor his colleagues ever used this analogy. It seems to have been a conceit of popular science writers. The analogy suggests that the positive sphere is like a solid, but Thomson likened it to a liquid, as he proposed that the electrons moved around in it in patterns governed by the electrostatic forces. Thus the positive electrification in Thomson's model was a temporary concept. Thomson's model was incomplete, it could not predict any of the known properties of the atom such as emission spectra or valencies.
In 1906, Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher performed the oil drop experiment in which they measured the charge of an electron to be about -1.6 × 10<sup>−19</sup>, a value now defined as -1 e. Since the hydrogen ion and the electron were known to be indivisible and a hydrogen atom is neutral in charge, it followed that the positive charge in hydrogen was equal to this value, i.e. 1 e.
Discovery of the nucleus
'<br /> Left: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom with negligible deflection.<br /> Right:'' Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected by the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus.]]
Thomson's plum pudding model was challenged in 1911 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who presented a new model to explain new experimental data. The new model proposed a concentrated center of charge and mass that was later dubbed the atomic nucleus.
Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden came to have doubts about the Thomson model after they encountered difficulties when they tried to build an instrument to measure the charge-to-mass ratio of alpha particles (these are positively-charged particles emitted by certain radioactive substances such as radium). The alpha particles were being scattered by the air in the detection chamber, which made the measurements unreliable. Thomson had encountered a similar problem in his work on cathode rays, which he solved by creating a near-perfect vacuum in his instruments. Rutherford didn't think he'd run into this same problem because alpha particles usually have much more momentum than electrons. According to Thomson's model of the atom, the positive charge in the atom is not concentrated enough to produce an electric field strong enough to deflect an alpha particle. Yet there was scattering, so Rutherford and his colleagues decided to investigate this scattering carefully.
Between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford and his colleagues performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with a beam of alpha particles. They spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°. According to Thomson's model, all of the alpha particles should have passed through with negligible deflection. Rutherford deduced that the positive charge of the atom is not distributed throughout the atom's volume as Thomson believed, but is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center. This nucleus also carries most of the atom's mass. Only such an intense concentration of charge, anchored by its high mass, could produce an electric field strong enough to deflect the alpha particles as observed.
Bohr model
of the atom]]
Rutherford deduced the existence of the atomic nucleus through his experiments but he had nothing to say about how the electrons were arranged around it. In 1912, Niels Bohr joined Rutherford's lab and began his work on a quantum model of the atom. The dynamical structure of these models was still classical, but in 1913, Bohr abandon the classical approach. He started his Bohr model of the atom with a quantum hypothesis: an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels.
Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen, not those of multielectron atoms. Worse still, it could not even account for all features of the hydrogen spectrum: as spectrographic technology improved, it was discovered that applying a magnetic field caused spectral lines to multiply in a way that Bohr's model couldn't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this made the model very difficult to use, and it still couldn't explain more complex atoms.Discovery of isotopes
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one variety of some elements. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these varieties.
That same year, J. J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass. The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932: all atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons, while different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
Discovery of the proton
Back in 1815, William Prout observed that the atomic weights of the known elements were multiples of hydrogen's atomic weight, so he hypothesized that all atoms are agglomerations of hydrogen, a particle which he dubbed "the protyle". Prout's hypothesis was put into doubt when some elements were found to deviate from this pattern—e.g. chlorine atoms on average weigh 35.45 daltons—but when isotopes were discovered in 1913, Prout's observation gained renewed attention.
In 1898, J. J. Thomson found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion was equal to the negative charge of a single electron.
In an April 1911 paper concerning his studies on alpha particle scattering, Ernest Rutherford estimated that the charge of an atomic nucleus, expressed as a multiplier of hydrogen's nuclear charge (q<sub>e</sub>), is roughly half the atom's atomic weight.
In June 1911, Van den Broek noted that on the periodic table, each successive chemical element increased in atomic weight on average by 2, which in turn suggested that each successive element's nuclear charge increased by 1 q<sub>e</sub>. In 1913, van den Broek further proposed that the electric charge of an atom's nucleus, expressed as a multiplier of the elementary charge, is equal to the element's sequential position on the periodic table. Rutherford defined this position as being the element's atomic number.
In 1913, Henry Moseley measured the X-ray emissions of all the elements on the periodic table and found that the frequency of the X-ray emissions was a mathematical function of the element's atomic number and the charge of a hydrogen nucleus .
In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen ions being emitted from the gas. Rutherford concluded that the alpha particles struck the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms, causing hydrogen ions to split off.
These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus was a singular particle with a positive charge equal to that of the electron's negative charge. The name "proton" was suggested by Rutherford at an informal meeting of fellow physicists in Cardiff in 1920.
The charge number of an atomic nucleus was found to be equal to the element's ordinal position on the periodic table. The nuclear charge number thus provided a simple and clear-cut way of distinguishing the chemical elements from each other, as opposed to Lavoisier's classic definition of a chemical element being a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions. The charge number or proton number was thereafter referred to as the atomic number of the element. In 1923, the International Committee on Chemical Elements officially declared the atomic number to be the distinguishing quality of a chemical element.
During the 1920s, some writers defined the atomic number as being the number of "excess protons" in a nucleus. Before the discovery of the neutron, scientists believed that the atomic nucleus contained a number of "nuclear electrons" which cancelled out the positive charge of some of its protons. This explained why the atomic weights of most atoms were higher than their atomic numbers. Helium, for instance, was thought to have four protons and two nuclear electrons in the nucleus, leaving two excess protons and a net nuclear charge of 2+. After the neutron was discovered, scientists realized the helium nucleus in fact contained two protons and two neutrons.
Discovery of the neutron
Physicists in the 1920s believed that the atomic nucleus contained protons plus a number of "nuclear electrons" that reduced the overall charge. These "nuclear electrons" were distinct from the electrons that orbited the nucleus. This incorrect hypothesis would have explained why the atomic numbers of the elements were less than their atomic weights, and why radioactive elements emit electrons (beta radiation) in the process of nuclear decay. Rutherford even hypothesized that a proton and an electron could bind tightly together into a "neutral doublet". Rutherford wrote that the existence of such "neutral doublets" moving freely through space would provide a more plausible explanation for how the heavier elements could have formed in the genesis of the Universe, given that it is hard for a lone proton to fuse with a large atomic nucleus because of the repulsive electric field.
In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick called this new particle "the neutron" and believed that it to be a proton and electron fused together because the neutron had about the same mass as a proton and an electron's mass is negligible by comparison. Neutrons are not in fact a fusion of a proton and an electron.Modern quantum mechanical models
. Each orbital holds up to two electrons, which most probably exist in the zones represented by the colored bubbles. Each electron is equally present in both orbital zones, shown here by color only to highlight the different wave phase.]]
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles—particularly subatomic particles such as electrons—have an associated wave. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, developed an equation that describes an electron as a wave function instead of a point. This approach predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain, but it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition. One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger's wave function did not describe the physical extent of an electron (like a charge distribution in classical electromagnetism), but rather gave the probability that an electron would, when measured, be found at a particular point. This reconciled the ideas of wave-like and particle-like electrons: the behavior of an electron, or of any other subatomic entity, has both wave-like and particle-like aspects, and whether one aspect or the other is observed depend upon the experiment.
A consequence of describing particles as waveforms rather than points is that it is mathematically impossible to calculate with precision both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the uncertainty principle, a concept first introduced by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.
Schrödinger's wave model for hydrogen replaced Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level and angular momentum, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes—sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.—with the nucleus in the middle. The shapes of atomic orbitals are found by solving the Schrödinger equation. Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known for very few relatively simple model Hamiltonians including the hydrogen atom and the hydrogen molecular ion. Beginning with the helium atom—which contains just two electrons—numerical methods are used to solve the Schrödinger equation.
Qualitatively the shape of the atomic orbitals of multi-electron atoms resemble the states of the hydrogen atom. The Pauli principle requires the distribution of these electrons within the atomic orbitals such that no more than two electrons are assigned to any one orbital; this requirement profoundly affects the atomic properties and ultimately the bonding of atoms into molecules.
See also
* Spectroscopy
* Atom
* History of molecular theory
* Discovery of chemical elements
* Introduction to quantum mechanics
* Kinetic theory of gases
* Atomism
* The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory
Footnotes
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Charles Adolphe Wurtz (1881) The Atomic Theory, D. Appleton and Company, New York.
* Alan J. Rocke (1984) Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro, Ohio State University Press, Columbus (open access full text at http://digital.case.edu/islandora/object/ksl%3Ax633gj985).
External links
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/atomism.htm Atomism] by S. Mark Cohen.
* [http://www.robotplatform.com/knowledge/Atomic%20Theory/atomic_theory.html Atomic Theory] – detailed information on atomic theory with respect to electrons and electricity.
* [https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 1: Atoms in Motion]
*
Category:Amount of substance
Category:Chemistry theories
Category:Foundational quantum physics
Category:Statistical mechanics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.420458 |
2846 | Ai | AI most frequently refers to artificial intelligence, which is intelligence demonstrated by machines.
Ai, AI or A.I. may also refer to:
Animals
Ai (chimpanzee), an individual experimental subject in Japan
Ai (sloth) or the pale-throated sloth, a northern Amazonian mammal species
Arts, entertainment and media
Works
Ai (album), a 2004 release by Seraphim
"A.I." (song), by OneRepublic, 2016
A.I. Artificial Intelligence, a 2001 American film
A.I. Rising, a 2018 Serbian film
AI: The Somnium Files, a 2019 video game
American Idol, a televised singing contest
The American Interest, a bimonthly magazine (2005–2020)
I (2015 film), an Indian Tamil film (initial title: Ai)
Other uses in arts and media
A.i. (band), a Californian rock–electroclash group
All in (poker), wagering one's entire stake
Appreciation Index, a British measure of broadcast programme approval
Non-player character, in gaming (colloquially, an AI)
Business
(a.i.), a phrase in job titles
Appreciative inquiry, an organizational development method
All-inclusive, a full service at a vacation resort including meals and drinks
Organizations and businesses
Arts businesses and organizations
Adventure International, a video game publisher
The Art Institutes, a chain of American art schools
Transport businesses
Air India, the flag carrier airline of India
Alitalia, the former flag carrier airline of Italy
Astra International, an Indonesian automotive company
Other businesses and organizations
Accuracy International, a firearms manufacturer
Alexis I. duPont High School, Delaware, U.S.
Amnesty International, a human rights organisation
Appraisal Institute, an association of real estate appraisers
People
Ai (surname), a Chinese surname
Ai (given name), a given name and list of people and characters with the name
King Ai of Zhou (died 441 BC)
Emperor Ai of Han (27–1 BC)
Emperor Ai of Jin (341–365)
Emperor Ai of Tang (892–908)
Ai (poet) (1947–2010), American poet
Ai (singer) (born 1981), Japanese-American singer and songwriter
Allen Iverson (born 1975), American retired professional basketball player ("A.I.")
Andre Iguodala (born 1984), American professional basketball player ("A.I. 2.0")
Places
Areas
Anguilla, a Caribbean territory (by ISO 3166-1 code)
Appenzell Innerrhoden, a Swiss canton
Armenia (by LOC MARC code)
Cities
Ai (Canaan), Biblical city
United States
Ai, Alabama
Ai, Georgia
Ai, North Carolina
Ai, Ohio
Waterways
Religion, philosophy and mythology
Ái, a Norse god
Ai (Canaan), Biblical city
Ai (), Sinic concepts of love from Confucianism and Buddhism
, colloquially , a Greek word for 'saint'
Ai Toyon, the Yakut god of light
Science and technology
Agricultural science
Active ingredient, part of a pesticide
Artificial insemination of livestock and pets, in animal breeding
Air force and aviation
Airborne Internet, a proposed air-to-air data network
Airborne Interception radar, a Royal Air Force air-to-air system
Air interdiction, an aerial military capability
Attitude indicator, a flight instrument on aircraft
The Internet
.ai, a top-level domain
Medical conditions
Accommodative insufficiency of the eye
Amelogenesis imperfecta of teeth
Aortic insufficiency of the heart
Medicines and healthcare
Active ingredient, part of a drug
Adequate intake, a Dietary Reference Intake nutritional parameter
Aromatase inhibitor, a class of breast-cancer drug
Articulation Index, a method of measuring hearing loss
Artificial insemination, a method of fertilisation
Automated immunoassay, automated clinical analyses of blood
Visual arts technologies
Adobe Illustrator, a vector graphics editor
.ai, Adobe Illustrator Artwork filename extension
Automatic Maximum-Aperture Indexing, aperture coupling on Nikon camera lenses
See also
Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)
Art Institute (disambiguation)
All In (disambiguation)
A1 (disambiguation)
AL (disambiguation)
AY (disambiguation)
Aye (disambiguation)
Eye (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.431851 |
2847 | Aung San Suu Kyi | | native_name_lang = my
| image = Aung_San_Suu_Kyi_visited_the_European_Commission,_met_with_Federica_Mogherini_(12)_(cropped).jpg
| caption = Aung San Suu Kyi in 2017
| alt = Aung San Suu Kyi at a religious ceremony in Nay Pyi Taw in 2019
| office = State Counsellor of Myanmar
| president =
| term_start = 6 April 2016
| term_end = 1 February 2021<br>()
| predecessor = Office established
| successor = Min Aung Hlaing (as Chairman of the State Administration Council)
| office1 = Leader of the Opposition
| president1 = Thein Sein
| term_start1 = 2 May 2012
| term_end1 = 29 January 2016<br>()
| predecessor1 = Sai Hla Kyaw
| successor1 = Thein Sein
| titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey}}
| term_start2 = 30 March 2016
| term_end2 = 1 February 2021<br>()
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 = Vacant
| office3 = Minister of Foreign Affairs
| president3 =
| term_start3 = 30 March 2016
| term_end3 = 1 February 2021<br>()
| predecessor3 = Wunna Maung Lwin
| successor3 = Wunna Maung Lwin
| office4 = Minister of Education
| president4 = Htin Kyaw
| term_start4 = 30 March 2016
| term_end4 = 5 April 2016<br>()
| predecessor4 = Khin San Yi
| successor4 = Myo Thein Gyi
| office5 = Minister of Electricity and Energy
| president5 = Htin Kyaw
| term_start5 = 30 March 2016
| term_end5 = 5 April 2016<br>()
| predecessor5 =
| successor5 = Pe Zin Tun
}}
| office6 = General Secretary of the National League for Democracy
| term_start6 = 27 September 1988<br>()
| term_end6 | predecessor6 Office established
| successor6 | office7 Chairperson of the National League for Democracy
| term_start7 = 13 December 2011
| term_end7 = 28 March 2023<br>()
| predecessor7 = Office established
| successor7 = Office abolished
| office8 = Member of the House of Representatives<br/>for Kawhmu
| term_start8 = 2 May 2012
| term_end8 = 30 March 2016<br>()
| predecessor8 = Soe Tint
| successor8 = Vacant
| majority8 = 46,73 (71.38%)
| birth_date
| birth_place = Rangoon, British Burma
| party = National League for Democracy
| spouse
| children = 2, including Alexander Aris
| parents =
| relatives =
| residence = 54 University Avenue
| education =
| occupation =
| awards = Full list
| signature = Aung San Suu Kyi signature 2013.svg
| website | module
}}
Aung San Suu Kyi ; }} (born 19 June 1945) is a Burmese politician, diplomat, author, and political activist who served as State Counsellor of Myanmar and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2016 to 2021. She has served as the general secretary of the National League for Democracy (NLD) since the party's founding in 1988 and was registered as its chairperson while it was a legal party from 2011 to 2023. She played a vital role in Myanmar's transition from military junta to partial democracy in the 2010s.
The youngest daughter of Aung San, Father of the Nation of modern-day Myanmar, and Khin Kyi, Aung San Suu Kyi was born in Rangoon, British Burma. After graduating from the University of Delhi in 1964 and St Hugh's College, Oxford in 1968, she worked at the United Nations for three years. She married Michael Aris in 1972, with whom she had two children.
Aung San Suu Kyi rose to prominence in the 8888 Uprising of 8 August 1988 and became the General Secretary of the NLD, which she had newly formed with the help of several retired army officials who criticised the military junta. In the 1990 general election, NLD won 81% of the seats in Parliament, but the results were nullified, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), the military government, refused to hand over power, resulting in an international outcry. She had been detained before the elections and remained under house arrest for almost 15 of the 21 years from 1989 to 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent political prisoners. In 1999, Time magazine named her one of the "Children of Gandhi" and his spiritual heir to nonviolence. She survived an assassination attempt in the 2003 Depayin massacre when at least 70 people associated with the NLD were killed.
Her party boycotted the 2010 general election, resulting in a decisive victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP). Aung San Suu Kyi became a member of the Pyithu Hluttaw (House of Representatives) while her party won 43 of the 45 vacant seats in the 2012 by-elections. In the 2015 general election, her party won a landslide victory, taking 86% of the seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, well more than the 67% supermajority needed to ensure that its preferred candidates were elected president and vice president in the Presidential Electoral College. Although she was prohibited from becoming the president due to a clause in the Myanmar Constitution—her late husband and children are foreign citizens—she assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor of Myanmar, a role akin to a prime minister or a head of government.
When she ascended to the office of state counsellor, Aung San Suu Kyi drew criticism from several countries, organisations and figures over Myanmar's inaction in response to the Rohingya genocide in Rakhine State and refusal to acknowledge that the Tatmadaw (armed forces) had committed massacres. Under her leadership, Myanmar also drew criticism for prosecutions of journalists. On 12 October 2022, she was convicted of two further charges of corruption and she was sentenced to two terms of three years' imprisonment to be served concurrent to each other. On 30 December 2022, her trials ended with another conviction and an additional sentence of seven years' imprisonment for corruption. Aung San Suu Kyi's final sentence was of 33 years in prison, later reduced to 27 years.
Name
Aung San Suu Kyi, like other Burmese names, includes no surname, but is only a personal name, in her case derived from three relatives: "Aung San" from her father, "Suu" from her paternal grandmother, and "Kyi" from her mother Khin Kyi.
In Myanmar, Aung San Suu Kyi is often referred to as Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. Daw, literally meaning "aunt", is not part of her name but is an honorific for any older and revered woman, akin to "Madam". She is sometimes addressed as Daw Suu or Amay Suu ("Mother Suu") by her supporters. Personal life Aung San Suu Kyi was born on 19 June 1945 in Rangoon (now Yangon), British Burma. According to Peter Popham, she was born in a small village outside Rangoon called Hmway Saung. Her father, Aung San, allied with the Japanese during World War II. Aung San founded the modern Burmese army and negotiated Burma's independence from the United Kingdom in 1947; he was assassinated by his rivals in the same year. She is a niece of Thakin Than Tun who was the husband of Khin Khin Gyi, the elder sister of her mother Khin Kyi.
She grew up with her mother, Khin Kyi, and two brothers, Aung San Lin and Aung San Oo, in Rangoon. Aung San Lin died at the age of eight when he drowned in an ornamental lake on the grounds of the house. She was educated in Methodist English High School (now Basic Education High School No. 1 Dagon) for much of her childhood in Burma, where she was noted as having a talent for learning languages. She speaks four languages: Burmese, English (with a British accent), French, and Japanese. She is a Theravada Buddhist. Suu Kyi continued her education at St Hugh's College, Oxford, obtaining a B.A. degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1967, graduating with a third-class degree that was promoted per tradition to an MA in 1968. After graduating, she lived in New York City with family friend Ma Than E, who was once a popular Burmese pop singer. She worked at the United Nations for three years, primarily on budget matters, writing daily to her future husband, Dr. Michael Aris. On 1 January 1972, Aung San Suu Kyi and Aris, a scholar of Tibetan culture and literature, living abroad in Bhutan, were married. The following year, she gave birth to their first son, Alexander Aris, in London; their second son, Kim Aris, was born in 1977. Between 1985 and 1987, Aung San Suu Kyi was working toward a Master of Philosophy degree in Burmese literature as a research student at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London. She was elected as an Honorary Fellow of St Hugh's in 1990.
Aris died on his 53rd birthday on 27 March 1999. Since 1989, when his wife was first placed under house arrest, he had seen her only five times, the last of which was for Christmas in 1995. She was also separated from her children, who live in the United Kingdom, until 2011.
On 2 May 2008, after Cyclone Nargis hit Burma, Aung San Suu Kyi's dilapidated lakeside bungalow lost its roof and electricity, while the cyclone also left entire villages in the Irrawaddy delta submerged. Plans to renovate and repair the house were announced in August 2009. Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest on 13 November 2010.
Political career
Political beginning
Coincidentally, when Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Burma in 1988, the long-time military leader of Burma and head of the ruling party, General Ne Win, stepped down. Mass demonstrations for democracy followed that event on 8 August 1988 (8–8–88, a day seen as auspicious), which were violently suppressed in what came to be known as the 8888 Uprising. On 24 August 1988, she made her first public appearance at the Yangon General Hospital, addressing protestors from a podium. On 26 August, she addressed half a million people at a mass rally in front of the Shwedagon Pagoda in the capital, calling for a democratic government. by both Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence and also by the Buddhist concepts, Aung San Suu Kyi entered politics to work for democratisation, helped found the National League for Democracy on 27 September 1988, but was put under house arrest on 20 July 1989. She was offered freedom if she left the country, but she refused. Despite her philosophy of non-violence, a group of ex-military commanders and senior politicians who joined NLD during the crisis believed that she was too confrontational and left NLD. However, she retained enormous popularity and support among NLD youths with whom she spent most of her time.
<!--During her time under house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi devoted herself to Buddhist meditation practices and to studying Buddhist thought. This deeper interest in Buddhism is reflected in her writings as more emphasis is put on love and compassion. There also emerged more discussion on the compatibility of democracy and Buddhism and the ability to gain freedom from an authoritarian government through Buddhism.-->
During the crisis, the previous democratically elected Prime Minister of Burma, U Nu, initiated to form an interim government and invited opposition leaders to join him. Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had signaled his readiness to recognize the interim government. However, Aung San Suu Kyi categorically rejected U Nu's plan by saying "the future of the opposition would be decided by masses of the people". Ex-Brigadier General Aung Gyi, another influential politician at the time of the 8888 Uprising and the first chairman in the history of the NLD, followed the suit and rejected the plan after Aung San Suu Kyi's refusal. Aung Gyi later accused several NLD members of being communists and resigned from the party. Some claim that Aung San Suu Kyi would have assumed the office of Prime Minister. Instead, the results were nullified and the military refused to hand over power, resulting in an international outcry. Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest at her home on University Avenue () in Rangoon, during which time she was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990, and the Nobel Peace Prize one year later. Her sons Alexander and Kim Aris accepted the Nobel Peace Prize on her behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi used the Nobel Peace Prize's US$1.3 million prize money to establish a health and education trust for the Burmese people. Around this time, Aung San Suu Kyi chose non-violence as an expedient political tactic, stating in 2007, "I do not hold to nonviolence for moral reasons, but for political and practical reasons."
The decision of the Nobel Committee mentions:
In 1995 Aung San Suu Kyi delivered the keynote address at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing.
1996 attack
On 9 November 1996, the motorcade that Aung San Suu Kyi was traveling in with other National League for Democracy leaders Tin Oo and Kyi Maung, was attacked in Yangon. About 200 men swooped down on the motorcade, wielding metal chains, metal batons, stones and other weapons. The car that Aung San Suu Kyi was in had its rear window smashed, and the car with Tin Oo and Kyi Maung had its rear window and two backdoor windows shattered. It is believed the offenders were members of the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA) who were allegedly paid Ks.500/- (@ USD $0.50) each to participate. The NLD lodged an official complaint with the police, and according to reports the government launched an investigation, but no action was taken. (Amnesty International 120297)
House arrest
Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest for a total of 15 years over a 21-year period, on numerous occasions, since she began her political career, during which time she was prevented from meeting her party supporters and international visitors. In an interview, she said that while under house arrest she spent her time reading philosophy, politics and biographies that her husband had sent her. She also passed the time playing the piano and was occasionally allowed visits from foreign diplomats as well as from her personal physician.
Although under house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi was granted permission to leave Burma under the condition that she never return, which she refused: "As a mother, the greater sacrifice was giving up my sons, but I was always aware of the fact that others had given up more than me. I never forget that my colleagues who are in prison suffer not only physically, but mentally for their families who have no security outside—in the larger prison of Burma under authoritarian rule."
The media were also prevented from visiting Aung San Suu Kyi, as occurred in 1998 when Italian journalist Maurizio Giuliano, after photographing her, was stopped by customs officials who then confiscated all his films, tapes and some notes. In contrast, Aung San Suu Kyi did have visits from government representatives, such as during her autumn 1994 house arrest when she met the leader of Burma, Senior General Than Shwe and General Khin Nyunt on 20 September in the first meeting since she had been placed in detention.
The Burmese government detained and kept Aung San Suu Kyi imprisoned because it viewed her as someone "likely to undermine the community peace and stability" of the country, and used both Article 10(a) and 10(b) of the 1975 State Protection Act (granting the government the power to imprison people for up to five years without a trial), and Section 22 of the "Law to Safeguard the State Against the Dangers of Those Desiring to Cause Subversive Acts" as legal tools against her. She continuously appealed her detention, and many nations and figures continued to call for her release and that of 2,100 other political prisoners in the country. On 12 November 2010, days after the junta-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) won elections conducted after a gap of 20 years, the junta finally agreed to sign orders allowing Aung San Suu Kyi's release, and her house arrest term came to an end on 13 November 2010.United Nations involvementThe United Nations (UN) has attempted to facilitate dialogue between the junta and Aung San Suu Kyi. Aung San Suu Kyi fled the scene with the help of her driver, Kyaw Soe Lin, but was arrested upon reaching Ye-U. The government imprisoned her at Insein Prison in Rangoon. After she underwent a hysterectomy in September 2003, the government again placed her under house arrest in Rangoon.
The results from the UN facilitation have been mixed; Razali Ismail, UN special envoy to Burma, met with Aung San Suu Kyi. Ismail resigned from his post the following year, partly because he was denied re-entry to Burma on several occasions. Several years later in 2006, Ibrahim Gambari, UN Undersecretary-General (USG) of Department of Political Affairs, met with Aung San Suu Kyi, the first visit by a foreign official since 2004. He also met with her later the same year. On 2 October 2007 Gambari returned to talk to her again after seeing Than Shwe and other members of the senior leadership in Naypyidaw. State television broadcast Aung San Suu Kyi with Gambari, stating that they had met twice. This was Aung San Suu Kyi's first appearance in state media in the four years since her current detention began.
The United Nations Working Group for Arbitrary Detention published an Opinion that Aung San Suu Kyi's deprivation of liberty was arbitrary and in contravention of Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, and requested that the authorities in Burma set her free, but the authorities ignored the request at that time. The U.N. report said that according to the Burmese Government's reply, "Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has not been arrested, but has only been taken into protective custody, for her own safety", and while "it could have instituted legal action against her under the country's domestic legislation ... it has preferred to adopt a magnanimous attitude, and is providing her with protection in her own interests".
In November 2007, it was reported that Aung San Suu Kyi would meet her political allies National League for Democracy along with a government minister. The ruling junta made the official announcement on state TV and radio just hours after UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari ended his second visit to Burma. The NLD confirmed that it had received the invitation to hold talks with Aung San Suu Kyi. However, the process delivered few concrete results.
Periods under detention
* 20 July 1989: Placed under house arrest in Rangoon under martial law that allows for detention without charge or trial for three years.
* 25 May 2007: House arrest extended by one year despite a direct appeal from U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan to General Than Shwe.
* 24 October 2007: Reached 12 years under house arrest, solidarity protests held at 12 cities around the world.
* 27 May 2008: House arrest extended for another year, which is illegal under both international law and Burma's own law.
* 11 August 2009: House arrest extended for 18 more months because of "violation" arising from the May 2009 trespass incident.
2007 anti-government protests
Protests led by Buddhist monks during Saffron Revolution began on 19 August 2007 following steep fuel price increases, and continued each day, despite the threat of a crackdown by the military.
On 22 September 2007, although still under house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi made a brief public appearance at the gate of her residence in Yangon to accept the blessings of Buddhist monks who were marching in support of human rights. It was reported that she had been moved the following day to Insein Prison (where she had been detained in 2003), but meetings with UN envoy Ibrahim Gambari near her Rangoon home on 30 September and 2 October established that she remained under house arrest.2009 trespass incident
visiting Aung San Suu Kyi in 2009. Webb negotiated the release of John Yettaw, the man who trespassed in Aung San Suu Kyi's home.]]
On 3 May 2009, an American man, identified as John Yettaw, swam across Inya Lake to her house uninvited and was arrested when he made his return trip three days later. He had attempted to make a similar trip two years earlier, but for unknown reasons was turned away. He later claimed at trial that he was motivated by a divine vision requiring him to notify her of an impending terrorist assassination attempt. On 13 May, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested for violating the terms of her house arrest because the swimmer, who pleaded exhaustion, was allowed to stay in her house for two days before he attempted the swim back. Aung San Suu Kyi was later taken to Insein Prison, where she could have faced up to five years' confinement for the intrusion. The trial of Aung San Suu Kyi and her two maids began on 18 May and a small number of protesters gathered outside. Diplomats and journalists were barred from attending the trial; however, on one occasion, several diplomats from Russia, Thailand and Singapore and journalists were allowed to meet Aung San Suu Kyi. The prosecution had originally planned to call 22 witnesses. It also accused John Yettaw of embarrassing the country. During the ongoing defence case, Aung San Suu Kyi said she was innocent. The defence was allowed to call only one witness (out of four), while the prosecution was permitted to call 14 witnesses. The court rejected two character witnesses, NLD members Tin Oo and Win Tin, and permitted the defence to call only a legal expert. According to one unconfirmed report, the junta was planning to, once again, place her in detention, this time in a military base outside the city. In a separate trial, Yettaw said he swam to Aung San Suu Kyi's house to warn her that her life was "in danger". The national police chief later confirmed that Yettaw was the "main culprit" in the case filed against Aung San Suu Kyi. According to aides, Aung San Suu Kyi spent her 64th birthday in jail sharing biryani rice and chocolate cake with her guards.
Her arrest and subsequent trial received worldwide condemnation by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations Security Council, Western governments, South Africa, Japan and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, of which Burma is a member. The Burmese government strongly condemned the statement, as it created an "unsound tradition" and criticised Thailand for meddling in its internal affairs. The Burmese Foreign Minister Nyan Win was quoted in the state-run newspaper New Light of Myanmar as saying that the incident "was trumped up to intensify international pressure on Burma by internal and external anti-government elements who do not wish to see the positive changes in those countries' policies toward Burma". by flying to Burma to negotiate, but Than Shwe rejected all of his requests.
On 11 August 2009, the trial concluded with Aung San Suu Kyi being sentenced to imprisonment for three years with hard labour. This sentence was commuted by the military rulers to further house arrest of 18 months. On 14 August, US Senator Jim Webb visited Burma, visiting with junta leader General Than Shwe and later with Aung San Suu Kyi. During the visit, Webb negotiated Yettaw's release and deportation from Burma. Following the verdict of the trial, lawyers of Aung San Suu Kyi said they would appeal against the 18-month sentence. On 18 August, United States President Barack Obama asked the country's military leadership to set free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi. In her appeal, Aung San Suu Kyi had argued that the conviction was unwarranted. However, her appeal against the August sentence was rejected by a Burmese court on 2 October 2009. Although the court accepted the argument that the 1974 constitution, under which she had been charged, was null and void, it also said the provisions of the 1975 security law, under which she has been kept under house arrest, remained in force. The verdict effectively meant that she would be unable to participate in the elections scheduled to take place in 2010—the first in Burma in two decades. Her lawyer stated that her legal team would pursue a new appeal within 60 days.
Late 2000s: International support for release
awarded to Aung San Suu Kyi by Martin Schulz, inside the European Parliament's Strasbourg hemicycle, in 2013]]
Aung San Suu Kyi has received vocal support from Western nations in Europe, Australia and South America, as well as India, Japan the Philippines and South Korea. In December 2007, the US House of Representatives voted unanimously 400–0 to award Aung San Suu Kyi the Congressional Gold Medal; the Senate concurred on 25 April 2008. On 6 May 2008, President George W. Bush signed legislation awarding Aung San Suu Kyi the Congressional Gold Medal. She is the first recipient in American history to receive the prize while imprisoned. More recently, there has been growing criticism of her detention by Burma's neighbours in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), particularly from Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines and Singapore. At one point Malaysia warned Burma that it faced expulsion from ASEAN as a result of the detention of Aung San Suu Kyi. Other nations including South Africa, Bangladesh and the Maldives also called for her release. The United Nations has urged the country to move towards inclusive national reconciliation, the restoration of democracy, and full respect for human rights. In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the human rights situation in Burma and calling for Aung San Suu Kyi's release—80 countries voting for the resolution, 25 against and 45 abstentions. Other nations, such as China and Russia, are less critical of the regime and prefer to cooperate only on economic matters. Indonesia has urged China to push Burma for reforms. However, Samak Sundaravej, former Prime Minister of Thailand, criticised the amount of support for Aung San Suu Kyi, saying that "Europe uses Aung San Suu Kyi as a tool. If it's not related to Aung San Suu Kyi, you can have deeper discussions with Myanmar."
Vietnam, however, did not support calls by other ASEAN member states for Myanmar to free Aung San Suu Kyi, state media reported Friday, 14 August 2009. The state-run Việt Nam News said Vietnam had no criticism of Myanmar's decision 11 August 2009 to place Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest for the next 18 months, effectively barring her from elections scheduled for 2010. "It is our view that the Aung San Suu Kyi trial is an internal affair of Myanmar", Vietnamese government spokesman Le Dung stated on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In contrast with other ASEAN member states, Dung said Vietnam has always supported Myanmar and hopes it will continue to implement the "roadmap to democracy" outlined by its government.
Nobel Peace Prize winners (Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the Dalai Lama, Shirin Ebadi, Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Mairead Corrigan, Rigoberta Menchú, Prof. Elie Wiesel, US President Barack Obama, Betty Williams, Jody Williams and former US President Jimmy Carter) called for the rulers of Burma to release Aung San Suu Kyi to "create the necessary conditions for a genuine dialogue with Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and all concerned parties and ethnic groups to achieve an inclusive national reconciliation with the direct support of the United Nations".
It was announced prior to the 2010 Burmese general election that Aung San Suu Kyi may be released "so she can organize her party", However, Aung San Suu Kyi was not allowed to run. On 1 October 2010 the government announced that she would be released on 13 November 2010.
US President Barack Obama personally advocated the release of all political prisoners, especially Aung San Suu Kyi, during the US-ASEAN Summit of 2009.
The US Government hoped that successful general elections would be an optimistic indicator of the Burmese government's sincerity towards eventual democracy. The Hatoyama government which spent 2.82 billion yen in 2008, has promised more Japanese foreign aid to encourage Burma to release Aung San Suu Kyi in time for the elections; and to continue moving towards democracy and the rule of law.
In a personal letter to Aung San Suu Kyi, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown cautioned the Burmese government of the potential consequences of rigging elections as "condemning Burma to more years of diplomatic isolation and economic stagnation".
Aung San Suu Kyi met with many heads of state and opened a dialog with the Minister of Labor Aung Kyi (not to be confused with Aung San Suu Kyi). She was allowed to meet with senior members of her NLD party at the State House, however these meetings took place under close supervision.
2010 release
in Yangon, December 2011]]
On the evening of 13 November 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest. This was the date her detention had been set to expire according to a court ruling in August 2009 and came six days after a widely criticised general election. She appeared in front of a crowd of her supporters, who rushed to her house in Rangoon when nearby barricades were removed by the security forces. Aung San Suu Kyi had been detained for 15 of the past 21 years. The government newspaper New Light of Myanmar reported the release positively, saying she had been granted a pardon after serving her sentence "in good conduct". The New York Times suggested that the military government may have released Aung San Suu Kyi because it felt it was in a confident position to control her supporters after the election. He visited again on 5 July 2011, to accompany her on a trip to Bagan, her first trip outside Yangon since 2003. Her son visited again on 8 August 2011, to accompany her on a trip to Pegu, her second trip.
Discussions were held between Aung San Suu Kyi and the Burmese government during 2011, which led to a number of official gestures to meet her demands. In October, around a tenth of Burma's political prisoners were freed in an amnesty and trade unions were legalised.
In November 2011, following a meeting of its leaders, the NLD announced its intention to re-register as a political party to contend 48 by-elections necessitated by the promotion of parliamentarians to ministerial rank. Following the decision, Aung San Suu Kyi held a telephone conference with US President Barack Obama, in which it was agreed that Secretary of State Hillary Clinton would make a visit to Burma, a move received with caution by Burma's ally China. On 1 December 2011, Aung San Suu Kyi met with Hillary Clinton at the residence of the top-ranking US diplomat in Yangon.
On 21 December 2011, Thai Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra met Aung San Suu Kyi in Yangon, marking Aung San Suu Kyi's "first-ever meeting with the leader of a foreign country".
On 5 January 2012, British Foreign Minister William Hague met Aung San Suu Kyi and his Burmese counterpart. This represented a significant visit for Aung San Suu Kyi and Burma. Aung San Suu Kyi studied in the UK and maintains many ties there, whilst Britain is Burma's largest bilateral donor.
During Aung San Suu Kyi's visit to Europe, she visited the Swiss parliament, collected her 1991 Nobel Prize in Oslo and her honorary degree from the University of Oxford.
2012 by-elections
In December 2011, there was speculation that Aung San Suu Kyi would run in the 2012 national by-elections to fill vacant seats. On 18 January 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi formally registered to contest a Pyithu Hluttaw (lower house) seat in the Kawhmu Township constituency in special parliamentary elections to be held on 1 April 2012. The seat was previously held by Soe Tint, who vacated it after being appointed Construction Deputy Minister, in the 2010 election. She ran against Union Solidarity and Development Party candidate Soe Min, a retired army physician and native of Twante Township.
On 3 March 2012, at a large campaign rally in Mandalay, Aung San Suu Kyi unexpectedly left after 15 minutes, because of exhaustion and airsickness.
In an official campaign speech broadcast on Burmese state television's MRTV on 14 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi publicly campaigned for reform of the 2008 Constitution, removal of restrictive laws, more adequate protections for people's democratic rights, and establishment of an independent judiciary. The speech was leaked online a day before it was broadcast. A paragraph in the speech, focusing on the Tatmadaw's repression by means of law, was censored by authorities.
Aung San Suu Kyi also called for international media to monitor the by-elections, while publicly pointing out irregularities in official voter lists, which include deceased individuals and exclude other eligible voters in the contested constituencies. On 21 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi was quoted as saying "Fraud and rule violations are continuing and we can even say they are increasing."
When asked whether she would assume a ministerial post if given the opportunity, she said the following:
On 26 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi suspended her nationwide campaign tour early, after a campaign rally in Myeik (Mergui), a coastal town in the south, citing health problems due to exhaustion and hot weather.
and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012]]
On 1 April 2012, the NLD announced that Aung San Suu Kyi had won the vote for a seat in Parliament. A news broadcast on state-run MRTV, reading the announcements of the Union Election Commission, confirmed her victory, as well as her party's victory in 43 of the 45 contested seats, officially making Aung San Suu Kyi the Leader of the Opposition in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw.
Although she and other MP-elects were expected to take office on 23 April when the Hluttaws resumed session, National League for Democracy MP-elects, including Aung San Suu Kyi, said they might not take their oaths because of its wording; in its present form, parliamentarians must vow to "safeguard" the constitution. In an address on Radio Free Asia, she said "We don't mean we will not attend the parliament, we mean we will attend only after taking the oath ... Changing that wording in the oath is also in conformity with the Constitution. I don't expect there will be any difficulty in doing it."
On 2 May 2012, National League for Democracy MP-elects, including Aung San Suu Kyi, took their oaths and took office, though the wording of the oath was not changed. According to the Los Angeles Times, "Suu Kyi and her colleagues decided they could do more by joining as lawmakers than maintaining their boycott on principle."2015 general electionOn 16 June 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi was finally able to deliver her Nobel acceptance speech (Nobel lecture) at Oslo's City Hall, two decades after being awarded the peace prize. In September 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi received in person the United States Congressional Gold Medal, which is the highest Congressional award. Although she was awarded this medal in 2008, at the time she was under house arrest, and was unable to receive the medal. Aung San Suu Kyi was greeted with bipartisan support at Congress, as part of a coast-to-coast tour in the United States. In addition, Aung San Suu Kyi met President Barack Obama at the White House. The experience was described by Aung San Suu Kyi as "one of the most moving days of my life". In 2014, she was listed as the 61st-most-powerful woman in the world by Forbes.
at the White House in September 2012]]
On 6 July 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi announced on the World Economic Forum's website that she wanted to run for the presidency in Myanmar's 2015 elections. The current Constitution, which came into effect in 2008, bars her from the presidency because she is the widow and mother of foreigners—provisions that appeared to be written specifically to prevent her from being eligible.
meeting Aung San Suu Kyi in London, 12 September 2016]]
<!-- if apporeved by MP then president is head of state and state counsellor is head of government. it's likely than afghanistan -->
The NLD won a sweeping victory in those elections, winning at least 255 seats in the House of Representatives and 135 seats in the House of Nationalities. In addition, Aung San Suu Kyi won re-election to the House of Representatives. Under the 2008 constitution, the NLD needed to win at least a two-thirds majority in both houses to ensure that its candidate would become president. Before the elections, Aung San Suu Kyi announced that even though she is constitutionally barred from the presidency, she would hold the real power in any NLD-led government. On 30 March 2016 she became Minister for the President's Office, for Foreign Affairs, for Education and for Electric Power and Energy in President Htin Kyaw's government; later she relinquished the latter two ministries and President Htin Kyaw appointed her State Counsellor, a position akin to a Prime Minister created especially for her. The position of State Counsellor was approved by the House of Nationalities on 1 April 2016 and the House of Representatives on 5 April 2016. The next day, her role as State Counsellor was established.State counsellor and foreign minister (2016–2021)
meeting Aung San Suu Kyi in New Delhi, 24 January 2018]]
As soon as she became foreign minister, she invited Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi, Canadian Foreign Minister Stephane Dion and Italian Foreign Minister Paolo Gentiloni in April and Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida in May and discussed how to have good diplomatic relationships with these countries.
and Thai prime minister Prayut Chan-o-cha, 25 January 2018]]
Initially, upon accepting the State Counsellor position, she granted amnesty to the students who were arrested for opposing the National Education Bill, and announced the creation of the commission on Rakhine State, which had a long record of persecution of the Muslim Rohingya minority. However, soon Aung San Suu Kyi's government did not manage with the ethnic conflicts in Shan and Kachin states, where thousands of refugees fled to China, and by 2017 the persecution of the Rohingya by the government forces escalated to the point that it is not uncommonly called a genocide. Aung San Suu Kyi, when interviewed, has denied the allegations of ethnic cleansing. She has also refused to grant citizenship to the Rohingya, instead taking steps to issue ID cards for residency but no guarantees of citizenship.
, 14 November 2018]]
Her tenure as State Counsellor of Myanmar has drawn international criticism for her failure to address her country's economic and ethnic problems, particularly the plight of the Rohingya following the 25 August 2017 ARSA attacks (described as "certainly one of the biggest refugee crises and cases of ethnic cleansing since the Second World War"), for the weakening of freedom of the press and for her style of leadership, described as imperious and "distracted and out of touch".
During the COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar, Suu Kyi chaired a National Central Committee responsible for coordinating the country's pandemic response.
Response to the genocide of Rohingya Muslims and refugees
In 2017, critics called for Aung San Suu Kyi's Nobel prize to be revoked, citing her silence over the genocide of Rohingya people in Myanmar. Some activists criticised Aung San Suu Kyi for her silence on the 2012 Rakhine State riots (later repeated during the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis), and her indifference to the plight of the Rohingya, Myanmar's persecuted Muslim minority. In 2012, she told reporters she did not know if the Rohingya could be regarded as Burmese citizens. In a 2013 interview with the BBC's Mishal Husain, Aung San Suu Kyi did not condemn violence against the Rohingya and denied that Muslims in Myanmar have been subject to ethnic cleansing, insisting that the tensions were due to a "climate of fear" caused by "a worldwide perception that global Muslim power is 'very great. She did condemn "hate of any kind" in the interview. According to Peter Popham, in the aftermath of the interview, she expressed anger at being interviewed by a Muslim. Husain had challenged Aung San Suu Kyi that almost all of the impact of violence was against the Rohingya, in response to Aung San Suu Kyi's claim that violence was happening on both sides, and Peter Popham described her position on the issue as one of purposeful ambiguity for political gain.
However, she said that she wanted to work towards reconciliation and she cannot take sides as violence has been committed by both sides. According to The Economist, her "halo has even slipped among foreign human-rights lobbyists, disappointed at her failure to make a clear stand on behalf of the Rohingya minority". However, she has spoken out "against a ban on Rohingya families near the Bangladeshi border having more than two children".
In a 2015 BBC News article, reporter Jonah Fisher suggested that Aung San Suu Kyi's silence over the Rohingya issue is due to a need to obtain support from the majority Bamar ethnicity as she is in "the middle of a general election campaign". In May 2015, the Dalai Lama publicly called upon her to do more to help the Rohingya in Myanmar, claiming that he had previously urged her to address the plight of the Rohingya in private during two separate meetings and that she had resisted his urging. In May 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi asked the newly appointed United States Ambassador to Myanmar, Scot Marciel, not to refer to the Rohingya by that name as they "are not recognized as among the 135 official ethnic groups" in Myanmar. This followed Bamar protests at Marciel's use of the word "Rohingya".
In 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi was accused of failing to protect Myanmar's Rohingya Muslims during the Rohingya genocide. State crime experts from Queen Mary University of London warned that Aung San Suu Kyi is "legitimising genocide" in Myanmar. Despite continued persecution of the Rohingya well into 2017, Aung San Suu Kyi was "not even admitting, let alone trying to stop, the army's well-documented campaign of rape, murder and destruction against Rohingya villages". On 4 September 2017, Yanghee Lee, the UN's special rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar, criticised Aung San Suu Kyi's response to the "really grave" situation in Rakhine, saying: "The de facto leader needs to step in—that is what we would expect from any government, to protect everybody within their own jurisdiction." The BBC reported that "Her comments came as the number of Rohingya fleeing to Bangladesh reached 87,000, according to UN estimates", adding that "her sentiments were echoed by Nobel Peace laureate Malala Yousafzai, who said she was waiting to hear from Ms Suu Kyi—who has not commented on the crisis since it erupted". The Nobel Foundation replied that there existed no provision for revoking a Nobel Prize. Archbishop Desmond Tutu, a fellow peace prize holder, also criticised Aung San Suu Kyi's silence: in an open letter published on social media, he said: "If the political price of your ascension to the highest office in Myanmar is your silence, the price is surely too steep ... It is incongruous for a symbol of righteousness to lead such a country." On 13 September it was revealed that Aung San Suu Kyi would not be attending a UN General Assembly debate being held the following week to discuss the humanitarian crisis, with a Myanmar's government spokesman stating "perhaps she has more pressing matters to deal with".
In October 2017, Oxford City Council announced that, following a unanimous cross-party vote, the honour of Freedom of the City, granted in 1997 in recognition of her "long struggle for democracy", was to be withdrawn following evidence emerging from the United Nations which meant that she was "no longer worthy of the honour". A few days later, Munsur Ali, a councillor for City of London Corporation, tabled a motion to rescind the Freedom of the City of London: the motion was supported by Catherine McGuinness, chair of the corporation's policy and resources committee, who expressed "distress ... at the situation in Burma and the atrocities committed by the Burmese military". Geldof added that he would take pride in his award being restored if it is first stripped from her. The Dublin City Council voted 59–2 (with one abstention) to revoke Aung San Suu Kyi's Freedom of the City award over Myanmar's treatment of the Rohingya people in December 2017, though Lord Mayor of Dublin Mícheál Mac Donncha denied the decision was influenced by protests by Geldof and members of U2. At the same meeting, the Councillors voted 37–7 (with 5 abstentions) to remove Geldof's name from the Roll of Honorary Freemen.
In March 2018, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum revoked Aung San Suu Kyi's Elie Wiesel Award, awarded in 2012, citing her failure "to condemn and stop the military's brutal campaign" against Rohingya Muslims.
In May 2018, Aung San Suu Kyi was considered complicit in the crimes against Rohingyas in a report by Britain's International Development Committee.
, 22 June 2019]]
In August 2018, it was revealed that Aung San Suu Kyi would be stripped of her Freedom of Edinburgh award over her refusal to speak out against the crimes committed against the Rohingya. She had received the award in 2005 for promoting peace and democracy in Burma. This will be only the second time that anyone has ever been stripped of the award, after Charles Stewart Parnell lost it in 1890 due to a salacious affair.
In early October 2018, both the Canadian Senate and its House of Commons voted unanimously to strip Aung San Suu Kyi of her honorary citizenship. This decision was caused by the Government of Canada's determination that the treatment of the Rohingya by Myanmar's government amounts to genocide.
On 11 November 2018, Amnesty International announced it was revoking her Ambassador of Conscience award.
In December 2019, Aung San Suu Kyi appeared in the International Court of Justice at The Hague where she defended the Burmese military against allegations of genocide against the Rohingya. In a speech of over 3,000 words, Aung San Suu Kyi did not use the term "Rohingya" in describing the ethnic group. She stated that the allegations of genocide were "incomplete and misleading", However, experts have largely criticised the Burmese investigations as insincere, with the military declaring itself innocent and the government preventing a visit from investigators from the United Nations.
On 14 February 2025, a court in Argentina, acting on a petition from the Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK and citing universal jurisdiction, issued arrest warrants against several officials in Myanmar, including Aung San Suu Kyi on charges of "genocide and crimes against humanity" against the Rohingyas.
Arrests and prosecution of journalists
In December 2017, two Reuters journalists, Wa Lone and Kyaw Soe Oo, were arrested while investigating the Inn Din massacre of Rohingyas. Suu Kyi publicly commented in June 2018 that the journalists "weren't arrested for covering the Rakhine issue", but because they had broken Myanmar's Official Secrets Act. As the journalists were then on trial for violating the Official Secrets Act, Aung San Suu Kyi's presumption of their guilt was criticised by rights groups for potentially influencing the verdict. American diplomat Bill Richardson said that he had privately discussed the arrest with Suu Kyi, and that Aung San Suu Kyi reacted angrily and labelled the journalists "traitors". A police officer testified that he was ordered by superiors to use entrapment to frame and arrest the journalists; he was later jailed and his family evicted from their home in the police camp. The judge found the journalists guilty in September 2018 and to be jailed for seven years.
In September 2018, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights issued a report that since Aung San Suu Kyi's party, the NLD, came to power, the arrests and criminal prosecutions of journalists in Myanmar by the government and military, under laws which are too vague and broad, have "made it impossible for journalists to do their job without fear or favour."
2021 arrest and trial
On 1 February 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested and deposed by the Myanmar's military, along with other leaders of her National League for Democracy (NLD) party, after Myanmar's military declared the November 2020 general election results fraudulent. A 1 February court order authorised her detainment for 15 days, stating that soldiers searching her Naypyidaw villa had uncovered imported communications equipment lacking proper paperwork. Aung San Suu Kyi was transferred to house arrest on the same evening, and on 3 February was formally charged with illegally importing ten or more walkie-talkies. She faces up to three years in prison for the charges. According to The New York Times, the charge "echoed previous accusations of esoteric legal crimes (and) arcane offenses" used by the military against critics and rivals. As of 9 February, Aung San Suu Kyi continues to be held incommunicado, without access to international observers or legal representation of her choice.
US President Joe Biden raised the threat of new sanctions as a result of the Myanmar's military coup. In a statement, the UN Secretary-General António Guterres believes "These developments represent a serious blow to democratic reforms in Myanmar." Volkan Bozkır, President of the UN General Assembly, also voiced his concerns, having tweeted "Attempts to undermine democracy and rule of law are unacceptable", and called for the "immediate release" of the detained NLD party leaders.
On 1 April 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was charged with the fifth offence in relation to violating the official secrets act. According to her lawyer, it is the most serious charge brought against her after the coup and could carry a sentence of up to 14 years in prison if convicted. On 12 April 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was hit with another charge, this time "under section 25 of the natural disaster management law". According to her lawyer, it is her sixth indictment. She appeared in court via video link and now faces five charges in the capital Naypyidaw and one in Yangon.
On 28 April 2021, the National Unity Government (NUG), in which Aung San Suu Kyi symbolically retained her position, anticipated that there would be no talks with the junta until all political prisoners, including her, are set free. This move by her supporters come after an ASEAN-supported consensus with the junta leadership in the past days. However, on 8 May 2021, the junta designated NUG as a terrorist organisation and warned citizens not to cooperate, nor to give aid to the parallel government, stripping Aung San Suu Kyi of her symbolic position. On 10 May 2021, her lawyer said she would appear in court in person for the first time since her arrest after the Supreme Court ruled that she could attend in person and meet her lawyers. She had been previously only allowed to do so remotely from her home. On 21 May 2021, a military junta commission was formed to dissolve Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) on grounds of election fraud in the November 2020 election. On 22 May 2021, during his first interview since the coup, junta leader Min Aung Hlaing reported that she was in good health at her home and that she would appear in court in a matter of days. On 23 May 2021, the European Union expressed support for Aung San Suu Kyi's party and condemned the commission aimed at dissolving the party, echoing the NLD's statement released earlier in the week.
On 24 May 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi appeared in person in court for the first time since the coup to face the "incitement to sedition" charge against her. During the 30-minute hearing, she said that she was not fully aware of what was going on outside as she had no access to full information from the outside and refused to respond on the matters. She was also quoted on the possibility of her party's forced dissolution as "Our party grew out of the people so it will exist as long as people support it." In her meeting with her lawyers, Aung San Suu Kyi also wished people "good health".
On 10 June 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was charged with corruption, the most serious charge brought against her, which carries a maximum penalty of 15 years' imprisonment. Aung San Suu Kyi's lawyers say the charges are made to keep her out of the public eye.
On 14 June 2021, the trial against Aung San Suu Kyi began. Any conviction would prevent her from running for office again. Aung San Suu Kyi's lawyers attempted to have prosecution testimony against her on the sedition charge disqualified but the motion was denied by the judge.
On 13 September 2021, court proceedings were to resume against her, but it was postponed due to Aung San Suu Kyi presenting "minor health issues" that impeded her from attending the court in person.
On 4 October 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi asked the judge to reduce her times of court appearances because of her fragile health. Aung San Suu Kyi described her health as "strained".
In November, the Myanmar courts deferred the first verdicts in the trial without further explanation or giving dates. In the same month, she was again charged with corruption, related to the purchase and rental of a helicopter, bringing the total of charges to nearly a dozen.
On 6 December 2021, Suu Kyi was sentenced to 4 years in jail. Suu Kyi, who is still facing multiple charges and further sentences, was sentenced on the charge of inciting dissent and violating COVID-19 protocols. Following a partial pardon by the chief of the military government, Aung San Suu Kyi's four-year sentence was reduced to two years' imprisonment.
On 10 January 2022, the military court in Myanmar sentenced Suu Kyi to an additional four years in prison on a number of charges including "importing and owning walkie-talkies" and "breaking coronavirus rules". The trials, which are closed to the public, the media, and any observers, were described as a "courtroom circus of secret proceedings on bogus charges" by the deputy director for Asia of Human Rights Watch.
On 22 June 2022, junta authorities ordered that all further legal proceedings against Suu Kyi will take place in prison venues, instead of a courtroom. No explanation of the decision was given. Citing unidentified sources, the BBC reported that Suu Kyi was also moved on 22 June from house arrest, where she had had close companions, to solitary confinement in a specially-built area inside a prison in Naypyidaw. This is the same prison in which Win Myint had similarly been placed in solitary confinement. The military confirmed that Suu Kyi had been moved to prison.
On 15 August 2022, sources following Aung San Suu Kyi's court proceedings said that she was sentenced to an additional six years' imprisonment after being found guilty on four corruption charges, bringing her overall sentences to 17 years in prison. In September 2022, she was convicted of election fraud and breaching the state's secrets act and sentenced to a total of six years in prison for both convictions, increasing her overall sentence to 23 years in prison. By 12 October 2022, she had been sentenced to 26 years imprisonment on ten charges in total, including five corruption charges. On 30 December 2022, her trials ended with another conviction and an additional sentence of seven years' imprisonment for corruption. Aung San Suu Kyi's final sentence is of 33 years in prison. On 1 August 2023, the military junta granted Suu Kyi a partial pardon, reducing her sentence to a total of 27 years in prison. Prior to the pardon, she was moved from prison to a VIP government residence, according to an official from NLD party.
However, it was reported that since the beginning of September 2023, she is back in prison. The exact time when she was sent back to prison is unknown. Since January, Aung San Suu Kyi and her lawyers are trying to get six corruption charges overturned. To this date, the requests are repeatedly denied.
On 16 April 2024, the military announced that Aung San Suu Kyi had been transferred to house arrest due to a heat wave. However, pro-democracy publications such as The Irrawaddy claimed that she remains in prison, with air conditioners being added to her cell.
Political beliefs
Asked what democratic models Myanmar could look to, she said: "We have many, many lessons to learn from various places, not just the Asian countries like South Korea, Taiwan, Mongolia, and Indonesia." She also cited "Eastern Europe and countries, which made the transition from communist autocracy to democracy in the 1980s and 1990s, and the Latin American countries, which made the transition from military governments. And we cannot of course forget South Africa, because although it wasn't a military regime, it was certainly an authoritarian regime." She added: "We wish to learn from everybody who has achieved a transition to democracy, and also ... our great strong point is that, because we are so far behind everybody else, we can also learn which mistakes we should avoid."
In a nod to the deep US political divide between Republicans led by Mitt Romney and the Democrats by Barack Obama—then battling to win the 2012 presidential election—she stressed, "Those of you who are familiar with American politics I'm sure understand the need for negotiated compromise."
* Aung San Suu Kyi has been an honorary board member of International IDEA and ARTICLE 19 since her detention, and has received support from these organisations.
* The Vrije Universiteit Brussel and the University of Louvain (UCLouvain), both located in Belgium, granted her the title of Doctor Honoris Causa.
* In 2003, the Freedom Forum recognised Aung San Suu Kyi's efforts to promote democracy peacefully with the Al Neuharth Free Spirit of the Year Award, in which she was presented over satellite because she was under house arrest. She was awarded one million dollars.
* In June of each year, the U.S. Campaign for Burma organises hundreds of "Arrest Yourself" house parties around the world in support of Aung San Suu Kyi. At these parties, the organisers keep themselves under house arrest for 24 hours, invite their friends, and learn more about Burma and Aung San Suu Kyi.
* The Freedom Campaign, a joint effort between the Human Rights Action Center and US Campaign for Burma, looks to raise worldwide attention to the struggles of Aung San Suu Kyi and the people of Burma.
* The Burma Campaign UK is a UK-based NGO (Non-Governmental Organisation) that aims to raise awareness of Burma's struggles and follow the guidelines established by the NLD and Aung San Suu Kyi.
* St Hugh's College, Oxford, where she studied, had a Burmese theme for their annual ball in support of her in 2006. The university later awarded her an honorary doctorate in civil law on 20 June 2012 during her visit to her alma mater.
* Aung San Suu Kyi is the official patron of The Rafto Human Rights House in Bergen, Norway. She received the Thorolf Rafto Memorial Prize in 1990.
* She was made an honorary free person of the City of Dublin, Ireland in November 1999, although a space had been left on the roll of signatures to symbolize her continued detention. This was subsequently revoked on 13 December 2017.
* In November 2005 the human rights group Equality Now proposed Aung Sun Suu Kyi as a potential candidate, among other qualifying women, for the position of U.N. Secretary General.
* Aung San Suu Kyi was an honorary member of The Elders, a group of eminent global leaders brought together by Nelson Mandela. Her ongoing detention meant that she was unable to take an active role in the group, so The Elders placed an empty chair for her at their meetings. The Elders have consistently called for the release of all political prisoners in Burma. Upon her election to parliament, she stepped down from her post.
* In 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was given an honorary doctorate from the University of Johannesburg.
* In 2011, Aung San Suu Kyi was named the Guest Director of the 45th Brighton Festival.
* She was part of the international jury of Human Rights Defenders and Personalities who helped to choose a universal Logo for Human Rights in 2011.
* In June 2011, the BBC announced that Aung San Suu Kyi was to deliver the 2011 Reith Lectures. The BBC covertly recorded two lectures with Aung San Suu Kyi in Burma, which were then smuggled out of the country and brought back to London. The lectures were broadcast on BBC Radio 4 and the BBC World Service on 28 June 2011 and 5 July 2011.
* 8 March 2012, Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird presented Aung San Suu Kyi a certificate of honorary Canadian citizenship and an informal invitation to visit Canada. The honorary citizenship was revoked in September 2018 due to the Rohingya conflict.
* In April 2012, British Prime Minister David Cameron became the first leader of a major world power to visit Aung San Suu Kyi and the first British prime minister to visit Burma since the 1950s. In his visit, Cameron invited Aung San Suu Kyi to Britain where she would be able to visit her 'beloved' Oxford, an invitation which she later accepted. She visited Britain on 19 June 2012.
* In May 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi received the inaugural Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent of the Human Rights Foundation.
* 29 May 2012 PM Manmohan Singh of India visited Aung San Suu Kyi. In his visit, PM invited Aung San Suu Kyi to India as well. She started her six-day visit to India on 16 November 2012, where among the places she visited was her alma mater Lady Shri Ram College in New Delhi.
*In 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi set up the charity Daw Khin Kyi Foundation to improve health, education and living standards in underdeveloped parts of Myanmar. The charity was named after Aung San Suu Kyi's mother. Htin Kyaw played a leadership role in the charity before his election as President of Myanmar. The charity runs a Hospitality and Catering Training Academy in Kawhmu Township, in Yangon Region, and runs a mobile library service which in 2014 had 8000 members.
* Seoul National University in South Korea conferred an honorary doctorate degree to Aung San Suu Kyi in February 2013.
* University of Bologna, Italy conferred an honorary doctorate degree in philosophy to Aung San Suu Kyi in October 2013.
* Monash University, The Australian National University, University of Sydney and University of Technology, Sydney conferred an honorary degree to Aung San Suu Kyi in November 2013.
In popular culture
'' in 2012]]
The life of Aung San Suu Kyi and her husband Michael Aris is portrayed in Luc Besson's 2011 film The Lady, in which they are played by Michelle Yeoh and David Thewlis. Yeoh visited Aung San Suu Kyi in 2011 before the film's release in November. In the John Boorman's 1995 film Beyond Rangoon, Aung San Suu Kyi was played by Adelle Lutz.
Irish songwriters Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan released in 2005 the single "Unplayed Piano", in support of the Free Aung San Suu Kyi 60th Birthday Campaign that was happening at the time.
Irish rock band U2 wrote the song "Walk On" in tribute to Aung San Suu Kyi. It is the fourth track on their tenth studio album, ''All That You Can't Leave Behind (2000), and would later be issued as a single. Lead singer Bono is wearing a t-shirt with her image and name on the front in their official video of the song. "Walk On" won Record of the Year at the 2002 Grammy Awards, that also featured U2 performing the song. Bono publicised her plight during the U2 360° Tour, 2009–2011.
Saxophonist Wayne Shorter composed a song titled "Aung San Suu Kyi". It appears on his albums 1+1 (with pianist Herbie Hancock) and Footprints Live!''.
Health problems
Aung San Suu Kyi underwent surgery for a gynecological condition in September 2003 at Asia Royal Hospital during her house arrest. She also underwent minor foot surgery in December 2013 and eye surgery in April 2016. In June 2012, her doctor Tin Myo Win said that she had no serious health problems, but weighed only , had low blood pressure, and could become weak easily.
After being arrested and detained on 1 February 2021, there were concerns that Aung San Suu Kyi's health was deteriorating. However, according to military's spokesperson Zaw Min Tun, special attention is given to her health and living condition. Don Pramudwinai also said that "she was in good health, both physically and mentally".
Although a junta spokesperson claimed that she is in good health, since being sent back to prison in September 2023, it is reported that her health condition is worsening and she is "suffering of toothache and unable to eat". Her request to see a dentist had been denied. Her son is urging the junta to allow Aung San Suu Kyi to receive medical assistance.
Books
* Freedom from Fear (1991) ()
* Letters from Burma (1991) ()
* ''Let's Visit Nepal (1985) ()
Honours
* List of awards and honours received by Aung San Suu Kyi
See also
* List of civil rights leaders
* List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Kyoto University
* State Counsellor of Myanmar
* List of foreign ministers in 2017
* List of current foreign ministers
Notes
References
Bibliography
* Miller, J. E. (2001). Who's Who in Contemporary Women's Writing. Routledge.
* Reid, R., Grosberg, M. (2005). Myanmar (Burma). Lonely Planet. .
* Stewart, Whitney (1997). Aung San Suu Kyi: Fearless Voice of Burma. Twenty-First Century Books. .
Further reading
* Combs, Daniel. Until the World Shatters: Truth, Lies, and the Looting of Myanmar (2021).
*
* Aung San Suu Kyi (Modern Peacemakers) (2007) by Judy L. Hasday,
* The Lady: Aung San Suu Kyi: Nobel Laureate and Burma's Prisoner (2002) by Barbara Victor, , or 1998 hardcover:
* The Lady and the Peacock: The Life of Aung San Suu Kyi (2012) by Peter Popham,
* Perfect Hostage: A Life of Aung San Suu Kyi (2007) by Justin Wintle,
* Tyrants: The World's 20 Worst Living Dictators (2006) by David Wallechinsky,
* Aung San Suu Kyi (Trailblazers of the Modern World) (2004) by William Thomas,
* No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs (2002) by Naomi Klein
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=bV3shLzx0B4C Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy] (ILCAA Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series) (1999) by Gustaaf Houtman,
* Aung San Suu Kyi: Standing Up for Democracy in Burma (Women Changing the World) (1998) by Bettina Ling
* Prisoner for Peace: Aung San Suu Kyi and Burma's Struggle for Democracy (Champions of Freedom Series) (1994) by John Parenteau,
* Des femmes prix Nobel de Marie Curie à Aung San Suu Kyi, 1903–1991 (1992) by Charlotte Kerner, Nicole Casanova, Gidske Anderson,
* Aung San Suu Kyi, towards a new freedom (1998) by Chin Geok Ang
* Aung San Suu Kyi's struggle: Its principles and strategy (1997) by Mikio Oishi
* Finding George Orwell in Burma (2004) by Emma Larkin
* Character Is Destiny: Inspiring Stories Every Young Person Should Know and Every Adult Should Remember (2005) by John McCain, Mark Salter. Random House
*
* Under the Dragon: A Journey Through Burma'' (1998/2010) by Rory MacLean
* External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110125034340/http://www.dassk.org/ Aung San Suu Kyi's website] (Site appears to be inactive. Last posting was in July 2014)
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Category:The Elders (organization) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.578119 |
2851 | Abraham Joshua Heschel | |birth_place = Warsaw, Congress Poland
|death_date =
|death_place = New York, New York, U.S.
|spouse =
|children = Susannah
|profession = Theologian, philosopher
|alma_mater =
}}
Abraham Joshua Heschel (January 11, 1907 – December 23, 1972) was a Polish-American rabbi and one of the leading Jewish theologians and Jewish philosophers of the 20th century. Heschel, a professor of Jewish mysticism at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, authored a number of widely read books on Jewish philosophy and was a leader in the U.S. civil rights movement.
Biography
Abraham Joshua Heschel was born in Warsaw in 1907, the youngest of six children of Moshe Mordechai Heschel and Reizel Perlow Heschel. He was descended from preeminent European rabbis on both sides of his family.
After a traditional yeshiva education and studying for Orthodox rabbinical ordination (semicha), Heschel pursued his doctorate at the University of Berlin and rabbinic ordination at the non-denominational Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums. There he studied under notable scholars including Hanoch Albeck, Ismar Elbogen, Julius Guttmann, Alexander Guttmann, and Leo Baeck. His mentor in Berlin was David Koigen. Heschel later taught Talmud at the Hochschule. He joined a Yiddish poetry group, Jung Vilna, and in 1933, published a volume of Yiddish poems, Der Shem Hamefoyrosh: Mentsch, dedicated to his father.
In late October 1938, while living in a rented room in the home of a Jewish family in Frankfurt, Heschel was arrested by the Gestapo and deported to Poland in the Polenaktion. He spent ten months lecturing on Jewish philosophy and Torah at Warsaw's Institute for Jewish Studies.
Heschel married Sylvia Straus, a concert pianist, on December 10, 1946, in Los Angeles. Their daughter, Susannah Heschel, became a Jewish scholar in her own right.Ideology
with Martin Luther King Jr. (4th from right). Heschel later wrote, "When I marched in Selma, my feet were praying."]]
Heschel explicated many facets of Jewish thought, including studies on medieval Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah, and Hasidic philosophy. According to some scholars, he was more interested in spirituality than in critical text study; the latter was a specialty of many scholars at JTS. He was not given a graduate assistant for many years and he was mainly relegated to teach in the education school or the Rabbinical school, not in the academic graduate program. Heschel became friendly with his colleague Mordecai Kaplan. Though they differed in their approaches to Judaism, they had a very cordial relationship and visited each other's homes from time to time.
Heschel believed that the teachings of the Hebrew prophets were a clarion call for social action in the United States and, inspired by this belief, he worked for African Americans' civil rights and spoke out against the Vietnam War.
He also criticized what he specifically called "pan-halakhism," or an exclusive focus upon religiously compatible behavior to the neglect of the non-legalistic dimension of rabbinic tradition.
Heschel is notable as a recent proponent of what one scholar calls the "Nachmanidean" school of Jewish thought - emphasizing the mutually dependent relationship between God and man - as opposed to the "Maimonidean" school in which God is independent and unchangeable. In Heschel's language, the "Maimonidean" perspective is associated with Rabbi Yishmael and the "Nachmanidean" perspective with Rabbi Akiva; according to Heschel neither perspective should be adopted in isolation, but rather both are interwoven with the other.
Heschel described kabbalah as an outgrowth of classical rabbinic sources that describe God's dependence on man to implement the divine plan for the world. This contrasts with scholars like Gershon Scholem who saw kabbalah as reflecting the influence of non-Jewish thought. In recent years, a growing body of kabbalah scholarship has followed Heschel's emphasis on the mystical experience of kabbalah and on its continuity with earlier Jewish sources. For these and other reasons, Martin Luther King Jr. called Heschel "a truly great prophet." Heschel actively participated in the Civil Rights movement, and was a participant in the third Selma to Montgomery march, accompanying Dr. King and John Lewis.
Published works
* ''The Earth Is the Lord's: The Inner World of the Jew in Eastern Europe. 1949.
* Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion. 1951.
* The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man. 1951.
* Man's Quest for God: Studies in Prayer and Symbolism. 1954.
* God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism. 1955.
* The Prophets. 1962.
* Who Is Man? 1965.
* Israel: An Echo of Eternity. 1969.
* A Passion for Truth. 1973.
* I asked for Wonder: A spiritual anthology. 1983.
* Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. 2005.
* ; Theology of Ancient Judaism. [Hebrew]. 2 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Third volume, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1995.
* The Ineffable Name of God: Man: Poems. 2004.
* . [Yiddish]. 2 v. (694 p.) Tel-Aviv: ha-Menorah, 1973. Added t.p.: Kotzk: the struggle for integrity (A Hebrew translation of vol. 1, Jerusalem: Magid, 2015).
* (). 45 p. Originally published: New York: Shoken, 1946.
Man Is Not Alone (1951)
Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion'' offers Heschel's views on how people can comprehend God. Judaism views God as being radically different from humans, so Heschel explores the ways that Judaism teaches that a person may have an encounter with the ineffable. A recurring theme in this work is the radical amazement people feel when experiencing the presence of the Divine. Heschel then explores the problems of doubts and faith, what Judaism means by teaching that God is one, the essence of humanity and the problem of human needs, the definition of religion in general and Judaism in particular, and human yearning for spirituality. He offers his views as to Judaism being a pattern for life.
The Sabbath (1951)
The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man is a work on the nature and celebration of Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath. It is rooted in the thesis that Judaism is a religion of time, not space, and that the Sabbath symbolizes the sanctification of time. For Heschel, "Technical civilization is man's conquest of space. It is a triumph frequently achieved by sacrificing an essential ingredient of existence, namely, time.” While he wrote that “to enhance our power in the world of space is our main objective,” he also warned that while “we have often suffered from degradation by poverty, now we are threatened with degradation through power."
God in Search of Man (1955)
God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism is a companion volume to Man Is Not Alone in which Heschel discusses the nature of religious thought, how thought becomes faith, and how faith creates responses in the believer. He discusses ways people can seek God's presence and the radical amazement we receive in return. He offers a criticism of nature worship, a study of humanity's metaphysical loneliness, and his view that we can consider God in search of humanity. The first section concludes with a study of Jews as a chosen people. Section two deals with the idea of revelation and what it means for one to be a prophet. This section gives us his idea of revelation as an event instead of a process. This relates to Israel's commitment to God. Section three discusses his views on how a Jew should understand the nature of Judaism as a religion. He discusses and rejects the idea that mere faith (without law) alone is enough but then cautions rabbis against adding too many restrictions to Jewish law. He discusses the need to correlate ritual observance with spirituality and love and the importance of Kavanah (intention) when performing mitzvot. He discusses religious behaviorism—when people strive for external compliance with the law, yet disregard the importance of inner devotion.
The Prophets (1962)
This work started as Heschel's PhD thesis in German, which he later expanded and translated into English. Originally published in a two-volume edition, The Prophets studies the books of the Hebrew prophets. It covers their lives and the historical context of their missions, summarizes their work, and discusses their psychological state. Heschel puts forward a central idea in his theology: that the prophetic (and, ultimately, Jewish) view of God is best understood not as anthropomorphic (that God takes human form) but as anthropopathic—that God has human feelings.
In The Prophets, Heschel describes the Jewish prophets' unique aspect compared to similar figures. Whereas other nations have soothsayers and diviners who attempt to discover the will of their gods, Heschel asserts, the Hebrew prophets are characterized by their experience of what he calls theotropism—God turning towards humanity. Heschel argues for the view of Hebrew prophets as receivers of the "Divine Pathos," of the wrath and sorrow of God over his nation that has forsaken him. In this view, prophets do not speak for God so much as they remind their audience of God's voice for the voiceless, the poor, and the oppressed.
He writes:
Torah min HaShamayim (1962)
Many consider Heschel's Torah min HaShamayim BeAspaklariya shel HaDorot, (Torah from Heaven in the mirror of the generations) to be his masterwork. The three volumes of this work are a study of classical rabbinic theology and aggadah, as opposed to halakha (Jewish law). It explores the views of the rabbis in the Mishnah, Talmud, and Midrash about the nature of Torah, the revelation of God to humankind, prophecy, and the ways that Jews have used scriptural exegesis to expand and understand these core Jewish texts. In this work, Heschel views the 2nd-century sages Rabbi Akiva and Ishmael ben Elisha as paradigms for the two dominant world-views in Jewish theology
Two Hebrew volumes were published during his lifetime by Soncino Press, and the third was published posthumously by JTS Press in the 1990s. A new edition, including an expanded third volume, due to manuscripts that were found and edited by Dr. Dror Bondi, was published by Magid Press in 2021. An English translation of all three volumes, with notes, essays, and appendices, was translated and edited by Rabbi Gordon Tucker, entitled Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. It can be the subject of intense study and analysis, providing insight into the relationship between God and humans beyond the world of Judaism and all monotheisms.
Who is Man? (1965)
<!--One of the world's most illustrious and influential theologians here confronts one of the crucial philosophical and religious questions of our time:-->Here, Heschel discusses the nature and role of man. In these three lectures, originally delivered in somewhat different form as The Raymond Fred West Memorial Lectures at Stanford University in May 1963, Dr. Heschel inquires into the logic of being human: What is meant by being human? What are the grounds on which to justify a human being's claim to being human? The author says, “We have never been as openmouthed and inquisitive, never as astonished and embarrassed at our ignorance about man. We know what he makes, but we do not know what he is or what to expect of him. Is it not conceivable that our entire civilization is built upon a misinterpretation of man? Or that the tragedy of man is due to the fact that he is a being who has forgotten the question: Who is Man? The failure to identify himself, to know what is authentic human existence, leads him to assume a false identity, to pretend to be what he is unable to be or to not accepting what is at the very root of his being. Ignorance about man is not lack of knowledge, but false knowledge.”
Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets (1966)
Heschel wrote a series of articles, originally in Hebrew, on the existence of prophecy in Judaism after the destruction of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. These essays were translated into English and published as Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets: Maimonides and Others by the American Judaica publisher Ktav.
The publisher of this book states, "The standard Jewish view is that prophecy ended with the ancient prophets, somewhere early in the Second Temple era. Heschel demonstrated that this view is not altogether accurate. Belief in the possibility of continued prophetic inspiration, and belief in its actual occurrence existed throughout much of the medieval period, and it even exists in modern times. Heschel's work on prophetic inspiration in the Middle Ages originally appeared in two long Hebrew articles. In them, he concentrated on the idea that prophetic inspiration was even possible in post-Talmudic times, and, indeed, it had taken place at various schools in various times, from the Geonim to Maimonides and beyond."
Awards and commemoration
1970: National Jewish Book Award in the Jewish Thought category for Israel: An Echo of Eternity, 30 West End Ave; it's adjoining building at 20 West End is partly visible at right]]
Five schools have been named for Heschel: in Buenos Aires, Argentina the rabbinical school of the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano; on the Upper West Side of New York City, the A J Heschel School; in California the Abraham Joshua Heschel Day School is located in Northridge, while the Heschel West Day School is located in Agoura Hills; and The Toronto Heschel School in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Heschel's papers are held in the Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Duke University.
On 17 October 2022, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin inaugurated the Abraham J. Heschel Center for Catholic-Jewish Relations, attended by Catholic and Jewish figures, including Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Susannah Heschel, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Archbishop Pierbattista Pizzaballa, and Archbishop Stanisław Budzik of Lublin. Pope Francis has welcomed the establishment of the Heschel Center.See also
* List of peace activists
References
Further reading
*Abraham Joshua Heschel: Prophetic Witness & Spiritual Radical: Abraham Joshua Heschel in America, 1940–1972, biography by Edward K. Kaplan
* "The Encyclopedia of Hasidism" edited by Rabinowicz, Tzvi M.: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1996.
*
*
External links
* [http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/heschelabraham/ Guide to the Abraham Joshua Heschel Papers], David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Duke University.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081025051538/http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42d75369-d582-4380-8395-d25925b85eaf%7D/WIDE%20HORIZONS.PDF Heschel's role in Vatican II and his advocacy of interreligious respect]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130612133525/http://www.yctorah.org/component/option%2Ccom_docman/task%2Cdoc_view/gid%2C312 Alan Brill Review of Heavenly Torah]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504233701/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_3-4_53/ai_n14735950/ Arnold Jacob Wolf Review of Heavenly Torah]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210141155/http://www.js.emory.edu/BLUMENTHAL/HeschelHTreview.htm David Blumenthal review of Heavenly Torah]
* [http://www.heschel.org.il/heschelen-media-story-124325 About Rabbi A. J. Heschel] The Heschel Center for Environmental Learning and Leadership
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Category:Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.602411 |
2853 | Aberdeen Bestiary | The Aberdeen Bestiary (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the "sister" manuscript of the Ashmole Bestiary. Information about the manuscript's origins and patrons are circumstantial, although the manuscript most likely originated from the 13th century and was owned by a wealthy ecclesiastical patron from northern or southern England.
History
The Aberdeen Bestiary and the Ashmole Bestiary are considered by Xenia Muratova, a professor of Art History, to be "the work of different artists belonging to the same artistic milieu." Due to their "striking similarities" they are often compared and described by scholars as being "sister manuscripts." The medievalist scholar M. R. James considered the Aberdeen Bestiary a replica of Ashmole 1511" a view echoed by many other art historians.
Provenance
The original patron of both the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiary was considered to be a high-ranking member of society such as a prince, king or another high ranking church official or monastery. How King Henry acquired the manuscript remains unknown although it was probably taken from a monastery.
Illuminations
Folio page 1 to 3 recto depicts the Genesis 1:1-25 which is represented with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of 'Adam naming the animals' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrupeds, livestock, wild beasts, and the concept of the herd. Folio 7 to 18 recto depicts large cats and other beasts such as wolves, foxes and dogs. Many pages from the start of the manuscript's bestiary section such as 11 verso featuring a hyena shows small pin holes which were likely used to map out and copy artwork to a new manuscript. Folio 20 verso to 28 recto depicts livestock such as sheep, horses, and goats. Small animals like cats and mice are depicted on folio 24 to 25. Pages 25 recto to 63 recto feature depictions of birds and folio 64 recto to 80 recto depicts reptiles, worms and fish. 77 recto to 91 verso depicts trees and plants and other elements of nature such as the nature of man. The end folios of the manuscript from 93 recto to 100 recto depicts the nature of stones and rocks.
alt=Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix detail|thumb|Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail)
Seventeen of the Aberdeen manuscript pages are pricked for transfer in a process called pouncing such as clearly seen in the hyena folio as well as folio 3 recto and 3 verso depicting Genesis 1:26-1:28, 31, 1:1-2. The pricking must have been done shortly after the creation of the Adam and Eve folio pages since there is not damage done to nearby pages. Other pages used for pouncing include folio 7 recto to 18 verso which is the beginning of the beasts portion of the manuscript and likely depicted a lions as well as other big cats such as leopards, panthers and their characteristic as well as other large wild and domesticated beasts.
Missing Folios
On folio 6 recto there was likely intended to be a depiction of a lion as in the Ashmole bestiary, but in this instance the pages were left blank although there are markings of margin lines. In comparison to the Ashmole bestiary, on 9 verso some leaves are missing which should have likely contained imagery of the antelope (Antalops), unicorn (Unicornis), lynx (Lynx), griffin (Gryps), part of elephant (Elephans). Near folio 21 verso two illuminations of the ox (Bos), camel (Camelus), dromedary (Dromedarius), ass (Asinus), onager (Onager) and part of horse (Equus) are also assumed to be missing. Also missing from folio 15 recto on are some leaves which should have contained crocodile (Crocodilus), manticore (Mantichora) and part of parandrus (Parandrus). These missing folios are assumed from comparisons between the Ashmole and other related bestiaries.
Contents
Folio 1 recto : Genesis creation narrative of heaven and earth (Genesis, 1: 1–5). (Full page)
Folio 1 verso: Creation of the waters and the firmament (Genesis, 1: 6–8)
Folio 2 recto : Creation of the birds and fish (Genesis, 1: 20–23)
Folio 2 verso : Creation of the animals (Genesis, 1: 24–25)
Folio 3 recto : Creation of man (Genesis, 1: 26–28, 31; 2: 1–2)
Folio 5 recto : Adam names the animals (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 1–2)
Folio 5 verso : Animal (Animal) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 3)
Folio 5 verso : Quadruped (Quadrupes) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 4)
Folio 5 verso : Livestock (Pecus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 5–6)
Folio 5 verso : Beast of burden (Iumentum) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 7)
Folio 5 verso : Herd (Armentum) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 8)
Beasts (Bestiae)
Folio 7 recto : Lion (Leo) (Physiologus, Chapter 1; Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 3–6)
Folio 8 recto : Tiger (Tigris) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 7)
Folio 8 verso : Pard (Pard) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 10–11)
Folio 9 recto : Panther (Panther) (Physiologus, Chapter 16; Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 8–9)
Folio 10 recto : Elephant (Elephans) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 14; Physiologus, Chapter 43; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 35; Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxv, 1–7)
Folio 11 recto : Beaver (Castor)
Folio 11 recto : Ibex (Ibex) (Hugh of Fouilloy, II, 15)
Folio 11 verso : Hyena (Yena) (Physiologus, Chapter 24; Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxvii, 23–24)
Folio 12 recto : Crocotta (Crocotta) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxvii, 26)
Folio 12 recto : Bonnacon (Bonnacon) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xl, 10–11)
Folio 12 verso : Ape (Simia)
Folio 13 recto : Satyr (Satyrs)
Folio 13 recto : Deer (Cervus)
Folio 14 recto : Goat (Caper)
Folio 14 verso : Wild goat (Caprea)
Folio 15 recto : Monoceros (Monoceros) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 39–40)
Folio 15 recto : Bear (Ursus)
Folio 15 verso : Leucrota (Leucrota) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 34)
Folio 16 recto : Parandrus (Parandrus) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxx, 25)
Folio 16 recto : Fox (Vulpes)
Folio 16 verso : Yale (Eale) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 35)
Folio 16 verso : Wolf (Lupus)
Folio 18 recto : Dog (Canis)
alt=Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (detail)|thumb|Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (detail)
Livestock (Pecora)
Folio 20 verso : Sheep (Ovis) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 9; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 20)
Folio 21 recto : Wether (Vervex) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 10)
Folio 21 recto : Ram (Aries) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 11)
Folio 21 recto : Lamb (Agnus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 28)
Folio 21 recto : He-goat (Hircus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 14)
Folio 21 verso : Kid (Hedus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 13)
Folio 21 verso : Boar (Aper) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 27)
Folio 21 verso : Bullock (Iuvencus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 28)
Folio 21 verso : Bull (Taurus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 29)
Folio 22 recto : Horse (Equus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 41–56; Hugh of Fouilloy, III, xxiii)
Folio 23 recto : Mule (Mulus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 57–60)
Small animals (Minuta animala)
Folio 23 verso : Cat (Musio) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 38)
Folio 23 verso : Mouse (Mus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 1)
Folio 23 verso : Weasel (Mustela) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 2; Physiologus, Chapter 21)
Folio 24 recto : Mole (Talpa) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 5)
Folio 24 recto : Hedgehog (Ericius) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 7; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, VI, 20)
Folio 24 verso : Ant (Formica) (Physiologus, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 16, 20)
Birds (Aves)
Folio 25 recto : Bird (Avis)
Folio 25 verso : Dove (Columba)
Folio 26 recto : Dove and hawk (Columba et Accipiter)
Folio 26 verso : Dove (Columba)
Folio 29 verso : North wind and South wind (Aquilo et Auster ventus)
Folio 30 recto : Hawk (Accipiter)
Folio 31 recto : Turtle dove (Turtur)
Folio 32 verso : Palm tree (Palma)
Folio 33 verso : Cedar (Cedrus)
Folio 34 verso : Pelican (Pellicanus) - Orange and blue
Folio 35 verso : Night heron (Nicticorax)
Folio 36 recto : Hoopoe (Epops)
Folio 36 verso : Magpie (Pica)
Folio 37 recto : Raven (Corvus)
Folio 38 verso : Cock (Gallus)
Folio 41 recto : Ostrich (Strutio)
Folio 44 recto : Vulture (Vultur)
Folio 45 verso : Crane (Grus)
Folio 46 verso : Kite (Milvus)
Folio 46 verso : Parrot (Psitacus)
Folio 47 recto : Ibis (Ibis)
Folio 47 verso : Swallow (Yrundo)
Folio 48 verso : Stork (Ciconia)
Folio 49 verso : Blackbird (Merula)
Folio 50 recto : Eagle-owl (Bubo)
Folio 50 verso : Hoopoe (Hupupa)
Folio 51 recto : Little owl (Noctua)
Folio 51 recto : Bat (Vespertilio)
Folio 51 verso : Jay (Gragulus)
Folio 52 verso : Nightingale (Lucinia)
Folio 53 recto : Goose (Anser)
Folio 53 verso : Heron (Ardea)
Folio 54 recto : Partridge (Perdix)
Folio 54 verso : Halcyon (Alcyon)
Folio 55 recto : Coot (Fulica)
Folio 55 recto : Phoenix (Fenix)
Folio 56 verso : Caladrius (Caladrius)
Folio 57 verso : Quail (Coturnix)
Folio 58 recto : Crow (Cornix)
Folio 58 verso : Swan (Cignus)
Folio 59 recto : Duck (Anas)
Folio 59 verso : Peacock (Pavo)
Folio 61 recto : Eagle (Aquila)
Folio 63 recto : Bee (Apis)
alt=Folio 9 Recto - Panther (detail)|thumb|Folio 9 Recto - Panther (detail)
Snakes and Reptiles (Serpentes)
Folio 64 verso : Peridexion tree (Perindens)
Folio 65 verso : Snake (Serpens)
Folio 65 verso : Dragon (Draco)
Folio 66 recto : Basilisk (Basiliscus)
Folio 66 verso : Regulus (Regulus)
Folio 66 verso : Viper (Vipera)
Folio 67 verso : Asp (Aspis)
Folio 68 verso : Scitalis (Scitalis)
Folio 68 verso : Amphisbaena (Anphivena)
Folio 68 verso : Hydrus (Ydrus)
Folio 69 recto : Boa (Boa)
Folio 69 recto : Iaculus (Iaculus)
Folio 69 verso : Siren (Siren)
Folio 69 verso : Seps (Seps)
Folio 69 verso : Dipsa (Dipsa)
Folio 69 verso : Lizard (Lacertus)
Folio 69 verso : Salamander (Salamandra)
Folio 70 recto : Saura (Saura)
Folio 70 verso : Newt (Stellio)
Folio 71 recto : Of the nature of Snakes (De natura serpentium)
Worms (Vermes)
Folio 72 recto : Worms (Vermis)
Fish (Pisces)
Folio 72 verso : Fish (Piscis)
Folio 73 recto : Whale (Balena)
Folio 73 recto : Serra (Serra)
Folio 73 recto : Dolphin (Delphinus)
Folio 73 verso : Sea-pig (Porcus marinus)
Folio 73 verso : Crocodile (Crocodrillus)
Folio 73 verso : Mullet (Mullus)
Folio 74 recto : Fish (Piscis)
Trees and Plants (Arbories)
Folio 77 verso : Tree (Arbor)
Folio 78 verso : Fig (Ficus)
Folio 79 recto : Again of trees (Item de arboribus)
Folio 79 recto : Mulberry
Folio 79 recto : Sycamore
Folio 79 recto : Hazel
Folio 79 recto : Nuts
Folio 79 recto : Almond
Folio 79 recto : Chestnut
Folio 79 recto : Oak
Folio 79 verso : Beech
Folio 79 verso : Carob
Folio 79 verso : Pistachio
Folio 79 verso : Pitch pine
Folio 79 verso : Pine
Folio 79 verso : Fir
Folio 79 verso : Cedar
Folio 80 recto : Cypress
Folio 80 recto : Juniper
Folio 80 recto : Plane
Folio 80 recto : Oak
Folio 80 recto : Ash
Folio 80 recto : Alder
Folio 80 verso : Elm
Folio 80 verso : Poplar
Folio 80 verso : Willow
Folio 80 verso : Osier
Folio 80 verso : Box
Nature of Man (Natura hominis)
Folio 80 verso : Isidorus on the nature of man (Ysidorus de natura hominis)
Folio 89 recto : Isidorus on the parts of man's body (Ysidorus de membris hominis)
Folio 91 recto : Of the age of man (De etate hominis)
Stones (Lapides)
Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (Lapis ignifer)
Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (Lapis adamas)
Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (Mermecoleon)
Folio 96 verso : Verse (Versus)
Folio 97 recto : Stone in the foundation of the wall (Lapis in fundamento muri)
Folio 97 recto : The first stone, Jasper
Folio 97 recto : The second stone, Sapphire
Folio 97 recto : The third stone, Chalcedony
Folio 97 verso : The fourth stone, Smaragdus
Folio 98 recto : The fifth stone, Sardonyx
Folio 98 recto : The sixth stone, Sard
Folio 98 verso : The seventh stone, Chrysolite
Folio 98 verso : The eighth stone, Beryl
Folio 99 recto : The ninth stone, Topaz
Folio 99 verso : The tenth stone, Chrysoprase
Folio 99 verso : The eleventh stone, Hyacinth
Folio 100 recto : The twelfth stone, Amethyst
Folio 100 recto : Of stones and what they can do (De effectu lapidum)
Gallery
File:Phoenix detail from Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg|alt=Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail)|Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail)
File:Aberdeen Bestiary Basilisk.jpg|alt=Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (Detail)|Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (detail)
File:Beaver (Aberdeen Bestiary).jpg|alt=Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (Detail)|Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (detail)
File:Hyena bestiary.jpg|alt=Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (Detail)|Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (detail)
File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio065vDragonDetail.jpg|alt=Folio 65 Verso - Dragon (detail)|Folio 65 Verso - Dragon (detail)
File:Vultures in Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg|alt=Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail)|Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail)
File:Aberdeen Bestiary - Owl.JPG|alt=Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail)|Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail)
File:Bubo owl aberdeen bestiary.png|alt=Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail)|Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail)
File:Aberdeen ram.jpg|alt=Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (Detail)|Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (detail)
File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008vLeopardDetail.jpg|alt=Folio 8 Verso - Leopard (detail)|Folio 8 Verso - Leopard (detail)
File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008rTigerDetail.jpg|alt=Folio 8 Recto - Tiger|Folio 8 Recto - Tiger
File:F13r-aberdeen-best.jpg|alt=Folio 13 Recto - Satyr (detail)|Folio 13 Recto - Satyr (detail)
File:F15r-aberdeen-best-detail.jpg|alt=Folio 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail)|Folio 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail)
File:Wolf sneak.jpg|alt=Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail)|Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail)
File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio005rAdamNamesAnimalsDetail.jpg|alt=Folio 5 Recto - Adam (detail)|Folio 5 Recto - Adam (detail)
See also
Bestiary List of medieval bestiaries
Physiologus''
Ashmole Bestiary
Paris Psalter
Aviarium
References
External links
The Aberdeen Bestiary Project - University of Aberdeen, Online version of the bestiary.
David Badke, The Medieval Bestiary : Manuscript: Univ. Lib. MS 24 (Aberdeen Bestiary)
Category:Bestiaries
Category:University of Aberdeen
Category:12th-century illuminated manuscripts
Category:Biology books
Category:Works of unknown authorship | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.655084 |
2856 | Latin American Integration Association | }}
| conventional_long_name = Latin American Integration Association
| image_flag = ALADI.jpg
| image_map = Mapa_ALADI.png
| map_caption | org_type Trade bloc
| membership = | | | | | |
| | | | | |
}}
| admin_center =
| languages_type = Working languages
| languages =
| leader_title1 = Secretary General
| leader_name1 = Sergio Abreu
| established_event1 = Treaty of Montevideo
| established_date1 = 12 August 1980
| area_rank | area_magnitude
| area_km2 | area_sq_mi
| percent_water | population_estimate
| population_estimate_year | population_density_km2
| population_density_sq_mi | GDP_PPP
| GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_year
| GDP_PPP_per_capita | GDP_nominal
| GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year
| GDP_nominal_per_capita | Gini_year
| Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini = <!--number only-->
| Gini_ref | HDI_year
| HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = <!--number only-->
| HDI_ref | time_zone
| utc_offset | official_website http://www.aladi.org/
}}
The Latin American Integration Association / Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración / Associação Latino-Americana de Integração (LAIA / ALADI) is an international and regional scope organization. It was created on 12 August 1980 by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty, replacing the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA/ALALC). Currently, it has 13 member countries, and any of the Latin American States may apply for accession.
Objectives
The development of the integration process developed within the framework of the ALADI aims at promoting the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region, and its long-term objective is the gradual and progressive establishment of a Latin-American single market.
Basic functions
* Promotion and regulation of reciprocal trade
* Economic complementation
* Development of economic cooperation actions contributing to the markets extension.
General principles
* Pluralism in political and economic matters;
* Progressive convergence of partial actions for the establishment of a Latin-American Common Market;
* Flexibility;
* Differential treatments based on the development level of the member countries; and
* Multiple forms of trade agreements.
Integration mechanisms
The ALADI promotes the establishment of an area of economic preferences within the region, in order to create a Latin-American common market, through three mechanisms:
* A Regional Tariff Preference applied to goods from the member countries compared to tariffs in-force for third countries.
* Regional Scope Agreements, those in which all member countries participate.
* Partial Scope Agreements, those wherein two or more countries of the area participate.
The Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries of the region (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay) benefit from a preferential system, through the lists of markets opening offered by the countries in favor of the Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries; special programs of cooperation (business rounds, pre-investment, financing, technological support); and countervailing measures in favor of the land-locked countries, the full participation of such countries in the integration process is sought.
The ALADI includes in its legal structure the strongest sub-regional, plurilateral and bilateral integration agreements arising in growing numbers in the continent. As a result, the ALADI – as an institutional and legal framework or “umbrella” of the regional integration- develops actions in order to support and foster these efforts for the progressive establishment of a common economic space.
Member states
{| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
!State Members
!Join Date
!Population
!Land Surface
!Exclusive Economic Zone
!Platform
!Capital City
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Buenos Aires
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Landlocked
|
| Sucre & La Paz
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Brasília
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Santiago de Chile
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Bogotá
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| 1999
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Havana
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Quito
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Mexico City
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Landlocked
|
| Asunción
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| 2011
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Panama City
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Lima
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Montevideo
|-
| style="text-align:left" |
| Founder
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| Caracas
|- style"font-weight:bold; background:#f0f0f0" class"sortbottom"
| Total:
|
|
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
| km<sup>2</sup>
|
|}
Accession of other Latin American countries
The 1980 Montevideo Treaty is open to the accession of any Latin-American country. On 26 August 1999, the first accession to the 1980 Montevideo Treaty was executed, with the incorporation of the Republic of Cuba as a member country of the ALADI. On 10 May 2012, the Republic of Panama became the thirteenth member country of the ALADI. Likewise, the accession of the Republic of Nicaragua was accepted in the Sixteenth Meeting of the Council of Ministers (Resolution 75 (XVI)), held on 11 August 2011.
Currently, Nicaragua moves towards the fulfillment of conditions for becoming a member country of the ALADI.
The ALADI opens its field of actions for the rest of Latin America through multilateral links or partial agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent (Article 25). The Latin-American Integration Association also contemplates the horizontal cooperation with other integration movements in the world and partial actions with third developing countries or their respective integration areas (Article 27).
Institutional structure
;Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs
The Council of Ministers is the supreme body of the ALADI, and adopts the decisions for the superior political management of the integration process.
It is constituted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries. Notwithstanding, when one of such member countries assigns the competence of the integration affairs to a different Minister or Secretary of State, the member countries may be represented, with full powers, by the respective Minister or Secretary. It is convened by the Committee of Representatives, meets and makes decisions with the presence of all the member countries.
;Evaluation and Convergence Conference
It is in charge, among others, of analyzing the functioning of the integration process in all its aspects, promoting the convergence of the partial scope agreements seeking their progressive multilateralization, and promoting greater scope actions as regards economic integration. It is made up of Plenipotentiaries of the member countries.
;Committee of Representatives
It is the permanent political body and negotiating forum of the ALADI, where all the initiatives for the fulfillment of the objectives established by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty are analyzed and agreed on. It is composed of a Permanent Representative of each member country with right to one vote and an Alternate Representative. It meets regularly every 15 days and its Resolutions are adopted by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries.
;General Secretariat
It is the technical body of the ALADI, and it may propose, evaluate, study and manage for the fulfillment of the objectives of the ALADI. It is composed of technical and administrative personnel, and directed by a Secretary-General, who has the support of two Undersecretaries, elected for a three-year period, renewable for the same term.
, ALADI's site.]]
Secretaries general
* 1980–1984 Julio César Schupp (Paraguay)
* 1984–1987 Juan José Real (Uruguay)
* 1987–1990 Norberto Bertaina (Argentina)
* 1990–1993 Jorge Luis Ordóñez (Colombia)
* 1993–1999 Antônio José de Cerqueira Antunes (Brasil)
* 2000–2005 Juan Francisco Rojas Penso (Venezuela)
* 2005–2008 Didier Opertti (Uruguay)
* 2008–2009 Bernardino Hugo Saguier-Caballero (Paraguay)
* 2009–2011 José Félix Fernández Estigarribia (Paraguay)
* 2011–2017 Carlos Álvarez (Argentina)
* 2017– Alejandro de la Peña Navarrete (Mexico)
See also
* Andean Community
* Association of Caribbean States
* Caribbean Community
* Central American Integration System
* Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
* Latin American economy
* Latin American Economic System
* Latin American Parliament
* Mercosur
* Pacific Alliance
* Union of South American Nations
External links
* [http://www.aladi.org/ Latin American Integration Association – Official Website]
References
Association
Category:Trade blocs
Category:United Nations General Assembly observers
Category:Organizations based in Montevideo
Category:Organizations established in 1980
Category:Palermo, Montevideo
Category:International organizations based in the Americas | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Integration_Association | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.691316 |
2858 | Aircraft spotting | 300px|thumb|A group of planespotters at Domodedovo International Airport taking photos of a KrasAir Ilyushin Il-96-300 in 2008.
Aircraft spotting or planespotting is a hobby consisting of observing and tracking aircraft, which is usually accomplished by photography or videography. Besides monitoring aircraft, planespotters also record information regarding airports, air traffic control communications, airline routes, and more.
History and evolution
Aviation enthusiasts have been watching airplanes and other aircraft since aviation began. However, as a hobby (distinct from active/wartime work), planespotting did not appear until the second half of the 20th century.
During World War II and the subsequent Cold War, some countries encouraged their citizens to become "planespotters" in an "observation corps" or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the Royal Observer Corps which operated between 1925 and 1995. A journal called The Aeroplane Spotter was published in January 1940. The publication included a glossary that was refined in 2010 and published online.
The development of technology and global resources enabled a revolution in planespotting. Point and shoot cameras, DSLRs and walkie talkies have significantly changed the hobby. With the help of the internet, websites such as FlightAware and Flightradar24 have made it possible for planespotters to track and locate specific aircraft around the world. Websites such as airliners.net, Instagram and YouTube allow spotters to upload their photos or videos of their sightings and share them with viewers worldwide.
Techniques
thumb|right|The high engine position on this USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II is an easily observed distinguishing feature of this aircraft.
When spotting aircraft, observers generally notice the key attributes of an aircraft, such as a distinctive noise from its engine, the number of contrails it is producing, or its callsign. Observers can also assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type, and position of its engines. Another distinctive attribute is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. The wings may be above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint. The number of wings indicates whether it is a monoplane, biplane or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are other attributes. The configuration of the landing gear can be distinctive, as well as the size and shape of the cockpit and passenger windows along with the layout of emergency exits and doors.
thumb|Warning sign at Maho Beach for approaching and departing aircraft at Princess Juliana International Airport. Numerous observers have been injured or even killed after being blown into solid objects by jet blast.
Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft. Taken together these traits will enable the identification of an aircraft. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, they are more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity – they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. This is particularly prevalent if the aircraft spotter is spotting commercial aircraft, operated by airlines that have a limited fleet.
thumb|right|Spotters and photographers enjoy seeing aircraft in special colour schemes, like this Malaysia Airlines Boeing 747-400.
Spotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft. The two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the radar data and show the movements on a computer screen. Another tool that spotters can use are apps such as FlightRadar24 or Flightaware, where they can look at arrival and departure schedules and track the location of aircraft that have their transponder on. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a certain route or airport.
Spotting styles
thumb|right|Spotters photographing an Emirates Airbus A380 on descent to Toronto Pearson International Airport (March 2014).
thumb|right|A Qantas Boeing 747-400 flying over Starbeyevo, Moscow at an altitude of about . The photographer used a telescope and 2x Barlow lens in order to take this photo from the ground.
Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national insignia or airline livery or logo, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military aircraft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate.
In general, most spotters attempt to see as many aircraft of a given type, a particular airline, or a particular subset of aircraft such as business jets, commercial airliners, military and/or general aviation aircraft. Some spotters attempt to see every airframe and are known as "frame spotters." Others are keen to see every registration worn by each aircraft.
Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic control transmissions (using radio scanners, where that is legal), liaising with other "spotters" to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places. Several internet mailing list groups have been formed to help communicate aircraft seen at airports, queries and anomalies. These groups can cater to certain regions, certain aircraft types, or may appeal to a wider audience. The result is that information on aircraft movements can be delivered worldwide in a real-time fashion to spotters.
The hobbyist might travel long distances to visit different airports, to see an unusual aircraft, or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as they are opportunities to enter airfields and air bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. Some aircraft may be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) – or perhaps be cannibalized in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved.
Aircraft registrations can be found in books, with online resources, or in monthly magazines from enthusiast groups. Most spotters maintained books of different aircraft fleets and would underline or check each aircraft seen. Each year, a revised version of the books would be published and the spotter would need to re-underline every aircraft seen. With the development of commercial aircraft databases spotters were finally able to record their sightings in an electronic database and produce reports that emulated the underlined books.
800px|thumb|center|Major international airports like Tokyo Narita are an opportunity for planespotters to spot a variety of airlines and aircraft models
Legal ramifications
The legal repercussions of the hobby were dramatically shown in November 2001 when fourteen aircraft spotters (twelve British, two Dutch) were arrested by Greek police after being observed at an open day at the Greek Air Force base at Kalamata. They were charged with espionage and faced a possible 20-year prison sentence if found guilty. After being held for six weeks, they were eventually released on $11,696 (£9,000) bail, and the charges reduced to the misdemeanor charge of illegal information collection. They returned for their trial in April, 2002 and were found guilty, with eight of the group sentenced to three years, the rest for one year. At their appeal a year later, all were acquitted.
As airport watch groups
In the wake of the targeting of airports by terrorists, enthusiasts' organisations and police in the UK have cooperated in creating a code of conduct for planespotters, in a similar vein to guidelines devised for train spotters. By asking enthusiasts to contact police if spotters believe they see or hear something suspicious, this is an attempt to allow enthusiasts to continue their hobby while increasing security around airports. Birmingham and Stansted pioneered this approach in Britain and prior to the 2012 London Olympics, RAF Northolt introduced a Flightwatch scheme based on the same cooperative principles. These changes are also being made abroad in countries such as Australia, where aviation enthusiasts are reporting suspicious or malicious actions to police.
The organisation of such groups has now been echoed in parts of North America. For example, the Bensenville, Illinois police department have sponsored an Airport Watch group at the Chicago O'Hare Airport. Members are issued identification cards and given training to accurately record and report unusual activities around the airport perimeter. (Members are not permitted airside.) Meetings are attended and supported by the FBI, Chicago Department of Aviation and the TSA who also provide regular training to group members. The Bensenville program was modeled on similar programs in Toronto, Ottawa and Minneapolis.
In 2009, a similar airport watch group was organized between airport security and local aircraft spotters at Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport. As of 2016, the group has 46 members and a special phone number to use to contact police if suspicious activity is seen around the airport area.
Extraordinary rendition
Following the events of 9/11, information collected by planespotters helped uncover what is known as extraordinary rendition by the CIA. Information on unusual movements of rendition aircraft provided data that was mapped by critical geographers such as Trevor Paglen and the Institute for Applied Autonomy. These data and maps led first to news reports and then to a number of governmental and inter-governmental investigations.
See also
Bus spotting
Car spotting
Train spotting
Satellite watching
References
External links
SpottersWiki: The Ultimate Airport Spotting Guide
Airport Spotting Websites & Resources
Spotter Guide
JetPhotos (part of the Flightradar24)
Planespotters.net
Spotters.Aero (Ukrainian Spotter's Site)
Category:Aviation photography
Category:Observation hobbies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_spotting | 2025-04-05T18:26:10.704358 |
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