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The Acts of the Apostles (, Práxeis Apostólōn; ) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire.
Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two-part work, Luke–Acts, by the same anonymous author. Traditionally, the author is believed to be Luke the Evangelist, a doctor who travelled with Paul the Apostle. It is usually dated to around 80–90 AD, although some scholars suggest 110–120 AD. The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world's salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with the ascension of Jesus to Heaven. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit), the expulsion of Christians from Jerusalem and the establishment of the church at Antioch. The later chapters narrate the continuation of the message under Paul the Apostle and concludes with his imprisonment in Rome, where he awaits trial.
Luke–Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. Luke–Acts can also be seen as a defense of the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the Romans serving as external arbiters on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law. On the one hand, Luke portrays the followers of Jesus as a sect of the Jews, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, Luke seems unclear as to the future that God intends for Jews and Christians, celebrating the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers, while also stressing how the Jews had rejected the Messiah.Composition and setting
by Fyodor Zubov, 1660]]
Title, unity of Luke – Acts, authorship and date
The name "Acts of the Apostles" was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing name for the book or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear that it was not given by the author, as the word práxeis (deeds, acts) only appears once in the text (Acts 19:18) and there it refers not to the apostles but to deeds confessed by their followers.
The Gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church. The author is not named in either volume. According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, the author was Luke, named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but "a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters." An example can be seen by comparing Acts's accounts of Paul's conversion (Acts 9:1–31, 22:6–21, and 26:9–23) with Paul's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1:17–24). The author "is an admirer of Paul, but does not share Paul's own view of himself as an apostle; his own theology is considerably different from Paul's on key points and does not represent Paul's own views accurately." He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high-brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke's audience.
The interpretation of the "we" passages as indicative that the writer was a historical eyewitness (whether Luke the evangelist or not), remains the most influential in current biblical studies. Objections to this viewpoint include the above claim that Luke-Acts contains differences in theology and historical narrative which are irreconcilable with the authentic letters of Paul the Apostle.
The earliest possible date for Luke-Acts is around 62 AD, the time of Paul's imprisonment in Rome, but most scholars date the work to 80–90 AD on the grounds that it uses Mark as a source, looks back on the destruction of Jerusalem, and does not show any awareness of the letters of Paul (which began circulating late in the first century); if it does show awareness of the Pauline epistles, and also of the work of the Jewish historian Josephus, as some believe, then a date in the early 2nd century is possible.Manuscripts<!-- This section is linked from Biblical canon -->
There are two major textual variants of Acts, the Western text-type and the Alexandrian. The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th, with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd. Western texts of Acts are 6.2–8.4% longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts. The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text-type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the Gospel of Luke, as in that case the Western version is the shorter.
Genre, sources and historicity of Acts
The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Praxeis Apostolon) would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (praxeis), but it was not the title given by the author. The anonymous author aligned Luke–Acts to the 'narratives' ( ) which many others had written, and described his own work as an "orderly account" (). It lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature. The author may have taken as his model the works of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well-known history of Rome, or the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews. Like them, he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven. By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at, but the author would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the Gospel of Mark, and either the hypothetical collection of "sayings of Jesus" called the Q source or the Gospel of Matthew. He transposed a few incidents from Mark's gospel to the time of the Apostles—for example, the material about "clean" and "unclean" foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14:58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6:14). There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement. Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence—the traditional explanation of the three "we" passages, for example, is that they represent eyewitness accounts. The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era, but by the 17th century biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious—its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th-century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that the author had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites (Marcion was a 2nd-century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews); Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining the historical accuracy of Acts (although this has never died out) than in understanding the author's theological program.Audience and authorial intentLuke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lord's supper. The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus (Luke 1:3; cf. Acts 1:1), informing him of his intention to provide an "ordered account" of events which will lead his reader to "certainty". He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification—"did it happen?"—but to encourage faith—"what happened, and what does it all mean?"
Acts (or Luke–Acts) is intended as a work of "edification", meaning "the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice." The work also engages with the question of a Christian's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous. The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God.
Structure and content
]]
Structure
Acts is divided into 28 chapters. The work has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God's Covenantal people, the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul's utterance in Acts 19:21, which echoes Jesus's words in Luke 9:51: Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem. The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.
* Transition: reprise of the preface addressed to Theophilus and the closing events of the gospel (Acts 1–1:26)
* Petrine Christianity: the Jewish church from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 2:1–12:25)
:: 2:1–8:1 – beginnings in Jerusalem
:: 8:2–40 – the church expands to Samaria and beyond
:: 9:1–31 – conversion of Paul
:: 9:32–12:25 – the conversion of Cornelius, and the formation of the Antioch church
* Pauline Christianity: the Gentile mission from Antioch to Rome (Acts 13:1–28:31)
:: 13:1–14:28 – the Gentile mission is promoted from Antioch
:: 15:1–35 – the Gentile mission is confirmed in Jerusalem
:: 15:36–28:31 – the Gentile mission, climaxing in Paul's passion story in Rome (21:17–28:31)
Outline
* Dedication to Theophilus (1:1–2)
* Resurrection appearances (1:3)
* Great Commission (1:4–8)
* Ascension (1:9)
* Second Coming Prophecy (1:10–11)
* Matthias replaced Judas (1:12–26)
** the Upper Room (1:13)
* The Holy Spirit came at Shavuot (Pentecost) (2:1-47), see also Paraclete
* Peter healed a crippled beggar (3:1–10)
* Peter's speech at the Temple (3:11–26)
* Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (4:1–22)
** Resurrection of the dead (4:2)
* Believers' Prayer (4:23–31)
* Everything is shared (4:32–37)
* Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11)
* Signs and Wonders (5:12–16)
* Apostles before the Sanhedrin (5:17–42)
* Seven Deacons appointed (6:1–7)
* Stephen before the Sanhedrin (6:8–7:60)
** The "Cave of the Patriarchs" was located in Shechem (7:16)
** "Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" (7:22)
** First mentioning of Saul (Paul the Apostle) in the Bible (7:58)
** Paul the Apostle confesses his part in the martyrdom of Stephen (7:58–60)
* Saul persecuted the Church of Jerusalem (8:1–3)
* Philip the Evangelist (8:4–40)
** Simon Magus (8:9–24)
** Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–39)
* Conversion of Paul the Apostle (9:1–31, 22:1–22, 26:9–24)
** Paul the Apostle confesses his active part in the martyrdom of Stephen (22:20)
* Peter healed Aeneas and raised Tabitha from the dead (9:32–43)
* Conversion of Cornelius (10:1–8, 24–48)
* Peter's vision of a sheet with animals (10:9–23, 11:1–18)
* Church of Antioch founded (11:19–30)
** term "Christian" first used (11:26)
* James the Great executed (12:1–2)
* Peter's rescue from prison (12:3–19)
* Death of Herod Agrippa I [in 44] (12:20–25)
** "the voice of a god" (12:22)
* Mission of Barnabas and Saul (13–14)
** "Saul, who was also known as Paul" (13:9)
** called "gods ... in human form" (14:11)
* Council of Jerusalem (15:1–35)
* Paul separated from Barnabas (15:36–41)
* 2nd and 3rd missions (16–20)
** Areopagus sermon (17:16–34)
*** "God...has set a day" (17:30–31)
** Trial before Gallio c. 51–52 (18:12–17)
* Trip to Jerusalem (21)
* Before the people and the Sanhedrin (22–23)
* Before Felix–Festus–Herod Agrippa II (24–26)
* Trip to Rome (27–28)
** called a god on Malta (28:6)
Content
The Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to "my earlier book", almost certainly the gospel.
The apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God's power on them, and Peter and John preach to many in Jerusalem and perform healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. The first believers share all property in common, eat in each other's homes, and worship together. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the followers of Jesus begin to be increasingly persecuted by other Jews. Stephen is accused of blasphemy and stoned. Stephen's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.
The death of Stephen initiates persecution, and many followers of Jesus leave Jerusalem. The message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the followers of Jesus, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God-fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Cornelius and his guests, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north-western Syria, the third-largest city of the empire), and here Christ's followers are first called Christians.
The mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at a meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean, preaching, converting, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", and imprisoned. Later, Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching freely about "the Lord Jesus Christ". Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul's legal troubles.Theology
, in the Château de Chantilly]]
Prior to the 1950s, Luke–Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological. Luke's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview. His "salvation history" stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of "the Law and the Prophets" (Luke 16:16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5–3:1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3:2–24:51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.
Luke–Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah, promised to the Jews, came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. This theme is introduced in Chapter 4 of the Gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls the rejection of prophets. At the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, "beginning from Jerusalem." He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach "in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth." They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea and Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.
For Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is "poured out" at Pentecost on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God's power (at his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, "You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you"): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).
One issue debated by scholars is Luke's political vision regarding the relationship between the early church and the Roman Empire. On the one hand, Luke generally does not portray this interaction as one of direct conflict. Rather, there are ways in which each may have considered having a relationship with the other rather advantageous to its own cause. For example, early Christians may have appreciated hearing about the protection Paul received from Roman officials against Gentile rioters in Philippi (Acts 16:16–40) and Ephesus (Acts 19:23–41), and against Jewish rioters on two occasions (Acts 17:1–17; Acts 18:12–17). Meanwhile, Roman readers may have approved of Paul's censure of the illegal practice of magic (Acts 19:17–19) as well as the amicability of his rapport with Roman officials such as Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:6–12) and Festus (Acts 26:30–32). Furthermore, Acts does not include any account of a struggle between Christians and the Roman government as a result of the latter's imperial cult. Thus Paul is depicted as a moderating presence between the church and the Roman Empire.
On the other hand, events such as the imprisonment of Paul at the hands of the empire (Acts 22–28) as well as several encounters that reflect negatively on Roman officials (for instance, Felix's desire for a bribe from Paul in Acts 24:26) function as concrete points of conflict between Rome and the early church. Perhaps the most significant point of tension between Roman imperial ideology and Luke's political vision is reflected in Peter's speech to the Roman centurion, Cornelius (Acts 10:36). Peter states that "this one" [οὗτος], i.e. Jesus, "is lord [κύριος] of all." The title, κύριος, was often ascribed to the Roman emperor in antiquity, rendering its use by Luke as an appellation for Jesus an unsubtle challenge to the emperor's authority.
Comparison with other writings
, 17th century]]
Gospel of Luke
As the second part of the two-part work Luke–Acts, Acts has significant links to the Gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus's forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books, contributing to the narrative unity of the work.
However, scholars have noted differences between Luke and Acts, including some apparent contradictions. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, shortly after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later. Such differences have led to debates over the nature of the unity between the two books. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke–Acts, these variations suggest a complex literary structure that balances thematic continuity with narrative development across two volumes. Literary studies have explored how Luke sets the stage in his gospel for key themes that recur and develop throughout Acts, including the offer to and rejection of the Messianic kingdom by Israel, and God's sovereign establishment of the church for both Jews and Gentiles.Pauline epistlesActs agrees with Paul's letters on the major outline of Paul's career: he is converted and becomes a Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and compelling Gentile Christians to not obey the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Acts it was the Jews (2 Corinthians 11:33 and Acts 9:24). Acts speaks of "Christians" and "disciples", but Paul never uses either term, and it is striking that Acts never mentions Paul being in conflict with the Jerusalem church and places Paul under the authority of the Jerusalem church and its leaders, especially James and Peter (Acts 15 vs. Galatians 2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also major differences between Acts and Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ's nature), eschatology (the understanding of the "last things"), and apostleship. See also
* Les Actes des Apotres
* Acts of the Apostles (genre)
* Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
* Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles
* List of Gospels
* List of New Testament verses not included in modern English translations
* The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, also known as the Sonnini Manuscript
* Textual variants in the Acts of the Apostles
Notes
References
Bibliography
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* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchActs;&version31;9; Book of Acts at Bible Gateway (NIV & KJV)]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/acts_long_01_intro.htm Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.]
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** See Section VI: ''Saint Luke's Accuracy''
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* Various versions
Category:1st-century books
Category:1st-century Christianity
Category:New Testament books
Category:Acts of the Apostles (genre) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.620802 |
2085 | Assyria | | image_flag = Ashur symbol Nimrud.png
| flag_border = no
| flag_size = 150
| flag_type = Symbol of Ashur, the ancient Assyrian national deity
| year_start 2025 BC}}
| year_end = 609 BC
| p1 = Third Dynasty of Ur
| s1 = Neo-Babylonian Empire
| s2 = Median Empire
| image_map = Assyrie general en.jpg
| image_map_caption = The ancient Assyrian heartland (red) and the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 7th century BC (orange)
| capital = 2025–1233 BC)</small>
* <br /><small>( 1233–1207 BC)</small>
* Assur<br /><small>( 1207–879 BC)</small>
* Nimrud<br /><small>(879–706 BC)</small>
* Dur-Sharrukin<br /><small>(706–705 BC)</small>
* Nineveh<br /><small>(705–612 BC)</small>
* Harran<br /><small>(612–609 BC)</small>
}}
| official_languages =
| religion = Ancient Mesopotamian religion
| government_type = Monarchy
| title_leader = Notable kings <!--Only a selection of notable kings; more notable kings for each period are in their respective articles. More should not be added here on account of taking up space-->
| year_leader1 = 2025 BC
| leader1 = Puzur-Ashur I (first) <!-- Regarded as the first king of the independent Assur city-state in the Old Assyrian period; earlier kings in the king list are not historically verified (and Assur was not independent prior to 2025 BC) so they should not be here -->
| year_leader2 = 1974–1935 BC
| leader2 = Erishum I <!--First ruler with length of reign in the Assyrian King List, created the eponym system, iniated the famous Old Assyrian trading network-->
| year_leader3 = 1808–1776 BC
| leader3 = Shamshi-Adad I <!--Foreign Amorite conqueror, created the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia-->
| year_leader4 = 1700–1691 BC
| leader4 = Bel-bani <!--Founded the long-lived Adaside dynasty-->
| year_leader5 = 1363–1328 BC
| leader5 = Ashur-uballit I <!--Began the Middle Assyrian period; transformed Assyria into a larger territorial state-->
| year_leader6 = 1243–1207 BC
| leader6 = Tukulti-Ninurta I <!--Wide-ranging warrior-king-->
| year_leader7 = 1114–1076 BC
| leader7 = Tiglath-Pileser I <!--Wide-ranging warrior-king-->
| year_leader8 = 883–859 BC
| leader8 = Ashurnasirpal II <!--Chiefly responsible for the conquests of the early Neo-Assyrian Empire; moved the capital to Nimrud-->
| year_leader9 = 745–727 BC
| leader9 = Tiglath-Pileser III <!--Made Assyria the unopposed power in the Near East-->
| year_leader10 = 705–681 BC
| leader10 = Sennacherib <!--Most famous Assyrian king; moved the capital to Nineveh-->
| year_leader11 = 681–669 BC
| leader11 = Esarhaddon <!-- Brought Assyria to its greatest extent -->
| year_leader12 = 669–631 BC
| leader12 = Ashurbanipal <!--Last great Assyrian king; collected the famous Library of Ashurbanipal -->
| year_leader13 = 631–627 BC
| leader13 = Aššur-etil-ilāni
| year_leader14 = 627–612 BC
| leader14 = Sinsharishkun
| year_leader15 = 612–609 BC
| leader15 = Ashur-uballit II (last)
| era = Bronze Age to Iron Age
| event_pre = Foundation of Assur
| date_pre = 2600 BC
| event_start = Assur becomes an independent city-state
| event1 = Old Assyrian period
| date_event1 = 2025–1364 BC
| event2 = Middle Assyrian period
| date_event2 = 1363–912 BC
| event3 = Neo-Assyrian period
| date_event3 = 911–609 BC
| event_end = Conquest by the Neo-Babylonian and Median empires
| event_post = Sack and destruction of Assur by the Sasanian Empire
| date_post = AD 240
}}
Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , māt Aššur) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state<!-- There is no evidence of Assur governing territory beyond the city itself in the Early and Old Assyrian periods --> from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC to the 7th century BC.
Spanning from the early Bronze Age to the late Iron Age, modern historians typically divide ancient Assyrian history into the Early Assyrian ( 2600–2025 BC), Old Assyrian ( 2025–1364 BC), Middle Assyrian ( 1363–912 BC), Neo-Assyrian (911–609 BC), and post-imperial (609 BC– AD 240)<!-- The academically defined post-imperial period ends in AD 240; this does not mean Assyrian history ends at this point, just that the ancient part does (which is what this article covers) --> periods, based on political events and gradual changes in language. Assur, the first Assyrian capital, was founded 2600 BC, but there is no evidence that the city was independent until the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur, in the 21st century BC, when a line of independent kings starting with Puzur-Ashur I<!-- Historians regard Puzur-Ashur I as the first independent king of Assur and treat the earlier names on the Assyrian king list as either legendary inventions or historically unverified --> began ruling the city. Centered in the Assyrian heartland in northern Mesopotamia, Assyrian power fluctuated over time. The city underwent several periods of foreign rule or domination before Assyria rose under Ashur-uballit I in the early 14th century BC as the Middle Assyrian Empire. In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods, Assyria was one of the two major Mesopotamian kingdoms, alongside Babylonia in the south, and at times became the dominant power in the ancient Near East. Assyria was at its strongest in the Neo-Assyrian period, when the Assyrian army was the strongest military power in the world and the Assyrians ruled the largest empire then yet assembled in world history, spanning from parts of modern-day Iran in the east to Egypt in the west.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in the late 7th century BC, conquered by a coalition of the Babylonians, who had lived under Assyrian rule for about a century, and the Medes. Though the core urban territory of Assyria was extensively devastated in the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire and the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire invested few resources in rebuilding it, ancient Assyrian culture and traditions continued to survive for centuries throughout the post-imperial period. Assyria experienced a recovery under the Seleucid and Parthian empires, though it declined again under the Sasanian Empire, which sacked numerous cities and semi-independent Assyrian territories in the region, including Assur itself. The remaining Assyrian people, who have survived in northern Mesopotamia to modern times, were gradually Christianized from the 1st century AD onward. Ancient Mesopotamian religion persisted at Assur until its final sack in the 3rd century AD, and at certain other holdouts for centuries thereafter.
The triumph of ancient Assyria can be attributed not only to its vigorous warrior-monarchs but also to its adeptness in efficiently assimilating and governing conquered territories using inventive and advanced administrative mechanisms. The developments in warfare and governance introduced by ancient Assyria continued to be employed by subsequent empires and states for centuries. Ancient Assyria also left a legacy of great cultural significance, particularly through the Neo-Assyrian Empire, making a prominent impression in later Assyrian, Greco-Roman, and Hebrew literary and religious tradition. Nomenclature In the Old Assyrian period, when Assyria was merely a city-state centered on the city of Assur, the state was typically referred to as ālu Aššur ("city of Ashur"). From the time of its rise as a territorial state in the 14th century BC and onward, Assyria was referred to in official documents as māt Aššur ("land of Ashur"), marking its shift to being a regional polity. The first attested use of the term māt Aššur is during the reign of Ashur-uballit I ( 1363–1328 BC), who was the first king of the Middle Assyrian Empire. Both ālu Aššur and māt Aššur derive from the name of the Assyrian national deity Ashur. Ashur probably originated in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of Assur itself. In the Old Assyrian period the deity was considered the formal king of Assur; the actual rulers only used the style ''Išši'ak'' ("governor"). From the time of Assyria's rise as a territorial state, Ashur began to be regarded as an embodiment of the entire land ruled by the Assyrian kings.
The modern name "Assyria" is of Greek origin, derived from Ασσυρία (Assuría). The term's first attested use is during the time of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC). The Greeks called the Levant "Syria" and Mesopotamia "Assyria", even though the local population, both at that time and well into the later Christian period, used both terms interchangeably to refer to the entire region. It is not known whether the Greeks began referring to Mesopotamia as "Assyria" because they equated the region with the Assyrian Empire, long fallen by the time the term is first attested, or because they named the region after the people who lived there, the Assyrians. Because the term is so "similar to Syria", scholars have been examining since the 17th century whether the two terms are connected. And because, in sources predating the Greek ones, the shortened form "Syria" is attested as a synonym for Assyria, notably in Luwian and Aramaic texts from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, modern scholars overwhelmingly support the conclusion that the names are connected.
Both "Assyria" and the contraction, "Syria," are ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur. Following the decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the subsequent empires that held dominion over the Assyrian lands adopted distinct appellations for the region, with a significant portion of these names also being rooted in Aššur. The Achaemenid Empire referred to Assyria as Aθūrā ("Athura"). The Sasanian Empire inexplicably referred to Lower Mesopotamia as Asoristan ("land of the Assyrians"), though the northern province of Nōdšīragān, which included much of the old Assyrian heartland, was also sometimes called Atūria or Āthōr. In Syriac, Assyria was and is referred to as ʾĀthor. History
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Early history
( 2334–2154 BC). Found at Assur, on display at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin]]
Agricultural villages in the region that would later become Assyria are known to have existed by the time of the Hassuna culture, 6300–5800 BC. Though the sites of some nearby cities that would later be incorporated into the Assyrian heartland, such as Nineveh, are known to have been inhabited since the Neolithic, the earliest archaeological evidence from Assur dates to the Early Dynastic Period, 2600 BC. During this time, the surrounding region was already relatively urbanized. There is no evidence that early Assur was an independent settlement, and it might not have been called Assur at all initially, but rather Baltil or Baltila, used in later times to refer to the city's oldest portion.
The name "Assur" is first attested for the site in documents of the Akkadian period in the 24th century BC. Through most of the Early Assyrian period ( 2600–2025 BC), Assur was dominated by states and polities from southern Mesopotamia. Early on, Assur for a time fell under the loose hegemony of the Sumerian city of Kish and it was later occupied by both the Akkadian Empire and then the Third Dynasty of Ur. In 2025 BC, due to the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Assur became an independent city-state under Puzur-Ashur I.
trading colony at Kültepe]]
Under the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, Assur was home to less than 10,000 people and likely held very limited military power; no military institutions at all are known from this time and no political influence was exerted on neighboring cities. The city was still influential in other ways; under Erishum I ( 1974–1934 BC), Assur experimented with free trade, the earliest known such experiment in world history, which left the initiative for trade and large-scale foreign transactions entirely to the populace rather than the state.
Royal encouragement of trade led to Assur quickly establishing itself as a prominent trading city in northern Mesopotamia and soon thereafter establishing an extensive long-distance trade network, the first notable impression Assyria left in the historical record. Among the evidence left from this trade network are large collections of Old Assyrian cuneiform tablets from Assyrian trade colonies, the most notable of which is a set of 22,000 clay tablets found at Kültepe, near the modern city of Kayseri in Turkey.
As trade declined, perhaps due to increased warfare and conflict between the growing states of the Near East, Assur was frequently threatened by larger foreign states and kingdoms. The original Assur city-state, and the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, came to an end 1808 BC when the city was conquered by the Amorite ruler of Ekallatum, Shamshi-Adad I. Shamshi-Adad's extensive conquests in northern Mesopotamia eventually made him the ruler of the entire region, founding what some scholars have termed the "Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia". The survival of this realm relied chiefly on Shamshi-Adad's own strength and charisma and thus collapsed shortly after his death 1776 BC.
After Shamshi-Adad's death, the political situation in northern Mesopotamia was highly volatile, with Assur at times coming under the brief control of Eshnunna, Elam and the Old Babylonian Empire. At some point, the city returned to being an independent city-state, though the politics of Assur itself were volatile as well, with fighting between members of Shamshi-Adad's dynasty, native Assyrians and Hurrians for control. The infighting came to an end after the rise of Bel-bani as king 1700 BC. Bel-bani founded the Adaside dynasty, which after his reign ruled Assyria for about a thousand years.
Assyria's rise as a territorial state in later times was in large part facilitated by two separate invasions of Mesopotamia by the Hittites. An invasion by the Hittite king Mursili I in 1595 BC destroyed the dominant Old Babylonian Empire, allowing the smaller kingdoms of Mitanni and Kassite Babylonia to rise in the north and south, respectively. Around 1430 BC, Assur was subjugated by Mitanni, an arrangement that lasted for about 70 years, until 1360 BC. Another Hittite invasion by Šuppiluliuma I in the 14th century BC effectively crippled the Mitanni kingdom. After his invasion, Assyria succeeded in freeing itself from its suzerain, achieving independence once more under Ashur-uballit I ( 1363–1328 BC) whose rise to power, independence, and conquests of neighboring territory traditionally marks the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1363–912 BC). Assyrian Empire
Ashur-uballit I was the first native Assyrian ruler to claim the royal title šar ("king"). Shortly after achieving independence, he further claimed the dignity of a great king on the level of the Egyptian pharaohs and the Hittite kings. Assyria's rise was intertwined with the decline and fall of the Mitanni kingdom, its former suzerain, which allowed the early Middle Assyrian kings to expand and consolidate territories in northern Mesopotamia. Under the warrior-kings Adad-nirari I ( 1305–1274 BC), Shalmaneser I ( 1273–1244 BC) and Tukulti-Ninurta I ( 1243–1207 BC), Assyria began to realize its aspirations of becoming a significant regional power.
These kings campaigned in all directions and incorporated a significant amount of territory into the growing Assyrian Empire. Under Shalmaneser I, the last remnants of the Mitanni kingdom were formally annexed into Assyria. The most successful of the Middle Assyrian kings was Tukulti-Ninurta I, who brought the Middle Assyrian Empire to its greatest extent. His most notable military achievements were his victory at the Battle of Nihriya 1237 BC, which marked the beginning of the end of Hittite influence in northern Mesopotamia, and his temporary conquest of Babylonia, which became an Assyrian vassal 1225–1216 BC. Tukulti-Ninurta was also the first Assyrian king to try to move the capital away from Assur, inaugurating the new city Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as capital 1233 BC. The capital was returned to Assur after his death.
Tukulti-Ninurta I's assassination 1207 BC was followed by inter-dynastic conflict and a significant drop in Assyrian power. Tukulti-Ninurta I's successors were unable to maintain Assyrian power and Assyria became increasingly restricted to just the Assyrian heartland, a period of decline broadly coinciding with the Late Bronze Age collapse. Though some kings in this period of decline, such as Ashur-dan I ( 1178–1133 BC), Ashur-resh-ishi I (1132–1115 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I (1114–1076 BC) worked to reverse the decline and made significant conquests, their conquests were ephemeral and shaky, quickly lost again. From the time of Eriba-Adad II (1056–1054 BC) onward, Assyrian decline intensified.
The Assyrian heartland remained safe due to its geographical remoteness. Since Assyria was not the only state to undergo decline during these centuries, and the lands surrounding the Assyrian heartland were also significantly fragmented, it would ultimately be relatively easy for the reinvigorated Assyrian army to reconquer large parts of the empire. Under Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC), who campaigned in the northeast and northwest, Assyrian decline was at last reversed, paving the way for grander efforts under his successors. The end of his reign conventionally marks the beginning of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC).
, 745–727 BC, under whom the Neo-Assyrian Empire was consolidated, centralized and significantly expanded]]
Through decades of conquests, the early Neo-Assyrian kings worked to retake the lands of the Middle Assyrian Empire. Since this reconquista had to begin nearly from scratch, its eventual success was an extraordinary achievement. Under Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire became the dominant political power in the Near East. In his ninth campaign, Ashurnasirpal II marched to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, collecting tribute from various kingdoms on the way. A significant development during Ashurnasirpal II's reign was the second attempt to transfer the Assyrian capital away from Assur. Ashurnasirpal restored the ancient and ruined town of Nimrud, also located in the Assyrian heartland, and in 879 BC designated that city as the new capital of the empire. Though no longer the political capital, Assur remained the ceremonial and religious center of Assyria.
Ashurnasirpal II's son Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) also went on wide-ranging wars of conquest, expanding the empire in all directions. After Shalmaneser III's death, the Neo-Assyrian Empire entered into a period of stagnation dubbed the "age of the magnates", when powerful officials and generals were the principal wielders of political power rather than the king. This time of stagnation came to an end with the rise of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), who reduced the power of the magnates, consolidated and centralized the holdings of the empire, and through his military campaigns and conquests more than doubled the extent of Assyrian territory. The most significant conquests were the vassalization of the Levant all the way to the Egyptian border and the 729 BC conquest of Babylonia.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire reached the height of its extent and power under the Sargonid dynasty, founded by Sargon II (722–705 BC). Under Sargon II and his son Sennacherib (705–681 BC), the empire was further expanded and the gains were consolidated. Both kings founded new capitals. Sargon II moved the capital to the new city of Dur-Sharrukin in 706 BC and the year after, Sennacherib transferred the capital to Nineveh, which he ambitiously expanded and renovated, and might even have built the hanging gardens there, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The 671 BC conquest of Egypt under Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) brought Assyria to its greatest ever extent.
After the death of Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire swiftly collapsed. One of the primary reasons was the inability of the Neo-Assyrian kings to resolve the "Babylonian problem"; despite many attempts to appease Babylonia in the south, revolts were frequent all throughout the Sargonid period. The revolt of Babylon under Nabopolassar in 626 BC, in combination with an invasion by the Medes under Cyaxares in 615/614 BC, led to the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire. Assur was sacked in 614 BC and Nineveh fell in 612 BC. The last Assyrian ruler, Ashur-uballit II, tried to rally the Assyrian army at Harran in the west but he was defeated in 609 BC, marking the end of the ancient line of Assyrian kings and of Assyria as a state.
Later history
rule, by the local ruler Rʻuth-Assor<!--The name given in the Wikimedia Commons description, Re'n-tayar, is either erroneous or an alternate transliteration; Radner identifies this figure R'uth-Assor.-->]]
Despite the violent downfall of the Assyrian Empire, Assyrian culture continued to survive through the subsequent post-imperial period (609 BC – AD 240) and beyond. The Assyrian heartland experienced a dramatic decrease in the size and number of inhabited settlements during the rule of the Neo-Babylonian Empire founded by Nabopolassar; the former Assyrian capital cities Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were nearly completely abandoned. Throughout the time of the Neo-Babylonian and later Achaemenid Empire, Assyria remained a marginal and sparsely populated region. Toward the end of the 6th century BC, the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language went extinct, having toward the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire already largely been replaced by Aramaic as a vernacular language.
Under the empires succeeding the Neo-Babylonians, from the late 6th century BC onward, Assyria began to experience a recovery. Under the Achaemenids, most of the territory was organized into the province Assyria appears in Achaemenid royal inscriptions as a dahyu; a term of uncertain implications used to refer to both peoples and geographical locations (not necessarily synonymous with the formal satrapies of the empire).}} Athura (Aθūrā). The organization into a single large province, the lack of interference of the Achaemenid rulers in local affairs, and the return of the cult statue of Ashur to Assur soon after the Achaemenids conquered Babylon facilitated the survival of Assyrian culture. Under the Seleucid Empire, which controlled Mesopotamia from the late 4th to mid-2nd century BC, Assyrian sites such as Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were resettled and a large number of villages were rebuilt and expanded.
After the Parthian Empire conquered the region in the 2nd century BC, the recovery of Assyria continued, culminating in an unprecedented return to prosperity and revival in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. The region was resettled and restored so intensely that the population and settlement density reached heights not seen since the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The region was under the Parthians primarily ruled by a group of vassal kingdoms, including Osroene, Adiabene and Hatra. Though in some aspects influenced by Assyrian culture, these states were for the most part not ruled by Assyrian rulers.
Assur itself flourished under Parthian rule. From around or shortly after the end of the 2nd century BC, the city may have become the capital of its own small semi-autonomous Assyrian realm, either under the suzerainty of Hatra, or under direct Parthian suzerainty. On account of the resemblance between the stelae by the local rulers and those of the ancient Assyrian kings, they may have seen themselves as the restorers and continuators of the old royal line. The ancient Ashur temple was restored in the 2nd century AD. This last cultural golden age came to an end with the sack of Assur by the Sasanian Empire 240. During the sack, the Ashur temple was destroyed again and the city's population was dispersed.
Starting from the 1st century AD onward, many of the Assyrians became Christianized, though holdouts of the old ancient Mesopotamian religion continued to survive for centuries. Despite the loss of political power, the Assyrians continued to constitute a significant portion of the population in northern Mesopotamia until religiously motivated suppression and massacres under the Ilkhanate and the Timurid Empire in the 14th century, which relegated them to a local ethnic and religious minority. The Assyrians lived largely in peace under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which gained control of Assyria in 16th century.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, when the Ottomans grew increasingly nationalistic, further persecutions and massacres were enacted against the Assyrians, most notably the Sayfo (Assyrian genocide), which resulted in the deaths of as many as 250,000 Assyrians.|namegen}} Throughout the 20th century, many unsuccessful proposals have been made by the Assyrians for autonomy or independence. Further massacres and persecutions, enacted both by governments and by terrorist groups such as the Islamic State, have resulted in most of the Assyrian people living in diaspora.
Government and military
Kingship
( 1974–1934 BC). The seated ruler is thought to represent the god Ashur, with Erishum being the bald figure being led toward him.]]
In the Assur city-state of the Old Assyrian period, the government was in many respects an oligarchy, where the king was a permanent, albeit not the only prominent, actor. The Old Assyrian kings were not autocrats, with sole power, but rather acted as stewards on behalf of the god Ashur and presided over the meetings of the city assembly, the main Assyrian administrative body during this time. The composition of the city assembly is not known, but it is generally believed to have been made up of members of the most powerful families of the city, many of whom were merchants. The king acted as the main executive officer and chairman of this group of influential individuals and also contributed with legal knowledge and expertise. The Old Assyrian kings were styled as iššiak Aššur ("governor [on behalf] of Ashur"), with Ashur being considered the city's formal king. That the populace of Assur in the Old Assyrian period often referred to the king as rubā’um ("great one") clearly indicates that the kings, despite their limited executive power, were seen as royal figures and as being primus inter pares (first among equals) among the powerful individuals of the city.
Assur first experienced a more autocratic form of kingship under the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I, the earliest ruler of Assur to use the style šarrum (king) and the title 'king of the Universe'. Shamshi-Adad I appears to have based his more absolute form of kingship on the rulers of the Old Babylonian Empire. Under Shamshi-Adad I, Assyrians also swore their oaths by the king, not just by the god. This practice did not survive beyond his death. The influence of the city assembly had disappeared by the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. Though the traditional iššiak Aššur continued to be used at times, the Middle Assyrian kings were autocrats, in terms of power having little in common with the rulers of the Old Assyrian period. As the Assyrian Empire grew, the kings began to employ an increasingly sophisticated array of royal titles. Ashur-uballit I was the first to assume the style šar māt Aššur ("king of the land of Ashur") and his grandson Arik-den-ili ( 1317–1306 BC) introduced the style šarru dannu ("strong king"). Adad-nirari I's inscriptions required 32 lines to be devoted just to his titles. This development peaked under Tukulti-Ninurta I, who assumed, among other titles, the styles "king of Assyria and Karduniash", "king of Sumer and Akkad", "king of the Upper and the Lower Seas" and "king of all peoples". Royal titles and epithets were often highly reflective of current political developments and the achievements of individual kings; during periods of decline, the royal titles used typically grew more simple again, only to grow grander once more as Assyrian power experienced resurgences.
(883–859 BC)]]
The kings of the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods continued to present themselves, and be viewed by their subjects, as the intermediaries between Ashur and mankind. This position and role was used to justify imperial expansion: the Assyrians saw their empire as being the part of the world overseen and administered by Ashur through his human agents. In their ideology, the outer realm outside of Assyria was characterized by chaos and the people there were uncivilized, with unfamiliar cultural practices and strange languages. The mere existence of the "outer realm" was regarded as a threat to the cosmic order within Assyria and as such, it was the king's duty to expand the realm of Ashur and incorporate these strange lands, converting chaos to civilization. Texts describing the coronation of Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings at times include Ashur commanding the king to "broaden the land of Ashur" or "extend the land at his feet". As such, expansion was cast as a moral and necessary duty. Because the rule and actions of the Assyrian king were seen as divinely sanctioned, resistance to Assyrian sovereignty in times of war was regarded to be resistance against divine will, which deserved punishment. Peoples and polities who revolted against Assyria were seen as criminals against the divine world order. Since Ashur was the king of the gods, all other gods were subjected to him and thus the people who followed those gods should be subjected to the representative of Ashur, the Assyrian king.
The kings also had religious and judicial duties. Kings were responsible for performing various rituals in support of the cult of Ashur and the Assyrian priesthood. They were expected, together with the Assyrian people, to provide offerings to not only Ashur but also all the other gods. From the time of Ashur-resh-ishi I onward, the religious and cultic duties of the king were pushed somewhat into the background, though they were still prominently mentioned in accounts of building and restoring temples. Assyrian titles and epithets in inscriptions from then on generally emphasized the kings as powerful warriors. Developing from their role in the Old Assyrian period, the Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings were the supreme judicial authority in the empire, though they generally appear to have been less concerned with their role as judges than their predecessors in the Old Assyrian period were. The kings were expected to ensure the welfare and prosperity of the Assyria and its people, indicated by multiple inscriptions referring to the kings as "shepherds" (re’û).
Capital cities
at Nimrud (Assyrian capital 879–706 BC), destroyed by the Islamic State in 2015|alt=View of a grey stone wall and archway, with the statues of three lamassu (protective deities with wings, the head of a human and the body of a lion or bull).]]
No word for the idea of a capital city existed in Akkadian, the nearest being the idea of a "city of kingship", i.e. an administrative center used by the king, but there are several examples of kingdoms having multiple "cities of kingship". Due to Assyria growing out of the Assur city-state of the Old Assyrian period, and due to the city's religious importance, Assur was the administrative center of Assyria through most of its history. Though the royal administration at times moved elsewhere, the ideological status of Assur was never fully superseded and it remained a ceremonial center in the empire even when it was governed from elsewhere. The transfer of the royal seat of power to other cities was ideologically possible since the king was Ashur's representative on Earth. The king, like the deity embodied Assyria itself, and so the capital of Assyria was in a sense wherever the king happened to have his residence.
The first transfer of administrative power away from Assur occurred under Tukulti-Ninurta I, who 1233 BC inaugurated Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as capital. Tukulti-Ninurta I's foundation of a new capital was perhaps inspired by developments in Babylonia in the south, where the Kassite dynasty had transferred the administration from the long-established city of Babylon to the newly constructed city of Dur-Kurigalzu, also named after a king. It seems that Tukulti-Ninurta I intended to go further than the Kassites and also establish Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as the new Assyrian cult center. The city was however not maintained as capital after Tukulti-Ninurta I's death, with subsequent kings once more ruling from Assur.
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The Neo-Assyrian Empire underwent several different capitals. There is some evidence that Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–884 BC), perhaps inspired by his predecessor of the same name, made unfulfilled plans to transfer the capital to a city called Nemid Tukulti-Ninurta, either a completely new city or a new name applied to Nineveh, which by this point already rivalled Assur in scale and political importance. The capital was transferred under Tukulti-Ninurta II's son Ashurnasirpal II to Nimrud in 879 BC. An architectural detail separating Nimrud and the other Neo-Assyrian capitals from Assur is that they were designed in a way that emphasized royal power: the royal palaces in Assur were smaller than the temples but the situation was reversed in the new capitals. Sargon II transferred the capital in 706 BC to the city Dur-Sharrukin, which he built himself. Since the location of Dur-Sharrukin had no obvious practical or political merit, this move was probably an ideological statement. Immediately after Sargon II's death in 705 BC, his son Sennacherib transferred the capital to Nineveh, a far more natural seat of power. Though it was not meant as a permanent royal residence, Ashur-uballit II chose Harran as his seat of power after the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC. Harran is typically seen as the short-lived final Assyrian capital. No building projects were conducted during this time, but Harran had been long-established as a major religious center, dedicated to the god Sîn. Aristocracy and elite
, a palace herald, made in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Shalmaneser IV (783–773 BC)]]
Because of the nature of source preservation, more information about the upper classes of ancient Assyria survives than for the lower ones. At the top of Middle and Neo-Assyrian society were members of long-established and large families called "houses". Members of this aristocracy tended to occupy the most important offices within the government and they were likely descendants of the most prominent families of the Old Assyrian period. One of the most influential offices in the Assyrian administration was the position of vizier (sukkallu). From at least the time of Shalmaneser I onward, there were grand viziers (sukkallu rabi’u), superior to the ordinary viziers, who at times governed their own lands as appointees of the kings. At least in the Middle Assyrian period, the grand viziers were typically members of the royal family and the position was at this time, as were many other offices, hereditary.
The elite of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was expanded and included several different offices. The Neo-Assyrian inner elite is typically divided by modern scholars into the "magnates", a set of high-ranking offices, and the "scholars" (ummânī), tasked with advising and guiding the kings through interpreting omens. The magnates included the offices masennu (treasurer), nāgir ekalli (palace herald), rab šāqê (chief cupbearer), rab ša-rēši (chief officer/eunuch), sartinnu (chief judge), sukkallu (grand vizier) and turtanu (commander-in-chief), which at times continued to be occupied by royal family members. Some of the magnates also acted as governors of important provinces and all of them were deeply involved with the Assyrian military, controlling significant forces. They also owned large tax-free estates, scattered throughout the empire. In the late Neo-Assyrian Empire, there was a growing disconnect between the traditional Assyrian elite and the kings due to eunuchs growing unprecedently powerful. The highest offices both in the civil administration and the army began to be occupied by eunuchs with deliberately obscure and lowly origins since this ensured that they would be loyal to the king. Eunuchs were trusted since they were believed to not be able to have any dynastic aspirations of their own.
From the time of Erishum I in the early Old Assyrian period onward, a yearly office-holder, a limmu official, was elected from the influential men of Assyria. The limmu official gave their name to the year, meaning that their name appeared in all administrative documents signed that year. Kings were typically the limmu officials in their first regnal years. In the Old Assyrian period, the limmu officials also held substantial executive power, though this aspect of the office had disappeared by the time of the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire.
Administration
, governor of Libbi-ali, Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, Ekallatum, Itu, and Ruqahu, 804 BC]]
The success of Assyria was not only due to energetic kings who expanded its borders but more importantly due to its ability to efficiently incorporate and govern conquered lands. From the rise of Assyria as a territorial state at the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period onward, Assyrian territory was divided into a set of provinces or districts (pāḫutu). The total number and size of these provinces varied and changed as Assyria expanded and contracted. Every province was headed by a provincial governor (bel pāḫete, bēl pīhāti or šaknu) who was responsible for handling local order, public safety and economy. Governors also stored and distributed the goods produced in their province, which were inspected and collected by royal representatives once a year. Through these inspections, the central government could keep track of current stocks and production throughout the country. Governors had to pay both taxes and offer gifts to the god Ashur, though such gifts were usually small and mainly symbolic. The channeling of taxes and gifts were not only a method of collecting profit but also served to connect the elite of the entire empire to the Assyrian heartland. In the Neo-Assyrian period, an extensive hierarchy within the provincial administration is attested. At the bottom of this hierarchy were lower officials, such as village managers (rab ālāni) who oversaw one or more villages, collecting taxes in the form of labor and goods and keeping the administration informed of the conditions of their settlements, and corvée officers (ša bēt-kūdini) who kept tallies on the labor performed by forced laborers and the remaining time owed. Individual cities had their own administrations, headed by mayors (ḫazi’ānu), responsible for the local economy and production.
Some regions of the Assyrian Empire were not incorporated into the provincial system but were still subjected to the rule of the Assyrian kings. Such vassal states could be ruled indirectly through allowing established local lines of kings to continue ruling in exchange for tribute or through the Assyrian kings appointing their own vassal rulers. Through the ilku system, the Assyrian kings could also grant arable lands to individuals in exchange for goods and military service.
To overcome the challenges of governing a large empire, the Neo-Assyrian Empire developed a sophisticated state communication system, which included various innovative techniques and relay stations. Per estimates by Karen Radner, an official message sent in the Neo-Assyrian period from the western border province Quwê to the Assyrian heartland, a distance of 700 kilometers (430 miles) over a stretch of lands featuring many rivers without any bridges, could take less than five days to arrive. Such communication speed was unprecedented before the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and was not surpassed in the Middle East until the telegraph was introduced by the Ottoman Empire in 1865, nearly two and a half thousand years after the Neo-Assyrian Empire's fall.
Military
The Assyrian army was throughout its history mostly composed of levies, mobilized only when they were needed (such as in the time of campaigns). Through regulations, obligations and sophisticated government systems, large amounts of soldiers could be recruited and mobilized already in the early Middle Assyrian period. A small central standing army unit was established in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, dubbed the kiṣir šarri ("king's unit"). Some professional (though not standing) troops are also attested in the Middle Assyrian period, dubbed ḫurādu or ṣābū ḫurādātu, though what their role was is not clear due to the scarcity of sources. Perhaps this category included archers and charioteers, who needed more extensive training than normal foot soldiers.
The Assyrian army developed and evolved over time. In the Middle Assyrian period, foot soldiers were divided into the sạ bū ša kakkē ("weapon troops") and the sạ bū ša arâtē ("shield-bearing troops") but surviving records are not detailed enough to determine what the differences were. It is possible that the sạ bū ša kakkē included ranged troops, such as slingers (ṣābū ša ušpe) and archers (ṣābū ša qalte). The chariots in the army composed a unit of their own. Based on surviving depictions, chariots were crewed by two soldiers: an archer who commanded the chariot (māru damqu) and a driver (ša mugerre). Chariots first entered extensive military use under Tiglath-Pileser I in the 12th–11th centuries BC and were in the later Neo-Assyrian period gradually phased out in favor of cavalry (ša petḫalle). In the Middle Assyrian period, cavalry was mainly used for escorting or message deliveries.
Under the Neo-Assyrian Empire, important new developments in the military were the large-scale introduction of cavalry, the adoption of iron for armor and weapons, and the development of new and innovative siege warfare techniques. At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian army was the strongest army yet assembled in world history. The number of soldiers in the Neo-Assyrian army was likely several hundred thousand. The Neo-Assyrian army was subdivided into kiṣru, composed of perhaps 1,000 soldiers, most of whom would have been infantry soldiers (zūk, zukkû or raksūte). The infantry was divided into three types: light, medium and heavy, with varying weapons, level of armor and responsibilities. While on campaign, the Assyrian army made heavy use of both interpreters/translators (targumannu) and guides (rādi kibsi), both probably being drawn from foreigners resettled in Assyra.
Population and society
Population and social standing
Populace
The majority of the population of ancient Assyria were farmers who worked land owned by their families. Old Assyrian society was divided into two main groups: slaves (subrum) and free citizens, referred to as awīlum ("men") or <small>DUMU</small> Aššur ("sons of Ashur"). Among the free citizens there was also a division into rabi ("big") and ṣaher ("small") members of the city assembly. Assyrian society grew more complex and hierarchical over time. In the Middle Assyrian Empire, there were several groups among the lower classes, the highest of which were the free men (a’ılū), who like the upper classes could receive land in exchange for performing duties for the government, but who could not live on these lands since they were comparably small. Below the free men were the unfree men (šiluhlu̮). The unfree men had given up their freedom and entered the services of others on their own accord, and were in turn provided with clothes and rations. Many of them probably originated as foreigners. Though similar to slavery, it was possible for an unfree person to regain their freedom by providing a replacement and they were during their service considered the property of the government rather than their employers. Other lower classes of the Middle Assyrian period included the ālāyû ("village residents"), ālik ilke (people recruited through the ilku system) and the hupšu, though what these designations meant in terms of social standing and living standards is not known.
The Middle Assyrian structure of society by and large endured through the subsequent Neo-Assyrian period. Below the higher classes of Neo-Assyrian society were free citizens, semi-free laborers and slaves. It was possible through steady service to the Assyrian state bureaucracy for a family to move up the social ladder; in some cases stellar work conducted by a single individual enhanced the status of their family for generations to come. In many cases, Assyrian family groups, or "clans", formed large population groups within the empire referred to as tribes. Such tribes lived together in villages and other settlements near or adjacent to their agricultural lands.
Slavery was an intrinsic part of nearly every society in the ancient Near East. There were two main types of slaves in ancient Assyria: chattel slaves, primarily foreigners who were kidnapped or who were spoils of war, and debt slaves, formerly free men and women who had been unable to pay off their debts. In some cases, Assyrian children were seized by authorities due to the debts of their parents and sold off into slavery when their parents were unable to pay. Children born to slave women automatically became slaves themselves, unless some other arrangement had been agreed to. Though Old Babylonian texts frequently mention the geographical and ethnic origin of slaves, there is only a single known such reference in Old Assyrian texts (whereas there are many describing slaves in a general sense), a slave girl explicitly being referred to as Subaraean, indicating that ethnicity was not seen as very important in terms of slavery. The surviving evidence suggests that the number of slaves in Assyria never reached a large share of the population. In the Akkadian language, several terms were used for slaves, commonly wardum, though this term could confusingly also be used for (free) official servants, retainers and followers, soldiers and subjects of the king. Because many individuals designated as wardum in Assyrian texts are described as handling property and carrying out administrative tasks on behalf of their masters, many may have in actuality been free servants and not slaves in the common meaning of the term. A number of wardum are however also recorded as being bought and sold. Status of women
(Sennacherib's wife, 8th-7th centuries BC), the most documented woman in Assyrian history.]]
The main evidence concerning the lives of ordinary women in ancient Assyria is in administrative documents and law codes. There was no legal distinction between men and women in the Old Assyrian period and they had more or less the same rights in society. Since several letters written by women are known from the Old Assyrian period, it is evident that women were free to learn how to read and write. Both men and women paid the same fines, could inherit property, participated in trade, bought, owned, and sold houses and slaves, made their own last wills, and were allowed to divorce their partners. Records of Old Assyrian marriages confirm that the dowry to the bride belonged to her, not the husband, and it was inherited by her children after her death. Although they were equal legally, men and women in the Old Assyrian period were raised and socialized differently and had different social expectations and obligations. Typically, girls were raised by their mothers, taught to spin, weave, and help with daily tasks and boys were taught trades by masters, later often following their fathers on trade expeditions. Sometimes the eldest daughter of a family was consecrated as a priestess. She was not allowed to marry and became economically independent.
Wives were expected to provide their husbands with garments and food. Although marriages were typically monogamous, husbands were allowed to buy a female slave in order to produce an heir if his wife was infertile. The wife was allowed to choose that slave and the slave never gained the status of a second wife. Husbands who were away on long trading journeys were allowed to take a second wife in one of the trading colonies, although with strict rules that must be followed: the second wife was not allowed to accompany him back to Assur and both wives had to be provided with a home to live in, food, and wood.
The status of women decreased in the Middle Assyrian period, as can be gathered from laws concerning them among the Middle Assyrian Laws. Among these laws were punishments for various crimes, often sexual or marital ones. Although they did not deprive women of all their rights and they were not significantly different from other ancient Near Eastern laws of their time, the Middle Assyrian Laws effectively made women second-class citizens. However, it is not clear how strongly these laws were enforced. These laws gave men the right to punish their wives as they wished. Among the harshest punishments written into these laws, for a crime not even committed by the woman, was that a raped woman would be forcibly married to her rapist. These laws also specified that certain women were obliged to wear veils while out on the street, marital status being the determining factor. Some women, such as slave women and ḫarımtū women, were prohibited from wearing veils and others, such as certain priestesses, were only allowed to wear veils if they were married.
Not all laws were suppressive against women; women whose husbands died or were taken prisoner in war, and who did not have any sons or relatives to support them, were guaranteed support from the government. The ḫarımtū women have historically been believed to have been prostitutes, but today, are interpreted as women with an independent social existence, i.e. not tied to a husband, father, or institution. Although most ḫarımtū appear to have been poor, there were noteworthy exceptions. The term appears with negative connotations in several texts. Their mere existence makes it clear that it was possible for women to live independent lives, despite their lesser social standing during that period.
During the Neo-Assyrian period that followed, royal and upper-class women experienced increased influence. Women attached to the Neo-Assyrian royal court sent and received letters, were independently wealthy, and could buy and own lands of their own. The queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire are better attested historically than queens of preceding periods of the culture. Under the Sargonid dynasty, they were granted their own military units, sometimes they are known to have partaken alongside other units in military campaigns.
Among the most influential women of the Neo-Assyrian period were Shammuramat, queen of Shamshi-Adad V (824–811 BC), who in the reign of her son Adad-nirari III (811–783 BC) might have been regent and participated in military campaigns. Another is Naqi'a, who influenced politics in the reigns of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal.
Economy
s]]
In the Old Assyrian period, a major portion of Assur's population was involved in the city's international trade. As can be gathered from hiring contracts and other records, the trade involved people of many different occupations, including porters, guides, donkey drivers, agents, traders, bakers and bankers. Because of the extensive cuneiform records known from the period, details of the trade are relatively well-known. It has been estimated that just in the period 1950–1836 BC, twenty-five tons of Anatolian silver was transported to Assur, and that approximately one hundred tons of tin and 100,000 textiles were transported to Anatolia in return. The Assyrians also sold livestock, processed goods and reed products. In many cases, the materials sold by Assyrian colonists came from far-away places; the textiles sold by Assyrians in Anatolia were imported from southern Mesopotamia and the tin came from the east in the Zagros Mountains.
After international trade declined in the 19th century BC, the Assyrian economy became increasingly oriented toward the state. In the Neo-Assyrian period, the wealth generated through private investments was dwarfed by the wealth of the state, which was by far the largest employer in the empire and had a monopoly on agriculture, manufacturing and exploitation of minerals. The imperial economy advantaged mainly the elite, since it was structured in a way that ensured that surplus wealth flowed to the government and was then used for the maintenance of the state throughout the empire. Though all means of production were owned by the state, there also continued to be a vibrant private economic sector within the empire, with property rights of individuals ensured by the government.
Personal identity and continuity
(669–631 BC) and two royal attendants]]
Ethnicity and culture are largely based in self-perception and self-designation. A distinct Assyrian identity seems to have formed already in the Old Assyrian period, when distinctly Assyrian burial practices, foods and dress codes are attested and Assyrian documents appear to consider the inhabitants of Assur to be a distinct cultural group. A wider Assyrian identity appears to have spread across northern Mesopotamia under the Middle Assyrian Empire, since later writings concerning the reconquests of the early Neo-Assyrian kings refer to some of their wars as liberating the Assyrian people of the cities they reconquered.
Surviving evidence suggests that the ancient Assyrians had a relatively open definition of what it meant to be Assyrian. Modern ideas such as a person's ethnic background, or the Roman idea of legal citizenship, do not appear to have been reflected in ancient Assyria. Although Assyrian accounts and artwork of warfare frequently describe and depict foreign enemies, they are not depicted with different physical features,}} but rather with different clothing and equipment. Assyrian accounts describe enemies as barbaric only in terms of their behavior, as lacking correct religious practices, and as doing wrongdoings against Assyria. All things considered, there does not appear to have been any well-developed concepts of ethnicity or race in ancient Assyria. What mattered for a person to be seen by others as Assyrian was mainly fulfillment of obligations (such as military service), being affiliated with the Assyrian Empire politically and maintaining loyalty to the Assyrian king. One of the inscriptions that attest to this view, as well as royal Assyrian policies enacted to encourage assimilation and cultural mixture, is Sargon II's account of the construction of Dur-Sharrukin. One of the passages of the inscription reads:
}} lord above all, supervises, I let dwell inside [my new city] on the command of Ashur my lord [...]. Born Assyrians, experienced in all professions, I set above them as supervisors and guides to teach them how to work properly and respect the gods and the king.}}
Although the text clearly differentiates the new settlers from those that had been "born Assyrians", the aim of Sargon's policy was also clearly to transform the new settlers into Assyrians through appointing supervisors and guides to teach them. Though the expansion of the Assyrian Empire, in combination with resettlements and deportations, changed the ethno-cultural make-up of the Assyrian heartland, there is no evidence to suggest that the more ancient Assyrian inhabitants of the land ever disappeared or became restricted to a small elite, nor that the ethnic and cultural identity of the new settlers was anything other than "Assyrian" after one or two generations.
Although the use of the term "Assyrian" by the modern Assyrian people has historically been the target of misunderstanding and controversy, both politically and academically, Assyrian continuity is generally scholarly accepted based on both historical and genetic evidence in the sense that the modern Assyrians are regarded to be descendants of the population of the ancient Assyrian Empire.<!-- I.e. they are generally regarded to be the descendants of people who lived under the rule of the Assyrian Empire; Assyrian inscriptions suggest that all people under Assyrian rule who adopted Assyrian culture were officially seen as Assyrians. --> Though the ancient Akkadian language and cuneiform script did not survive for long in Assyria after the empire was destroyed in 609 BC, Assyrian culture clearly did; the old Assyrian religion continued to be practised at Assur until the 3rd century AD, and at other sites for centuries thereafter, gradually losing ground to Christianity. At Mardin, believers in the old religion are known from as late as the 18th century. Individuals with names harkening back to ancient Mesopotamia are also attested at Assur until it was sacked for the last time in AD 240 and at other sites as late as the 13th century. Though many foreign states ruled over Assyria in the millennia following the empire's fall, there is no evidence of any large scale influx of immigrants that replaced the original population, which instead continued to make up a significant portion of the region's people until the Mongol and Timurid massacres in the late 14th century.
In pre-modern Syriac-language (the type of Aramaic used in Christian Mesopotamian writings) sources, the typical self-designations used are ʾārāmāyā ("Aramean")<!-- this is not denial of continuity - as is made expressly clear in the rest of the section continuity is supported and suryāyā is regarded to derive from "Assyrian"; this does not mean that the multiple names used in pre-modern sources should not be mentioned --> and suryāyā, with the term ʾāthorāyā ("Assyrian") rarely being used as a self-designation. The terms Assyria (ʾāthor) and Assyrian (ʾāthorāyā) were however used in several senses in pre-modern times; most notably being used for the ancient Assyrians and for the land surrounding Nineveh (and for the city of Mosul, built next to Nineveh's ruins). In Syriac translations of the Bible, the term ʾāthor is also used to refer to the ancient Assyrian Empire. In the sense of a citizen of Mosul, the designation ʾāthorāyā were used for some individuals in the pre-modern period. The reluctance of Christians to use ʾāthorāyā as a self-designation could perhaps be explained by the Assyrians described in the Bible being prominent enemies of Israel;}} the term ʾāthorāyā was sometimes employed in Syriac writings as a term for enemies of Christians. In this context, the term was sometimes applied to the Persians of the Sasanian Empire; the 4th-century Syriac writer Ephrem the Syrian for instance referred to the Sasanian Empire as "filthy ʾāthor, mother of corruption". In a similar fashion, the term was also sometimes applied to the later Muslim rulers.
The self-designation suryāyā, suryāyē or sūrōyē, sometimes translated as "Syrian", is believed to be derived from the Akkadian term assūrāyu ("Assyrian"), which was sometimes even in ancient times rendered in the shorter form sūrāyu. Some medieval Syriac Christian documents used āsūrāyē and sūrāyē, rather than āthōrāyē, also for the ancient Assyrians. Medieval and modern Armenian sources also connected assūrāyu and suryāyā, consistently referring to the Aramaic-speaking Christians of Mesopotamia and Syria as Asori.
Despite the complex issue of self-designations, pre-modern Syriac-language sources at times identified positively with the ancient Assyrians and drew connections between the ancient empire and themselves. Most prominently, ancient Assyrian kings and figures long appeared in local folklore and literary tradition and claims of descent from ancient Assyrian royalty were forwarded both for figures in folklore and by actual living high-ranking members of society in northern Mesopotamia. Visits by missionaries from various western churches to the Assyrian heartland in the 18th century likely contributed to the Assyrian people more strongly relating their self-designation and identity to ancient Assyria; in the context of interactions with westerners who connected them to the ancient Assyrians, and due to an increasing number of atrocities and massacres directed against them, the Assyrian people experienced a cultural "awakening" or "renaissance" toward the end of the 19th century, which led to the development of a national ideology more strongly rooted in their descent from ancient Assyria and a re-adoption of self-designations such as ʾāthorāyā and ʾāsurāyā. Today, sūryōyō or sūrāyā are the predominant self-designations used by Assyrians in their native language, though they are typically translated as "Assyrian" rather than "Syrian".
Culture
Languages
Akkadian
cuneiform tablet, containing an account of a caravan journey]]
The ancient Assyrians primarily spoke and wrote the Assyrian language, a Semitic language (i.e. related to modern Hebrew and Arabic) closely related to Babylonian, spoken in southern Mesopotamia. Both Assyrian and Babylonian are generally regarded by modern scholars to be dialects of the Akkadian language. This is a modern convention since contemporary ancient authors considered Assyrian and Babylonian to be two separate languages. Only Babylonian was referred to as akkadûm, with Assyrian being referred to as aššurû or aššurāyu. Though both were written with cuneiform script, the signs look quite different and can be distinguished relatively easily.
Given the vast timespan covered by ancient Assyria, the Assyrian language developed and evolved over time. Modern scholars broadly categorize it into three different periods, roughly (though far from precisely) corresponding to the periods used to divide Assyrian history: the Old Assyrian language (2000–1500 BC), Middle Assyrian language (1500–1000 BC) and Neo-Assyrian language (1000–500 BC). Because the record of Assyrian tablets and documents is still somewhat spotty, many of the stages of the language remain poorly known and documented.
The signs used in Old Assyrian texts are for the most part less complex than those used during the succeeding Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods and they were fewer in number, amounting to no more than 150–200 unique signs, most of which were syllabic signs (representing syllables). Due to the limited number of signs used, Old Assyrian is relatively easier to decipher for modern researchers than later forms of the language, though the limited number of signs also means that there are in cases several possible alternative phonetic values and readings. This means that while it is easy to decipher the signs, many researchers remain uncomfortable with the language itself. Though it was a more archaic variant of the later Assyrian language, Old Assyrian also contains several words that are not attested in later periods, some being peculiar early forms of words and others being names for commercial terms or various textile and food products from Anatolia.
In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian empires, the later versions of the Assyrian language were not the only versions of Akkadian used. Though Assyrian was typically used in letters, legal documents, administrative documents, and as a vernacular, Standard Babylonian was also used in an official capacity. Standard Babylonian was a highly codified version of ancient Babylonian, as used around 1500 BC, and was used as a language of high culture, for nearly all scholarly documents, literature, poetry and royal inscriptions. The culture of the Assyrian elite was strongly influenced by Babylonia in the south; in a vein similar to how Greek civilization was respected in, and influenced, ancient Rome, the Assyrians had much respect for Babylon and its ancient culture.
Because of the multilingual nature of the vast empire, many loan words are attested as entering the Assyrian language during the Neo-Assyrian period. The number of surviving documents written in cuneiform grow considerably fewer in the late reign of Ashurbanipal, which suggests that the language was declining since it is probably attributable to an increased use of Aramaic, often written on perishable materials such as leather scrolls or papyrus. The ancient Assyrian language did not disappear completely until around the end of the 6th century BC, well into the subsequent post-imperial period. Aramaic and other languages
, with Syriac language writing]]
Because the Assyrians never imposed their language on foreign peoples whose lands they conquered outside of the Assyrian heartland, there were no mechanisms in place to stop the spread of languages other than Akkadian. Beginning with the migrations of Arameans into Assyrian territory during the Middle Assyrian period, this lack of linguistic policies facilitated the spread of the Aramaic language. As the most widely spoken and mutually understandable of the Semitic languages (the language group containing many of the languages spoken through the empire), Aramaic grew in importance throughout the Neo-Assyrian period and increasingly replaced the Neo-Assyrian language even within the Assyrian heartland itself. From the 9th century BC onward, Aramaic became the de facto lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with Neo-Assyrian and other forms of Akkadian becoming relegated to a language of the political elite.
From the time of Shalmaneser III, in the 9th century BC, Aramaic was used in state-related contexts alongside Akkadian and by the time of Tiglath-Pileser III, the kings employed both Akkadian and Aramaic-language royal scribes, confirming the rise of Aramaic to a position of an official language used by the imperial administration. During the time after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the old Assyrian language was completely abandoned in Mesopotamia in favor of Aramaic. By 500 BC, Akkadian was probably no longer a spoken language.
Modern Assyrian people refer to their language as "Assyrian" (Sūrayt or Sūreth). Though it has little in common with the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language, it is a modern version of the ancient Mesopotamian Aramaic. The language retains some influence of ancient Akkadian, particularly in the form of loanwords. Modern Assyrian varieties of Aramaic are often referred to by scholars as Neo-Aramaic or Neo-Syriac. As a liturgical language, many Assyrians also speak Syriac, a codified version of classical Aramaic as spoken at Edessa during the Christianization of Assyria.
Another language sometimes used in ancient Assyria as a language of scholarship and culture, though only in written form, was the ancient Sumerian language. At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, various other local languages were also spoken within the imperial borders, though none achieved the same level of official recognition as Aramaic. Architecture
, the Assyrian capital 705–612 BC]]
There are three surviving forms of primary evidence for the architecture of ancient Assyria. The most important form is the surviving buildings themselves, found through archaeological excavations, but important evidence can also be gathered from both contemporary documentation, such as letters and administrative documents that describe buildings that might not have been preserved, as well as documentation by later kings concerning the building works of previous kings. Assyrian buildings and construction works were almost always constructed out of mudbrick. Limestone was also used, though primarily only in works such as aqueducts and river walls, exposed to running water, and defensive fortifications.
In order to support large buildings, they were often built on top of foundation platforms or on mud brick foundations. Floors were typically made of rammed earth, covered in important rooms with carpets or reed mats. Floors in locations that were exposed to the elements, such as outside on terraces or in courtyards, were paved with stone slabs or backed bricks. Roofs, particularly in larger rooms, were supported through the use of wooden beams.
The ancient Assyrians accomplished several technologically complex construction projects, including constructions of whole new capital cities, which indicates sophisticated technical knowledge. Though in large part following previous Mesopotamian architecture, there are several characteristic features of ancient Assyrian architecture. Some examples of features of ancient Assyrian architecture include stepped merlons, vaulted roofs, and palaces to a large degree often being made up of sets of self-contained suites.
Art
A relatively large number of statues and figurines have been recovered from the ruins of temples in Assur dating to the Early Assyrian period. Most of the surviving artwork from this time was clearly influenced by the artwork of foreign powers. For instance, a set of 87 alabaster figures of male and female worshippers from Assur before the rise of the Akkadian Empire greatly resembles Early Dynastic Sumerian figures. Because of variation in artwork elsewhere, the artwork of early Assur was also highly variable depending on the time period, ranging from highly stylized to highly naturalistic.
Among the most unique finds from the Early period is the head of a woman of which her eyes, eyebrows, and elaborate hair covering were originally inlaid. This head is typical of the art style of the Akkadian period, with an overall naturalistic style, smooth and soft curves and a full mouth. Another unique art piece from the early period is an ivory figurine of a nude woman, and fragments of at least five additional similar figurines. The ivory used might have come from Indian elephants, which would indicate trade between early Assur and the early tribes and states of Iran. Among other artwork known from the early period are a handful of large stone statues of rulers (governors and foreign kings), figures of animals, and stone statues of naked women.
The artwork known from the Old Assyrian period, other than a few objects such as a partial stone statue perhaps depicting Erishum I, is largely limited to seals and impressions of seals on cuneiform documents. Royal seals from the Puzur-Ashur dynasty of kings, prior to the rise of Shamshi-Adad I, are very similar to the seals of the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur. In the Middle Assyrian period, from Ashur-uballit I onward, seals looked quite different and appear to emphasize royal power, rather than the theological and cosmic sources of the king's right to rule. Among non-royal seals of the Middle Assyrian period a wide assortment of different motifs are known, including both religious scenes and peaceful scenes of animals and trees. From the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I onward, seals also sometimes featured contests and struggles between humans, various animals, and mythological creatures.
Several other new artistic innovations were also made in the Middle Assyrian period. In the temple dedicated to Ishtar in Assur, four cult pedestals (or "altars") from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I have been discovered. These altars were decorated with various motifs, common inclusions being the king (sometimes multiple times) and protective divine figures and standards. One of the pedestals preserves along the lower step of its base a relief image which is the earliest known narrative image in Assyrian art history. This relief, which is not very well-preserved, appears to depict rows of prisoners before the Assyrian king. The earliest known Assyrian wall paintings are also from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, from his palace in Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Motifs included plant-based patterns (rosettes and palmettes), trees and bird-headed genies. The colors used to paint the walls included black, red, blue, and white. An unusual limestone statue of a nude woman is known from Nineveh from the time of Ashur-bel-kala (1074–1056 BC). An entirely new type of monument introduced in the 11th century BC were obelisks; four-sided stone stelae decorated all around with both images and text. Obelisks saw continued use until at least the 9th century BC.
Compared to other periods, a larger amount of artwork survives from the Neo-Assyrian period, particularly monumental art made under the patronage of the kings. The most well-known form of Neo-Assyrian monumental art are wall reliefs, carved stone artwork that lined the internal and external walls of temples and palaces. Another well-known form of Neo-Assyrian art are colossi, often human-headed lions or bulls (lamassu), that were placed at the gates of temples, palaces and cities. The earliest known examples of both wall reliefs and colossi are from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, who might have been inspired by the Hittite monumental art that he saw on his campaigns to the Mediterranean.
Wall paintings such as those made under Tukulti-Ninurta I in the Middle Assyrian period also continued to be used, sometimes to supplement wall reliefs and sometimes instead of them. Interior walls could be decorated by covering the mudbrick used in construction with painted mud plaster and exterior walls were at times decorated with glazed and painted tiles or bricks. The most extensive known surviving sets of wall reliefs are from the reign of Sennacherib. In terms of Neo-Assyrian artwork, modern scholars have paid particular attention to the reliefs produced under Ashurbanipal, which have been described as possessing a distinct "epic quality" unlike the art under his predecessors.
<gallery widths"170" heights"170">
File:Statue of a praying woman from the Archaic Ishtar Temple of Assur, Iraq. 2400 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|Statue of a praying woman, 25th century BC
File:Cult wall relief from Assur. A deity, probably god Assur, is flanked by 2 water deities and 2 goats. 2000-1500 BCE. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.jpg|Wall relief probably depicting Ashur, 21st–16th century BC
File:Middle Assyrian winged horse cylinder seal.png|Cylinder seal and impression, 14th–13th century BC
File:Temple altar offered by Tukulti-Ninurta I. 1243-1207 BCE. From Assur, Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg|Temple altar of Tukulti-Ninurta I, 13th century BC
File:The only known Assyrian statue of a naked woman, erected at the temple of Ishtar in Nineveh, during the reign of Ashur-bel-kala, 1073-1056 BCE. Currently housed in the British Museum, London.jpg|Statue of a nude woman, 11th century BC
File:2018 Ashurbanipal - Tile.jpg|Glazed tile depicting a king and attendants, 9th century BC
File:The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 9th century BC, from Nimrud, Iraq. The British Museum.jpg|The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 9th century BC
File:Shalmaneser III statue from Nimrud, Iraq. 9th century BCE. Iraq Museum in Baghdad.jpg|Statue of Shalmaneser III, 9th century BC
File:Openwork furniture plaque with a grazing oryx in a forest of fronds MET DP110622.jpg|Furniture ornament, 9th–8th century BC
File:Neo-Assyrian, Nimrud, Queens’ Tombs, Tomb III, Golden Crown.png|Crown of Queen Hama, 8th century BC
File:LammasuChicago.jpg|Giant lamassu, 8th century BC
File:Exhibition I am Ashurbanipal king of the world, king of Assyria, British Museum (45972455081).jpg|Portion of the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, 7th century BC
File:Head of a male figure Assyrian ca. 8th–7th century BCE.jpg|The ivory tusks that provided the raw material for these objects were almost certainly from African elephants, imported from lands south of Egypt, although elephants did inhabit several river valleys in Syria until they were hunted to extinction by the end of the eighth century B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
Scholarship and literature
, containing a portion of the Epic of Gilgamesh]]
Ancient Assyrian literature drew heavily on Babylonian literary traditions. Both the Old and Middle Assyrian periods are limited in terms of surviving literary texts. The most important surviving Old Assyrian literary work is Sargon, Lord of Lies, a text found in a well-preserved version on a cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. Once thought to have been a parody, the tale is a first-person narrative of the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the founder of the Akkadian Empire. The text follows Sargon as he gains strength from the god Adad, swears by Ishtar, the "lady of combat", and speaks with the gods. Surviving Middle Assyrian literature is only slightly more diverse.
A distinct Assyrian scholarship tradition, though still drawing on Babylonian tradition, is conventionally placed as beginning around the time of the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. The rising status of scholarship at this time might be connected to the kings beginning to regard amassing knowledge as a way to strengthen their power. Known Middle Assyrian works include the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic (a narrative of the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I and his exploits), fragments of other royal epics, The Hunter (a short martial poem) and some royal hymns.
The clear majority of surviving ancient Assyrian literature is from the Neo-Assyrian period. The kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to see preserving knowledge as one of their responsibilities, and not, as previous kings had, a responsibility of private individuals and temples. This development might have originated with the kings no longer viewing the divination performed by their diviners as enough and wished to have access to the relevant texts themselves. The office of chief scholar is first attested in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta II.
Most of the surviving ancient Assyrian literature comes from the Neo-Assyrian Library of Ashurbanipal, which included more than 30,000 documents. Libraries were built in the Neo-Assyrian period to preserve knowledge of the past and maintain scribal culture. Neo-Assyrian texts fall into a wide array of genres, including divinatory texts, divination reports, treatments for the sick (either medical or magical), ritual texts, incantations, prayers and hymns, school texts and literary texts. An innovation of the Neo-Assyrian period were the annals, a genre of texts recording the events of the reigns of a king, particularly military exploits. Annals were disseminated throughout the empire and probably served propagandistic purposes, supporting the legitimacy of the king's rule.
Various purely literary works, previously aligned by scholars with propaganda, are known from the Neo-Assyrian period. Such works include, among others, the Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Crown Prince, the Sin of Sargon and the Marduk Ordeal. In addition to their own works, the Assyrians copied and preserved earlier Mesopotamian literature. The inclusion of texts such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Enûma Eliš (the Babylonian creation myth), Erra, the Myth of Etana and the Epic of Anzu in the Library of Ashurbanipal is the primary reason for how such texts have survived to the present day.
Religion
Ancient Assyrian religion
Knowledge of the ancient polytheistic Assyrian religion, referred to as "Ashurism" by some modern Assyrians, is mostly limited to state cults given that little can be ascertained of the personal religious beliefs and practices of the common people of ancient Assyria. The Assyrians worshipped the same pantheon of gods as the Babylonians in southern Mesopotamia. The chief Assyrian deity was the national deity Ashur. Though the deity and the ancient capital city are commonly distinguished by modern historians through calling the god Ashur and the city Assur, both were inscribed in the exact same way in ancient times (Aššur). In documents from the preceding Old Assyrian period, the city and god are often not clearly differentiated, which suggests that Ashur originated sometime in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of the city itself.
Below Ashur, the other Mesopotamian deities were organized in a hierarchy, with each having their own assigned roles (the sun-god Shamash was for instance regarded as a god of justice and Ishtar was seen as a goddess of love and war) and their own primary seats of worship (Ninurta was for instance primarily worshipped at Nimrud and Ishtar primarily at Arbela). Quintessentially Babylonian deities such as Enlil, Marduk, and Nabu were worshipped in Assyria just as much as in Babylonia, and several traditionally Babylonian rituals, such as the akitu festival, were borrowed in the north.
Ashur's role as the chief deity was flexible and changed with the changing culture and politics of the Assyrians themselves. In the Old Assyrian period, Ashur was mainly regarded as a god of death and revival, related to agriculture. Under the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empire, Ashur's role was expanded and thoroughly altered. Possibly originating as a reaction to the period of suzerainty under the Mittani kingdom, Middle Assyrian theology presented Ashur as a god of war, who bestowed the Assyrian kings not only with divine legitimacy, something retained from the Old Assyrian period, but also commanded the kings to enlarge Assyria ("the land of Ashur") with Ashur's "just scepter", i.e. expand the Assyrian Empire through military conquest.
This militarization of Ashur might also have derived from the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I equating Ashur with the southern Enlil during his rule over northern Mesopotamia in the 18th and 17th centuries BC. In the Middle Assyrian period, Ashur is attested with the title "king of the gods", a role previous civilizations in both northern and southern Mesopotamia ascribed to Enlil. The development of equating Ashur with Enlil, or at least transferring Enlil's role to Ashur, was paralleled in Babylon, where the previously unimportant local god Marduk was elevated in the reign of Hammurabi (18th century BC) to the head of the pantheon, modelled after Enlil.
Assyrian religion was centered in temples, monumental structures that included a central shrine which housed the cult statue of the temple's god, and several subordinate chapels with space for statues of other deities. Temples were typically self-contained communities; they had their own economic resources, chiefly in the form of land holdings, and their own hierarchically organized personnel. In later times, temples became increasingly dependent on royal benefits, in the shape of specific taxes, offerings and donations of booty and tribute. The head of a temple was titled as the "chief administrator" and was responsible to the Assyrian king since the king was regarded to be Ashur's representative in the mortal world. Records from temples showcase that divination in the form of astrology and extispicy (studying the entrails of dead animals) were important parts of the Assyrian religion since they were believed to be means through which deities communicated with the mortal world.
Unlike many other ancient empires, the Neo-Assyrian Empire did at its height not impose its culture and religion on conquered regions; there were no significant temples built for Ashur outside of northern Mesopotamia. In the post-imperial period, after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrians continued to venerate Ashur and the rest of the pantheon, though without the Assyrian state, religious beliefs in many parts of the Assyrian heartland diverged and developed in different directions. From the time of Seleucid rule over the region (4th to 2nd century BC) onward, there was a strong influence of the ancient Greek religion, with many Greek deities becoming syncretized with Mesopotamian deities. There was also some influence of Judaism, given that the kings of Adiabene, a vassal kingdom covering much of the old Assyrian heartland, converted to Judaism in the 1st century AD.
In the 1st century BC onward, as a frontier region between the Roman and the Parthian empires, Assyria was likely highly religiously complex and diverse. Under Parthian rule, both old and new gods were worshipped at Assur. As late as the time of the city's second destruction in the 3rd century AD, the most important deity was still Ashur, known during this time as Assor or Asor. Worship of Ashur during this time was carried out in the same way as it had been in ancient times, per a cultic calendar effectively identical to that used under the Neo-Assyrian Empire 800 years prior. The ancient Mesopotamian religion persisted in some places for centuries after the end of the post-imperial period, such as at Harran until at least the 10th century (the "Sabians" of Harran) and at Mardin until as late as the 18th century (the Shamsīyah).
Christianity
of the Assyrian Church of the East, with entourage]]
The Church of the East developed early in Christian history. Though tradition holds that Christianity was first spread to Mesopotamia by Thomas the Apostle, the exact timespan when the Assyrians were first Christianized is unknown. The city of Arbela was an important early Christian center; according to the later Chronicle of Arbela, Arbela became the seat of a bishop already in AD 100, but the reliability of this document is questioned among scholars. It is however known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later served as important Christian centers in the Sasanian and later Islamic periods.
According to some traditions, Christianity took hold in Assyria when Saint Thaddeus of Edessa converted King Abgar V of Osroene in the mid-1st century AD. From the 3rd century AD onward, it is clear that Christianity was becoming the major religion of the region, with Christ replacing the old Mesopotamian deities. Assyrians had by this time already intellectually contributed to Christian thought; in the 1st century AD, the Christian Assyrian writer Tatian composed the influential Diatessaron, a synoptic rendition of the gospels.
Though Christianity is today an intrinsic part of Assyrian identity, Assyrian Christians have over the centuries splintered into a number of different Christian denominations. Though the prominent Assyrian Church of the East, the followers of which have often been termed "Nestorians", continues to exist, other prominent eastern churches include the Chaldean Catholic Church, which split off in the 16th century, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, and the Ancient Church of the East, which branched off from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1968.
Though these churches have been distinct for centuries, they still follow much of the same liturgical, spiritual and theological foundation. There are also Assyrian followers of various denominations of Protestantism, chiefly due to missions by American missionaries of the Presbyterian Church.
Because the Assyrian Church of the East remains dismissed as "Nestorian" and heretical by many other branches of Christianity, it has not been admitted into the Middle East Council of Churches and it does not take part in the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. This does not mean that efforts to approach ecumenism have not been undertaken. In 1994, Pope John Paul II and Patriarch Dinkha IV signed the Common Christological Declaration Between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, with some further efforts also having been made in the years since.
Historically, the main obstacle in the way of ecumenism has been the ancient text Liturgy of Addai and Mari, used in the Assyrian churches, wherein the anaphora does not contain the Words of Institution, seen as indispensable by the Catholic Church. This obstacle was removed in 2001, when the Catholic Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith determined that the text could be considered valid in Catholicism as well, despite the absence of the words. Some efforts have also been made to approach reunification of the Assyrian and Chaldean churches. In 1996, Dinkha IV and Patriarch Raphael I Bidawid of the Chaldean Church signed a list of common proposals to move toward unity, approved by synods of both churches in 1997.
See also
* Beth Nahrain
* Beth Garmai
* Assyrian nationalism
* List of Assyrian settlements
* List of Assyrian tribes
* Assyrian cuisine
Notes
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Category:Ancient Levant
Category:Ancient Mesopotamia
Category:Ancient Near East
Category:Bronze Age countries in Asia
Category:Iron Age countries in Asia
Category:9th century BC
Category:8th century BC
Category:7th century BC
Category:States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC
Category:States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC
Category:7th-century BC disestablishments
Category:Eastern Mediterranean
Category:Former empires | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.720395 |
2086 | Abijah | Abijah ( ) is a Biblical Hebrew unisex name which means "my Father is Yah".
Old Testament characters
Women
Abijah, who married King Ahaz of Judah. She is also called Abi. Her father's name was Zechariah; she was the mother of King Hezekiah
A wife of Hezron, one of the grandchildren of Judah
Men
Abijah of Judah, also known as Abijam (, , "My Father is Yam [Sea]"), who was son of Rehoboam and succeeded him on the throne of Judah
A son of Becher, the son of Benjamin
The second son of Samuel. His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beersheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a monarchy.
A descendant of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, a chief of the eighth of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by David and an ancestor of Zechariah, the priest who was the father of John the Baptist. The order of Abijah is listed with the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel and with Joshua.
A son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found "some good thing toward the Lord", he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and "all Israel mourned for him". According to The Jewish Encyclopedia, the good that he did "Rabbinical Literature:The passage, I Kings, xiv. 13, in which there is a reference to "some good thing [found in him] toward the Lord God of Israel," is interpreted as an allusion to Abijah's courageous and pious act in removing the sentinels placed by his father on the frontier between Israel and Judah to prevent pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Some assert that he himself undertook a pilgrimage."
This name (possibly) appeared on the Gezer calendar, a Paleo-Hebrew inscription dating to the 9th or 10th century BC, making it one of the earliest if not the earliest Yahwistic theophoric names outside the Bible.
Russian name
The variant used in the Russian language is "" (), In 1924–1930, the name (as "", a form of "" In Russian it is only used as a female name. Diminutives of this name include "" () and "" ().
References
Notes
Sources
Н. А. Петровский (N. A. Petrovsky). "Словарь русских личных имён" (Dictionary of Russian First Names). ООО Издательство "АСТ". Москва, 2005.
А. В. Суперанская (A. V. Superanskaya). "Словарь русских имён" (Dictionary of Russian Names). Издательство Эксмо. Москва, 2005.
Category:Feminine given names
Category:Masculine given names
Category:8th-century BC women
Category:Set index articles on Hebrew Bible people
Category:Women in the Hebrew Bible
Category:Samuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abijah | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.735809 |
2087 | Ark | Ark or ARK may refer to:
Biblical narratives and religion
Noah's Ark, the massive vessel to save the world's animals from a flood
Ark of bulrushes, the boat of the infant Moses
Ark of the Covenant, the chest for the tablets of the Ten Commandments
Torah ark, a cabinet used to store a synagogue's Torah scrolls
Arts, entertainment and media
Fictional entities
Ark, a planet in the Noon Universe
Ark (Transformers), a spacecraft
ARK, space colony in video games Sonic Adventure 2 and Shadow the Hedgehog
Ark, in video game Terranigma
The Ark (Halo), control station
The Ark, space station in TV series The 100
The Ark, the main setting of the game Brink
The Ark, fictional band from Alice Oseman's novel I Was Born For This
The Ark of Truth, in Stargate: The Ark of Truth
Film and television
Ark (film), a 2005 animated science fiction film
Ark, a 1970 short film by Rolf Forsberg
Ark (web series), a 2010 science fiction series by Trey Stokes
Ark: The Animated Series, a 2024 TV series based on the video game Ark: Survival Evolved
Stargate: The Ark of Truth, a 2008 military science fiction film sequel to the TV series Stargate SG-1
The Ark (film), a 2015 biblical BBC TV film
The Ark (Doctor Who), a 1966 Doctor Who TV serial
The Ark (TV series), a 2023 American science fiction TV series
"The Ark", a 2007 episode of Stargate Atlantis season 3
The Ark in Space, a 1975 Doctor Who TV serial
Gaming
Ark: Survival Evolved, a 2017 video game
Literature
Ark (novel), by Stephen Baxter, 2009
ARK, a long poem by Ronald Johnson (1935–1998)
"Ark", 2019 poem by Simon Armitage to commemorate launch of RRS Sir David Attenborough
The Ark, a weekly newspaper in Tiburon, California
Music
Bands
Ark (British band), a 1985 melodic rock band
Ark (Bangladeshi band), a 1991 Bangladeshi rock band
The Ark (Swedish band), a 1991 Swedish glam-rock band
Ark (Norwegian band), a 1999 progressive metal band
The Ark, a 2015 South Korean girl group with members including Euna Kim and Lee Su-ji
Albums and songs
Ark (The Animals album), 1983, by the original members of the Animals
Ark (Brendan Perry album), 2010
Ark (Crossfaith album), 2024
Ark (In Hearts Wake album), 2017
Ark (L'Arc-en-Ciel album), 1999
Ark (We Are the Ocean album), 2015
Ark, 2020 reissue of Here Comes the Indian, a 2003 album by Animal Collective
The Ark (album), by Frank Zappa, 1991
The Ark (EP), by Swedish band The Ark, 1996
"The Ark", a song by Dr. Dog from the 2008 album Fate
Businesses and organizations
Ark (charity), international children's educational charity, parent organisation of Ark Schools
Ark (organisation), international project helping Russian emigrants
Ark Airways, a cargo airline from Armenia
Ark Clothing, former subsidiary of JD Sports PLC
Ark Diecast, toy company
Ark Ecological NGO, in Armenia
Ark Invest, American asset management firm
ARK Music Factory, American musical composition and production company
ARK Theatre Company, in Los Angeles, California, US
ARK Logic, American computer graphics hardware company
Places
Buildings
Ark of Bukhara, Uzbekistan
The Ark (Duke University), US, a dance studio
The Ark (folk venue), in Ann Arbor, Michigan, US
The Ark (Prince Edward Island), Canada, a bioshelter
The Ark (Tadcaster), England, a historic building
The Ark, London, England, an office block
Settlements
Arkansas, United States
Ark, Iran (disambiguation), several places
Ark, Missouri, United States
Ark, Virginia, United States
SAO Bosanska Krajina, or Autonomous Region of Krajina (ARK), in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Other places
The Ark (Antarctica), a rock summit
Science and technology
Ark (search engine), a people search engine
Ark (software), a file archiver and compressor
Archival Resource Key, a multi-purpose URL
Ark Linux, a software distribution founded by Bernhard Rosenkränzer
Archaeological Recording Kit, software for recording and disseminating archaeological data
Ark Compiler, a Huawei unified compilation and runtime platform
Transportation
Ark (river boat), a temporary boat used in river transport in eastern North America
The Ark (ship), used in founding the province of Maryland
The Ark, a floating laboratory ship, later University Marine Biological Station Millport, Scotland
The Ark, an unfinished sculpture in the form of a functional ship by Kea Tawana in Newark, New Jersey, US
Arusha Airport, Tanzania, IATA airport code ARK
Arkadelphia station, Arkansas, US, Amtrak station code ARK
Armoured Ramp Carrier (ARK), a specialist armoured vehicle
Other uses
Ark Prize of the Free Word, a literary prize
Armijska Ratna Komanda D-0, or the Ark, a nuclear bunker in Bosnia and Herzegovina
ARK (Northern Ireland) (Access Research Knowledge), Northern Irish website
See also
Ark 2 (disambiguation)
Arc (disambiguation)
ARC (disambiguation)
Arch (disambiguation)
Arkana (disambiguation)
ARQ (disambiguation)
ARRC (disambiguation)
, the name of several ships of the British Royal Navy
Noah's Ark (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.744191 |
2088 | Aphasia | }}
, or
| symptoms | complications
| onset | duration
| types | causes
| risks | diagnosis
| differential | prevention
| treatment = Sign language, speech therapy
| medication | prognosis
| frequency | deaths
}}
Aphasia, also known as dysphasia, is an impairment in a person’s ability to comprehend or formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions. The major causes are stroke and head trauma; prevalence is hard to determine, but aphasia due to stroke is estimated to be 0.1–0.4% in developed countries. Aphasia can also be the result of brain tumors, epilepsy, autoimmune neurological diseases, brain infections, or neurodegenerative diseases (such as dementias).
To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's language must be significantly impaired in one or more of the four aspects of communication. In the case of progressive aphasia, a noticeable decline in language abilities over a short period of time is required. The four aspects of communication include spoken language production, spoken language comprehension, written language production, and written language comprehension. Impairments in any of these aspects can impact functional communication.
The difficulties of people with aphasia can range from occasional trouble finding words, to losing the ability to speak, read, or write; intelligence, however, is unaffected. For example, while a person with aphasia, particularly expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia), may not be able to ask a loved one when their birthday is, they may still be able to sing "Happy Birthday". One prevalent deficit in all aphasias is anomia, which is a difficulty in finding the correct word.
With aphasia, one or more modes of communication in the brain have been damaged and are therefore functioning incorrectly. Aphasia is not caused by damage to the brain resulting in motor or sensory deficits, thus producing abnormal speech — that is, aphasia is not related to the mechanics of speech, but rather the individual's language cognition. However, it is possible for a person to have both problems, e.g. in the case of a hemorrhage damaging a large area of the brain. An individual's language abilities incorporate the socially shared set of rules, as well as the thought processes that go behind communication (as it affects both verbal and nonverbal language). Aphasia is not a result of other peripheral motor or sensory difficulty, such as paralysis affecting the speech muscles, or a general hearing impairment.
Neurodevelopmental forms of auditory processing disorder (APD) are differentiable from aphasia in that aphasia is by definition caused by acquired brain injury, but acquired epileptic aphasia has been viewed as a form of APD<!--ref in APD article body at discussion of that epileptic condition-->.
Signs and symptoms
People with aphasia may experience any of the following behaviors due to an acquired brain injury, although some of these symptoms may be due to related or concomitant problems, such as dysarthria or apraxia, and not primarily due to aphasia. Aphasia symptoms can vary based on the location of damage in the brain. Signs and symptoms may or may not be present in individuals with aphasia and may vary in severity and level of disruption to communication. Often those with aphasia may have a difficulty with naming objects, so they might use words such as thing or point at the objects. When asked to name a pencil they may say it is a "thing used to write".
* Inability to comprehend language
* Inability to pronounce, not due to muscle paralysis or weakness
* Inability to form words
* Inability to recall words (anomia)
* Poor enunciation
* Excessive creation and use of protologisms
* Inability to repeat a phrase
* Persistent repetition of one syllable, word, or phrase (stereotypies, recurrent/recurring utterances/speech automatism) also known as perseveration.
* Paraphasia (substituting letters, syllables or words)
* Agrammatism (inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion)
* speaking in incomplete sentences
* Inability to read
* Inability to write
* Limited verbal output
* Difficulty in naming
* Speech disorder
* Speaking gibberish
* Inability to follow or understand simple requests
Related behaviors
Given the previously stated signs and symptoms, the following behaviors are often seen in people with aphasia as a result of attempted compensation for incurred speech and language deficits:
* Self-repairs: Further disruptions in fluent speech as a result of mis-attempts to repair erred speech production.
* Struggle in non-fluent aphasias: A severe increase in expelled effort to speak after a life where talking and communicating was an ability that came so easily can cause visible frustration.
* Preserved and automatic language: A behavior in which some language or language sequences that were used frequently prior to onset are still produced with more ease than other language post onset.
Subcortical
* Subcortical aphasia's characteristics and symptoms depend upon the site and size of subcortical lesion. Possible sites of lesions include the thalamus, internal capsule, and basal ganglia.
Cognitive deficits
While aphasia has traditionally been described in terms of language deficits, there is increasing evidence that many people with aphasia commonly experience co-occurring non-linguistic cognitive deficits in areas such as attention, memory, executive functions and learning. By some accounts, cognitive deficits, such as attention and working memory constitute the underlying cause of language impairment in people with aphasia. Others suggest that cognitive deficits often co-occur, but are comparable to cognitive deficits in stroke patients without aphasia and reflect general brain dysfunction following injury. Whilst it has been shown that cognitive neural networks support language reorganisation after stroke,
The degree to which deficits in attention and other cognitive domains underlie language deficits in aphasia is still unclear.
In particular, people with aphasia often demonstrate short-term and working memory deficits. as well as the visuospatial domain. Furthermore, these deficits are often associated with performance on language specific tasks such as naming, lexical processing, and sentence comprehension, and discourse production. Other studies have found that most, but not all people with aphasia demonstrate performance deficits on tasks of attention, and their performance on these tasks correlate with language performance and cognitive ability in other domains.
In addition to deficits in short-term memory, working memory, and attention, people with aphasia can also demonstrate deficits in executive function. For instance, people with aphasia may demonstrate deficits in initiation, planning, self-monitoring, and cognitive flexibility. Other studies have found that people with aphasia demonstrate reduced speed and efficiency during completion of executive function assessments.
Regardless of their role in the underlying nature of aphasia, cognitive deficits have a clear role in the study and rehabilitation of aphasia. For instance, the severity of cognitive deficits in people with aphasia has been associated with lower quality of life, even more so than the severity of language deficits. Furthermore, cognitive deficits may influence the learning process of rehabilitation and language treatment outcomes in aphasia. Non-linguistic cognitive deficits have also been the target of interventions directed at improving language ability, though outcomes are not definitive. While some studies have demonstrated language improvement secondary to cognitively-focused treatment, others have found little evidence that the treatment of cognitive deficits in people with aphasia has an influence on language outcomes.
One important caveat in the measurement and treatment of cognitive deficits in people with aphasia is the degree to which assessments of cognition rely on language abilities for successful performance. Most studies have attempted to circumvent this challenge by utilizing non-verbal cognitive assessments to evaluate cognitive ability in people with aphasia. However, the degree to which these tasks are truly "non-verbal" and not mediated by language is unclear. However, any disease or damage to the parts of the brain that control language can cause aphasia. Some of these can include brain tumors, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy and progressive neurological disorders. In rare cases, aphasia may also result from herpesviral encephalitis. The herpes simplex virus affects the frontal and temporal lobes, subcortical structures, and the hippocampal tissue, which can trigger aphasia. In acute disorders, such as head injury or stroke, aphasia usually develops quickly. When caused by brain tumor, infection, or dementia, it develops more slowly.
Substantial damage to tissue anywhere within the region shown in blue (on the figure in the infobox above) can potentially result in aphasia. The area and extent of brain damage or atrophy will determine the type of aphasia and its symptoms.
Primary progressive aphasia (PPA), while its name can be misleading, is actually a form of dementia that has some symptoms closely related to several forms of aphasia. It is characterized by a gradual loss in language functioning while other cognitive domains are mostly preserved, such as memory and personality. PPA usually initiates with sudden word-finding difficulties in an individual and progresses to a reduced ability to formulate grammatically correct sentences (syntax) and impaired comprehension. The etiology of PPA is not due to a stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), or infectious disease; it is still uncertain what initiates the onset of PPA in those affected by it.
Epilepsy can also include transient aphasia as a prodromal or episodic symptom. However, the repeated seizure activity within language regions may also lead to chronic, and progressive aphasia. Aphasia is also listed as a rare side-effect of the fentanyl patch, an opioid used to control chronic pain. Diagnosis Neuroimaging methods
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are the most common neuroimaging tools used in identifying aphasia and studying the extent of damage in the loss of language abilities. This is done by doing MRI scans and locating the extent of lesions or damage within brain tissue, particularly within areas of the left frontal and temporal regions- where a lot of language related areas lie. In fMRI studies a language related task is often completed and then the BOLD image is analyzed. If there are lower than normal BOLD responses that indicate a lessening of blood flow to the affected area and can show quantitatively that the cognitive task is not being completed.
There are limitations to the use of fMRI in aphasic patients particularly. Because a high percentage of aphasic patients develop it because of stroke there can be infarct present which is the total loss of blood flow. This can be due to the thinning of blood vessels or the complete blockage of it. This is important in fMRI as it relies on the BOLD response (the oxygen levels of the blood vessels), and this can create a false hyporesponse upon fMRI study. Due to the limitations of fMRI such as a lower spatial resolution, it can show that some areas of the brain are not active during a task when they in reality are. Additionally, with stroke being the cause of many cases of aphasia the extent of damage to brain tissue can be difficult to quantify therefore the effects of stroke brain damage on the functionality of the patient can vary.
;Neural substrates of aphasia subtypes
MRI is often used to predict or confirm the subtype of aphasia present. Researchers compared three subtypes of aphasia — nonfluent-variant primary progressive aphasia (nfPPA), logopenic-variant primary progressive aphasia (lvPPA), and semantic-variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA), with primary progressive aphasia (PPA) and Alzheimer's disease. This was done by analyzing the MRIs of patients with each of the subsets of PPA. Images which compare subtypes of aphasia as well as for finding the extent of lesions are generated by overlapping images of different participant's brains (if applicable) and isolating areas of lesions or damage using third-party software such as MRIcron. MRI has also been used to study the relationship between the type of aphasia developed and the age of the person with aphasia. It was found that patients with fluent aphasia are on average older than people with non-fluent aphasia. It was also found that among patients with lesions confined to the anterior portion of the brain an unexpected portion of them presented with fluent aphasia and were remarkably older than those with non-fluent aphasia. This effect was not found when the posterior portion of the brain was studied.
;Associated conditions
In a study on the features associated with different disease trajectories in Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related primary progressive aphasia (PPA), it was found that metabolic patterns via PET SPM analysis can help predict progression of total loss of speech and functional autonomy in AD and PPA patients. This was done by comparing an MRI or CT image of the brain and presence of a radioactive biomarker with normal levels in patients without Alzheimer's Disease. Apraxia is another disorder often correlated with aphasia. This is due to a subset of apraxia which affects speech. Specifically, this subset affects the movement of muscles associated with speech production, apraxia and aphasia are often correlated due to the proximity of neural substrates associated with each of the disorders. Researchers concluded that there were 2 areas of lesion overlap between patients with apraxia and aphasia, the anterior temporal lobe and the left inferior parietal lobe.
;Treatment and neuroimaging
Evidence for positive treatment outcomes can also be quantified using neuroimaging tools. The use of fMRI and an automatic classifier can help predict language recovery outcomes in stroke patients with 86% accuracy when coupled with age and language test scores. The stimuli tested were sentences both correct and incorrect and the subject had to press a button whenever the sentence was incorrect. The fMRI data collected focused on responses in regions of interest identified by healthy subjects. Recovery from aphasia can also be quantified using diffusion tensor imaging. The accurate fasciculus (AF) connects the right and left superior temporal lobe, premotor regions/posterior inferior frontal gyrus. and the primary motor cortex. In a study which enrolled patients in a speech therapy program, an increase in AF fibers and volume was found in patients after 6-weeks in the program which correlated with long-term improvement in those patients. The results of the experiment are pictured in Figure 2. This implies that DTI can be used to quantify the improvement in patients after speech and language treatment programs are applied.
Classification
Aphasia is best thought of as a collection of different disorders, rather than a single problem. Each individual with aphasia will present with their own particular combination of language strengths and weaknesses. Consequently, it is a major challenge just to document the various difficulties that can occur in different people, let alone decide how they might best be treated. Most classifications of the aphasias tend to divide the various symptoms into broad classes. A common approach is to distinguish between the fluent aphasias (where speech remains fluent, but content may be lacking, and the person may have difficulties understanding others), and the nonfluent aphasias (where speech is very halting and effortful, and may consist of just one or two words at a time).
However, no such broad-based grouping has proven fully adequate, or reliable. There is wide variation among people even within the same broad grouping, and aphasias can be highly selective. For instance, people with naming deficits (anomic aphasia) might show an inability only for naming buildings, or people, or colors. Unfortunately, assessments that characterize aphasia in these groupings have persisted. This is not helpful to people living with aphasia, and provides inaccurate descriptions of an individual pattern of difficulties.
There are typical difficulties with speech and language that come with normal aging as well. As we age, language can become more difficult to process, resulting in a slowing of verbal comprehension, reading abilities and more likely word finding difficulties. With each of these, though, unlike some aphasias, functionality within daily life remains intact.
! Type of aphasia
! Speech repetition
! Naming
! Auditory comprehension
! Fluency
|-
| Expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia)
| Moderate–severe
| Moderate–severe
| Mild difficulty
| Non-fluent, effortful, slow
|-
| Receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia)
| Mild–severe
| Mild–severe
| Defective
| Fluent paraphasic
|-
| Conduction aphasia
| Poor
| Poor
| Relatively good
| Fluent
|-
| Mixed transcortical aphasia
| Moderate
| Poor
| Poor
| Non-fluent
|-
| Transcortical motor aphasia
| Good
| Mild–severe
| Mild
| Non-fluent
|-
| Transcortical sensory aphasia
| Good
| Moderate–severe
| Poor
| Fluent
|-
| Global aphasia
| Poor
| Poor
| Poor
| Non-fluent
|-
| Anomic aphasia
| Mild
| Moderate–severe
| Mild
| Fluent
|}
* Individuals with receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia), also referred to as fluent aphasia, may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new "words" (neologisms). For example, someone with receptive aphasia may say, "delicious taco", meaning "The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk". They have poor auditory and reading comprehension, and fluent, but nonsensical, oral and written expression. Individuals with receptive aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding the speech of both themselves and others and are, therefore, often unaware of their mistakes. Receptive language deficits usually arise from lesions in the posterior portion of the left hemisphere at or near Wernicke's area. It is often the result of trauma to the temporal region of the brain, specifically damage to Wernicke's area. Trauma can be the result from an array of problems, however it is most commonly seen as a result of stroke
* Individuals with expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia) frequently speak short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. It is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as "is", "and", and "the". For example, a person with expressive aphasia may say, "walk dog", which could mean "I will take the dog for a walk", "you take the dog for a walk" or even "the dog walked out of the yard." Individuals with expressive aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems. While Broca's aphasia may appear to be solely an issue with language production, evidence suggests that it may be rooted in an inability to process syntactical information. Individuals with expressive aphasia may have a speech automatism (also called recurring or recurrent utterance). These speech automatisms can be repeated lexical speech automatisms; e.g., modalisations ('I can't ..., I can't ...'), expletives/swearwords, numbers ('one two, one two') or non-lexical utterances made up of repeated, legal, but meaningless, consonant-vowel syllables (e.g.., /tan tan/, /bi bi/). In severe cases, the individual may be able to utter only the same speech automatism each time they attempt speech.
* Individuals with anomic aphasia have difficulty with naming. People with this aphasia may have difficulties naming certain words, linked by their grammatical type (e.g., difficulty naming verbs and not nouns) or by their semantic category (e.g., difficulty naming words relating to photography, but nothing else) or a more general naming difficulty. People tend to produce grammatic, yet empty, speech. Auditory comprehension tends to be preserved. Anomic aphasia is the aphasial presentation of tumors in the language zone; it is the aphasial presentation of Alzheimer's disease. Anomic aphasia is the mildest form of aphasia, indicating a likely possibility for better recovery. Despite these many deficits, there is evidence that has shown individuals benefited from speech language therapy. Even though individuals with global aphasia will not become competent speakers, listeners, writers, or readers, goals can be created to improve the individual's quality of life.
* Transcortical aphasias include transcortical motor aphasia, transcortical sensory aphasia, and mixed transcortical aphasia. People with transcortical motor aphasia typically have intact comprehension and awareness of their errors, but poor word finding and speech production. People with transcortical sensory and mixed transcortical aphasia have poor comprehension and unawareness of their errors.
Classical-localizationist approaches
Localizationist approaches aim to classify the aphasias according to their major presenting characteristics and the regions of the brain that most probably gave rise to them. Inspired by the early work of nineteenth-century neurologists Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke, these approaches identify two major subtypes of aphasia and several more minor subtypes:
* Expressive aphasia (also known as "motor aphasia" or "Broca's aphasia"), which is characterized by halted, fragmented, effortful speech, but well-preserved comprehension relative to expression. Damage is typically in the anterior portion of the left hemisphere, most notably Broca's area. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have right-sided weakness or paralysis of the arm and leg, because the left frontal lobe is also important for body movement, particularly on the right side.
* Receptive aphasia (also known as "sensory aphasia" or "Wernicke's aphasia"), which is characterized by fluent speech, but marked difficulties understanding words and sentences. Although fluent, the speech may lack in key substantive words (nouns, verbs, adjectives), and may contain incorrect words or even nonsense words. This subtype has been associated with damage to the posterior left temporal cortex, most notably Wernicke's area. These individuals usually have no body weakness, because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement.
* Conduction aphasia, where speech remains fluent, and comprehension is preserved, but the person may have disproportionate difficulty repeating words or sentences. Damage typically involves the arcuate fasciculus and the left parietal region. For example, in pure alexia, a person may be able to write, but not read, and in pure word deafness, they may be able to produce speech and to read, but not understand speech when it is spoken to them.
Cognitive neuropsychological approaches
Although localizationist approaches provide a useful way of classifying the different patterns of language difficulty into broad groups, one problem is that most individuals do not fit neatly into one category or another. Another problem is that the categories, particularly the major ones such as Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, still remain quite broad and do not meaningfully reflect a person's difficulties. Consequently, even amongst those who meet the criteria for classification into a subtype, there can be enormous variability in the types of difficulties they experience.
Instead of categorizing every individual into a specific subtype, cognitive neuropsychological approaches aim to identify the key language skills or "modules" that are not functioning properly in each individual. A person could potentially have difficulty with just one module, or with a number of modules. This type of approach requires a framework or theory as to what skills/modules are needed to perform different kinds of language tasks. For example, the model of Max Coltheart identifies a module that recognizes phonemes as they are spoken, which is essential for any task involving recognition of words. Similarly, there is a module that stores phonemes that the person is planning to produce in speech, and this module is critical for any task involving the production of long words or long strings of speech. Once a theoretical framework has been established, the functioning of each module can then be assessed using a specific test or set of tests. In the clinical setting, use of this model usually involves conducting a battery of assessments, each of which tests one or a number of these modules. Once a diagnosis is reached as to the skills/modules where the most significant impairment lies, therapy can proceed to treat these skills.
Progressive aphasias
Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a neurodegenerative focal dementia that can be associated with progressive illnesses or dementia, such as frontotemporal dementia / Pick Complex Motor neuron disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, and Alzheimer's disease, which is the gradual process of progressively losing the ability to think. Gradual loss of language function occurs in the context of relatively well-preserved memory, visual processing, and personality until the advanced stages. Symptoms usually begin with word-finding problems (naming) and progress to impaired grammar (syntax) and comprehension (sentence processing and semantics). The loss of language before the loss of memory differentiates PPA from typical dementias. People with PPA may have difficulties comprehending what others are saying. They can also have difficulty trying to find the right words to make a sentence. There are three classifications of Primary Progressive Aphasia : Progressive nonfluent aphasia (PNFA), Semantic Dementia (SD), and Logopenic progressive aphasia (LPA).
Progressive Jargon Aphasia is a fluent or receptive aphasia in which the person's speech is incomprehensible, but appears to make sense to them. Speech is fluent and effortless with intact syntax and grammar, but the person has problems with the selection of nouns. Either they will replace the desired word with another that sounds or looks like the original one or has some other connection or they will replace it with sounds. As such, people with jargon aphasia often use neologisms, and may perseverate if they try to replace the words they cannot find with sounds. Substitutions commonly involve picking another (actual) word starting with the same sound (e.g., clocktower – colander), picking another semantically related to the first (e.g., letter – scroll), or picking one phonetically similar to the intended one (e.g., lane – late). Deaf aphasia There have been many instances showing that there is a form of aphasia among deaf individuals. Sign languages are, after all, forms of language that have been shown to use the same areas of the brain as verbal forms of language. Mirror neurons become activated when an animal is acting in a particular way or watching another individual act in the same manner. These mirror neurons are important in giving an individual the ability to mimic movements of hands. Broca's area of speech production has been shown to contain several of these mirror neurons resulting in significant similarities of brain activity between sign language and vocal speech communication. People use facial movements to create, what other people perceive, to be faces of emotions. While combining these facial movements with speech, a more full form of language is created which enables the species to interact with a much more complex and detailed form of communication. Sign language also uses these facial movements and emotions along with the primary hand movement way of communicating. These facial movement forms of communication come from the same areas of the brain. When dealing with damages to certain areas of the brain, vocal forms of communication are in jeopardy of severe forms of aphasia. Since these same areas of the brain are being used for sign language, these same, at least very similar, forms of aphasia can show in the Deaf community. Individuals can show a form of Wernicke's aphasia with sign language and they show deficits in their abilities in being able to produce any form of expressions. Broca's aphasia shows up in some people, as well. These individuals find tremendous difficulty in being able to actually sign the linguistic concepts they are trying to express.
Severity
The severity of the type of aphasia varies depending on the size of the stroke. However, there is much variance between how often one type of severity occurs in certain types of aphasia. For instance, any type of aphasia can range from mild to profound. Regardless of the severity of aphasia, people can make improvements due to spontaneous recovery and treatment in the acute stages of recovery. Additionally, while most studies propose that the greatest outcomes occur in people with severe aphasia when treatment is provided in the acute stages of recovery, Robey (1998) also found that those with severe aphasia are capable of making strong language gains in the chronic stage of recovery as well.
To prevent aphasia due to traumatic injury, one should take precautionary measures when engaging in dangerous activities such as:
* Wearing a helmet when operating a bicycle, motor cycle, ATV, or any other moving vehicle that could potentially be involved in an accident
* Wearing a seatbelt when driving or riding in a car
* Wearing proper protective gear when playing contact sports, especially American football, rugby, and hockey, or refraining from such activities
* Minimizing anticoagulant use (including aspirin) if at all possible as they increase the risk of hemorrhage after a head injury
Additionally, one should always seek medical attention after sustaining head trauma due to a fall or accident. The sooner that one receives medical attention for a traumatic brain injury, the less likely one is to experience long-term or severe effects.ManagementMost acute cases of aphasia recover some or most skills by participating in speech and language therapy. Recovery and improvement can continue for years after the stroke. After the onset of aphasia, there is approximately a six-month period of spontaneous recovery; during this time, the brain is attempting to recover and repair the damaged neurons. Improvement varies widely, depending on the aphasia's cause, type, and severity. Recovery also depends on the person's age, health, motivation, handedness, and educational level. A total of 20–50 hours of speech and language therapy is necessary for the best recovery. The most improvement happens when 2–5 hours of therapy is provided each week over 4–5 days. Recovery is further improved when besides the therapy people practice tasks at home. Speech and language therapy is also effective if it is delivered online through video or by a family member who has been trained by a professional therapist. Therapy for aphasia ranges from increasing functional communication to improving speech accuracy, depending on the person's severity, needs and support of family and friends. Group therapy allows individuals to work on their pragmatic and communication skills with other individuals with aphasia, which are skills that may not often be addressed in individual one-on-one therapy sessions. It can also help increase confidence and social skills in a comfortable setting.
Specific treatment techniques include the following:
* Copy and recall therapy (CART) – repetition and recall of targeted words within therapy may strengthen orthographic representations and improve single word reading, writing, and naming
* Visual communication therapy (VIC) – the use of index cards with symbols to represent various components of speech
* Visual action therapy (VAT) – typically treats individuals with global aphasia to train the use of hand gestures for specific items
* Functional communication treatment (FCT) – focuses on improving activities specific to functional tasks, social interaction, and self-expression
* Promoting aphasic's communicative effectiveness (PACE) – a means of encouraging normal interaction between people with aphasia and clinicians. In this kind of therapy, the focus is on pragmatic communication rather than treatment itself. People are asked to communicate a given message to their therapists by means of drawing, making hand gestures or even pointing to an object
* Melodic intonation therapy (MIT) – aims to use the intact melodic/prosodic processing skills of the right hemisphere to help cue retrieval of words and expressive language
* Other – i.e., drawing as a way of communicating, trained conversation partners Studies show that SFA is an effective intervention for improving confrontational naming.
Melodic intonation therapy is used to treat non-fluent aphasia and has proved to be effective in some cases. However, there is still no evidence from randomized controlled trials confirming the efficacy of MIT in chronic aphasia. MIT is used to help people with aphasia vocalize themselves through speech song, which is then transferred as a spoken word. Good candidates for this therapy include people who have had left hemisphere strokes, non-fluent aphasias such as Broca's, good auditory comprehension, poor repetition and articulation, and good emotional stability and memory. An alternative explanation is that the efficacy of MIT depends on neural circuits involved in the processing of rhythmicity and formulaic expressions (examples taken from the MIT manual: "I am fine," "how are you?" or "thank you"); while rhythmic features associated with melodic intonation may engage primarily left-hemisphere subcortical areas of the brain, the use of formulaic expressions is known to be supported by right-hemisphere cortical and bilateral subcortical neural networks.
Systematic reviews support the effectiveness and importance of partner training. According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), involving family with the treatment of an aphasic loved one is ideal for all involved, because while it will no doubt assist in their recovery, it will also make it easier for members of the family to learn how best to communicate with them.
When a person's speech is insufficient, different kinds of augmentative and alternative communication could be considered such as alphabet boards, pictorial communication books, specialized software for computers or apps for tablets or smartphones.
When addressing Wernicke's aphasia, according to Bakheit et al. (2007), the lack of awareness of the language impairments, a common characteristic of Wernicke's aphasia, may affect the rate and extent of therapy outcomes. Robey (1998) determined that at least 2 hours of treatment per week is recommended for making significant language gains.
Individualized service delivery
Intensity of treatment should be individualized based on the recency of stroke, therapy goals, and other specific characteristics such as age, size of lesion, overall health status, and motivation. Each individual reacts differently to treatment intensity and is able to tolerate treatment at different times post-stroke.
Outcomes
If the symptoms of aphasia last longer than two or three months after a stroke, a complete recovery is unlikely. However, it is important to note that some people continue to improve over a period of years and even decades. Improvement is a slow process that usually involves both helping the individual and family understand the nature of aphasia and learning compensatory strategies for communicating.
After a traumatic brain injury (TBI) or cerebrovascular accident (CVA), the brain undergoes several healing and re-organization processes, which may result in improved language function. This is referred to as spontaneous recovery. Spontaneous recovery is the natural recovery the brain makes without treatment, and the brain begins to reorganize and change in order to recover.
Though some cases of Wernicke's aphasia have shown greater improvements than more mild forms of aphasia, people with Wernicke's aphasia may not reach as high a level of speech abilities as those with mild forms of aphasia.
Prevalence
Aphasia affects about two million people in the U.S. and 250,000 people in Great Britain. Nearly 180,000 people acquire the disorder every year in the U.S., 170,000 due to stroke. Any person of any age can develop aphasia, given that it is often caused by a traumatic injury. However, people who are middle aged and older are the most likely to acquire aphasia, as the other etiologies are more likely at older ages. For example, approximately 75% of all strokes occur in individuals over the age of 65. Strokes account for most documented cases of aphasia: 25% to 40% of people who survive a stroke develop aphasia as a result of damage to the language-processing regions of the brain.
During the second half of the 19th century, aphasia was a major focus for scientists and philosophers who were working in the beginning stages of the field of psychology. Broca and his colleagues were some of the first to write about aphasia, but Wernicke was the first credited to have written extensively about aphasia being a disorder that contained comprehension difficulties. Despite claims of who reported on aphasia first, it was F.J. Gall that gave the first full description of aphasia after studying wounds to the brain, as well as his observation of speech difficulties resulting from vascular lesions. A recent book on the entire history of aphasia is available (Reference: Tesak, J. & Code, C. (2008) Milestones in the History of Aphasia: Theories and Protagonists. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press).Etymology
Aphasia is from Greek a- ("without", negative prefix) + phásis (φάσις, "speech").
The word aphasia comes from the word ἀφασία aphasia, in Ancient Greek, which means "speechlessness", derived from ἄφατος aphatos, "speechless" from ἀ- a-, "not, un" and φημί phemi, "I speak".Further researchResearch is currently being done using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to witness the difference in how language is processed in normal brains vs aphasic brains. This will help researchers to understand exactly what the brain must go through in order to recover from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and how different areas of the brain respond after such an injury.
Another intriguing approach being tested is that of drug therapy. Research is in progress that will hopefully uncover whether or not certain drugs might be used in addition to speech-language therapy in order to facilitate recovery of proper language function. It's possible that the best treatment for Aphasia might involve combining drug treatment with therapy, instead of relying on one over the other.
One other method being researched as a potential therapeutic combination with speech-language therapy is brain stimulation. One particular method, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), alters brain activity in whatever area it happens to stimulate, which has recently led scientists to wonder if this shift in brain function caused by TMS might help people re-learn language. Another type of external brain stimulation is transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), but existing research has not shown it to be useful for improving aphasia after a stroke.<ref name"Aphasia"/>
See also
* Agnosia, inability to process sensory information (e.g. inability to recognize objects)
* Aphasiology, study of language impairment (usually from brain damage)
* Apraxia of speech, difficulty connecting speech messages from the brain to the mouth
* Aprosodia
* Auditory processing disorder
* Lethologica
* Lists of language disorders
* My Beautiful Broken Brain, a 2014 documentary
* Origin of speech
Notes
References
External links
* [https://www.aphasia.org/ National Aphasia Association]
, , ,
| ICD10 = , ,
| ICD9 = , , ,
| ICDO | OMIM
| MedlinePlus = 003204
| eMedicineSubj = neuro
| eMedicineTopic = 437
| MeshID = D001037
| ICD10CM =
}}
Category:Alexia (condition)
Category:Communication disorders
Category:Language disorders
Category:Symptoms and signs: Speech and voice | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.789339 |
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The aorta ( ; : aortas or aortae) is the main and largest artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart, branching upwards immediately after, and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits at the aortic bifurcation into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.
Structure
Sections
, then anterior to the right pulmonary arteries, the trachea and the esophagus, then turning posteriorly to course dorsally to these structures.]]
In anatomical sources, the aorta is usually divided into sections.
One way of classifying a part of the aorta is by anatomical compartment, where the thoracic aorta (or thoracic portion of the aorta) runs from the heart to the diaphragm. The aorta then continues downward as the abdominal aorta (or abdominal portion of the aorta) from the diaphragm to the aortic bifurcation.
Another system divides the aorta with respect to its course and the direction of blood flow. In this system, the aorta starts as the ascending aorta, travels superiorly from the heart, and then makes a hairpin turn known as the aortic arch. Following the aortic arch, the aorta then travels inferiorly as the descending aorta. The descending aorta has two parts. The aorta begins to descend in the thoracic cavity and is consequently known as the thoracic aorta. After the aorta passes through the diaphragm, it is known as the abdominal aorta. The aorta ends by dividing into two major blood vessels, the common iliac arteries and a smaller midline vessel, the median sacral artery.Ascending aorta
The ascending aorta begins at the opening of the aortic valve in the left ventricle of the heart. It runs through a common pericardial sheath with the pulmonary trunk. These two blood vessels twist around each other, causing the aorta to start out posterior to the pulmonary trunk, but end by twisting to its right and anterior side.
The transition from ascending aorta to aortic arch is at the pericardial reflection on the aorta.
At the root of the ascending aorta, the lumen has small pockets between the cusps of the aortic valve and the wall of the aorta, which are called the aortic sinuses or the sinuses of Valsalva. The left aortic sinus contains the origin of the left coronary artery and the right aortic sinus likewise gives rise to the right coronary artery. Together, these two arteries supply the heart. The posterior aortic sinus does not give rise to a coronary artery. For this reason the left, right and posterior aortic sinuses are also called left-coronary, right-coronary and non-coronary sinuses.
Abdominal aorta
The abdominal aorta begins at the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm at the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. It gives rise to lumbar and musculophrenic arteries, renal and middle suprarenal arteries, and visceral arteries (the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery and the inferior mesenteric artery). It ends in a bifurcation into the left and right common iliac arteries. At the point of the bifurcation, there also springs a smaller branch, the median sacral artery. to form the final asymmetrical structure of the great arteries, with the 3rd pair of arteries contributing to the common carotids, the right 4th forming the base and middle part of the right subclavian artery and the left 4th being the central part of the aortic arch. The smooth muscle of the great arteries and the population of cells that form the aorticopulmonary septum that separates the aorta and pulmonary artery is derived from cardiac neural crest. This contribution of the neural crest to the great artery smooth muscle is unusual as most smooth muscle is derived from mesoderm. In fact the smooth muscle within the abdominal aorta is derived from mesoderm, and the coronary arteries, which arise just above the semilunar valves, possess smooth muscle of mesodermal origin. A failure of the aorticopulmonary septum to divide the great vessels results in persistent truncus arteriosus.
Microanatomy
The aorta is an elastic artery, and as such is quite distensible. The aorta consists of a heterogeneous mixture of smooth muscle, nerves, intimal cells, endothelial cells, immune cells, fibroblast-like cells, and a complex extracellular matrix. The vascular wall is subdivided into three layers known as the tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica intima. The aorta is covered by an extensive network of tiny blood vessels called vasa vasorum, which feed the tunica externa and tunica media, the outer layers of the aorta. The aortic arch contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors that relay information concerning blood pressure and blood pH and carbon dioxide levels to the medulla oblongata of the brain. This information along with information from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors located elsewhere is processed by the brain and the autonomic nervous system mediates appropriate homeostatic responses.
Within the tunica media, smooth muscle and the extracellular matrix are quantitatively the largest components, these are arranged concentrically as musculoelastic layers (the elastic lamella) in mammals. The elastic lamella, which comprise smooth muscle and elastic matrix, can be considered as the fundamental structural unit of the aorta and consist of elastic fibers, collagens (predominately type III), proteoglycans, and glycoaminoglycans. The elastic matrix dominates the biomechanical properties of the aorta. The smooth muscle component, while contractile, does not substantially alter the diameter of the aorta, but rather serves to increase the stiffness and viscoelasticity of the aortic wall when activated.VariationVariations may occur in the location of the aorta, and the way in which arteries branch off the aorta. The aorta, normally on the left side of the body, may be found on the right in dextrocardia, in which the heart is found on the right, or situs inversus, in which the location of all organs are flipped.FunctionThe aorta supplies all of the systemic circulation, which means that the entire body, except for the respiratory zone of the lung, receives its blood from the aorta. Broadly speaking, branches from the ascending aorta supply the heart; branches from the aortic arch supply the head, neck, and arms; branches from the thoracic descending aorta supply the chest (excluding the heart and the respiratory zone of the lung); and branches from the abdominal aorta supply the abdomen. The pelvis and legs get their blood from the common iliac arteries.Blood flow and velocityThe contraction of the heart during systole is responsible for ejection and creates a (pulse) wave that is propagated down the aorta, into the arterial tree. The wave is reflected at sites of impedance mismatching, such as bifurcations, where reflected waves rebound to return to semilunar valves and the origin of the aorta. These return waves create the dicrotic notch displayed in the aortic pressure curve during the cardiac cycle as these reflected waves push on the aortic semilunar valve. With age, the aorta stiffens such that the pulse wave is propagated faster and reflected waves return to the heart faster before the semilunar valve closes, which raises the blood pressure. The stiffness of the aorta is associated with a number of diseases and pathologies, and noninvasive measures of the pulse wave velocity are an independent indicator of hypertension. Measuring the pulse wave velocity (invasively and non-invasively) is a means of determining arterial stiffness. Maximum aortic velocity may be noted as V<sub>max</sub> or less commonly as AoV<sub>max</sub>.
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is highest in the aorta, and the MAP decreases across the circulation from aorta to arteries to arterioles to capillaries to veins back to atrium. The difference between aortic and right atrial pressure accounts for blood flow in the circulation. When the left ventricle contracts to force blood into the aorta, the aorta expands. This stretching gives the potential energy that will help maintain blood pressure during diastole, as during this time the aorta contracts passively. This Windkessel effect of the great elastic arteries has important biomechanical implications. The elastic recoil helps conserve the energy from the pumping heart and smooth out the pulsatile nature created by the heart. Aortic pressure is highest at the aorta and becomes less pulsatile and lower pressure as blood vessels divide into arteries, arterioles, and capillaries such that flow is slow and smooth for gases and nutrient exchange.
Clinical significance
Central aortic blood pressure has frequently been shown to have greater prognostic value and to show a more accurate response to antihypertensive drugs than has peripheral blood pressure.
* Aortic aneurysm – mycotic, bacterial (e.g. syphilis), senile, genetic, associated with valvular heart disease
* Aortic coarctation – pre-ductal, post-ductal
* Aortic dissection
* Aortic stenosis
* Abdominal aortic aneurysm
* Aortitis, inflammation of the aorta that can be seen in trauma, infections, and autoimmune disease
* Atherosclerosis
* Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
* Marfan syndrome
* Trauma, such as traumatic aortic rupture, most often thoracic and distal to the left subclavian artery and often quickly fatal
* Transposition of the great vessels, see also dextro-Transposition of the great arteries and levo-Transposition of the great arteries
Other animals
<!-- "Ventral aorta" and "Dorsal aorta" link to this section -->
All amniotes have a broadly similar arrangement to that of humans, albeit with a number of individual variations. In fish, however, there are two separate vessels referred to as aortas. The ventral aorta carries de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the gills; part of this vessel forms the ascending aorta in tetrapods (the remainder forms the pulmonary artery). A second, dorsal aorta carries oxygenated blood from the gills to the rest of the body and is homologous with the descending aorta of tetrapods. The two aortas are connected by a number of vessels, one passing through each of the gills.
Amphibians also retain the fifth connecting vessel, so that the aorta has two parallel arches.HistoryThe word aorta stems from the Late Latin from Classical Greek aortē (), from aeirō, "I lift, raise" () This term was first applied by Aristotle when describing the aorta and describes accurately how it seems to be "suspended" above the heart.
The function of the aorta is documented in the Talmud, where it is noted as one of three major vessels entering or leaving the heart, and where perforation is linked to death.ReferencesExternal links
*
*
Category:Arteries of the thorax
Category:Arteries of the abdomen
Category:Cardiac anatomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorta | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.805476 |
2093 | Abimelech | thumb|270px|Abimelech spying on Isaac and Rebekah; dish with serrated edge; majolica ceramics – Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon
Abimelech (also spelled Abimelek or Avimelech; ) was the generic name given to all Philistine kings in the Hebrew Bible from the time of Abraham through King David. In the Book of Judges, Abimelech, son of Gideon, of the Tribe of Manasseh, is proclaimed king of Shechem after the death of his father.
Etymology
The name or title Abimelech is formed from Canaanite words for "father" and "king," and may be interpreted in a variety of ways, including "Father-King", "My father is king," or "Father of a king." In the Pentateuch, it is used as a title for kings in the land of Canaan.
Abimelech can be translated in Arabic as well into "My father is king", "My father is owner" or "Father of a king," where () means father or my father while () means king or () for owner.
At the time of the Amarna tablets (mid-14th century BC), there was an Egyptian governor of Tyre similarly named Abimilki,
Abimelech of Gerar
Abimelech was most prominently the name of a polytheistic king of Gerar who is mentioned in two of the three wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis, in connection with both Abraham and Isaac.
King Abimelech of Gerar also appears in an extra-biblical tradition recounted in texts such as the Arabic Apocalypse of Peter, the Cave of Treasures and the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, as one of twelve regional kings in Abraham's time said to have built the city of Jerusalem for Melchizedek.
Abimelech son of Jerubbaal/Gideon
The Book of Judges mentions Abimelech, son of judge Gideon (also known as Jerubbaal). According to the biblical narrative, Abimelech was an extremely conniving and evil person. He persuaded his mother's brothers to encourage the people of Shechem to back him in a plot to overthrow his family rule and make him sole ruler.
After slaying all but one of his seventy brothers, Abimelech was crowned king. The brother who escaped, Jotham youngest son of Jerrubaal, made a pronouncement against Abimelech and those who had crowned him.
The curse was that if they had not dealt righteously with the family of Jerrubaal, then fire would come against Abimelech from the people of Shechem and fire would come out of Abimelech against the people who had backed him in this bloody coup.
After Abimelech ruled for three years, the pronouncement came through. The people of Shechem set robbers to lie in wait of any goods or money headed to Abimelech and steal everything.
Then Gaal Son of Ebed went to Shechem and drunkenly bragged that he would remove Abimelech from the throne. Zebul, ruler of Shechem, sent word to Abimelech along with a battle strategy. Once Zebul taunted Gaal into fighting Abimelech, he shut Gaal and his brethren out of the city.
Abimelech then slew the field workers that came out of the city of Shechem the next day. When he heard that the people of Shechem had locked themselves in a strong tower, he and his men set fire to it, killing about a thousand men and women.
After this, Abimelech went to Thebez and camped against it. When he went close to the tower in Thebez to set it on fire, a woman dropped an upper millstone on Abimelech's head. He did not want to be known as having been killed by a woman, so he asked his armour bearer to run him through with a sword. His place of death is cited as being Thebez.
Russian use
Avimelekh () is a Russian male first name derived from Abimelech. It was included into various, often handwritten, church calendars throughout the 17th–19th centuries, but was omitted from the official Synodal Menologium at the end of the 19th century.
Other people with this name
Apart from the king (or kings) of Gerar, the Bible also records this name for:
The father of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David. In the parallel passage, the name is given as Ahimelech; most authorities consider this the more correct reading.
The king of Gath better known as Achish, referred to as Abimelech or Achimelech in the title of Psalm 34.
The husband of Naomi, and father of Mahlon and Chilion who leaves Bethlehem and dies in the land of Moab, in the Hebrew, his name is given as Elimelek, which is likely the correct reading.
Other literary references include:
Abimélech, Satrap of Gaza is a character baritone in Camille Saint-Saëns' Samson and Delilah.
See also
Abimelech (oratorio)
Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis
References
Category:Philistine kings
Category:Monarchs in the Torah
Category:Set index articles on Hebrew Bible people
Category:Vayeira
Category:Shechem | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abimelech | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.816860 |
2099 | Andrew Tridgell | | birth_place = Sydney, Australia
| occupation = Programmer
| known_for = rsync, Samba, rzip, ccache, ArduPilot
| nationality = Australian
| employer | other_names Tridge
}}
Andrew "Tridge" Tridgell (born 28 February 1967) is an Australian computer programmer. He is the author of and a contributor to the Samba file server, and co-inventor of the rsync algorithm.
He has analysed complex proprietary protocols and algorithms, to allow compatible free and open source software implementations.
Projects
Tridgell was a major developer of the Samba software, analyzing the Server Message Block protocol used for workgroup and network file sharing by Microsoft Windows products. He developed the [https://talloc.samba.org/talloc/doc/html/index.html ] hierarchical memory allocator, originally as part of Samba.
For his PhD dissertation, he co-developed rsync, including the rsync algorithm, a highly efficient file transfer and synchronisation tool. He was also the original author of rzip, which uses a similar algorithm to rsync. He developed spamsum, based on locality-sensitive hashing algorithms.
He is the author of KnightCap, a reinforcement-learning based chess engine.
Tridgell was also a leader in hacking the TiVo to make it work in Australia, which uses the PAL video format.
In April 2005, Tridgell tried to produce free software (now known as SourcePuller) that interoperated with the BitKeeper source code repository. This was cited as the reason that BitMover revoked a license allowing Linux developers free use of their BitKeeper product. Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, and Tridgell were thus involved in a public debate about the events, in which Tridgell stated that, not having bought or owned BitKeeper – and thus having never agreed to its license – he could not violate it, and was analyzing the protocol ethically, as he had done with Samba. Tridgell's involvement in the project resulted in Torvalds accusing him of playing dirty tricks with BitKeeper. Tridgell claimed his analysis started with simply telneting to a BitKeeper server and typing <code>help</code>.
In 2011 Tridgell became involved with the software development of ArduPilot Mega, an open source Arduino-based UAV controller board, working on an entry with CanberraUAV for the UAV Challenge Outback Rescue.
Academic achievements
Tridgell completed a PhD at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the Australian National University. His original doctorate work was in the area of speech recognition but was never completed. His submitted dissertation 'Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization' was based on his work on the rsync algorithm.Awards and honours* In October 2003, The Bulletin magazine judged Tridgell to be Australia's smartest Information and Communications Technology person.
* In July 2008, Tridgell was named "Best Interoperator" at the Google–O'Reilly Open Source Awards, for his work on Samba and rsync.
*Tridgell (along with Jeremy Allison and Volker Lendecke) has been called a "guru in its traditional Indian meaning" by IT writer, Sam Varghese.
* On 11 December 2018, Tridgell was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science (Honoris Causa) by the Australian National University, for authoring Samba, co-inventing rsync; and contributions to free and open source software.
* On 26 January 2020, Tridgell was awarded the Medal (OAM) of the Order of Australia in the General Division for service to Information Technology. The biographical notes for the award noted his contributions to software development and education including his work on rsync, Samba, ArduPilot, MAVProxy as well as teaching at the Australian National University.
References
External links
* [http://www.samba.org/~tridge/ Andrew Tridgell's website], [https://tridgell.net/tridge/ Newer Personal Website]
* [https://github.com/tridge/junkcode Andrew Tridgell's "Junk Code" collection]
* [http://samba.org/~tridge/phd_thesis.pdf Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization (PhD thesis)] – (406kB PDF)
* [http://www.itwire.com/opinion-and-analysis/open-sauce/22773-lca2009-active-directory-in-samba-4-an-old-story Active Directory in Samba 4 'an old story']
* [http://www.itwire.com/opinion-and-analysis/open-sauce/15896-foss-folk-who-make-us-proud FOSS folk who make us proud]
* [http://news.swpat.org/2010/03/transcript-tridgell-patents/ Patent Defence for Free Software], January 2010 presentation transcript
Category:Australian computer programmers
Category:Free software programmers
Category:IBM employees
Category:1967 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from the Australian Capital Territory
Category:University of Sydney alumni
Category:Australian National University alumni
Category:Geeknet
Category:People educated at Barker College
Category:Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Tridgell | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.839380 |
2100 | Applesoft BASIC | | discontinued | latest release version Applesoft II
| latest release date =
| latest preview version | latest preview date <!-- -->
| programming language | operating system Apple II
| platform | size
| language | language count <!-- Number only -->
| language footnote | genre Microsoft BASIC
| license | alexa
| website = <!---->
| standard | AsOf
}}
Applesoft BASIC is a dialect of Microsoft BASIC, developed by Marc McDonald and Ric Weiland, supplied with Apple II computers. It supersedes Integer BASIC and is the BASIC in ROM in all Apple II series computers after the original Apple II model. It is also referred to as FP BASIC (from floating point) because of the Apple DOS command <code>FP</code> used to invoke it, instead of <code>INT</code> for Integer BASIC.
Applesoft BASIC was supplied by Microsoft and its name is derived from the names of both Apple Computer and Microsoft. Apple employees, including Randy Wigginton, adapted Microsoft's interpreter for the Apple II and added several features. The first version of Applesoft was released in 1977 on cassette tape and lacked proper support for high-resolution graphics. Applesoft II, which was made available on cassette and disk and in the ROM of the Apple II Plus and subsequent models, was released in 1978. It is this latter version, which has some syntax differences and support for the Apple II high-resolution graphics modes, that is usually synonymous with the term "Applesoft."
History
When Steve Wozniak wrote Integer BASIC for the Apple II, he did not implement support for floating-point arithmetic because he was primarily interested in writing games, a task for which integers alone were sufficient. In 1976, Microsoft had developed Microsoft BASIC for the MOS Technology 6502, but at the time there was no production computer that used it. Upon learning that Apple had a 6502 machine, Microsoft asked if the company were interested in licensing BASIC, but Steve Jobs replied that Apple already had one.
The Apple II was unveiled to the public at the West Coast Computer Faire in April 1977 and became available for sale in June. One of the most common customer complaints about the computer was BASIC's lack of floating-point math. Making things more problematic was that the rival Commodore PET personal computer had a floating point-capable BASIC interpreter from the beginning. As Wozniak—the only person who understood Integer BASIC well enough to add floating point features—was busy with the Disk II drive and controller and with Apple DOS, Apple turned to Microsoft.
Apple reportedly obtained an eight-year license for Applesoft BASIC from Microsoft for a flat fee of $31,000, renewing it in 1985 through an arrangement that gave Microsoft the rights and source code for Apple's Macintosh version of BASIC. Applesoft was designed to be backwards-compatible with Integer BASIC and uses the core of Microsoft's 6502 BASIC implementation, which includes using the GET command for detecting key presses and not requiring any spaces on program lines. While Applesoft BASIC is slower than Integer BASIC, it has many features that the older BASIC lacks:
* Atomic strings: A string is no longer an array of characters (as in Integer BASIC and C); it is instead a garbage-collected object (as in Scheme and Java). This allows for string arrays; creates an array of eleven string variables numbered 0–10.
* Multidimensional arrays (numbers or strings)
* Single-precision floating-point variables with an 8-bit exponent and a 31-bit significand and improved math capabilities, including trigonometry and logarithmic functions
* Commands for high-resolution graphics
* <code>DATA</code> statements, with <code>READ</code> and <code>RESTORE</code> commands, for representing numerical and string values in quantity
* <code>CHR$</code>, <code>STR$</code>, and <code>VAL</code> functions for converting between string and numeric types (both languages did have the <code>ASC</code> function)
* User-defined functions: simple one-line functions written in BASIC, with a single parameter
* Error-trapping: allowing BASIC programs to handle unexpected errors via subroutine written in BASIC
Conversely, Applesoft lacks the <code>MOD</code> (remainder) operator from Integer BASIC.
Adapting BASIC for the Apple II was a tedious job as Apple received a source listing for Microsoft 6502 BASIC which proved to be buggy and also required the addition of Integer BASIC commands. Since Apple had no 6502 assembler on hand, the development team was forced to send the source code over the phone lines to Call Computer, an outfit that offered compiler services. This was an extremely tedious, slow process and after Call Computer lost the source code due to an equipment malfunction, one of the programmers, Cliff Huston, used his own IMSAI 8080 computer to cross assemble the BASIC source.Features
Applesoft is similar to Commodore's BASIC 2.0 aside from features inherited from Integer BASIC. There are a few minor differences such as Applesoft's lack of bitwise operators; otherwise most BASIC programs that do not use hardware-dependent features will run on both BASICs.
The statement redirects output to an expansion card, and redirects input from an expansion card. The slot number of the card is specified after the or within the statement. The computer locks-up if there is no card present in the slot. restores output to the 40 column screen and to the keyboard.
The statement can be used to redirect output to the printer (e.g. ) where x is the slot number containing the printer port card. To send a BASIC program listing to the printer, the user types .
Using on a slot with a disk drive (usually in slot 6) causes Applesoft to boot the disk drive. Using on a slot with an 80 column card (usually in slot 3) switches to 80 column text mode.
As with Commodore BASIC, numeric variables are stored as 40-bit floating point; each variable requires five bytes of memory. The programmer may designate variables as integer by following them with a percent sign, in which case they use two bytes and are limited to a range of -32768 to 32767; however BASIC internally converts them back to floating point when performing calculations, while each percent sign also takes an additional byte of program code, so in practice this feature is only useful for reducing the memory usage of large array variables, as it offers no performance benefit.
The RND function generates a pseudorandom fractional number between 0 and 1. returns the most recently generated random number. with a negative number will jump to a point in the sequence determined by the particular negative number used. RND with any positive value generates the next number in the sequence, not dependent on the actual value given.
Like other implementations of Microsoft BASIC, Applesoft discards spaces (outside of strings and comments) on program lines. <code>LIST</code> adds spaces when displaying code for the sake of readability. Since adds a space before and after every tokenized keyword, it often produces two spaces in a row where one would suffice for readability.
The default prompt for <code>INPUT</code> is a question mark. <code>PRINT</code> does not add a leading space in front of numbers.
Limitations
Through several early models of the Apple II, Applesoft BASIC did not support the use of lowercase letters in programs, except in strings. <code>PRINT</code> is a valid command but <code>print</code> and <code>Print</code> result in a syntax error.
Applesoft lacks several commands and functions common to most of the non-6502 Microsoft BASIC interpreters, such as:
* <code>INSTR</code> (search for a substring in a string)
* <code>PRINT USING</code> (format numbers in printed output)
* <code>INKEY$</code> (check for a keypress without stopping the program; although a PEEK to location $C000 achieves this action)
* <code>LPRINT</code> (output to a printer instead of the screen)
Applesoft does not have commands for file or disk handling, other than to save and load programs via cassette tape. The Apple II disk operating system, known simply as DOS, augments the language to provide such abilities.
Only the first two letters of variables names are significant. For example, "LOW" and "LOSS" are treated as the same variable, and attempting to assign a value to "LOSS" overwrites any value assigned to "LOW". A programmer also has to avoid consecutive letters that are Applesoft commands or operations. The name "SCORE" for a variable is interpreted as containing the <code>OR</code> Boolean operator, rendered as <code>SC OR E</code>. "BACKGROUND" contains <code>GR</code>, the command to invoke the low-resolution graphics mode, and results in a syntax error.
Sound and graphics
The only sound support is the option to <code>PRINT</code> an ASCII bell character to sound the system alert beep, and a <code>PEEK</code> command to click the speaker. The language is not fast enough to produce more than a baritone buzz from repeated clicks. Programs can, however, store a machine-language routine to be called to generate electronic musical tones spanning several octaves.
Applesoft supports drawing in the Apple II's low resolution and high resolution modes. There are commands to plot pixels and draw horizontal and vertical lines in low resolution. High resolution allows arbitrary lines and vector-based shape tables for drawing scaled and rotated objects. The only provision for mixing text and graphics is the four lines of text at the bottom of a graphic display.
Beginning with the Apple IIe, a "double-high resolution" mode became available on machines with 128k of memory. This mode essentially duplicates the resolution of the original high resolution mode, but including all 16 colors of the low resolution palette. Applesoft does not provide direct support for this mode. Apple IIGS-specific modes are likewise not supported.
Extensions
Applesoft BASIC can be extended by two means: the ampersand () command and the function. These are two features that call low-level machine-language routines stored in memory, which is useful for routines that need to be fast or require direct access to arbitrary functions or data in memory. The function takes one argument, and can be programmed to derive and return a calculated function value to be used in a numerical expression. is effectively a shorthand for , with an address that is predefined. By calling routines in the Applesoft ROM, it is possible for ampersand routines to parse values that follow the ampersand. Numerous third-party commercial packages were available to extend Applesoft using ampersand routines.
Bugs
A deficiency with error-trapping via <code>ONERR</code> means that the system stack is not reset if an error-handling routine does not invoke <code>RESUME</code>, potentially leading to a crash. The built-in pseudorandom number generator function <code>RND</code> is capable of producing a predictable series of outputs due to the manner in which the generator is seeded when first powering on. This behavior is contrary to how Apple's documentation describes the function.PerformanceWozniak originally referred to his Integer BASIC as "Game BASIC" (having written it so he could implement a Breakout clone for his new computer). instead of the 10 KB used by the later Applesoft II. Consequently, it lacks a number of command features developed for the later, mainstream version:
* All commands supporting Apple's "high resolution" graphics (9 total)
* Error-trapping with ONERR...GOTO and RESUME
* Machine-routine shorthand call "&"
* Screen-clearing HOME (a call to a system ROM routine)
* Text-output control NORMAL, INVERSE, FLASH and SPEED=
* The print-space function SPC() is listed among reserved words in the manual, but is not otherwise documented (the TAB() print-function is documented)
* Cassette tape storage of numerical arrays: STORE and RECALL
* Device response: WAIT
as well as several the later version would have, that had already been present in Apple's Integer BASIC:
* Program-line deletion: DEL
* Machine-routine access: CALL
* Peripheral device access: IN# and PR# (although IN without "#" is listed among reserved words)
* Memory range control: HIMEM: and LOMEM:
* Execution tracking for debugging: TRACE and NOTRACE
* Screen-positioning: HTAB and VTAB
* Subroutine aborting POP
* Functions PDL() to read the analog controllers, and SCRN() to read the low-resolution graphics screen (both accessing system ROM routines)
In addition, its low-resolution graphics commands have different names from their Integer BASIC/Applesoft II counterparts. All command names are of the form PLTx such that GR, COLOR=, PLOT, HLIN and VLIN are called PLTG, PLTC, PLTP, PLTH, and PLTV, respectively. The command for returning to text mode, known as TEXT in other versions, is simply TEX, and carries the proviso that it has to be the last statement in a program line.
Applesoft BASIC 1.x was closer to Microsoft's original 6502 BASIC code than the later Applesoft II; it retained the Memory Size? prompt and displayed a Microsoft copyright notice. To maintain consistency with Integer BASIC, the "Ok" prompt from Microsoft's code was replaced by a ] character. Applesoft 1.x also prompted the user upon loading if they wished to disable the REM statement and the LET keyword in assignment statements in exchange for lores graphics commands.
The USR() function is also defined differently, serving as a stand-in for the absent CALL command. Its argument is not for passing a numerical value to the machine-language routine, but is instead the call-address of the routine itself; there is no "hook" to pre-define the address. All of several examples in the manual use the function only to access "system monitor ROM" routines, or short user-routines to manipulate the ROM routines. No mention is made of any code to calculate the value returned by the function itself; the function is always shown being assigned to "dummy" variables, which, without action to set a value by user-code, just receive a meaningless value handed back to them. Even accessed ROM routines that return values (in examples, those that provide the service of PDL() and SCRN() functions) merely have their values stored, by user-routines, in locations that are separately PEEKed in a subsequent statement.
Unlike in Integer BASIC and Applesoft II, the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT perform bitwise operations on 16-bit integer values. If they are given values outside that range, an error results.
The terms OUT and PLT (and the aforementioned IN) appear in the list of reserved words, but are not explained anywhere in the manual.
Related BASICs
Several compilers for Applesoft BASIC exist, including TASC (The Applesoft Compiler) from Microsoft in 1981.
Coleco claimed that its Adam home computer's SmartBASIC was source-code compatible with Applesoft.
Microsoft licensed a BASIC compatible with Applesoft to VTech for its Laser 128 clone.See also
* ALF's Formula Transfer Link, speed enhancement for Applesoft BASIC
* Chinese BASIC, a Chinese-localized version of Applesoft BASIC
* Apple III BASICs from Apple and Microsoft
References
This article includes text from [http://everything2.com/?nodeApplesoft+BASIC Everything2], licensed under GFDL.External links
* [http://www.txbobsc.com/scsc/scdocumentor/ Disassembled ROM]
* [http://www.calormen.com/jsbasic/ AppleSoft BASIC in JavaScript]
Category:Apple II software
Category:BASIC interpreters
Category:Discontinued Microsoft BASICs
Category:BASIC programming language family
Category:Microsoft programming languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applesoft_BASIC | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.849391 |
2101 | Asterix | | graphic_novel = y
| anthology = Pilote
| titles = Full list
| writers =
| artists =
| translators =
| country = France (origin), other (for translated books)
| genre =
| publisher = Dargaud, Éditions Albert René, Hachette for canonical volumes in French; others for non-canonical volumes (1976–1996) in French; Hodder, Hachette and others for non-canonical volumes (1976–1996) in English
| date = 29 October 1959 – present (original); 1969–present (English translation)
|nonUS = y
|altcat = Asterix
|alttop = y
|sort = A
}}
Asterix ( or , "Asterix the Gaul"; also known as Asterix and Obelix in some adaptations or The Adventures of Asterix) is a French comic album series about a Gaulish village which, thanks to a magic potion that enhances strength, resists the forces of Julius Caesar's Roman Republic Army in a nonhistorical telling of the time after the Gallic Wars. Many adventures take the titular hero Asterix and his friend Obelix to Rome and beyond.
The series first appeared in the Franco-Belgian comic magazine Pilote on 29 October 1959. It was written by René Goscinny and illustrated by Albert Uderzo until Goscinny's death in 1977. Uderzo then took over the writing until 2009, when he sold the rights to publishing company Hachette; he died in 2020. In 2013, a new team consisting of Jean-Yves Ferri (script) and Didier Conrad (artwork) took over. , 40 volumes have been released; the most recent was penned by new writer Fabcaro and released on 26 October 2023.
By that year, the volumes in total had sold 393 million copies, making them the best-selling European comic book series, and the second best-selling comic book series in history after One Piece.
Description
himself in the centre, along with Obelix, Getafix, Vitalstatistix and others.]]
Asterix comics usually start with the following introduction: <blockquote> The year is 50 BC. Gaul is entirely occupied by the Romans. Well, not entirely... One small village of indomitable Gauls still holds out against the invaders. And life is not easy for the Roman legionaries who garrison the fortified camps of Totorum, Aquarium, Laudanum and Compendium...</blockquote>The series follows the adventures of a village of Gauls as they resist Roman occupation in 50 BC. They do so using a magic potion, brewed by their druid Getafix (Panoramix in the French version), which temporarily gives the recipient superhuman strength. The protagonists, the title character Asterix and his friend Obelix, have various adventures. The "-ix" ending of both names (as well as all the other pseudo-Gaulish "-ix" names in the series) alludes to the "-rix" suffix (meaning "king", like "-rex" in Latin) present in the names of many real Gaulish chieftains such as Vercingetorix, Orgetorix, and Dumnorix.
In some of the stories, they travel to foreign countries, whilst other tales are set in and around their village. For much of the history of the series (volumes 4 through 29), settings in Gaul and abroad alternate, with even-numbered volumes set abroad and odd-numbered volumes set in Gaul, mostly in the village.
The Asterix series is one of the most popular Franco-Belgian comics in the world, with the series being translated into 111 languages and dialects .
The success of the series has led to the adaptation of its books into 15 films: ten animated, and five live action (two of which, Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra and Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar, were major box office successes in France). There have also been a number of games based on the characters, and a theme park near Paris, Parc Astérix. The very first French satellite, Astérix, launched in 1965, was named after the character, whose name is close to Greek ἀστήρ and Latin astrum, meaning a "star". As of 20 April 2022, 385million copies of Asterix books had been sold worldwide and translated in 111 languages making it the world's most widely translated comic book series, with co-creators René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo being France's best-selling authors abroad.
In April 2022, Albert and René's general director, Céleste Surugue, hosted a 45-minute talk entitled 'The Next Incarnation of a Heritage Franchise: Asterix' and spoke about the success of the Asterix franchise, of which he noted "The idea was to find a subject with a strong connection with French culture and, while looking at the country's history, they ended up choosing its first defeat, namely the Gaul's Roman colonisation". He also went on to say how, since 1989, Parc Asterix has attracted an average of 2.3 million visitors per year. Other notable mentions were how the franchise includes 10 animated movies, which recorded over 53 million viewers worldwide. The inception of Studios Idéfix in 1974 and the opening of Studio 58 in 2016 were among the necessary steps to make Asterix a "100% Gaulish production", considered the best solution to keep the creative process under control from start to finish and to employ French manpower. He also noted how a new album is now published every two years, with print figures of 5 million and an estimated readership of 20 million.]]
Prior to creating the Asterix series, Goscinny and Uderzo had had success with their series Oumpah-pah, which was published in Tintin magazine.
Astérix was originally serialised in Pilote magazine, debuting in the first issue on 29 October 1959. In 1961, the first book was put together, titled Asterix the Gaul. From then on, books were released generally on a yearly basis. Their success was exponential; the first book sold 6,000 copies in its year of publication; a year later, the second sold 20,000. In 1963, the third sold 40,000; the fourth, released in 1964, sold 150,000. A year later, the fifth sold 300,000; 1966's Asterix and the Big Fight sold 400,000 upon initial publication. The ninth Asterix volume, when first released in 1967, sold 1.2 million copies in two days.
Uderzo's first preliminary sketches portrayed Asterix as a huge and strong traditional Gaulish warrior. But Goscinny had a different picture in his mind, visualizing Asterix as a shrewd, compact warrior who would possess intelligence and wit more than raw strength. However, Uderzo felt that the downsized hero needed a strong but dim companion, to which Goscinny agreed. Hence, Obelix was born. Despite the growing popularity of Asterix with the readers, the financial backing for the publication Pilote ceased. Pilote was taken over by Georges Dargaud. In a letter published in the French newspaper Le Monde in 2009, Uderzo's daughter, Sylvie, attacked her father's decision to sell the family publishing firm and the rights to produce new Astérix adventures after his death. She said:
<blockquote>... the co-creator of Astérix, France's comic strip hero, has betrayed the Gaulish warrior to the modern-day Romans – the men of industry and finance.</blockquote>
However, René Goscinny's daughter, Anne, also gave her agreement to the continuation of the series and sold her rights at the same time. She is reported to have said that "Asterix has already had two lives: one during my father's lifetime and one after it. Why not a third?". A few months later, Uderzo appointed three illustrators, who had been his assistants for many years, to continue the series. In 2011, Uderzo announced that a new Asterix album was due out in 2013, with Jean-Yves Ferri writing the story and Frédéric Mébarki drawing it. A year later, in 2012, the publisher Albert-René announced that Frédéric Mébarki had withdrawn from drawing the new album, due to the pressure he felt in following in the steps of Uderzo. Comic artist Didier Conrad was officially announced to take over drawing duties from Mébarki, with the due date of the new album in 2013 unchanged.
In January 2015, after the murders of seven cartoonists at the satirical Paris weekly Charlie Hebdo, Astérix creator Albert Uderzo came out of retirement to draw two Astérix pictures honouring the memories of the victims.
List of titles
Numbers 1–24, 32 and 34 are by Goscinny and Uderzo. Numbers 25–31 and 33 are by Uderzo alone. Numbers 35–39 are by Jean-Yves Ferri and Didier Conrad. Years stated are for their initial album release.
# Asterix the Gaul (1961)
# Asterix and the Golden Sickle (1962)
# Asterix and the Goths (1963)
# Asterix the Gladiator (1964)
# Asterix and the Banquet (1965)
# Asterix and Cleopatra (1965)
# Asterix and the Big Fight (1966)
# Asterix in Britain (1966)
# Asterix and the Normans (1967)
# Asterix the Legionary (1967)
# ''Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield (1967)
# Asterix at the Olympic Games (1968)
# Asterix and the Cauldron (1969)
# Asterix in Spain (1969)
# Asterix and the Roman Agent (1970)
# Asterix in Switzerland (1970)
# The Mansions of the Gods (1971)
# Asterix and the Laurel Wreath (1972)
# Asterix and the Soothsayer (1972)
# Asterix in Corsica (1973)
# Asterix and Caesar's Gift (1974)
# Asterix and the Great Crossing (1975)
# Obelix and Co. (1976)
# Asterix in Belgium (1979)
# Asterix and the Great Divide (1980)
# Asterix and the Black Gold (1981)
# Asterix and Son (1983)
# Asterix and the Magic Carpet (1987)
# Asterix and the Secret Weapon (1991)
# Asterix and Obelix All at Sea (1996)
# Asterix and the Actress (2001)
# Asterix and the Class Act (2003)
# Asterix and the Falling Sky (2005)
# Asterix and Obelix's Birthday: The Golden Book (2009)
# Asterix and the Picts (2013)
# Asterix and the Missing Scroll (2015)
# Asterix and the Chariot Race (2017)
# Asterix and the Chieftain's Daughter (2019)
# Asterix and the Griffin (2021)
# Asterix and the White Iris'' (2023)
# Asterix in Lusitania (23-10-2025)
*Non-canonical volumes:
** Asterix Conquers Rome, to be the 23rd volume, before Obelix and Co. (1976) – comic
** How Obelix Fell into the Magic Potion When he was a Little Boy (1989) – special issue album
** Uderzo Croqué par ses Amis (Uderzo sketched by his friends) (1996) – tribute album by various artists
** The Twelve Tasks of Asterix (2016) – special issue album, illustrated text
Asterix Conquers Rome is a comics adaptation of the animated film The Twelve Tasks of Asterix. It was released in 1976 and was the 23rd volume to be published, but it has been rarely reprinted and is not considered to be canonical to the series. The only English translations ever to be published were in the Asterix Annual 1980 and never an English standalone volume. A picture-book version of the same story was published in English translation as The Twelve Tasks of Asterix by Hodder & Stoughton in 1978.
In 1996, a tribute album in honour of Albert Uderzo was released titled Uderzo Croqué par ses Amis, a volume containing 21 short stories with Uderzo in Ancient Gaul. This volume was published by Soleil Productions and has not been translated into English.
In 2007, Éditions Albert René released a tribute volume titled Astérix et ses Amis, a 60-page volume of one-to-four-page short stories. It was a tribute to Albert Uderzo on his 80th birthday by 34 European cartoonists. The volume was translated into nine languages. , it has not been translated into English.
In 2016, the French publisher Hachette, along with Anne Goscinny and Albert Uderzo decided to make the special issue album The XII Tasks of Asterix for the 40th anniversary of the film The Twelve Tasks of Asterix. There was no English edition.
Synopsis and characters
The main setting for the series is an unnamed coastal village, rumoured to be inspired by Erquy in Armorica (present-day Brittany), a province of Gaul (modern France), in the year 50 BC. Julius Caesar has conquered nearly all of Gaul for the Roman Republic during the Gallic Wars. The little Armorican village, however, has held out because the villagers can gain temporary superhuman strength by drinking a magic potion brewed by the local village druid, Getafix. His chief is Vitalstatistix.
The main protagonist and hero of the village is Asterix, who, because of his shrewdness, is usually entrusted with the most important affairs of the village. He is aided in his adventures by his rather corpulent and slower thinking friend, Obelix, who, because he fell into the druid's cauldron of the potion as a baby, has permanent superhuman strength (because of this, Getafix steadfastly refuses to allow Obelix to drink the potion, as doing so would have a dangerous and unpredictable result, as shown in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea). Obelix is usually accompanied by Dogmatix, his little dog. (Except for Asterix and Obelix, the names of the characters change with the language. For example, Obelix's dog's name is "Idéfix" in the original French edition.)
Asterix and Obelix (and sometimes other members of the village) go on various adventures both within the village and in far away lands. Places visited in the series include parts of Gaul (Lutetia, Corsica etc.), neighbouring nations (Belgium, Spain, Britain, Germany etc.), and far away lands (North America, Middle East, India etc.).
The series employs science-fiction and fantasy elements in the more recent books; for instance, the use of extraterrestrials in Asterix and the Falling Sky and the city of Atlantis in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea.
With rare exceptions, the ending of the albums usually shows a big banquet with the village's inhabitants gathering – the sole exception is the bard Cacofonix restrained and gagged to prevent him from singing (but in Asterix and the Normans the blacksmith Fulliautomatix was tied up). Mostly the banquets are held under the starry nights in the village, where roast boar is devoured and all (but one) are set about in merrymaking. However, there are a few exceptions, such as in Asterix and Cleopatra.
Humour
The humour encountered in the Asterix comics often centers around puns, caricatures, and tongue-in-cheek stereotypes of contemporary European nations and French regions. Much of the multi-layered humour in the initial Asterix books was French-specific, which delayed the translation of the books into other languages for fear of losing the jokes and the spirit of the story. Some translations have actually added local humour: In the Italian translation, the Roman legionaries are made to speak in 20th-century Roman dialect, and Obelix's famous Ils sont fous, ces Romains ! ("These Romans are crazy") is translated as Sono pazzi questi romani, a long-established humorous expansion of the Roman abbreviation SPQR. In another example: Hiccups are written onomatopoeically in French as hips, but in English as "hic", allowing Roman legionaries in more than one of the English translations to decline their hiccups absurdly in Latin (hic, haec, hoc). The newer albums share a more universal humour, both written and visual.
Although the series uses the expression "our Gallic ancestors", the creators aren't French:
René Goscinny was a Jew with Polish parents and grew up in Argentina and Albert Uderzo was born to Italian immigrants. Some people think that Goscinny's Judaism made an impact on the series.Character namesAll the fictional characters in Asterix have names which are puns on their roles or personalities, and which follow certain patterns specific to nationality. Certain rules are followed (most of the time) such as Gauls (and their neighbours) having an "-ix" suffix for the men and ending in "-a" for the women; for example, Chief Vitalstatistix (so called due to his portly stature) and his wife Impedimenta (often at odds with the chief). The male Roman names end in "-us", echoing Latin nominative male singular form, as in Gluteus Maximus, a muscle-bound athlete whose name is literally the butt of the joke. Gothic names (present-day Germany) end in "-ic", after Gothic chiefs such as Alaric and Theoderic; for example Rhetoric the interpreter. Greek names end in "-os" or "-es"; for example, Thermos the restaurateur. British names usually end in "-ax" or "-os" and are often puns on the taxation associated with the later United Kingdom; examples include Mykingdomforanos, a British tribal chieftain, Valuaddedtax the druid, and Selectivemploymentax the mercenary. Names of Normans end with "-af", for example Nescaf or Cenotaf. Egyptian characters often end in -is, such as the architects Edifis and Artifis, and the scribe Exlibris. Indic names, apart from the only Indic female characters Orinjade and Lemuhnade, exhibit considerable variation; examples include Watziznehm, Watzit, Owzat, and Howdoo. Other nationalities are treated to pidgin translations from their language, like Huevos y Bacon, a Spanish chieftain (whose name, meaning eggs and bacon, is often guidebook Spanish for tourists), or literary and other popular media references, like Dubbelosix (a sly reference to James Bond's codename "007").
Most of these jokes, and hence the names of the characters, are specific to the translation; for example, the druid named Getafix in English translation – "get a fix", referring to the character's role in dispensing the magic potion – is Panoramix in the original French and Miraculix in German. Even so, occasionally the wordplay has been preserved: Obelix's dog, known in the original French as Idéfix (from idée fixe, a "fixed idea" or obsession), is called Dogmatix in English, which not only renders the original meaning strikingly closely ("dogmatic") but in fact adds another layer of wordplay with the syllable "Dog-" at the beginning of the name.
The name Asterix, French Astérix, comes from , meaning "asterisk", which is the typographical symbol * indicating a footnote, from the Greek word ἀστήρ (aster), meaning a "star". His name is usually left unchanged in translations, aside from accents and the use of local alphabets. For example, in Esperanto, Polish, Slovene, Latvian, and Turkish it is Asteriks (in Turkish he was first named Bücür meaning "shorty", but the name was then standardised). Two exceptions include Icelandic, in which he is known as Ástríkur ("Rich of love"), and Sinhala, where he is known as (Soora Pappa), which can be interpreted as "Hero". The name Obelix (Obélix) may refer to "obelisk", a stone column from ancient Egypt (and hence his large size and strength and his task of carrying around menhirs), but also to another typographical symbol, the obelisk or obelus ().
For explanations of some of the other names, see List of Asterix characters.
Ethnic stereotypes
Many of the Asterix adventures take place in other countries away from their homeland in Gaul. In every album that takes place abroad, the characters meet (usually modern-day) stereotypes for each country, as seen by the French.
* Italics (Italians) are the inhabitants of Italy. In the adventures of Asterix, the term "Romans" is used by non-Italics to refer to all inhabitants of Italy, who at that time had extended their dominion over a large part of the Mediterranean basin. But as can be seen in Asterix and the Chariot Race, in the Italian Peninsula this term is used only to refer to the people from the capital, with many Italics preferring to identify themselves as Umbrians, Etruscans, Venetians, etc. Various topics from this country are explored, as in this example, Italian cuisine (pasta, pizza, wine), art, famous people (Luciano Pavarotti, Silvio Berlusconi, Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa), and even the controversial issues of political corruption. Romans in general appear more similar to the historical Romans than to modern-age Italians.
* Goths (Germans) are disciplined and militaristic, but divided into many factions that fight amongst each other (which is a reference to Germany before Otto von Bismarck, and to the rivalry between East Germany and West Germany in the Aftermath of World War II), and they wear the Pickelhaube helmet common during the German Empire. In later appearances, the Goths tend to be more good-natured.
* Helvetians (Swiss) are neutral, eat fondue, and are obsessed with cleaning, accurate time-keeping, and banks.
* The Britons (English) are phlegmatic, and speak with early 20th-century aristocratic slang (similar to Bertie Wooster). They stop for tea every day (making it with hot water and a drop of milk until Asterix brings them actual tea leaves), drink lukewarm beer (Bitter), eat foods with mint sauce that are considered tasteless by the non-Briton characters (Rosbif), and live in streets containing rows of identical houses. In Asterix and Obelix: God Save Britannia the Britons all wore woollen pullovers and Tam o' shanters.
* Hibernians (Irish) inhabit Hibernia, the Latin name of Ireland and they fight against the Romans alongside the Britons to defend the British Isles.
* Iberians (Spanish) are filled with pride and have rather choleric tempers. They produce olive oil, provide very slow aid for chariot problems on the Roman roads and (thanks to Asterix) adopt bullfighting as a tradition.
* When the Gauls visited North America in Asterix and the Great Crossing, Obelix punches one of the attacking Native Americans with a knockout blow. The warrior first hallucinates American-style emblematic eagles; the second time, he sees stars in the formation of the Stars and Stripes; the third time, he sees stars shaped like the United States Air Force roundel. Asterix's inspired idea for getting the attention of a nearby Viking ship (which could take them back to Gaul) is to hold up a torch; this refers to the Statue of Liberty (which was a gift from France).
* Corsicans are proud, patriotic, and easily aroused but lazy, making decisions by using pre-filled ballot boxes. They harbour vendettas against each other, and always take their siesta.
* Greeks are chauvinists and consider Romans, Gauls, and all others to be barbarians. They eat stuffed grape leaves (dolma), drink resinated wine (retsina), and are hospitable to tourists. Most seem to be related by blood, and often suggest some cousin appropriate for a job. Greek characters are often depicted in side profile, making them resemble figures from classical Greek vase paintings.
* Normans (Vikings) drink endlessly, they always use cream in their cuisine, they don't know what fear is (which they're trying to discover), and in their home territory (Scandinavia), the night lasts for 6 months.<br>Their depiction in the albums is a mix of stereotypes of Scandinavian Vikings and the Norman French. Their names end in "-af".
* Cimbres (Danes) are very similar to the Normans with the greatest difference being that the Gauls are unable to communicate with them. Their names end in "-sen", a common ending of surnames in Denmark and Norway akin to "-son".
* Belgians speak with a funny accent, snub the Gauls, and always eat sliced roots deep-fried in bear fat. They also tell Belgian jokes.
* Lusitanians (Portuguese) are short in stature and polite (Uderzo said all the Portuguese who he had met were like that). Their most recent appearance in the albums depicts them with an easy-going and procrastinating nature.
* The Indians have elephant trainers, as well as gurus who can fast for weeks and levitate on magic carpets. They worship thirty-three million deities and consider cows as sacred. They also bathe in the Ganges river.
* Egyptians are short with prominent noses, endlessly engaged in building pyramids and palaces. Their favorite food is lentil soup and they sail feluccas along the banks of the Nile River.
* Persians (Iranians) produce carpets and staunchly refuse to mend foreign ones. They eat caviar, as well as roasted camel and the women wear burqas.
* Hittites, Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians are perpetually at war with each other and attack strangers because they confuse them with their enemies, but they later apologize when they realize that the strangers are not their enemies. This is likely a criticism of the constant conflicts among the Middle Eastern peoples.
* The Jews are all depicted as Yemenite Jews, with dark skin, black eyes, and beards, a tribute to Marc Chagall, the famous painter whose painting of King David hangs at the Knesset (Israeli Parliament).
* Numidians, contrary to the Berber inhabitants of ancient Numidia (located in North Africa), are obviously Africans from sub-Saharan Africa. The names end in "-tha", similar to the historical king Jugurtha of Numidia.
* The Picts (Scots) wear a typical dress with a kilt (skirt), have the habit of drinking "malt water" (whisky) and throwing logs (caber tossing) as a popular sport and their names all start with "Mac-".
* Sarmatians (Ukrainians) inhabit the North Black Sea area, which represents present-day Ukraine. Their names end in "-ov", like many Ukrainian surnames.
When the Gauls see foreigners speaking their foreign languages, these have different representations in the cartoon speech bubbles:
*Iberian: Same as Spanish, with inversion of exclamation marks ('¡') and question marks ("¿")
*Goth language: Gothic script (incomprehensible to the Gauls, except Getafix, who speaks Gothic)
*Cimbres: "Ø" and "Å" instead of "O" and "A" (incomprehensible to the Gauls)
*Amerindian: Pictograms and sign language (generally incomprehensible to the Gauls)
*Egyptians and Kushites: Hieroglyphs with explanatory footnotes (incomprehensible to the Gauls)
*Greek: Straight letters, carved as if in stone
*Sarmatian: In their speech balloons, some letters (E, F, N, R ...) are written in a mirror-reversed form, which evokes the modern Cyrillic alphabet.
Translations
The various volumes have been translated into more than 120 languages and dialects. Besides the original French language, most albums are available in Arabic, Basque, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, Galician, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovene, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Ukrainian.
Some books have also been translated into languages including Esperanto, Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Scots, Indonesian, Hindi, Persian, Bengali, Afrikaans, Arabic, Frisian, Romansch, Thai, Vietnamese, Welsh, Sinhala, Ancient Greek, and Luxembourgish.
In Europe, several volumes were translated into a variety of regional languages and dialects, such as Alsatian, Breton, Chtimi (Picard), and Corsican in France; Bavarian, Swabian, and Low German in Germany; and Savo, Karelia, Rauma, and Helsinki slang dialects in Finland. In Portugal a special edition of the first volume, Asterix the Gaul, was translated into local language Mirandese. In Greece, a number of volumes have appeared in the Cretan Greek, Cypriot Greek, and Pontic Greek dialects. In the Italian version, while the Gauls speak standard Italian, the legionaries speak in the Romanesque dialect. In the former Yugoslavia, the "Forum" publishing house translated Corsican text in Asterix in Corsica into the Montenegrin dialect of Serbo-Croatian (today called Montenegrin).
In the Netherlands, several volumes were translated into West Frisian, a Germanic language spoken in the province of Friesland; into Limburgish, a regional language spoken not only in Dutch Limburg but also in Belgian Limburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany; and into Tweants, a dialect in the region of Twente in the eastern province of Overijssel. Hungarian-language books were published in the former Yugoslavia for the Hungarian minority living in Serbia. Although not translated into a fully autonomous dialect, the books differ slightly from the language of the books issued in Hungary. In Sri Lanka, the cartoon series was adapted into Sinhala as Sura Pappa. and Beric the Bold, set in Roman-occupied Britain. These were included in an exhibition on Goscinny's life and career, and Asterix, in London's Jewish Museum in 2018.
In 1970, William Morrow and Company published English translations in hardback of three Asterix albums for the American market. These were Asterix the Gaul, Asterix and Cleopatra and Asterix the Legionary. Lawrence Hughes in a letter to The New York Times stated, "Sales were modest, with the third title selling half the number of the first. I was publisher at the time, and Bill Cosby tried to buy film and television rights. When that fell through, we gave up the series."
The first 33 Asterix albums were translated into English by Anthea Bell and Derek Hockridge (including the three volumes reprinted by William Morrow), who were widely praised for maintaining the spirit and humour of the original French versions. Hockridge died in 2013, so Bell translated books 34 to 36 by herself, before retiring in 2016 for health reasons. She died in 2018. Adriana Hunter became translator.
US publisher Papercutz in December 2019 announced it would begin publishing "all-new more American translations" of the Asterix books, starting on 19 May 2020. The launch was postponed to 15 July 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The new translator is Joe Johnson, a professor of French and Spanish at Clayton State University.
Adaptations
The series has been adapted into various media. There are 18 films, 15 board games, 40 video games, and 1 theme park.
Films
* Deux Romains en Gaule, 1967 black and white television film, mixed media, live-action with Asterix and Obelix animated. Released on DVD in 2002.
* Asterix the Gaul, 1967, animated, based on the album Asterix the Gaul.
* Asterix and the Golden Sickle, 1967, animated, based upon the album Asterix and the Golden Sickle, incomplete and never released.
* Asterix and Cleopatra, 1968, animated, based on the album Asterix and Cleopatra.
* The Dogmatix movie, 1973, animated, a unique story based on Dogmatix and his animal friends, Albert Uderzo created a comic version (consisting of eight comics, as the film is a combination of 8 different stories) of the never-released movie in 2003.
* The Twelve Tasks of Asterix, 1976, animated, a unique story not based on an existing comic.
* Asterix Versus Caesar, 1985, animated, based on both Asterix the Legionary and Asterix the Gladiator.
* Asterix in Britain, 1986, animated, based upon the album Asterix in Britain.
* Asterix and the Big Fight, 1989, animated, based on both Asterix and the Big Fight and Asterix and the Soothsayer.
* Asterix Conquers America, 1994, animated, loosely based upon the album Asterix and the Great Crossing.
* Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar, 1999, live-action, based primarily upon Asterix the Gaul, Asterix and the Soothsayer, Asterix and the Goths, Asterix the Legionary, and Asterix the Gladiator.
* Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra, 2002, live-action, based upon the album Asterix and Cleopatra.
* Asterix and Obelix in Spain, 2004, live-action, based upon the album Asterix in Spain, incomplete and never released because of disagreement with the team behind the movie and the creator of the comics.
* Asterix and the Vikings, 2006, animated, loosely based upon the album Asterix and the Normans along with some side references to Asterix and the Great Crossing.
* Asterix at the Olympic Games, 2008, live-action, loosely based upon the album Asterix at the Olympic Games.
* Asterix and Obelix: God Save Britannia, 2012, live-action, loosely based upon the album Asterix in Britain and Asterix and the Normans.
* Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods, 2014, animated, based upon the album The Mansions of the Gods and is the first animated Asterix movie in stereoscopic 3D.
* Asterix: The Secret of the Magic Potion, 2018, animated, original story.
* Asterix & Obelix: The Middle Kingdom, 2023, live-action, original story, consisting of Asterix and Obelix traveling to China to rescue the empress from Julius Caesar and his ally, the Prince Deng Tsin Quin (a reference to the song Dancing Queen).
Television series
On 17 November 2018, a 52 eleven-minute episode animated series featuring Dogmatix (Idéfix in the French version) was announced to be in production by Studio 58 and Futurikon for broadcast on France Télévisions in 2020. On 21 December 2020, it was confirmed that Dogmatix and the Indomitables had been pushed back to fall 2021, with o2o Studio producing the animation. The show is distributed globally by LS Distribution. The series premiered on the Okoo streaming service on 2 July before beginning its linear broadcast on France 4 on 28 August 2021.
On 3 March 2021, it was announced that Asterix the Gaul is to star in a new Netflix animated series directed by Alain Chabat. The series will be adapted from one of the classic volumes, Asterix and the Big Fight, where the Romans, after being constantly embarrassed by Asterix and his village cohorts, organize a brawl between rival Gaulish chiefs and try to fix the result by kidnapping a druid along with his much-needed magic potion. The series, originally scheduled for 2023, will debut in 2025, and will be CG-animated.
Games
Many gamebooks, board games and video games are based upon the Asterix series. In particular, many video games were released by various computer game publishers.
Theme park
Parc Astérix, a theme park 22 miles north of Paris, based upon the series, was opened in 1989. It is one of the most visited sites in France, with around 2.3 million visitors per year.
In popular culture
s]]
*The first French satellite, which was launched in 1965, was named Astérix-1 in honour of Asterix. Asteroids 29401 Asterix and 29402 Obelix were also named in honour of the characters. Coincidentally, the word Asterix/Asterisk originates from the Greek for Little Star.
*During the campaign for Paris to host the 1992 Summer Olympics in 1986, Asterix appeared in many posters over the Eiffel Tower, later it was lost to Barcelona and the 2024 Summer Olympics held 32 years later in the same city after Tokyo in 2021.
*The French company Belin introduced a series of Asterix crisps shaped in the forms of Roman shields, gourds, wild boar, and bones.
* In the UK in 1995, Asterix coins were presented free in every Ferrero Nutella jars.
* In 1991, Asterix and Obelix appeared on the cover of Time for a special edition about France, art directed by Mirko Ilić. In a 2009 issue of the same magazine, Asterix is described as being seen by some as a symbol for France's independence and defiance of globalisation. Despite this, Asterix has made several promotional appearances for fast food chain McDonald's, including one advertisement which featured members of the village enjoying the traditional story-ending feast at a McDonald's restaurant.
* Version 4.0 of the operating system OpenBSD features a parody of an Asterix story.
* Action Comics Issue #579, published by DC Comics in 1986, written by Lofficier and Illustrated by Keith Giffen, featured a homage to Asterix where Superman and Jimmy Olsen are drawn back in time to a small village of indomitable Gauls.
* In 2005, the Mirror World Asterix exhibition was held in Brussels. The Belgian post office also released a set of stamps to coincide with the exhibition. A book was released to coincide with the exhibition, containing sections in French, Dutch and English.
* On 29 October 2009, the Google homepage of a great number of countries displayed a logo (called Google Doodle) commemorating the 50th anniversary of Asterix.
* Although they have since changed, the #2 and #3 heralds in the Society for Creative Anachronism's Kingdom of Ansteorra were the Asterisk and Obelisk Heralds.
* Asterix and Obelix were the official mascots of the 2017 IIHF World Championships, jointly hosted by France and Germany.
* In 2019, France issued a commemorative €2 coin to celebrate the 60th anniversary of Asterix.
* The Royal Canadian Navy has a supply vessel named MV Asterix. A second Resolve-Class ship, to have been named MV Obelix, was cancelled.
* Asterix, Obelix and Vitalstatistix appear in Larry Gonick's The Cartoon History of the Universe volume 2, especially in the depiction of the Gallic invasion of Italy (390 – 387 BCE). In the final panel of that sequence, as they trudge off into the sunset, Obelix says "Come on, Asterix! Let's get our own comic book."
See also
*List of Asterix characters
*Bande dessinée
*English translations of Asterix
*List of Asterix games
*List of Asterix volumes
*Kajko i Kokosz
*Potion
*Roman Gaul, after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces
*Commentarii de Bello Gallico
References
Sources
*[http://bdoubliees.com/journalpilote/series1/asterix.htm Astérix publications in Pilote] BDoubliées
*[http://www.bedetheque.com/serie-59-BD-Asterix.html Astérix albums] Bedetheque
Further reading
* – This is Chapter #16, in Part III: Translations, Transformations, Migrations
*Tosina Fernández, Luis J. "Creatividad paremiológica en las traducciones al castellano de Astérix". Proverbium vol. 38, 2021, pp. 361–376. [https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/401827 Proverbiium PDF]
*Tosina Fernández, Luis J. "Paremiological Creativity and Visual Representation of Proverbs: An Analysis of the Use of Proverbs in the Adventures of Asterix the Gaul". Proceedings of the Fourteenth Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Proverbs, 2 to 8 November 2020, at Tavira, Portugal, edited by Rui J.B. Soares and Outi Lauhakangas, Tavira: Tipografia Tavirense, 2021, pp. 256–277.
External links
*[http://www.asterix.com/en Official site]
*[https://archive.today/20240525205650/https://www.webcitation.org/66jm7lLVB?url=http://toonopedia.com/asterix.htm Asterix the Gaul] at Don Markstein's Toonopedia, from the original on 6 April 2012.
*[http://www.asterix-obelix.nl/ Asterix around the World – The many languages]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051119024530/http://www.gthomas.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Alea Jacta Est (Asterix for grown-ups)] Each Asterix book is examined in detail
*[http://www.mage.fst.uha.fr/asterix/allusion/allusion.html Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix] – Cultural allusions
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050204014231/http://openscroll.org/asterix/ The Asterix Annotations] – album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes
Category:Bandes dessinées
Category:French comic strips
Category:Pilote titles
Category:Dargaud titles
Category:Alternate history comics
Category:Lagardère SCA franchises
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Category:Comic franchises
Category:Fantasy comics
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Category:Pirate comics
Category:1959 comics debuts
Category:Works set in Roman Gaul
Category:Comics set in ancient Rome
Category:Comics set in France
Category:Comics set in Brittany
Category:Comics set in the 1st century BC
Category:French comics adapted into films
Category:Comics adapted into animated films
Category:Comics adapted into animated series
Category:Comics adapted into video games
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Category:Works about rebels
Category:Works about rebellions
Category:Fiction about rebellions
Category:Gallia Lugdunensis
Category:Comics by Albert Uderzo
Category:Armorica
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Category:Slapstick comedy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterix | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.918247 |
2102 | Arizona Cardinals | | city = State Farm Stadium<br />Glendale, Arizona
| misc Headquartered in Tempe, Arizona
| uniform | colors Cardinal red, white, black, silver<!-- Yellow is only the color of the Cardinal beak in the logo. It is not an official team color. Also, please DO NOT change the HTML hex code for silver. It is official, per the logo slick hosted at NFLCommunications.com. Thank you. --><br />
| coach = Jonathan Gannon
| general manager = Monti Ossenfort
| owner Michael Bidwill
| chairman = Michael Bidwill
| president = Michael Bidwill
| mascot = Big Red
| website =
| nicknames =
* The Cards
* The Redbirds
* The Big Red
* The Football Cardinals (during St. Louis tenure, 1960–1987)
* The Gridbirds
* Birdgang/Red Sea (fanbase)
| hist_yr = 1994
| hist_misc =
* Morgan Athletic Club (1898)
* Racine Normals (1899–1900)
* Racine Cardinals (1901–1906, 1913–1919)
* Chicago Cardinals (1920–1943, 1945–1959)
* Card-Pitt (1944)
* St. Louis Cardinals (1960–1987)
* Phoenix Cardinals (1988–1993)
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1898–1906, 1913–1919)
| NFL_start_yr = 1920
| division_hist =
* Western Division (1933–1949)
* American Conference (1950–1952)
* Eastern Conference (1953–1969)
** Century Division (1967–1969)
* National Football Conference (1970–present)
** NFC East (1970–2001)
** NFC West (2002–present)
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_sb_champs = 0
| no_conf_champs = 1
| conf_champs =
* NFC: 2008
| no_div_champs = 7
| league_champs =
* NFL championships (pre-1970 AFL–NFL merger) (2)<br />1925, 1947
| div_champs =
* NFL Western: 1947, 1948
* NFC East: 1974, 1975
* NFC West: 2008, 2009, 2015
| playoff_appearances =
* NFL: 1947, 1948, , , , , , , , ,
| no_playoff_appearances = 11
| stadium_years =
* Normal Park (, )
* Comiskey Park (, , )
* Wrigley Field ()
* Busch Stadium ()
* Busch Memorial Stadium ()
* Sun Devil Stadium ()
* State Farm Stadium (–present)
1944 due to shortage of players during World War II (temporary merger with Pittsburgh Steelers):
* Forbes Field (three games)
1959 before relocation to St. Louis:
* Soldier Field (four games)
* Metropolitan Stadium (two games)
| team_owners =
* Chris O'Brien (1898–1929)
* David Jones (1929–1933)
* Charles Bidwill (1933–1947)
* Violet Bidwill Wolfner (1947–1962)
* Charles Bidwill Jr. and Bill Bidwill (1962–1972)
* Bill Bidwill (1972–2019)
* Michael Bidwill (2019–present)
}}
The Arizona Cardinals are a professional American football team based in the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Cardinals compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) West division. The team plays its home games at State Farm Stadium in Glendale, a suburb northwest of the state capital of Phoenix.
The team was established in Chicago in 1898 as the Morgan Athletic Club, and joined the NFL as a charter member on September 17, 1920.<!--Please DO NOT change, remove or vandalize this. It is an OFFICIAL reference from the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which is part of the NFL.com Internet Network. Thank you. --> The Cardinals are the oldest continuously run professional football franchise in the United States, and, along with the Chicago Bears, are the only NFL charter member franchises still in operation. In , the team moved to St. Louis, where it was commonly referred to as the "Football Cardinals", the "Gridbirds", or the "Big Red" to avoid confusion with Major League Baseball's (MLB) St. Louis Cardinals. Before the season, the team moved to Tempe, Arizona, a suburb of Phoenix, where it played home games for the next 18 seasons at Sun Devil Stadium on the campus of Arizona State University. In , the team moved to their current home field in suburban Glendale, although their executive offices and training facility remain in Tempe. From 1988 to 2012 (except 2005, when they trained in Prescott), the Cardinals conducted their annual summer training camp at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff. The Cardinals moved their training camp to State Farm Stadium, then known as University of Phoenix Stadium, in 2013.
The Cardinals have won two NFL championships, both while the team was in Chicago. The first, in , was disputed by supporters of the runner-up Pottsville Maroons. Their second, and the first to be won in a championship game, came in , nearly two decades before the first Super Bowl. They returned to the title game to defend in 1948, but lost the rematch 7–0 in a snowstorm in Philadelphia.
The team has since suffered many losing seasons and, as of 2024, has the longest active championship drought in North American sports at 77 seasons (one more than MLB's Cleveland Guardians, who last won the World Series in 1948). The Cardinals have recorded the most losses by a franchise in NFL history with 812 regular season losses as of 2024. The team's all-time win–loss record (including regular season and playoff games) at the conclusion of the 2024 season was ( in the regular season, in the playoffs). They have been to the playoffs 11 times and have won seven playoff games, including three in the 2008–09 NFL playoffs. During that season, they won their only NFC Championship Game since the 1970 AFL–NFL merger, and reached Super Bowl XLIII, losing 27–23 to the Pittsburgh Steelers. The team has won five division titles (, , , , and ) since their 1947–48 NFL championship game appearances. The Cardinals are the only NFL team that has never lost a playoff game at home: their 5–0 record encompasses the 1947 NFL Championship Game, two games during the 2008–09 NFL playoffs, one during the 2009–10 playoffs, and one during the 2015–16 playoffs. In their 36 seasons since moving to the Valley of the Sun in 1988, the Cardinals have a total of six playoff appearances, three division titles, and the one NFC championship.History Chicago Cardinals (1920–1959)
The franchise dates to 1898, when a neighborhood group gathered to play on the South Side of Chicago, calling themselves the Morgan Athletic Club. Chicago painting and building contractor Chris O'Brien acquired the team, which he moved to Normal Field on Racine Avenue. The team was known as the Racine Normals until 1901, when O'Brien bought used jerseys from the University of Chicago. After he described the faded maroon clothing as "Cardinal red", the team became the Racine Street Cardinals. Eventually in 1920, the team became a charter member of the American Professional Football Association (APFA), which was rechristened the National Football League (NFL) two years later. The team entered the league as the Racine Cardinals, but changed their name to the Chicago Cardinals in 1922 to avoid confusion with the Horlick-Racine Legion, who entered the league the same year. NFL champions (1925) In 1925, the Cardinals were awarded the NFL Championship after the Pottsville Maroons were suspended for playing a game in what was deemed "another team's territory." Having beat the Cardinals in a head-to-head game earlier in the season, the Pottsville Maroons won their extra game against the University of Notre Dame, helping them finish the year with the same record as the Cardinals. The Cardinals were also guilty of breaking NFL rules by scheduling two additional games against the Hammond Pros and the Milwaukee Badgers, both of whom had already disbanded for the season. The game against the Badgers spurred a scandal when the Badgers filled out their roster with four high school players, in violation of NFL rules. NFL Champions (1947) During the post-World War II years, the team reached two straight NFL finals against the Philadelphia Eagles, winning in 1947 (eight months after Charles Bidwill's death) but losing the following year. In the late 1950s, after years of bad seasons and losing fans to their crosstown rivals, the Chicago Bears, the Cardinals were almost bankrupt, and owner Violet Bidwill Wolfner became interested in moving the team to a new city. St. Louis Cardinals (1960–1987)
Due to the formation of the rival American Football League, the NFL allowed Bidwill to move the team to St. Louis, Missouri, where they became the St. Louis Cardinals. They were locally called the "Big Red", the "Gridbirds" or the "Football Cardinals" to avoid confusion with the local baseball team of the same name. During the Cardinals' 28-year stay in St. Louis, they advanced to the playoffs just three times (1974, 1975 and 1982), never hosting or winning. They did, however, win the Playoff Bowl, a now-defunct post-season game for third place, in 1964 against the Green Bay Packers by a score of 24–17. The overall mediocrity of the Cardinals, combined with a then-21-year-old stadium, caused game attendance to dwindle, and owner Bill Bidwill decided to move the team to Arizona.
Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals (1988–present)
Not long after the end of the 1987 NFL season, Bidwill agreed to move to Phoenix on a handshake deal with state and local officials, and the team became the Phoenix Cardinals. The team changed their name to the Arizona Cardinals on March 17, 1994.
The Cardinals hired Vince Tobin as head coach prior to the 1996 season. In his first season, he led the team to a 7–9 mark in the 1996 season. The team regressed in the 1997 season with a 4–12 record. The 1998 NFL season saw the Cardinals break two long droughts, qualifying for the playoffs for the first time in 16 years. The team got their first postseason win since 1947 by defeating the Dallas Cowboys 20–7 in the wild-card round of the playoffs. The Cardinals saw their run end in the Divisional Round with a 41–21 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. The Cardinals regressed to a 6–10 record in the 1999 season. In the 2000 season, Tobin was fired after a 2–5 start. Dave McGinnis finished the season out with a 1–8 record.
Prior to the 2001 season, the Cardinals named McGinnis as their full-time head coach. He coached for three seasons, regressing each year record-wise. He was fired by the team following the 2003 season.
Prior to the 2004 season, the Cardinals hired Dennis Green as head coach. He coached the team to three consecutive losing seasons before being fired following the 2006 season.
The Cardinals hired Ken Whisenhunt as head coach prior to the 2007 season. In his first season with the team, Whisenhunt led the Cardinals to a 8–8 record in the 2007 season. In the 2008 postseason, the Cardinals, led by quarterback Kurt Warner, won the Wild Card Round over the Atlanta Falcons, the Divisional Round against the Carolina Panthers, and the NFC Championship Game against the Philadelphia Eagles to advance to the Super Bowl for the first time in their history. They lost Super Bowl XLIII 27–23 to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the final seconds of the game.
After their historic 2008 season, the Cardinals posted a 10–6 record in , their first season with 10 wins in Arizona. The Cardinals clinched their second consecutive NFC West title but were defeated by eventual Super Bowl champion New Orleans Saints, 45–14 in the divisional playoffs. After the 2012 season, the Cardinals fired Whisenhunt as head coach. Prior to the 2013 season, the team hired Bruce Arians as head coach. Arians' first season with the team saw the Cardinals go 10–6 but miss the postseason in 2013. The next time they would make the playoffs would be in , as a wild card. They set the best regular-season record in their history in Arizona at 11–5 but were defeated by the 7–8–1 NFC South champions, the Carolina Panthers.
The next year, the Cardinals set a franchise-best 13–3 record and clinched their first-ever first-round playoff bye as the NFC's second seed. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 26–20 in overtime, giving quarterback Carson Palmer his first playoff victory. The Cardinals then advanced to their second NFC Championship Game in their history but were blown out by the top-seeded 15–1 Panthers 49–15, committing seven turnovers.
The Cardinals then fell to 7–8–1 in and 8–8 in . After the 2017 season, Arians retired as head coach. The Cardinals hired Steve Wilks to be the head coach prior to the 2018 season. The team dropped to a 3–13 record in , tying the franchise record set in for the worst record in a 16-game season. Wilks was fired following the season. The Cardinals hired Kliff Kingsbury as head coach prior to the 2019 season. At the 2019 NFL Draft, the Cardinals used the top overall pick in the draft on Oklahoma quarterback Kyler Murray. The team improved to 5–10–1 in and 8–8 in . In , the Cardinals went 11–6, posting a winning record and returning to the postseason for the first time since 2015, but lost to the Los Angeles Rams in the Wild Card round. They failed to improve their record in 2022, dropping to the bottom of NFC West at 4–13, and missing the playoffs. Kingsbury was fired as head coach following the 2022 season. Under first year head coach Jonathan Gannon, the Cardinals once again finished in fourth in the NFC West with a 4–13 record in 2023.Logos and uniforms
Starting in , the team had a logo of a cardinal bird (pyrrhuloxia) perched on the laces of a football.
Starting in , coinciding with their move to St. Louis, the team introduced their now famous Cardinal head logo on the helmets.
The Cardinals moved to Arizona in , and the flag of Arizona was added to the sleeves the following year. In , the team began wearing red pants with their white jerseys, as new coach Joe Bugel wanted to emulate his former employer, the Washington Redskins, who at the time wore burgundy pants with their white jerseys (the Redskins later returned to their 1970s gold pants with all their jerseys).
In , the Cardinals participated in the NFL's 75th-anniversary throwback uniform program. The jerseys were similar to those of the 1920s Chicago Cardinals, with an interlocking "CC" logo and three stripes on each sleeve. The uniform numbers were moved to the right chest. The pants were khaki to simulate the color and material used in that era. The Cardinals also stripped the logos from their helmets for two games: at Cleveland and home vs. Pittsburgh.
The Cardinal head on the helmet also appeared on the sleeve of the white jersey from 1982 to 1995. In 1996, the state flag of Arizona was moved higher on the sleeve after the Cardinal head was eliminated as sleeves on football jerseys became shorter, and black was removed as an accent color, instead replaced with a blue to match the predominant color of the state flag. In 2002, the Cardinals began to wear all-red and all-white combinations, and continued to do so through 2004, prior to the team's makeover.
In , the team unveiled its first major changes in a century. The cardinal-head logo was updated to look sleeker and meaner than its predecessor. Numerous fans had derisively called the previous version a "parakeet". Black again became an accent color after an eight-year absence, while trim lines were added to the outside shoulders, sleeves, and sides of the jerseys and pants. Both the red and white jerseys have the option of red or white pants.
Hoping to break a six-game losing streak, the Cardinals wore the red pants for the first time on October 29, 2006, in a game at Lambeau Field against the Green Bay Packers. The Packers won 31–14, and the Cards headed into their bye week with a 1–7 mark. Following the bye week, the Cardinals came out in an all-red combination at home against the Dallas Cowboys and lost, 27–10. Arizona did not wear the red pants for the remainder of the season and won four of their last seven games. However, the following season, in , the Cardinals again wore their red pants for their final 3 home games. They wore red pants with white jerseys in games on the road at the Cincinnati Bengals and Seattle Seahawks. They paired red pants with red jerseys, the all-red combination, for home games against the Detroit Lions, San Francisco 49ers, Cleveland Browns, and St. Louis Rams. The red pants were not worn at all in , but they were used in home games against Seattle, Minnesota, and St. Louis in . The red pants were paired with the white road jersey for the first time in three years during a 2010 game at Carolina, but the white jersey/red pants combination was not used again until 2018, when they broke out the combination against the Kansas City Chiefs.
The Cardinals' first home game in Arizona, in 1988, saw them play in red jerseys. Thereafter, for the next 18 years in Arizona, the Cardinals, like a few other NFL teams in warm climates, wore their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season—forcing opponents to suffer in their darker jerseys during Arizona autumns that frequently see temperatures over 100 °F (38 °C). However, this tradition did not continue when the Cardinals moved from Sun Devil Stadium to State Farm Stadium in 2006, as early-season games (and some home games late in the season) were played with the roof closed. With the temperature inside at a comfortable 70 °F (21 °C), the team opted to wear red jerseys at home full-time. The Cardinals wore white jerseys at home for the first time at State Farm Stadium on August 29, 2008, in a preseason game against the Denver Broncos.
The Cardinals wore white at home for the first time in a regular-season game at State Farm Stadium against the Houston Texans on October 11, . In October 2009, the NFL recognized Breast Cancer Awareness Month, and players wore pink-accented items, including gloves, wristbands, and shoes. The team thought the pink accents looked better with white uniforms than with red.
From 1970 through 1983, and again in many seasons between 1989 and 2002, the Cardinals would wear white when hosting the Dallas Cowboys in order to force the Cowboys to don their "jinxed" blue jerseys. They have not done this since moving into State Farm Stadium, however.
The season saw the Cardinals debut a new, alternate black jersey. In , the Cardinals debuted an all-black set for the NFL Color Rush program. While the regular black alternates featured white lettering and are paired with white pants, the Cardinals' Color Rush alternates used red lettering and black pants for the occasion. Starting in 2022, both black uniforms would be paired with an alternate black helmet with black facemasks.
Before the season, the Cardinals unveiled new uniforms. Most notably, the team opted to wear all-red uniforms at home and all-white uniforms on the road, with all-black uniforms as the alternate. The red uniform featured the state name in front in addition to white numbers with silver trim. The white uniform featured red numbers with black trim, and red and silver stripes along the pants and sleeves. The black alternate uniform design mirrored that of the white uniform, featuring red numbers with silver trim, and red and silver stripes along the pants and sleeves. On both uniforms, the silver sleeve stripe contained the team name. Both the red and white uniforms are worn with white helmets and silver facemasks, while the black uniform is worn with the black helmets from 2022. The new helmets featured silver flakes while the black helmet had red flakes in them.
Fans
visits servicemen at Papago Military Reservation]]
The Cardinals' playoff drought has exhibited resilience for some fans who have shown longtime devotion to the team. Some fans view the championship drought and loss record as the result of a convoluted "curse" that stems from the team's ongoing refusal to cede or share the disputed 1925 NFL title. Fans of the Cardinals are often referred to as the Red Sea or the Bird Gang, with several notable fans such as Blake Shelton and Jordin Sparks. In honor of the tragic death of former safety Pat Tillman, the Cardinals strengthened their relationship with members of the armed forces community. The team regularly markets to military personnel and frequently visits nearby Luke Air Force Base in support of Arizona's servicemen.RivalriesDivisional Los Angeles Rams
Both the oldest and most intense divisional rivalry for the Cardinals, the matchup saw both teams first meet during the 1937 NFL season, while the Rams played in Cleveland, and the Cardinals were still originally located in Chicago. Both teams had played in St. Louis for a brief period in their histories. Their Rivalry with the Los Angeles Rams has resurged in recent years as both teams found playoff success, despite the Cardinals' best efforts; the Rams have been 9–1 since hiring head coach Sean McVay in 2017. The Week 17 matchup of the 2020 season saw both teams playing for a playoff berth; despite the injury to Rams quarterback Jared Goff, the Cardinals lost 18–7 and were eliminated from the postseason. The Cardinals' streak ended against the Rams the following season. They took the lead in the NFC over the Rams and started the season 7–0. In the following matchup, the Rams won on Monday Night Football; the Cardinals lost 6 of 10 games after their 7–0 start. The Cardinals would clinch a wild card berth after a week 17 win over the Dallas Cowboys. They played the Rams in Los Angeles and lost 34–11 as Kyler Murray threw 2 interceptions with one returned for a touchdown. The Rams lead the series 50–40–2 while leading the postseason series 2–0.
Seattle Seahawks
One of the newer rivalries in the NFL, the Cardinals and Seattle Seahawks became divisional rivals after both were moved to the NFC West as a result of the league's realignment in 2002. This rivalry has become one of the NFL's more bitter in recent years, as the mid-to-late 2010s often saw the Seahawks and Cardinals squaring off for NFC West supremacy. The rivalry featured such clashes between the likes of Carson Palmer or Kyler Murray for the Cardinals against Pete Carroll and Russell Wilson for the Seahawks during the era. Seattle leads the series 25–22–1, and the two teams have yet to meet in the playoffs.
San Francisco 49ers
Though they first met in 1951 and would meet occasionally until 2000, this would not become a full-fledged rivalry until both teams were placed in the NFC West division in 2002. While a close rivalry, it is often lopsided on both ends. After the 49ers won nine of ten meetings between 2009 and 2013, the Cardinals won eight straight meetings between 2014 and 2018. The 49ers lead the series 34–29.
The two teams have yet to meet in the playoffs.
Historic
Chicago Bears
The historic rivalry between the Cardinals and the Chicago Bears features the only two teams that remain from the league's inception in 1920. At that time, the Bears were known as the Decatur Staleys, and the Cardinals were the Racine Cardinals. In 1922, the matchup between the teams became known as "The Battle of Chicago" for 38 years, making it the first true rivalry in the league's history. The Bears lead the all-time series 59–29–6. Kansas City Chiefs
Whilst the Cardinals were located in St. Louis from 1960 to 1987; the team took part in an instate rivalry with the Kansas City Chiefs, with a trophy being awarded to the winner of the matchup. The series ended following the Cardinals' relocation to Arizona in 1988. The Chiefs posted a 16–7–2 mark in its Governor's Cup series against the Cardinals from 1968 to 1987, going 3–1–1 in the regular season record and 13–6–1 in preseason play.
Seasons and overall records
Single-season records
Points Scored: 489 ()
Passing
* Passing yards: 4,671 – Carson Palmer ()
* Passing touchdowns: 35 – Carson Palmer ()
* Rushing attempts: 337 – Edgerrin James ()
* Receiving yards: 1,598 – David Boston ()
* Longest punt return: 99 yards – Patrick Peterson ()
* Points after touchdown (PAT)s converted: 53 – Pat Harder ()
* Passing touchdowns: 209, Jim Hart (–)
* Rushing touchdowns: 46, Ottis Anderson (–)
* Receiving yards: 15,545, Larry Fitzgerald (–)
* Field goals made: 282, Jim Bakken (–)
* Points: 1,380, Jim Bakken (–)
* Total touchdowns: 110, Larry Fitzgerald (–)
* Punt return average: 13.7, Charley Trippi (–)
* Kickoff return average: 28.5, Ollie Matson (, –)
* Sacks: 71.5, Chandler Jones (–)
|-
! width"40" style";"|No.
! width"150" style";"|Player
! width"40" style";"|Position
! width"150" style";"|Tenure
! width"100" style";"|Retired
|-
| 8 || Larry Wilson || S || 1960–1972 || 1970
|-
| 40 || Pat Tillman || S || 1998–2001 || 2004
|-
| 77 || Stan Mauldin || OT || 1946–1948 || 1948
|-
| 88 || J. V. Cain || TE || 1974–1978 || 1979
|-
| 99 || Marshall Goldberg<sup>1</sup> || HB || 1939–1943, 1946–1948 || 1948
|}
Notes:
#Although retired, #99 was re-issued to J. J. Watt after the daughter of Marshall Goldberg gave her blessing for Watt to wear it on March 2, 2021. Watt wore #99 for the 2021 and 2022 seasons until his retirement.
Pro Football Hall of Famers
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|colspan"5" style";"|Chicago / St. Louis / Arizona Cardinals in the Pro Football Hall of Fame
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Players
|-
! style="width:40px;"|No.
! style="width:170px;"|Player
! style="width:110px;"|Position(s)
! style="width:150px;"|Tenure
! style="width:100px;"|Inducted
|-
| 4 ||Ernie Nevers||FB||1929–1931<br />1930–1931||1963
|-
| 3 ||Jim Thorpe||RB||1928||1963
|-
| 13 ||Guy Chamberlin||End & Coach||1927–1928||1965
|-
| 1 ||John "Paddy" Driscoll||QB||1920–1925||1965
|-
| 2 ||Walt Kiesling||G / DT<br />Coach||1929–1933<br />1944||1966
|-
| 62, 2 ||Charley Trippi||RB||1947–1955||1968
|-
| 33 ||Ollie Matson||RB||1952, 1954–1958||1972
|-
| 81 ||Dick "Night Train" Lane ||Cornerback|CB||1954–1959||1974
|-
| 8 ||Larry Wilson ||Safety|S||1960–1972||1978
|-
| 13 ||Don Maynard||WR||1973||1987
|-
| 81 ||Jackie Smith||TE||1963–1977||1994
|-
| 72 ||Dan Dierdorf||OT||1971–1983||1996
|-
| 22 ||Roger Wehrli||Cornerback|CB||1969–1982||2007
|-
| 22 ||Emmitt Smith||RB||2003–2004||2010
|-
| 35 ||Aeneas Williams||CB||1991–2000||2014
|-
| 13 || Kurt Warner || QB || 2005–2009 || 2017
|-
| 32 || Edgerrin James || RB || 2006–2008 || 2020
|-
| 16 || Duke Slater || T || 1926–1931 || 2020
|-
| 66 || Alan Faneca || G || 2010 || 2021
|-
| 54 || Dwight Freeney || DE || 2015 || 2024
|-
! colspan"5" style";" | Coaches and Contributors
|-
! style"width:130px;" colspan2|Name
! style="width:110px;"|Position(s)
! style="width:150px;"|Tenure
! style="width:100px;"|Inducted
|-
| colspan=2|Earl "Curly" Lambeau || Coach|| 1950–1951 || 1963
|-
| colspan=2|Jimmy Conzelman||Coach||1940–1942<br />1946–1948||1964
|-
| colspan=2|Charles Bidwill|| Team Owner||1933–1947||1967
|-
| colspan=2|||Head coach||1973–1977||2023
|-
| colspan5|Source(s):
|}
Italics = played a portion of career with the Cardinals and enshrined representing another team<br />
Dierdorf, Smith, Wehrli and Wilson were members of the St. Louis Football Ring of Fame in The Dome at America's Center when the Rams played there from 1995 to 2015.
Ring of Honor
The Cardinals' Ring of Honor was started in to mark the opening of State Farm Stadium. It honors former Cardinal greats from all eras of the franchise's history. Following is a list of inductees and the dates that they were inducted.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|style="background:#ffb"|Elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style ";"|Arizona Cardinals Ring of Honor
|-
! style=";"|No.
! style=";"|Name
! style=";"|Position(s)
! style=";"|Seasons
! style=";"|Inducted
|-
| — || style"background:#ffb"|Charles Bidwill || Owner || 1933–1947 || rowspan8|August 12, 2006
|-
| — || style="background:#ffb"|Jimmy Conzelman || Coach || 1940–1942<br />1946–1948
|-
| 1 || style="background:#ffb"|John "Paddy" Driscoll || QB<br />Coach || 1920–1925<br />1920–1922
|-
| 99 || Marshall Goldberg || HB || 1939–1943<br />1946–1948
|-
| 81 || style="background:#ffb"|Dick "Night Train" Lane || CB || 1954–1959
|-
| 33 || style="background:#ffb"|Ollie Matson || HB || 1952, 1954–1958
|-
| 4 || style="background:#ffb"|Ernie Nevers || FB<br />Coach || 1929–1931<br />1930–1931, 1939
|-
| 62, 2 || style="background:#ffb"|Charley Trippi || HB/QB || 1947–1955
|-
| 8 || style="background:#ffb"|Larry Wilson || S || 1960–1972 || September 10, 2006
|-
| 72 || style="background:#ffb"|Dan Dierdorf || T || 1971–1983 || October 16, 2006
|-
| 40 || Pat Tillman || S || 1998–2001 || November 12, 2006
|-
| 22 || style="background:#ffb"|Roger Wehrli || CB || 1969–1982 || October 14, 2007
|-
| 35 || style="background:#ffb"|Aeneas Williams || CB || 1991–2000 || November 10, 2008
|-
| 13 || style="background:#ffb"|Kurt Warner || QB || 2005–2009 || June 18, 2014
|-
| 22, 24 || Adrian Wilson || S || 2001–2012 || September 27, 2015
|-
| 25, 81 || Roy Green || WR || 1979–1990 || October 2, 2016
|-
| 7, 17 || Jim Hart || QB || 1966–1983 || December 3, 2017
|-
| 3 || Carson Palmer || QB || 2013–2017 || September 29, 2019
|-
| colspan5|Source(s):
|}
Staff
The Cardinals have had 42 head coaches throughout their history. Their first head coach was Paddy Driscoll, who compiled a 17–8–4 record with the team from 1920 to 1922. Jimmy Conzelman, Jim Hanifan and Ken Whisenhunt are tied as the longest-serving head coaches in Cardinals history. On April 14, 2022, Mark Ahlemeier, the Cardinals equipment manager, retired after working with the organization for 41 seasons.
Current staff
Radio and television
The Cardinals' flagship radio station is KMVP-FM; Dave Pasch, Ron Wolfley, and Paul Calvisi handle the radio broadcast. Spanish-language radio broadcasts are heard on the combo of KQMR/KHOV-FM "Latino Mix" under a contract with Univisión, signed in 2015. Prior to 2015, they were heard on KDVA/KVVA-FM "José FM", as well as co-owned KBMB AM 710. The Cardinals were the first NFL team to offer all 20 preseason and regular season games on Spanish-language radio, doing so in 2000. Luis Hernandez and Rolando Cantú are the Spanish broadcast team. The Cardinals have the most extensive Mexican affiliate network in the NFL, with contracts with Grupo Larsa (in the state of Sonora) and Grupo Radiorama (outside Sonora) and stations in 20 cities, including Hermosillo, Guadalajara and Mexico City.
From 2017 to 2023, NBC affiliate KPNX broadcasts the team's preseason games on television (which, that year, included the Hall of Fame Game broadcast by NBC), called by Pasch and Wolfley, with station anchor Paul Gerke as sideline reporter. The broadcasts were syndicated regionally to KTTU and KMSB-TV in Tucson, and, until the Raiders' move to Las Vegas, KVVU-TV in Las Vegas.
In 2024, KTVK and KPHO purchased preseason broadcast rights to the Cardinals. This will be in addition to any Cardinals games already scheduled for KPHO.
English radio affiliates
<!--Text in lower left corner -->
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";"|City (all in Arizona) !! style";"|Call sign !! style";"|Frequency
|-
| rowspan=2|Phoenix || KTAR AM || 620 AM
|-
| KMVP-FM || 98.7 FM
|-
| Tucson || KTZR AM || 1450 AM
|-
| Safford || KATO AM || 1230 AM
|-
| Sedona || KAZM AM || 780 AM
|-
| Lake Havasu City || KNTR AM || 980 AM
|-
| rowspan=2|Prescott || KQNA AM || 1130 AM
|-
| KDDL FM || 94.3 FM
|-
| Flagstaff || KVNA AM || 600 AM
|-
| Holbrook || KZUA-FM || 92.1 FM
|-
| Yuma || KBLU || 560 AM
|-
| Pinetop || KNKI FM || 106.7 FM
|-
| Miami || KIKO AM || 1340 AM
|-
| Kingman || KGMN-FM || 100.1 FM
|}
Former affiliates (18 stations)
*KTAR-FM/92.3: Glendale
*KESZ/99.9: Phoenix
*KGLQ/96.9: Phoenix
*KIDR/740: Phoenix
*KCAZ/99.5: Rough Rock
*KSLX-FM/100.7: Scottsdale
*KTAN/1420: Sierra Vista
*KRVZ/1400: Springerville
*KDUS/1060: Tempe
*KUCB/1290: Tucson
*KWRK/96.1: Window Rock
*WCFL/1000: Chicago
*WGN/720: Chicago
*WIND/560: Chicago
*KMOX/1120: St. Louis
*KDEF/1150: Albuquerque
*KEBC/1560: Del City
*KYAL-FM/97.1: Muskogee
See also
*
Notes
References
Notes
Further reading
* Ziemba, Joe (2010). [https://www.amazon.com/When-Football-Was-Chicago-Cardinals/dp/1572433175 When Football Was Football: The Chicago Cardinals and the Birth of the NFL]. Chicago: Triumph Books. .
External links
*
* [https://www.nfl.com/teams/arizona-cardinals/ Arizona Cardinals] at the National Football League official website
*[https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/crd/ Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference
|list =
}}
Category:NFL teams
Category:Sports in Glendale, Arizona
Category:American football teams in Arizona
Category:American football teams established in 1898
Category:1898 establishments in Illinois | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Cardinals | 2025-04-05T18:25:54.981904 |
2103 | Atlanta Falcons | | first_season = 1966
| city = Mercedes-Benz Stadium<br />Atlanta, Georgia
| misc Headquartered in Flowery Branch, Georgia
| uniform | colors Black, red, silver, white<!-- Please DO NOT change the HTML color code for red. It is officially #A71930, per https://static.nfl.com/static/content/public/static/wildcat/assets/img/logos/teams/ATL.svg. Thank you. --><br />
| coach = Raheem Morris
| owner = Arthur Blank
| ceo = Rich McKay
| president = Greg Beadles
| general manager = Terry Fontenot
| mascot = Freddie Falcon
| website =
| nicknames =
* The Dirty Birds
* Grits Blitz (1977 defense)
| hist_yr = 1966
| NFL_start_yr = 1966
| division_hist =
* Eastern Conference (1966)
* Western Conference (1967–1969)
** Coastal Division (1967–1969)
* National Football Conference (1970–present)
** NFC West (1970–2001)
** NFC South (2002–present)
| conf_champs =
* NFC: 1998, 2016
| div_champs =
* NFC West: 1980, <!--1982 was a strike season, THERE WERE NO OFFICIAL CROWNED DIVISION CHAMPIONS THIS SEASON-->1998
* NFC South: 2004, 2010, 2012, 2016
| no_league_champs = 0
| no_sb_champs = 0
| no_conf_champs = 2
| no_div_champs = 6
| championships | playoff_appearances
* NFL: 1978, 1980, 1982, 1991, 1995, 1998, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2017
| no_playoff_appearances = 14
| stadium_years =
* Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium (1966–1991)
* Georgia Dome (1992–2016)
* Mercedes-Benz Stadium (–present)
| team_owners =
* Rankin M. Smith Sr. (1965–1989)
* Taylor Smith (1989–2002)
* Arthur Blank (2002–present)
}}
The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta. The Falcons compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The Falcons were founded on June 30, 1965, and joined the NFL in 1966 as an expansion team, after the NFL offered then-owner Rankin Smith a franchise to keep him from joining the rival American Football League (AFL).
In their 57 years of existence, the Falcons have compiled a record of 390–503–6 ( in the regular season and in the playoffs), winning division championships in 1980, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2012, and 2016. The Falcons have appeared in two Super Bowls, the first during the 1998 season in Super Bowl XXXIII, where they lost to the Denver Broncos and the second 18 years later, a overtime loss to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LI. They are the oldest major professional sports team in America with no championships.
The Falcons' current home field is Mercedes-Benz Stadium, which opened for the 2017 season; the team's headquarters and practice facilities are located at a site in Flowery Branch, northeast of Atlanta in Hall County.
History
Professional football comes to Atlanta (1962)
Professional football first came to Atlanta in 1962, when the American Football League (AFL) staged two preseason contests, with one featuring the Denver Broncos vs. the Houston Oilers and the second pitting the Dallas Texans against the Oakland Raiders. Two years later, the AFL held another exhibition, this time with the New York Jets taking on the San Diego Chargers.
In 1965, after the Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium (then known simply as Atlanta Stadium) was built, the city of Atlanta felt the time was right to start pursuing professional football. One independent group which had been active in NFL exhibition promotions in Atlanta applied for franchises in both the AFL and NFL, acting entirely on its own with no guarantee of stadium rights. Another group reported it had deposited earnest money for a team in the AFL.
With everyone running in different directions, some local businessmen (Cox Broadcasting) worked out a deal and were awarded an AFL franchise on contingent upon acquiring exclusive stadium rights from city NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who had been moving slowly in Atlanta matters, was spurred by the AFL interest and headed on the next plane down to Atlanta to block the rival league's claim on the city of Atlanta. by June 30, the city picked Rankin Smith and the NFL.
The AFL's original expansion plans in June 1965 were for two new teams in Atlanta and It later evolved into the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The NFL had planned to add two teams in ; the competition with the AFL for Atlanta forced the first to be added a year early in . The odd number of teams (15) resulted in one idle team (bye) each week, with each team playing 14 games over 15 weeks (similar to : 12 games over 13 weeks). The second expansion team, the New Orleans Saints, joined the NFL as planned in 1967 as its sixteenth franchise.
The Atlanta Falcons franchise began when it was approved to begin play in 1966 by a unanimous vote of the NFL club owners on June 21, 1965. Rozelle granted ownership nine days later on June 30 to 40-year-old Rankin Smith Sr., an executive vice president of Life Insurance Company of Georgia. He paid $8.5 million, the highest price in NFL history at the time for a franchise. They selected consensus All-American linebacker Tommy Nobis from the University of Texas, making him the first-ever Falcon. The league also held the expansion draft six weeks later in which Atlanta selected unprotected players from the 14 existing franchises. Although the Falcons selected many good players in those drafts, they still were not able to win right away. She wrote: "the Falcon is proud and dignified, with great courage and fight. It never drops its prey. It is deadly and has a great sporting tradition."Smith family era (1966–2001)The Falcons' inaugural season was in 1966, and their first preseason game was on August 1, a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. Under head coach Norb Hecker, Atlanta lost their first nine regular-season games in 1966; their first victory came on the road against the struggling New York Giants on November 20 in Yankee Stadium. Two weeks later, Atlanta won at Minnesota, and beat St. Louis in Atlanta the next week for their first home win. The team finished with a 1–12–1 record the next year, with the only win coming in Week 7 in a 21–20 win over the Minnesota Vikings in 1967. After a 0–3 start to the 1968 season, Hecker was dismissed. Norm Van Brocklin finished out the season as head coach with a 2–9 record. Van Brocklin continued to coach the team the next season. The team improved to a 6–8 record in 1969.
The Falcons had their first Monday Night Football game in Atlanta during the 1970 season, a 20–7 loss to the Miami Dolphins. The team went 4–8–2 in 1970. The only two winning seasons in their first 12 years were and quarterback John Elway during a 1985 game.]]
In the 1978 season, the 9–7 Falcons qualified for the playoffs for the first time and won the Wild Card game against the Eagles 14–13. The following week, they lost to the Dallas Cowboys 27–20 in the Divisional Playoffs. The 1979 team regressed to a 6–10 record.
In the 1980 season, after a nine-game winning streak, the Falcons posted a franchise then-best record of 12–4 and captured their first NFC West division title. The next week, their dream season ended at home with a loss to the Cowboys 30–27 in the divisional playoffs. In the strike-shortened 1982 season, the 5–4 Falcons made the playoffs but lost to the Minnesota Vikings, 30–24. Falcons coach Leeman Bennett was fired after the loss. The team then had losing seasons for the next eight years. Dan Henning was hired prior to the 1983 season.
In the 1989 NFL draft, the Falcons selected cornerback Deion Sanders in the first round, who helped them for the next four years, setting many records for the franchise. "Neon Deion" (a.k.a. "Prime Time") had a flashy appeal and helped bring media attention to one of the league's most anonymous franchises. Sanders was also famous for playing on major league baseball teams (New York Yankees and the Atlanta Braves) while simultaneously playing in the NFL.
during a 1991 away game.]]
After defeating the New Orleans Saints in the NFC Wild Card game, the Falcons' 1991 season ended in a divisional playoff loss to the Washington Redskins. In the 1991 NFL draft, the Falcons selected quarterback Brett Favre as the 33rd overall pick. During his rookie season, he played in two games where he amassed a record of four passing attempts with no receptions and two interceptions. The following February, Favre was traded to the Green Bay Packers.
In 1992, the Atlanta Falcons opened a new chapter in their history moving into the newly constructed Georgia Dome, where the team has defeated all 31 other NFL teams at least once during its time there.
Dan Reeves years (1997–2003)
In 1998, under recently acquired head coach Dan Reeves, quarterback Chris Chandler and running back Jamal Anderson the "Dirty Bird" Falcons had their greatest season to date. On November 8, they beat the New England Patriots 41–10, ending a streak of 22 losses at cold-weather sites. The team finished with a franchise-best 14–2 regular-season record and the NFC West division championship. On January 17, 1999, the Falcons upset the top-seeded Vikings at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in the NFC Championship Game 30–27, in an exciting overtime victory. However, in their first-ever Super Bowl appearance, they lost 34–19 to the defending champion Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII.
In the second game of the Falcons 1999 season, running back Jamal Anderson, who had been a key player in the Falcons' 1998 success, suffered a season-ending knee injury. The Falcons finished the season with a very disappointing 5–11 regular-season record. In 2000, the Falcons suffered through another horrendous season finishing 4–12 and once again missing the playoffs.
In the 2001 NFL draft, the Falcons orchestrated a trade with the San Diego Chargers, acquiring the first overall pick (which was used on quarterback Michael Vick) in exchange for wide receiver-return specialist Tim Dwight and the fifth overall pick (used on running back LaDainian Tomlinson).
The Falcons finished the 2001 season with a record of 7–9 and missed the playoffs. Jessie Tuggle retired following 14 seasons in Atlanta. Arthur Blank era (2002–present) On December 6, 2001, billionaire Home Depot co-founder Arthur M. Blank reached a preliminary agreement with the Falcons' Taylor Smith to purchase the team for a reported $545 million. In a special meeting prior to Super Bowl XXXVI in New Orleans on February 2, 2002, NFL owners voted unanimously to approve the deal.
The 2002 season saw the Falcons return to the playoffs with a regular-season record of 9–6–1, tying the Pittsburgh Steelers. It was Vick's first year as the starter, and the team, with newly acquired running back Warrick Dunn, delivered the Green Bay Packers their first home playoff loss ever with a 27–7 result in the Wild Card Round. A 20–6 loss to the Donovan McNabb-led Philadelphia Eagles the following week, however, ended the Falcons' season.
On March 19, 2003, the Falcons presented their new logo. Wade Phillips acted as interim coach for the final three games. Although the Falcons won 3 of their last 4 games after the return of Vick, they ended up with a 5–11 record that year.Jim Mora years (2004–2006)In 2004, a new head coach, Jim L. Mora, was hired and Vick returned for the full season. The Falcons went 11–5, winning their third division title and earning a first-round bye into the playoffs. In the divisional playoffs, the Falcons defeated the St. Louis Rams, 47–17, in the Georgia Dome, advancing to the NFC Championship Game, which they lost to the Eagles, 27–10.
The Falcons again fell short of achieving back-to-back winning seasons in , going 8–8. In , Michael Vick became the first quarterback in league history to rush for more than 1,000 yards in a season, with 1,039. After finishing the season 7–9, however, coach Jim Mora was dismissed.Bobby PetrinoBobby Petrino, the University of Louisville's football coach, replaced Mora. Before the 2007 season began, Vick was suspended indefinitely by the NFL after pleading guilty to charges involving dog fighting in the state of Virginia. On December 10, 2007, Vick received a 23-month prison sentence and was officially cut from the Atlanta roster.
For the 2007 season, the Falcons were forced to start Joey Harrington at quarterback. On December 11, 13 games into his first NFL season as head coach, Bobby Petrino resigned without notice to coach at the University of Arkansas, leaving the beleaguered players only a note in the locker room. Secondary Coach Emmitt Thomas was named interim coach for the final three games of the season on December 12. The Falcons ended the year with a dismal 4–12 record.
After the tumultuous and disappointing 2007 season, the Falcons made a number of moves, hiring a new general manager and head coach, drafting a new starting quarterback, and signing a starting running back.
MIke Smith years (2008–2014)
On January 13, 2008, the Falcons named former Patriots director of college football scouting Thomas Dimitroff General Manager. On January 23, Jacksonville Jaguars defensive coach and former linebackers coach for the 2000 Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens Mike Smith was named the Falcons' new head coach. Chargers back-up running back Michael Turner agreed to a 6-year, $30 million deal on March 2. On April 26, Matt Ryan (quarterback from Boston College) was drafted third overall in the 2008 NFL draft by the Falcons.
The Falcons finished the 2008 regular season with a record of 11–5, and the #5 seed in the playoffs. On December 21, 2008, Atlanta beat the Minnesota Vikings 24–17 to clinch a wild card spot, earning a trip to the playoffs for the first time since 2004. The Falcons would go on to lose in the wild-card round of the 2008 NFL playoffs to the eventual NFC champion Arizona Cardinals, 30–24.
Matt Ryan started all 16 games in his rookie season and was named the Associated Press Offensive Rookie of the Year. First-year head coach Mike Smith was named 2008 NFL Coach of the Year.
Although they failed to make the playoffs in 2009 the team rallied to win their final three regular-season games to record back-to-back winning seasons for the first time in franchise history. The Falcons defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 20–10 in the final game of the season to improve their record to 9–7.
In 2010, with a regular-season record of 13–3, the Falcons secured a third straight winning season, their fourth overall divisional title, and the top overall seed in the NFC playoffs; however, the Falcons were overpowered by the eventual Super Bowl XLV champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Divisional Playoffs 48–21. The Falcons scored 414 points – the fifth-most in franchise history.
The Falcons made a surprise trade up with the Cleveland Browns in the 2011 NFL draft to select Alabama wide receiver Julio Jones sixth overall. In exchange, the Falcons gave up their first-, second- and fourth-round draft picks in 2011, and their first and fourth draft picks in 2012. Jones, along with teammates Tony Gonzalez and Roddy White, have since been dubbed Atlanta's "Big Three" (based on their total number of reception yards). On August 30, 2011, Sports Illustrated senior writer Peter King, who correctly predicted the 2011 Super Bowl, made his predictions for the 2011 season and picked the Falcons to defeat the San Diego Chargers in the 2012 Super Bowl. The Falcons finished the season at 10–6, securing the fifth seed after a Week 17 beatdown of Tampa Bay in which the Falcons pulled their starters after leading 42–0 just 23 minutes into the game.
The Falcons then went on to play the New York Giants in a 2011 NFC Wild Card Game at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The first half was a defensive struggle, with the first points coming off of a safety by the Falcons, giving Atlanta a 2–0 lead. In the second quarter, though, Eli Manning connected with Hakeem Nicks for a short touchdown pass to make it 7–2 Giants heading into the second half. Then the Giants took control, as Manning threw for two more touchdown passes to Mario Manningham and Nicks and the defense completed its shutout of the Falcons to give the New York Giants the win, 24–2, and the Falcons their third straight playoff loss with Matt Ryan and Mike Smith. After the season, defensive coordinator Brian VanGorder accepted a coaching job at Auburn University, and the offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey took the head coaching job in Jacksonville.
Atlanta exploded out of the gate, going a franchise-best 8–0 and remaining the last unbeaten team in the NFL that year. Their hopes to get an undefeated season came to an end with a 27–31 loss to the division rival Saints. Julio Jones had a remarkable second year, grabbing 10 touchdowns and 1,198 yards. The Falcons finished the season 13–3, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC playoffs.
The Falcons played the Seattle Seahawks in their first playoff game. Although they went down 28–27 with only 31 seconds left on the clock, Matt Ryan led the team to their first playoff victory, 30–28. It was the only playoff victory in the Mike Smith era.
The Atlanta Falcons then advanced to face the San Francisco 49ers. The Falcons seized control of the game early with a Matt Bryant field goal, a trio of Matt Ryan touchdown passes caught by Julio Jones and Tony Gonzalez coupled with outstanding defensive play. By the end of the half, the score was 24–14. The tides of the game began to shift in the second half as the 49ers rallied back with a pair of Frank Gore touchdown runs. Atlanta's offense attempted to reply but were ultimately shut down by the 49er defense. A few series later, late in the 4th quarter with little time remaining, Atlanta found themselves in a 4th and 4 situation at the 10-yard line. The Falcons needed just 10 more yards to secure victory and advance to their first Super Bowl berth in 14 years. Matt Ryan fired a pass to Roddy White which was ultimately broken up by inside linebacker NaVorro Bowman, resulting in a 28–24 defeat.
Following the success of the previous season, the Falcons were an expected Super Bowl contender. However, injuries hampered the team's performance and the team finished the season 4–12. With that, the streak of consecutive winning seasons came to an end and Mike Smith had his first losing season as a head coach. Tony Gonzalez, in his final season in the NFL, was selected to the 2014 Pro Bowl as a starter representing Team Rice. Following the conclusion of the 2012 season, director of player personnel Les Snead departed the team to join the St. Louis Rams and Dave Caldwell, assistant to general manager Thomas Dimitroff, left the team to join the Jacksonville Jaguars. Scott Pioli, former GM of the Kansas City Chiefs, was announced as the Falcons' new assistant GM. Mike Smith was given a one-year extension on his contract as head coach. The Falcons had the 6th overall pick in the 2014 NFL draft with which they selected Jake Matthews, who played as offensive tackle for Texas A&M.
Despite having another rough season, the Falcons still had an opportunity to qualify for the playoffs at the end of the regular season. The Falcons hosted the Carolina Panthers in their regular season finale, with the winners clinching the NFC South division. Unfortunately, the Falcons lost in a 34–3 blowout as Matt Ryan threw two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns and got sacked six times. The Falcons finished the season 6–10, marking the second consecutive losing season for the team. The following day, Mike Smith was fired after seven seasons as head coach. The Falcons would soon hire Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Dan Quinn as the team's 16th head coach. The Falcons had the 8th overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft with which they selected Vic Beasley, a defensive end from Clemson University. Dan Quinn years (2015–2020)
]]
In February 2015, the team was investigated by the NFL for alleged use of artificial crowd noise in the Georgia Dome. The Falcons lost a 2016 NFL draft selection as a result of the league's investigation.
Dan Quinn's first season saw a 5–0 start, the team's best start in four years. They would then struggle throughout the rest of the season by losing 8 of their last 11 games, resulting in an 8–8 record in the 2015 season. They did, however, give the Panthers their only regular-season loss. The Falcons used their first-round pick in the 2016 NFL draft on safety Keanu Neal from the University of Florida.
In the Falcons' 25th and final season in the Georgia Dome, Atlanta lost their week 1 game to the Buccaneers 24–31. The Falcons would then win their next four including one over the Panthers, when the franchise set new records: Matt Ryan threw for 503 yards, and Julio Jones caught 12 passes for 300 yards. Beating the San Francisco 49ers 41–13 in Week 15, the Falcons improved to 9–5 and secured their first winning season since 2012. One week later, the Falcons defeated the Panthers in Charlotte, North Carolina, and clinched their first NFC South division title since 2012. In their last regular-season game at the Georgia Dome, the Falcons defeated the New Orleans Saints, and secured an 11–5 record and a first-round bye.
In the divisional round of the playoffs, Atlanta defeated the Seahawks 36–20 in the Georgia Dome, and hosted their last game at the Georgia Dome against the Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2017. The Falcons defeated the Packers 44–21 to advance to Super Bowl LI as the NFC champions. Atlanta was up 28–3 late in the third quarter, and the New England Patriots scored 31 unanswered points, with the last 6 in the first-ever overtime in the Super Bowl. The Patriots' 25-point comeback was the largest in Super Bowl history.
In 2016, the Falcons scored 540 points in the regular season, the seventh-most in NFL history, tied with the Greatest Show on Turf (the 2000 St. Louis Rams). However, the Falcons defense gave up 406 points, 27th in the league.
The Falcons moved into their new home, the Mercedes-Benz Stadium, this season. Their first game ever played at the new stadium was a preseason loss to the Arizona Cardinals. The first regular-season game at the new stadium was a rematch of the 2016–17 NFC Championship, with Atlanta defeating Green Bay 34–23. Their first loss of the season was a 23–17 home defeat to the Buffalo Bills in week 4. The team returned to the playoffs with a 10–6 record (albeit with a third-place finish in the NFC South). The Falcons defeated the Los Angeles Rams 26–13 in the Wild Card round, but their 2017 season came to an end a week later in the Divisional Playoff round at the hands of the eventual Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles 15–10. The 2018 and 2019 seasons saw the Falcons go 7–9 and miss the postseason both years.
In their first game with new uniforms, the Falcons lost to the Seattle Seahawks at home 38–25. The Falcons then suffered comebacks made by both the Cowboys on the road (39–40) and then back in Atlanta against the Bears (26–30). On October 11, after the team suffered a 23–16 loss at home against the Carolina Panthers and fell to 0–5, the Falcons announced the firings of Quinn and Dimitroff. Defensive coordinator Raheem Morris took over for the rest of the season, leading the team to a 4–12 record. Morris was not retained after the season, and soon joined the Los Angeles Rams as their defensive coordinator.
Arthur Smith years (2021–2024)
On January 15, 2021, the Falcons announced that Tennessee Titans offensive coordinator Arthur Smith had been named the 18th head coach in franchise history. Four days later, New Orleans Saints executive Terry Fontenot was named the Falcons' new general manager. Tight end Kyle Pitts was selected with the 4th pick of the 2021 draft, and longtime star receiver Julio Jones was traded to the Titans, after publicly requesting a trade from Atlanta. The Falcons improved on their record from the prior year, finishing the season with a 7–10 record.
On March 21, 2022, the Falcons traded longtime star quarterback Matt Ryan to the Indianapolis Colts. During the 2022 season, the team finished last place in the NFC South with a 7–10 record.
The Falcons entered the 2023 seasons with heightened expectations after drafting Texas running back Bijan Robinson with the eighth overall pick of the 2023 draft and making significant improvements in free agency, including signing Jessie Bates and Calais Campbell to improve their defense. However, the team finished with a 7–10 record for the third consecutive season, although they had been in contention for a playoff spot until the final day of the season before a 48–17 loss to the New Orleans Saints on January 7, 2024. The following day, Smith was fired after three years as head coach. Raheem Morris years (2024-present) On January 25, 2024, the Falcons announced Raheem Morris's return to the organization, this time as the 19th head coach in Falcons history. During the early months of his tenure, Morris faced scrutiny and criticism for his questionable player selection decisions.
Stadiums
The Falcons have called three stadiums home in their 51 years of existence, and its third home in their history opened in the late summer of 2017. The first was the Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, sharing with the Atlanta Braves Major League Baseball team until 1991. In 1992, the Georgia Dome was built, and the Falcons played there from its opening to the 2016 season. The Dome has been frequently used for college football, including Georgia State football and college bowl games such as the Peach Bowl.
In an effort to replace the aging Georgia Dome and potentially host a future Super Bowl, team owner Arthur Blank proposed a deal with the city of Atlanta to build a new state-of-the-art stadium not far from where the Georgia Dome is located. Blank will contribute $800 million and the city of Atlanta will contribute an additional $200 million via bonds backed by the city's hotel/motel tax towards the construction of a retractable roof stadium. Blank will contribute additional money for cost overruns if it is needed. The team will provide up to $50 million towards infrastructure costs that weren't included in the construction budget and to retire the remaining debt on the Georgia Dome. In addition, Blank's foundation and the city will each provide $15 million for development in surrounding neighborhoods. Though the total cost of the stadium was initially estimated to be around $1 billion, the total cost was revised to $1.5 billion according to Blank. In March 2013, the Atlanta City Council voted 11–4 in favor of building the stadium. The retractable roof Mercedes-Benz Stadium broke ground in May 2014, and became the third home stadium for the Falcons and the first for the new Atlanta United FC Major League Soccer club upon opening in 2017.Logo and uniformsThe Atlanta Falcons' colors are black, red, silver and white. When the team began play in 1966, the Falcons wore red helmets with a black falcon crest logo. In the center of the helmet was a center black stripe surrounded by two gold stripes and two white stripes. These colors represented the two college rival schools in the state of Georgia; rival schools Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets (white and gold) and the Georgia Bulldogs (red and black). Although the gold was removed after several seasons, the white remains to this day. They wore white pants and either black or white jerseys. At first, the falcon crest logo was also put on the jersey sleeves, but it was replaced by a red and white stripe pattern four years later. They switched from black to red jerseys in 1971, and the club began to wear silver pants in 1978. The facemasks on the helmets were initially gray, becoming white in 1978, and then black in 1984; the team wore black face masks until its 2020 redesign.
A prototype white helmet was developed for the team prior to the 1974 season, but was never worn.
In 1990, the uniform design changed to black helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The numbers on the white jerseys were black, but were changed to red in 1997. (The red numerals could be seen on the away jerseys briefly in 1990.)
Both the logo and uniforms changed in 2003. The logo was redesigned with red and silver accents to depict a more powerful, aggressive falcon, which now more closely resembles the capital letter F.
Although the Falcons still wore black helmets, the new uniforms featured jerseys and pants with red trim down the sides. The uniform design consisted of either black or white jerseys, and either black or white pants. During that same year, a red alternate jersey with black trim was also introduced. The Falcons also started wearing black cleats with these uniforms.
In 2004, the red jerseys became the primary jerseys, and the black ones became the alternate, both worn with white pants. In select road games, the Falcons wear black pants with white jerseys. The Falcons wore an all-black combination for home games against their archrivals, the New Orleans Saints, winning the first two contests (24–21 in and 36–17 in ), but losing 31–13 in . The Falcons wore the all-black combination against the New Orleans Saints for four straight seasons starting in 2004, With the last time being in 2007, losing 34–14. They wore the combination again in 2006, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 2. The Falcons won that game, 14–3. The Falcons also wore their all-black uniform in 2007 against the New York Giants, and in 2008 against the Carolina Panthers and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (for the second time). After that, the black pants and uniforms were retired and the white pants were now used full-time with the regular uniforms.
In the 1980s, the Falcons wore their white uniforms at home most of the time because of the heat. When the Falcons started playing in a dome, the team switched to their dark uniforms for home games but have worn their white uniforms at home a few times since switching to the dome. It was announced at the 2009 state of the franchise meeting that the Falcons would wear 1966 throwback uniforms for a couple games during the 2009 season. The Atlanta Falcons wore 1966 throwback jerseys for two home games in 2009 – against the Carolina Panthers on September 20 and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 29. The Falcons won both of those games. They donned the throwbacks again for 2 games in 2010, against Baltimore and San Francisco, winning both of those games as well. The throwbacks were used twice in 2011 and 2012; both times were against the Panthers and Saints. However, the throwbacks were retired following a 2013 NFL rule requiring only one helmet shell per team.
The Falcons unveiled an all-red Color Rush uniform on September 13, 2016; however, due to the fact that the Falcons and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers had similar all-red Color Rush uniforms, the Falcons were unable to wear their Color Rush uniform until the 2017 season.
Also in 2016, the Falcons unveiled a mixed throwback uniform set. The uniform tops, pants and socks closely resembled their 1960s kits. From 2016 to 2021, due to the NFL's one-shell rule, the Falcons wore the black helmets with the original logo decal similar to the design they wore in the 1990s. However, starting in 2022, with the NFL now reinstating the use of alternate helmets, the Falcons brought back the original red helmets to pair with their throwback uniforms.
It was revealed in January 2020 that the Falcons will change uniforms for the 2020 NFL season. The ensuing design featured the return to black as the primary home uniform color for the first time since 2003. Both the primary home and road uniforms featured the "ATL" abbreviation in red above either white or black numbers with red drop shadows. The white and black tops are usually paired with either white or black pants. The alternate uniform featured a red/black gradient design and also featured the "ATL" abbreviation in white above white numbers with black drop shadows. Black pants are only used with this uniform. All three uniforms feature red side stripes. The current throwback uniform was also retained. In addition, the Falcons switched to matte helmets with the enlarged falcon logo and gray facemasks. The red/black gradient alternates only lasted three seasons before it was removed from the uniform rotation in 2023.RivalriesDivisionalNew Orleans Saints
The Falcons have shared a heated divisional rivalry with the New Orleans Saints (first the NFC West, and now the NFC South). The two teams were often basement-dwellers in the division; but the rivalry grew as a means of pride between the two cities, as they were the only two NFL teams in the Deep South for multiple decades. The series is the oldest and most iconic rivalry in the NFC South as the two teams have long harbored bad blood against one another. The series is currently tied at 55–55, including the most recent loss to the Saints on January 7, 2024, when the Falcons lost 48–17.
Carolina Panthers
In addition, the Falcons share a similar, rivalry with the Carolina Panthers, with both teams having been in the NFC West from the Panthers' founding in 1995 to the NFL realignment in 2002. Similar to their rivalry with the Saints, the Falcons have often endured several competitive divisional battles with the Panthers for lead of the NFC South, though the two have yet to meet in the postseason. The series is also known as the "I-85 Rivalry" due to Atlanta and Charlotte being only four hours apart on Interstate 85. The Falcons lead the series 36–22.Tampa Bay Buccaneers
The Falcons share a less-intense divisional rivalry with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers since the NFL realignment in 2002. The two had been regional opponents but very little had linked any further animosity towards the two as the Buccaneers played in the former NFC Central before the realignment. The two teams would find themselves competing over staff and players alike, particularly during the 2000s after the Falcons had lured general manager Rich McKay after winning Super Bowl XXXVII the season prior. McKay's ties with Tampa extend into his family as his father John McKay was head coach of the Buccaneers for nine seasons.
Conference
Philadelphia Eagles
The Eagles lead the Falcons 21–15–1, with a 3–1 lead in playoff games. The rivalry first emerged after the Falcons upset the Eagles 14–13 in the 1978 Wild Card Round, and only intensified further in the 2000s thanks to the rivalry between prominent dual-threat quarterbacks Donovan McNabb, and Michael Vick. Recently, the Falcons lost to the Eagles in the 2017 divisional round. The Falcons managed a win against Philly in week 2 en route to Philly's eventual Super Bowl LIX victory.
Green Bay Packers
The Falcons have also shared a playoff rivalry with the Green Bay Packers as much of the connections between the two teams stems from Atlanta trading future hall-of-fame quarterback Brett Favre to the Green Bay on February 11, 1992, in exchange for a first-round pick. The two teams have met four times in the postseason, most recently during the 2016–17 NFC Championship as it would also be the final game played at the Georgia Dome. The Packers lead the all-time series 19–16, while both teams are tied in the postseason 2–2.
Statistics
Season-by-season records
Record vs. opponents
Includes postseason records
Source:
<!-- Stats from http://www.jt-sw.com/football/pro/teams.nsf/histories/falcons as well as http://pro-football-reference.com/teams/atlindex.htm -->
|-
| St. Louis/Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals || 16 || 16 || 0 || || W 20-19 || January 1, 2023 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 0–1 postseason
|-
| Baltimore Ravens || 2 || 4 || 0 || || L 16–26 || December 2, 2018 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Buffalo Bills || 7 || 6 || 0 || || L 15–29 || January 2, 2022 || Highmark Stadium ||
|-
| Carolina Panthers || 38 || 20 || 0 || || W 38–20 || October 14, 2024 || Bank of America Stadium ||
|-
| Chicago Bears || 14 || 15 || 0 || || W 27–24 || November 20, 2022 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Cincinnati Bengals || 5 || 9 || 0 || || L 36–37 || September 30, 2018 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Cleveland Browns || 4 || 12 || 0 || || W 23–20 || November 11, 2022 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Dallas Cowboys || 12 || 17 || 0 || || W 27-21 || November 3, 2024 || AT&T Stadium || 0–2 postseason
|-
| Denver Broncos || 7 || 8 || 0 || || W 34–27 || November 8, 2020 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 0–1 postseason
|-
| Detroit Lions || 14 || 25 || 0 || || W 20–16 || December 26, 2021 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Green Bay Packers || 15 || 17 || 0 || || W 25–24 || September 17, 2023 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 2–2 postseason
|-
| Houston Texans || 2 || 3 || 0 || || L 32–53 || October 6, 2019 || NRG Stadium ||
|-
| Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts || 2 || 15 || 0 || || L 24–27 || September 22, 2019 || Lucas Oil Stadium ||
|-
| Jacksonville Jaguars || 5 || 3 || 0 || || W 21–14 || November 28, 2021 || TIAA Bank Field ||
|-
| Kansas City Chiefs || 3 || 7 || 0 || || L 14–17 || December 27, 2020 || Arrowhead Stadium ||
|-
| San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers || 8 || 3 || 0 || || L 17–20 || December 13, 2020 || SoFi Stadium ||
|-
| St. Louis/Los Angeles Rams || 28 || 48 || 2 || || L 10–37 || October 20, 2019 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 2–0 postseason
|-
| Miami Dolphins || 5 || 9 || 0 || || W 30–28 || October 24, 2021 || Hard Rock Stadium ||
|-
| Minnesota Vikings || 11 || 19 || 0 || || W 40–23 || October 18, 2020 || US Bank Stadium || 1–1 postseason
|-
| New England Patriots || 6 || 9 || 0 || || L 0–25 || November 18, 2021 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 0–1 postseason
|-
| New Orleans Saints || 55 || 52 || 0 || || W 26–24 || September 29, 2024 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 1–0 postseason
|-
| New York Giants || 15 || 11 || 0 || || W 17–14 || December 22, 2024 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 0–1 postseason
|-
| New York Jets || 9 || 5 || 0 || || W 13–8 || December 3, 2023 || MetLife Stadium ||
|-
| Las Vegas/Oakland/Los Angeles Raiders || 9 || 7 || 0 || || W 15–9 || December 16, 2024 || Allegiant Stadium ||
|-
| Philadelphia Eagles || 15 || 18 || 1 || || w 22-21 || September 16, 2024 || Lincoln Financial Field || 1–3 postseason
|-
| Pittsburgh Steelers || 2 || 14 || 1 || || L 17–41 || October 7, 2018 || Heinz Field ||
|-
| San Francisco 49ers || 32 || 47 || 1 || || W 28–14 || October 16, 2022 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 1–1 postseason
|-
| Seattle Seahawks || 7 || 12 || 0 || || W 25–38 || September 25, 2022 || Lumen Field || 2–0 postseason
|-
| Tampa Bay Buccaneers || 30 || 29 || 0 || || W 31-26 || October 27, 2024 || Raymond James Stadium ||
|-
| Tennessee Titans/Houston Oilers || 7 || 8 || 0 || || L 10–24 || September 29, 2019 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium ||
|-
| Washington Commanders || 10 || 15 || 1 || || L 30–34 ||October 3, 2021 || Mercedes-Benz Stadium || 0–1 postseason
|-
! Total || 393|| 455 || 6 || || || || || 10–14 ()
** Notes International Series
Single game records
* Rushing: Michael Turner, 220 (September 7, 2008)
* Passing: Kirk Cousins, 509 (October 3, 2024)
* Passing touchdowns: Wade Wilson, 5 (December 13, 1992) and Matt Ryan, 5 (September 23, 2018)
* Receptions: William Andrews, 15 (September 15, 1981)
* Receiving yards: Julio Jones, 300 (October 2, 2016)
* Interceptions: Several Falcons, 2, most recently Jessie Bates, 2 (September 10, 2023)
* Field goals: Norm Johnson, 6 (November 13, 1994)
* Total touchdowns: T. J. Duckett, 4 (December 12, 2004) and Michael Turner, 4 (November 23, 2008)
* Points scored: T. J. Duckett, 24 (December 12, 2004) and Michael Turner, 24 (November 23, 2008)
* Sacks: Adrian Clayborn, 6 (November 13, 2017)Single season records* Passing attempts: 651 Matt Ryan (2013)
* Passing completions: 439 Matt Ryan (2013)
* Rushing yards: 1,846 Jamal Anderson (1998)
* Receiving yards: 1,871 Julio Jones (2015)
* Pass interceptions: 10 Scott Case (1988)
* Field goal attempts: 40 Jay Feely (2002)
* Field goals made: 34 Matt Bryant (2016 and 2017)
Career records
* Passing attempts: 6,817 Matt Ryan (2008–2021)
* Passing completions: 4,460 Matt Ryan (2008–2021)
* Rushing yards: 6,631 Gerald Riggs (1982–1988)
* Receiving yards: 12,125 Julio Jones (2011–2020)
* Pass interceptions: 39 Rolland Lawrence (1973–1980)
* Total touchdowns: 63 Roddy White (2005–2015)
* Pass interception return yards: 658 Rolland Lawrence (1973–1980)
* Kickoff return yards: 5,489 Allen Rossum (2002–2006)
* Longest field goal: 59 Morten Andersen (1995–2000, 2006–2007) and Matt Bryant (2009–2019)
Players
Current roster
Pro Football Hall of Famers
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Atlanta Falcons Hall of Famers
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Players
|-
! style="width:40px;"|No.
! style="width:150px;"|Name
! style="width:80px;"|Position
! style="width:100px;"|Tenure
! style="width:100px;"|Year inducted
|-
| 8 || Tommy McDonald || WR || 1967 || 1998
|-
| 29 || Eric Dickerson || RB || 1993 || 1999
|-
| 21 || Deion Sanders || CB || 1989–1993 || 2011
|-
| 56 || Chris Doleman || DE || 1994–1995 || 2012
|-
| 87 || Claude Humphrey || DE || 1968–1978 || 2014
|-
| 4 || Brett Favre || QB || 1991 || 2016
|-
| 5 || Morten Andersen || K || 1995–2000<br />2006–2007 || 2017
|-
| 88 || Tony Gonzalez || TE || 2009–2013 || 2019
|-
| 93 || Dwight Freeney || DE || 2016 || 2024
|-
| 17 || Devin Hester || KR/WR || 2014–2015 || 2024
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Coaches & Contributors
|-
! style"width:130px;" colspan2|Name
! style="width:210px;"|Position(s)
! style="width:160px;"|Tenure
! style="width:50px;"|Inducted
|-
| colspan2| Bobby Beathard || Scout || 1968–1971 || 2018
|}
Humphrey is the only person in the Hall of Fame who spent the majority of his career with the Falcons.
Ring of Honor
Fourteen members are included in the Atlanta Falcons Ring of Honor.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
| colspan"5" style";"|Atlanta Falcons Ring of Honor
|-
! style="width:40px; ;"|No.
! style="width:150px; ;"|Player
! style="width:80px; ;"|Position
! style="width:120px; ;"|Tenure
! style="width:100px; ;"|Inducted
|-
|—
|Arthur M. Blank
|Owner
|2002–present
|2024
|-
|2
|Matt Ryan
|QB
|2008–2021
|2024
|-
| 10 || Steve Bartkowski || QB || 1975–1985 || 2004
|-
| 21 || Deion Sanders || CB || 1989–1993 || 2010
|-
| 28 || Warrick Dunn || RB || 2002–2007 || 2017
|-
| 31 || William Andrews || RB || 1979–1983, 1986 || 2004
|-
| 42 || Gerald Riggs || RB || 1982–1988 || 2013
|-
| 57 || Jeff Van Note || C|| 1969–1986 || 2006
|-
| 58 || Jessie Tuggle || LB || 1987–2000 || 2004
|-
| 60 || Tommy Nobis || LB || 1966–1976 || 2004
|-
|62
|Todd McClure
|C
|1999–2012
|2022
|-
| 78 || Mike Kenn || T || 1978–1994 || 2008
|-
|84||Roddy White||WR|| 2005–2015 || 2019
|-
| 87 || Claude Humphrey || DE || 1968–1978 || 2008
|}
Georgia Sports Hall of Fame
Starting quarterbacks
Draft history
In the team's history, the Falcons have had the number one overall pick four times.Coaching staffHead coaches
is the current Atlanta Falcons head coach.]]
In their history, the Atlanta Falcons have had 18 head coaches. Five coaches have served in interim roles
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
!style";"|Coach
!style";"|Years
!style";"|Record
!style";"|Notes
|-
|Norb Hecker || 1966–1968 || 4–26–1 )}}
|
|-
|Norm Van Brocklin || 1968–1974 || 39–48–3 )}}
|
|-
|Marion Campbell || 1974–1976 || 6–19 )}}
|
|- style="background:silver;"
|Pat Peppler || 1976 || 3–6 )}} ||
|-
|Leeman Bennett || 1977–1982 || 46–41 )}} ||
|-
|Dan Henning || 1983–1986 || 22–41–1 )}} ||
|-
|Marion Campbell || 1987–1989 || 11–36 )}}
|
|- style="background:silver;"
|Jim Hanifan || 1989 || 0–4 )}} ||
|-
|Jerry Glanville || 1990–1993 || 27–37 )}} ||
|-
|June Jones || 1994–1996 || 19–29 )}} ||
|-
|Dan Reeves || 1997–2003 || 49–59–1 )}} ||
|- style="background:silver;"
|Wade Phillips || 2003 || 2–1 )}} ||
|-
|Jim Mora || 2004–2006 || 26–22 )}} ||
|-
|Bobby Petrino || 2007 || 3–10 )}} ||
|- style="background:silver;"
|Emmitt Thomas || 2007 || 1–2 )}} ||
|-
|Mike Smith || 2008–2014 || 66–46 )}} ||
|-
|Dan Quinn || 2015–2020 || 43–42 )}}||
|- style="background:silver;"
|Raheem Morris || 2020 || 4–7 )}} ||
|-
|Arthur Smith || 2021–2023 || 21–30 )}}||
|-
|Raheem Morris || 2024–present || 8–9 )}}||
|}
Current staff
Radio and television
The Falcons' flagship radio station is WZGC 92.9 The Game. Wes Durham, son of longtime North Carolina Tar Heels voice Woody Durham, is the Falcons' play-by-play announcer, with former Atlanta Falcons quarterback and pro football veteran, Dave Archer serving as color commentator.
In 2014, The CW affiliate WUPA became the official television station of the Falcons, gaining rights to its preseason games, which are produced by CBS Sports.
In the regular season, the team's games are seen on Fox's O&O affiliate WAGA. When the Falcons challenge an AFC team, CBS affiliate WANF will air those games while Sunday night games are televised on WXIA, the local NBC affiliate.
Radio affiliates
Source:
Georgia
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";" | City !! style";" | Call sign !! style";" | Frequency
|-
| Albany || WSRA-AM || 1250 AM
|-
| Athens || WRFC-AM || 960 AM
|-
| Atlanta || WZGC-FM (Flagship)|| 92.9 FM
|-
| Brunswick || WSFN-AM || 790 AM
|-
| Clarkesville || WDUN-FM || 102.9 FM
|-
| rowspan=2|Columbus || WDAK-AM || 540 AM
|-
| WBOJ || 1270 AM
|-
| Dalton || WBLJ-AM || 1230 AM
|-
| Douglas || WDMG-AM || 860 AM
|-
| Gainesville || WDUN || 550 AM
|-
| rowspan=2|Griffin || WKEU-AM || 1450 AM
|-
| WKEU-FM || 88.9 FM
|-
| Hogansville || WGST-AM || 720 AM
|-
| rowspan=2|Jesup || WLOP-AM || 1370 AM
|-
| WIFO-FM || 105.5 FM
|-
| LaGrange || WMGP-FM || 98.1 FM
|-
| rowspan=2|Louisville || WPEH-AM || 1420 AM
|-
| WPEH-FM || 92.1 FM
|-
| Macon || WXKO-AM || 1150 AM
|-
| Milledgeville || WMVG-AM || 1450 AM
|-
| Newnan || WRZX || 1400 AM
|-
| Sandersville || WJFL-FM || 101.9 FM
|-
| rowspan=2|Savannah || WSEG-AM || 1400 AM
|-
| WSEG-FM || 104.3 FM
|-
| Statesboro || WPTB-AM || 850 AM
|-
| Swainsboro || WJAT-AM || 800 AM
|-
| Thomaston || WTGA-FM || 101.1 FM
|-
| Toccoa || WNEG-AM || 630 AM
|-
| Valdosta || WVGA || 105.9 FM
|-
| Vidalia || WVOP-AM || 970 AM
|-
| Waycross || WFNS-AM || 1350 AM
|}
Alabama
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";" | City !! style";" | Call sign !! style";" | Frequency
|-
| Foley || WHEP-AM || 1310 AM
|}
Mississippi
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";" | City !! style";" | Call sign !! style";" | Frequency
|-
| Jackson || WYAB-FM || 103.9 FM
|}
South Carolina
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";" | City !! style";" | Call sign !! style";" | Frequency
|-
| Clemson || WCCP-FM || 104.9 FM
|}
Tennessee
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style";" | City !! style";" | Call sign !! style";" | Frequency
|-
| Chattanooga || WALV-FM || 95.3 FM
|}
Notes and references
External links
*
* [https://www.nfl.com/teams/atlanta-falcons/ Atlanta Falcons] at the National Football League official website
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLUXSZMIiUfFSzzgEL4N9aYBXPmGVen3zW The History of the Atlanta Falcons], Secret Base, YouTube
* [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/atl/ Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference
|list =
}}
Category:American football teams in Atlanta
Category:NFL teams
Category:American football teams established in 1966
Category:1966 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.088381 |
2104 | Heathenry in the United States | thumb|200px|Mjölnir, the hammer of Thor, is one of the major symbols of Ásatrú.
Heathenry is a modern Pagan new religious movement that has been active in the United States since at least the early 1970s. Although the term "Heathenry" is often employed to cover the entire religious movement, different Heathen groups within the United States often prefer the term "Ásatrú" or "Odinism" as self-designations.
Heathenry appeared in the United States during the 1960s, at the same time as the wider emergence of modern Paganism in the United States. Among the earliest American group was the Odinist Fellowship, founded by Danish migrant Else Christensen in 1969.
History
Ásatrú grew steadily in the United States during the 1960s. In 1969, the Danish Odinist Else Christensen established the Odinist Fellowship from her home in Florida. Heavily influenced by Alexander Rud Mills' writings, she began publication of a magazine, The Odinist, although this focused to a greater extent on right-wing and racialist ideas than theological ones. Stephen McNallen first founded the Viking Brotherhood in the early 1970s, before creating the Ásatrú Free Assembly (AFA) in 1976, which broke up in 1986 amid widespread political disagreements after McNallen's repudiation of neo-Nazis within the group. In the 1990s, McNallen founded the Ásatrú Folk Assembly (AFA), an ethnically oriented Heathen group headquartered in California.
Meanwhile, Valgard Murray and his kindred in Arizona founded the Ásatrú Alliance (AA) in the late 1980s, which shared the AFA's perspectives on race and which published the Vor Tru newsletter. In 1987, Edred Thorsson and James Chisholm founded The Troth, which was incorporated in Texas. Taking an inclusive, non-racialist view, it soon grew into an international organisation.
Terminology
In English usage, the genitive "of Æsir faith" is often used on its own to denote adherents (both singular and plural). This term is favored by practitioners who focus on the deities of Scandinavia, although it is problematic as many Asatruar worship deities and entities other than the Æsir, such as the Vanir, Valkyries, Elves, and Dwarves. Other practitioners term their religion Vanatrú, meaning "those who honour the Vanir" or Dísitrú, meaning "those who honour the Goddesses", depending on their particular theological emphasis.
Within the community it is sometimes stated that the term Ásatrú pertains to groups which are not racially focused, while Odinism is the term preferred by racially oriented groups. However, in practice, there is no such neat division in terminology.
There are notable differences of emphasis between Ásatrú as practiced in the US and in Scandinavia. According to , American Asatruar tend to prefer a more devotional form of worship and a more emotional conception of the Nordic gods than Scandinavian practitioners, reflecting the parallel tendency of highly emotional forms of Christianity prevalent in the United States.
Demographics
Although deeming it impossible to calculate the exact size of the Heathen community in the US, sociologist Jeffrey Kaplan estimated that, in the mid-1990s, there were around 500 active practitioners in the country, with a further thousand individuals on the periphery of the movement. He noted that the overwhelming majority of individuals in the movement were white, male, and young. Most had at least an undergraduate degree, and worked in a mix of white collar and blue collar jobs. From her experience within the community, Snook concurred that the majority of American Heathens were male, adding also that most were also white and middle-aged, but believed that there had been a growth in the proportion of Heathen women in the US since the mid-1990s.
In 2003, the Pagan Census Project led by Helen A. Berger, Evan A. Leach, and Leigh S. Shaffer gained 60 responses from Heathens in the US, noting that 65% were male and 35% female, which they saw as the "opposite" of the rest of the country's Pagan community. The majority had a college education, but were generally less well educated than the wider Pagan community, with a lower median income than the wider Pagan community too.
Politics and controversies
Ásatrú organizations have memberships which span the entire political and spiritual spectrum. There is a history of political controversy within organized US Ásatrú, mostly surrounding the question of how to deal with such adherents as place themselves in a context of the far right and white supremacy, notably resulting in the fragmentation of the Asatru Free Assembly in 1986.
Externally, political activity on the part of Ásatrú organizations has surrounded campaigns against alleged religious discrimination, such as the call for the introduction of an Ásatrú "emblem of belief" by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to parallel the Wiccan pentacle granted to the widow of Patrick Stewart in 2006. In May 2013, the "Hammer of Thor" was added to the list of United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers. It was reported in early 2019 that a Heathenry service was held on the U.S. Navy's USS John C. Stennis
Folkish Ásatrú, Universalism and racialism
Historically, the main dispute between the national organizations has generally centered on the interpretation of "Nordic heritage" as either something cultural, or as something genetic or racial. In the internal discourse within American Ásatrú, this cultural/racial divide has long been known as "universalist" vs. "folkish" Ásatrú.
The Troth takes the "universalist" position, claiming Ásatrú as a synonym for "Northern European Heathenry" taken to comprise "many variations, names, and practices, including Theodism, Irminism, Odinism, and Anglo-Saxon Heathenry". The Asatru Folk Assembly takes the folkish position, claiming that Ásatrú and the Germanic beliefs are ancestral in nature, and as an indigenous religion of the European Folk should only be accessed by the descendants of Europe. In the UK, Germanic Neopaganism is more commonly known as Odinism or as Heathenry. This is mostly a matter of terminology, and US Ásatrú may be equated with UK Odinism for practical purposes, as is evident in the short-lived International Asatru-Odinic Alliance of folkish Ásatrú/Odinist groups.
Some groups identifying as Ásatrú have been associated with national socialist and white nationalist movements. Wotansvolk, for example, is an explicitly racial form.
More recently, however, many Ásatrú groups have been taking a harder stance against these elements of their community. Declaration 127, so named for the corresponding stanza of the Hávamál: "When you see misdeeds, speak out against them, and give your enemies no frið” is a collective statement denouncing and testifying disassociation with the Asatru Folk Assembly for alleged racial and sexually-discriminatory practices and beliefs signed by over 150 Ásatrú religious organizations from over 15 different nations mainly represented on Facebook.
Discrimination charges
Inmates of the "Intensive Management Unit" at Washington State Penitentiary who are adherents of Ásatrú in 2001 were deprived of their Thor's Hammer medallions.
In 2007, a federal judge confirmed that Ásatrú adherents in US prisons have the right to possess a Thor's Hammer pendant. An inmate sued the Virginia Department of Corrections after he was denied it while members of other religions were allowed their medallions.
In the Georgacarakos v. Watts case Peter N. Georgacarakos filed a pro se civil-rights complaint in the United States District Court for the District of Colorado against 19 prison officials for "interference with the free exercise of his Ásatrú religion" and "discrimination on the basis of his being Ásatrú".
See also
Germanic Neopaganism
Heathen holidays
Neopaganism in German-speaking Europe
Ásatrúarfélagið
Neopaganism in the United Kingdom
Heathenry in Canada
Norse mythology
Polytheistic reconstructionism
Odinism
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
Paulas, Rick; How a Thor-Worshipping Religion Turned Racist, Vice Magazine, May 1, 2015
Ásatrú (Germanic Paganism) – ReligionFacts
Asatru (Norse Heathenism) – AltReligion
Ásatrú (Norse Heathenism) – Religioustolerance
Jotun's Bane Kindred
Ravencast – The Only Asatru Podcast – Interviews and 101 Information
On the development of Ásatrú in Australia see: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathenry_in_the_United_States | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.107977 |
2106 | Ansible | The term ansible refers to a category of fictional technological devices capable of superluminal or faster-than-light (FTL) communication. These devices can instantaneously transmit and receive messages across obstacles and vast distances, including between star systems and even galaxies. As a name for such a device, the word ansible first appeared in a 1966 novel by Ursula K. Le Guin. Since that time, the broad use of the term has continued in the works of numerous science-fiction authors, across a variety of settings and continuities. Coinage by Ursula Le Guin Ursula K. Le Guin first used the word ansible in her 1966 novel ''Rocannon's World. Additionally, Robert A. Heinlein, in his 1958 novel Time for the Stars, employed instantaneous telepathic communication between identical twin pairs over interstellar distances, and like Le Guin, provided a technical explanation based on a non-Einsteinian principle of simultaneity.
In Le Guin's works
In her subsequent works, Le Guin continued to develop the concept of the ansible:
* In The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), Le Guin writes that the ansible "doesn't involve radio waves, or any form of energy. The principle it works on, the constant of simultaneity, is analogous in some ways to gravity ... One point has to be fixed, on a planet of certain mass, but the other end is portable."
* In The Word for World Is Forest (1972), Le Guin explains that in order for communication to work with any pair of ansibles, at least one "must be on a large-mass body, the other can be anywhere in the cosmos".
* In The Dispossessed (1974), Le Guin tells of the development of the theory leading up to the ansible.
* Vernor Vinge, in the 1988 short story "The Blabber"
* Joe M. McDermott, in the 2017 novel The Fortress at the End of Time
}}
Further reading
*
Category:Faster-than-light communication
Category:Fictional technology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansible | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.122223 |
2108 | Adalbert of Prague | 956
|birth_place=Libice nad Cidlinou, Duchy of Bohemia<br />(now the Czech Republic)
|death_date
|death_place=Święty Gaj or Primorsk, Prussia<br />(now Poland or Russia)
|feast_day= 23 April
|venerated_in=Catholic Church<br />Eastern Orthodox Church
|beatified_date|beatified_place
|beatified_by|canonized_date999
|canonized_place=Rome
|canonized_by=Pope Sylvester II
|major_shrine=Gniezno, Prague
|attributesspears
|patronage=Poland, Czech Republic, Archdiocese of Esztergom, Archdiocese of Prague (primary), students of Polish literature, Kaliningrad Oblast
|issues|suppressed_date
|prayer|prayer_attrib
}}
Adalbert of Prague (, , , , ; 95623 April 997), known in the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia by his birth name Vojtěch (), was a Czech missionary and Christian saint. He was the Bishop of Prague and a missionary to the Hungarians, Poles, and Prussians, who was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians to Christianity. He is said to be the composer of the oldest Czech hymn Hospodine, pomiluj ny and Bogurodzica, the oldest known Polish anthem but his authorship of them has not been confirmed.
Adalbert was later declared the patron saint of the Czech Republic, Poland, and the Duchy of Prussia. He is also the patron saint of the Archdiocese of Esztergom in Hungary.LifeEarly yearsBorn as Vojtěch in 952 or in gord Libice, he belonged to the Slavnik clan, one of the two most powerful families in Bohemia. Events from his life were later recorded by a Bohemian priest Cosmas of Prague (1045–1125). Vojtěch's father was Slavník (d. 978–981), a duke ruling a province centred at Libice. His mother was Střezislava (d. 985–987), and according to David Kalhous belonged to the Přemyslid dynasty. He had five brothers: Soběslav, Spytimír, Dobroslav, Pořej, and Čáslav. Cosmas also refers to Radim (later Gaudentius) as a brother; who is believed to have been a half-brother by his father's liaison with another woman. After he survived a grave illness in childhood, his parents decided to dedicate him to the service of God. Adalbert was well educated, having studied for approximately ten years (970–80) in Magdeburg under Adalbert of Magdeburg. The young Vojtěch took his tutor's name "Adalbert" at his Confirmation.
Episcopacy
, Czech Republic]]
(Gnesen)]]
In 981 Adalbert of Magdeburg died, and his young protege Adalbert returned to Bohemia. Later Bishop Dietmar of Prague ordained him a Catholic priest. In 982, Bishop Dietmar died, and Adalbert, despite being under canonical age, was chosen to succeed him as Bishop of Prague. Amiable and somewhat worldly, he was not expected to trouble the secular powers by making excessive claims for the Church. Although Adalbert was from a wealthy family, he avoided comfort and luxury, and was noted for his charity and austerity. After six years of preaching and prayer, he had made little headway in evangelising the Bohemians, who maintained deeply embedded pagan beliefs.
Adalbert opposed the participation of Christians in the slave trade and complained of polygamy and idolatry, which were common among the people. Once he started to propose reforms he was met with opposition from both the secular powers and the clergy. His family refused to support Duke Boleslaus in an unsuccessful war against Poland. Adalbert was no longer welcome and eventually forced into exile. Bolesław I, Duke (and, later, King) of Poland, sent soldiers with Adalbert on his mission to the Prussians. The Bishop and his companions, entered Prussian territory and traveled along the coast of the Baltic Sea to Gdańsk. At the borders of the Polish realm, at the mouth of the Vistula River, his half-brother Radim (Gaudentius), Benedict-Bogusza (who was probably a Pole), and at least one interpreter, ventured out into Prussia alone, as Bolesław had only sent his soldiers to escort them to the border. On the 23 April 997, after mass, while Adalbert and his companions lay in the grass while eating a snack, they were set upon by a pagan mob. The mob was led by a man named Sicco,
Veneration and relics
. Collegiate Capitol in Gdańsk. Silver-Gold 2011]]
A few years after his martyrdom, Adalbert was canonized as Saint Adalbert of Prague. His life was written in Vita Sancti Adalberti Pragensis by various authors, the earliest being traced to imperial Aachen and the Bishop of Liège, Notger von Lüttich, although it was previously assumed that the Roman monk John Canaparius wrote the first Vita in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was Bruno of Querfurt who wrote a hagiography of him in 1001–4.
Notably, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia initially refused to ransom Adalbert's body from the Prussians who murdered him, and therefore it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by Adalbert's belonging to the Slavniks family which was rival to the Přemyslids. Thus Adalbert's bones were preserved in Gniezno, which assisted Boleslaus I of Poland in increasing Polish political and diplomatic power in Europe.
According to Bohemian accounts, in 1039 the Bohemian Duke Bretislav I looted the bones of Adalbert from Gniezno in a raid and translated them to Prague. According to Polish accounts, however, he stole the wrong relics, namely those of Gaudentius, while the Poles concealed Adalbert's relics which remain in Gniezno. In 1127 his severed head, which was not in the original purchase according to Roczniki Polskie, was discovered and translated to Gniezno. In 1928, one of the arms of Adalbert, which Bolesław I had given to Holy Roman Emperor Otto III in 1000, was added to the bones preserved in Gniezno. Therefore, today Adalbert has two elaborate shrines in the Prague Cathedral and Royal Cathedral of Gniezno, each of which claims to possess his relics, but which of these bones are his authentic relics is unknown. For example, pursuant to both claims two skulls are attributed to Adalbert. The one in Gniezno was stolen in 1923.
The massive bronze doors of Gniezno Cathedral, dating from around 1175, are decorated with eighteen reliefs of scenes from Adalbert's life. They are the only Romanesque ecclesiastical doors in Europe depicting a cycle illustrating the life of a saint, and therefore are a precious relic documenting Adalbert's martyrdom. We can read that door literally and theologically.
The one thousandth anniversary of Adalbert's martyrdom was on 23 April 1997. It was commemorated in Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, and other nations. Representatives of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Evangelical churches traveled on a pilgrimage to Adalbert's tomb located in Gniezno. Pope John Paul II visited the cathedral and celebrated a liturgy there in which heads of seven European nations and approximately one million faithful participated.
A ten-meter cross was erected near the village of Beregovoe (formerly Tenkitten), Kaliningrad Oblast, where Adalbert is thought to have been martyred by the Prussians.
Feast day
* 25 January – commemoration of translation of relics to Church of Saint Roch,
* 22 April – commemoration in Catholic Church in England and Wales,
* 23 April – commemoration of death anniversary,
* 14 May – commemoration of consecration of church in Aachen
* 25 August – commemoration of translation of relics from Gniezno to Prague (1039)
* 26 August – commemoration of translation of relics to Wrocław
* 22 October – commemoration of translation of relics to Gniezno
* 6 November – commemoration of translation of relics to Esztergom,
He is also commemorated on 23 April by Evangelical Church in Germany and Eastern Orthodox Church.
In popular culture and society
The Dagmar and Václav Havel VIZE 97 Foundation Prize, given annually to a distinguished thinker "whose work exceeds the traditional framework of scientific knowledge, contributes to the understanding of science as an integral part of general culture and is concerned with unconventional ways of asking fundamental questions about cognition, being and human existence"
includes a massive replica of Adalbert's crozier by Czech artist Jiří Plieštík.
St. Vojtech Fellowship was established in 1870 by Slovak Catholic priest Andrej Radlinský. It had facilitated Slovak Catholic thinkers and authors, continuing to publish religious original works and translations to this day. It is the official publishing body of Episcopal Conference of Slovakia.
Churches and parishes named for Adalbert
St. Adalbert's Church}}
See also
* History of the Czech lands in the Middle Ages
* History of Poland (966–1385)
* Congress of Gniezno
* Gniezno Doors
* Adalbert of Magdeburg
* Saint Adalbert of Prague, patron saint archive
* Statue of Adalbert of Prague, Charles Bridge
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Donald Attwater and Catherine R. John, The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, Third Edition (New York: Penguin Books, 1993); .
External links
*
*
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Category:Patron saints of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalbert_of_Prague | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.136660 |
2110 | Ælfheah of Canterbury | | birth_date =
| birth_place = Weston, Somerset, England
| death_date = 19 April 1012
| death_place = Greenwich, Kent, England
| buried = Canterbury Cathedral
| feast_day = 19 April
| venerated =
| canonized_date = 1078
| canonized_place = Rome
| canonized_by = Pope Gregory VII
| attributes Archbishop holding an axe
| patronage Greenwich; Solihull; kidnap victims
| shrine = Canterbury Cathedral
}}
Ælfheah, "elf-tall"}}
Ælfheah refused to allow a ransom to be paid for his freedom, and as a result was killed on 19 April 1012 at Greenwich,}}
Ælfheah was the first Archbishop of Canterbury to die a violent death. A contemporary report tells that Thorkell the Tall attempted to save Ælfheah from the mob about to kill him by offering everything he owned except for his ship, in exchange for Ælfheah's life; Thorkell's presence is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, however. Some sources record that the final blow, with the back of an axe, was delivered as an act of kindness by a Christian convert known as "Thrum". Ælfheah was buried in Old St Paul's Cathedral. Thorkell the Tall was appalled at the brutality of his fellow raiders, and switched sides to the English king Æthelred the Unready following Ælfheah's death.
Veneration
by James Redfern, showing Ælfheah holding the stones used in his martyrdom.]]
Pope Gregory VII canonised Ælfheah in 1078, with a feast day of 19 April. Lanfranc, the first post-Conquest archbishop, was dubious about some of the saints venerated at Canterbury. He was persuaded of Ælfheah's sanctity, but Ælfheah and Augustine of Canterbury were the only pre-conquest Anglo-Saxon archbishops kept on Canterbury's calendar of saints. Ælfheah's shrine, which had become neglected, was rebuilt and expanded in the early 12th century under Anselm of Canterbury, who was instrumental in retaining Ælfheah's name in the church calendar. After the 1174 fire in Canterbury Cathedral, Ælfheah's remains together with those of Dunstan were placed around the high altar, at which Thomas Becket is said to have commended his life into Ælfheah's care shortly before his martyrdom during the Becket controversy. and was north of the high altar, sharing the honour with Dunstan's shrine, which was located south of the high altar. A Life of Saint Ælfheah in prose and verse was written by a Canterbury monk named Osbern, at Lanfranc's request. The prose version has survived, but the Life is very much a hagiography; many of the stories it contains have obvious Biblical parallels, making them suspect as a historical record. Few church dedications to him are known, with most of them occurring in Kent and one each in London and Winchester; In Kent, there are two 12th-century parish churches dedicated to St Alphege at Seasalter and Canterbury. Reputedly his body lay in these churches overnight on his way back to Canterbury Cathedral for burial. In the town of Solihull in the West Midlands, St Alphege Church is dedicated to Ælfheah dating back to approximately 1277. In 1929, a new Roman Catholic church in Bath, the Church of Our Lady & St Alphege, was designed by Giles Gilbert Scott in homage to the ancient Roman church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, and dedicated to Ælfheah under the name of Alphege. St George the Martyr with St Alphege & St Jude stands in Borough in London.
Artistic representations of Ælfheah often depict him holding a pile of stones in his chasuble, a reference to his martyrdom.
Notes
Citations
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Category:Archbishops of Canterbury
Category:Bishops of Winchester
Category:Martyred Roman Catholic priests
Category:11th-century Christian saints
Category:11th-century Christian martyrs
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Category:Year of birth uncertain
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Category:English saints | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ælfheah_of_Canterbury | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.152802 |
2112 | Associative algebra | In mathematics, an associative algebra A over a commutative ring (often a field) K is a ring A together with a ring homomorphism from K into the center of A. This is thus an algebraic structure with an addition, a multiplication, and a scalar multiplication (the multiplication by the image of the ring homomorphism of an element of K). The addition and multiplication operations together give A the structure of a ring; the addition and scalar multiplication operations together give A the structure of a module or vector space over K. In this article we will also use the term K-algebra to mean an associative algebra over K. A standard first example of a K-algebra is a ring of square matrices over a commutative ring K, with the usual matrix multiplication.
A commutative algebra is an associative algebra for which the multiplication is commutative, or, equivalently, an associative algebra that is also a commutative ring.
In this article associative algebras are assumed to have a multiplicative identity, denoted 1; they are sometimes called unital associative algebras for clarification. In some areas of mathematics this assumption is not made, and we will call such structures non-unital associative algebras. We will also assume that all rings are unital, and all ring homomorphisms are unital.
Every ring is an associative algebra over its center and over the integers.
Definition
Let R be a commutative ring (so R could be a field). An 'associative R-algebra A (or more simply, an R-algebra A''') is a ring A
that is also an R-module in such a way that the two additions (the ring addition and the module addition) are the same operation, and scalar multiplication satisfies
: <math>r\cdot(xy) (r\cdot x)y x(r\cdot y)</math>
for all r in R and x, y in the algebra. (This definition implies that the algebra, being a ring, is unital, since rings are supposed to have a multiplicative identity.)
Equivalently, an associative algebra A is a ring together with a ring homomorphism from R to the center of A. If f is such a homomorphism, the scalar multiplication is (here the multiplication is the ring multiplication); if the scalar multiplication is given, the ring homomorphism is given by . (See also below).
Every ring is an associative Z-algebra, where Z denotes the ring of the integers.
A is an associative algebra that is also a commutative ring.
As a monoid object in the category of modules
The definition is equivalent to saying that a unital associative R-algebra is a monoid object in 'R-Mod' (the monoidal category of R-modules). By definition, a ring is a monoid object in the category of abelian groups; thus, the notion of an associative algebra is obtained by replacing the category of abelian groups with the category of modules.
Pushing this idea further, some authors have introduced a "generalized ring" as a monoid object in some other category that behaves like the category of modules. Indeed, this reinterpretation allows one to avoid making an explicit reference to elements of an algebra A. For example, the associativity can be expressed as follows. By the universal property of a tensor product of modules, the multiplication (the R-bilinear map) corresponds to a unique R-linear map
: <math>m : A \otimes_R A \to A</math>.
The associativity then refers to the identity:
: <math>m \circ ({\operatorname{id}} \otimes m) m \circ (m \otimes \operatorname{id}).</math> From ring homomorphisms
An associative algebra amounts to a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center. Indeed, starting with a ring A and a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center of A, we can make A an R-algebra by defining
: <math>r\cdot x = \eta(r)x</math>
for all and . If A is an R-algebra, taking , the same formula in turn defines a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center.
If a ring is commutative then it equals its center, so that a commutative R-algebra can be defined simply as a commutative ring A together with a commutative ring homomorphism .
The ring homomorphism η appearing in the above is often called a structure map. In the commutative case, one can consider the category whose objects are ring homomorphisms for a fixed R, i.e., commutative R-algebras, and whose morphisms are ring homomorphisms that are under R; i.e., is (i.e., the coslice category of the category of commutative rings under R.) The prime spectrum functor Spec then determines an anti-equivalence of this category to the category of affine schemes over Spec R.
How to weaken the commutativity assumption is a subject matter of noncommutative algebraic geometry and, more recently, of derived algebraic geometry. See also: Generic matrix ring.
Algebra homomorphisms
A homomorphism between two R-algebras is an R-linear ring homomorphism. Explicitly, is an associative algebra homomorphism if
: <math>\begin{align}
\varphi(r \cdot x) &= r \cdot \varphi(x) \\
\varphi(x + y) &= \varphi(x) + \varphi(y) \\
\varphi(xy) &= \varphi(x)\varphi(y) \\
\varphi(1) &= 1
\end{align}</math>
The class of all R-algebras together with algebra homomorphisms between them form a category, sometimes denoted 'R-Alg'.
The subcategory of commutative R-algebras can be characterized as the coslice category R/CRing where CRing is the category of commutative rings.
Examples
The most basic example is a ring itself; it is an algebra over its center or any subring lying in the center. In particular, any commutative ring is an algebra over any of its subrings. Other examples abound both from algebra and other fields of mathematics.
Algebra
* Any ring A can be considered as a Z-algebra. The unique ring homomorphism from Z to A is determined by the fact that it must send 1 to the identity in A. Therefore, rings and Z-algebras are equivalent concepts, in the same way that abelian groups and Z-modules are equivalent.
* Any ring of characteristic n is a (Z/nZ)-algebra in the same way.
* Given an R-module M, the endomorphism ring of M, denoted End<sub>R</sub>(M) is an R-algebra by defining .
* Any ring of matrices with coefficients in a commutative ring R forms an R-algebra under matrix addition and multiplication. This coincides with the previous example when M is a finitely-generated, free R-module.
** In particular, the square n-by-n matrices with entries from the field K form an associative algebra over K.
* The complex numbers form a 2-dimensional commutative algebra over the real numbers.
* The quaternions form a 4-dimensional associative algebra over the reals (but not an algebra over the complex numbers, since the complex numbers are not in the center of the quaternions).
* Every polynomial ring is a commutative R-algebra. In fact, this is the free commutative R-algebra on the set }}.
* The free R-algebra on a set E is an algebra of "polynomials" with coefficients in R and noncommuting indeterminates taken from the set E.
* The tensor algebra of an R-module is naturally an associative R-algebra. The same is true for quotients such as the exterior and symmetric algebras. Categorically speaking, the functor that maps an R-module to its tensor algebra is left adjoint to the functor that sends an R-algebra to its underlying R-module (forgetting the multiplicative structure).
* Given a module M over a commutative ring R, the direct sum of modules has a structure of an R-algebra by thinking M consists of infinitesimal elements; i.e., the multiplication is given as . The notion is sometimes called the algebra of dual numbers.
* A quasi-free algebra, introduced by Cuntz and Quillen, is a sort of generalization of a free algebra and a semisimple algebra over an algebraically closed field.
Representation theory
* The universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra is an associative algebra that can be used to study the given Lie algebra.
* If G is a group and R is a commutative ring, the set of all functions from G to R with finite support form an R-algebra with the convolution as multiplication. It is called the group algebra of G. The construction is the starting point for the application to the study of (discrete) groups.
* If G is an algebraic group (e.g., semisimple complex Lie group), then the coordinate ring of G is the Hopf algebra A corresponding to G. Many structures of G translate to those of A.
* A quiver algebra (or a path algebra) of a directed graph is the free associative algebra over a field generated by the paths in the graph.
Analysis
* Given any Banach space X, the continuous linear operators form an associative algebra (using composition of operators as multiplication); this is a Banach algebra.
* Given any topological space X, the continuous real- or complex-valued functions on X form a real or complex associative algebra; here the functions are added and multiplied pointwise.
* The set of semimartingales defined on the filtered probability space forms a ring under stochastic integration.
* The Weyl algebra
* An Azumaya algebra
Geometry and combinatorics
* The Clifford algebras, which are useful in geometry and physics.
* Incidence algebras of locally finite partially ordered sets are associative algebras considered in combinatorics.
* The partition algebra and its subalgebras, including the Brauer algebra and the Temperley-Lieb algebra.
* A differential graded algebra is an associative algebra together with a grading and a differential. For example, the de Rham algebra <math display"inline">\Omega(M) \bigoplus_{p0}^n \Omega^p(M)</math>, where <math display"inline">\Omega^p(M)</math> consists of differential p-forms on a manifold M, is a differential graded algebra.
Mathematical physics
* A Poisson algebra is a commutative associative algebra over a field together with a structure of a Lie algebra so that the Lie bracket satisfies the Leibniz rule; i.e., + g}}.
* Given a Poisson algebra <math>\mathfrak a</math>, consider the vector space <math>\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]</math> of formal power series over <math>\mathfrak{a}</math>. If <math>\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]</math> has a structure of an associative algebra with multiplication <math>*</math> such that, for <math>f, g \in \mathfrak{a}</math>,
*: <math>f * g = f g - \frac{1}{2} \{ f, g \} u + \cdots,</math>
: then <math>\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]</math> is called a deformation quantization of <math>\mathfrak a</math>.
* A quantized enveloping algebra. The dual of such an algebra turns out to be an associative algebra (see ) and is, philosophically speaking, the (quantized) coordinate ring of a quantum group.
* Gerstenhaber algebra
Constructions
; Subalgebras : A subalgebra of an R-algebra A is a subset of A which is both a subring and a submodule of A. That is, it must be closed under addition, ring multiplication, scalar multiplication, and it must contain the identity element of A.
; Quotient algebras : Let A be an R-algebra. Any ring-theoretic ideal I in A is automatically an R-module since . This gives the quotient ring the structure of an R-module and, in fact, an R-algebra. It follows that any ring homomorphic image of A is also an R-algebra.
; Direct products : The direct product of a family of R-algebras is the ring-theoretic direct product. This becomes an R-algebra with the obvious scalar multiplication.
; Free products: One can form a free product of R-algebras in a manner similar to the free product of groups. The free product is the coproduct in the category of R-algebras.
; Tensor products : The tensor product of two R-algebras is also an R-algebra in a natural way. See tensor product of algebras for more details. Given a commutative ring R and any ring A the tensor product R ⊗<sub>Z</sub> A can be given the structure of an R-algebra by defining . The functor which sends A to is left adjoint to the functor which sends an R-algebra to its underlying ring (forgetting the module structure). See also: Change of rings.
; Free algebra : A free algebra is an algebra generated by symbols. If one imposes commutativity; i.e., take the quotient by commutators, then one gets a polynomial algebra.
Dual of an associative algebra
Let A be an associative algebra over a commutative ring R. Since A is in particular a module, we can take the dual module A<sup>*</sup> of A. A priori, the dual A<sup>*</sup> need not have a structure of an associative algebra. However, A may come with an extra structure (namely, that of a Hopf algebra) so that the dual is also an associative algebra.
For example, take A to be the ring of continuous functions on a compact group G. Then, not only A is an associative algebra, but it also comes with the co-multiplication )(g, h) (gh)}} and co-unit ) (1)}}. The "co-" refers to the fact that they satisfy the dual of the usual multiplication and unit in the algebra axiom. Hence, the dual A<sup>*</sup> is an associative algebra. The co-multiplication and co-unit are also important in order to form a tensor product of representations of associative algebras (see below).
Enveloping algebra
Given an associative algebra A over a commutative ring R, the enveloping algebra A<sup>e</sup> of A is the algebra or , depending on authors.
Note that a bimodule over A is exactly a left module over A<sup>e</sup>.
Separable algebra
Let A be an algebra over a commutative ring R. Then the algebra A is a right module over with the action . Then, by definition, A is said to separable if the multiplication map splits as an A<sup>e</sup>-linear map, where is an A<sup>e</sup>-module by . Equivalently, can be used to construct a section of a surjection.}}
A is separable if it is a projective module over ; thus, the -projective dimension of A, sometimes called the bidimension of A, measures the failure of separability.
Finite-dimensional algebra
Let A be a finite-dimensional algebra over a field k. Then A is an Artinian ring.
Commutative case
As A is Artinian, if it is commutative, then it is a finite product of Artinian local rings whose residue fields are algebras over the base field k. Now, a reduced Artinian local ring is a field and thus the following are equivalent
# <math>A</math> is separable.
# <math>A \otimes \overline{k}</math> is reduced, where <math>\overline{k}</math> is some algebraic closure of k.
# <math>A \otimes \overline{k} = \overline{k}^n</math> for some n''.
# <math>\dim_k A</math> is the number of <math>k</math>-algebra homomorphisms <math>A \to \overline{k}</math>.
Let <math>\Gamma \operatorname{Gal}(k_s/k) \varprojlim \operatorname{Gal}(k'/k)</math>, the profinite group of finite Galois extensions of k. Then <math>A \mapsto X_A \{ k\text{-algebra homomorphisms } A \to k_s \}</math> is an anti-equivalence of the category of finite-dimensional separable k-algebras to the category of finite sets with continuous <math>\Gamma</math>-actions. Noncommutative case Since a simple Artinian ring is a (full) matrix ring over a division ring, if A is a simple algebra, then A is a (full) matrix algebra over a division algebra D over k; i.e., . More generally, if A is a semisimple algebra, then it is a finite product of matrix algebras (over various division k-algebras), the fact known as the Artin–Wedderburn theorem.
The fact that A is Artinian simplifies the notion of a Jacobson radical; for an Artinian ring, the Jacobson radical of A is the intersection of all (two-sided) maximal ideals (in contrast, in general, a Jacobson radical is the intersection of all left maximal ideals or the intersection of all right maximal ideals.)
The Wedderburn principal theorem states: for a finite-dimensional algebra A with a nilpotent ideal I, if the projective dimension of as a module over the enveloping algebra is at most one, then the natural surjection splits; i.e., A contains a subalgebra B such that <sub>B</sub> : B A / I}} is an isomorphism. Taking I to be the Jacobson radical, the theorem says in particular that the Jacobson radical is complemented by a semisimple algebra. The theorem is an analog of Levi's theorem for Lie algebras.<!--
A finite-dimensional algebra A is called a split algebra if each endomorphism of a simple A-module is given by a scalar multiplication. Equivalently,
For example, a finite-dimensional algebra is a split when the base field is algebraically closed.-->
Lattices and orders
Let R be a Noetherian integral domain with field of fractions K (for example, they can be Z, Q). A lattice L in a finite-dimensional K-vector space V is a finitely generated R-submodule of V that spans V; in other words, .
Let A<sub>K</sub> be a finite-dimensional K-algebra. An order in A<sub>K</sub> is an R-subalgebra that is a lattice. In general, there are a lot fewer orders than lattices; e.g., Z is a lattice in Q but not an order (since it is not an algebra).
A maximal order is an order that is maximal among all the orders.
Related concepts
Coalgebras
An associative algebra over K is given by a K-vector space A endowed with a bilinear map having two inputs (multiplicator and multiplicand) and one output (product), as well as a morphism identifying the scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity. If the bilinear map is reinterpreted as a linear map (i.e., morphism in the category of K-vector spaces) (by the universal property of the tensor product), then we can view an associative algebra over K as a K-vector space A endowed with two morphisms (one of the form and one of the form ) satisfying certain conditions that boil down to the algebra axioms. These two morphisms can be dualized using categorial duality by reversing all arrows in the commutative diagrams that describe the algebra axioms; this defines the structure of a coalgebra.
There is also an abstract notion of F-coalgebra, where F is a functor. This is vaguely related to the notion of coalgebra discussed above.
Representations
A representation of an algebra A is an algebra homomorphism from A to the endomorphism algebra of some vector space (or module) V. The property of ρ being an algebra homomorphism means that ρ preserves the multiplicative operation (that is, for all x and y in A), and that ρ sends the unit of A to the unit of End(V) (that is, to the identity endomorphism of V).
If A and B are two algebras, and and are two representations, then there is a (canonical) representation of the tensor product algebra on the vector space . However, there is no natural way of defining a tensor product of two representations of a single associative algebra in such a way that the result is still a representation of that same algebra (not of its tensor product with itself), without somehow imposing additional conditions. Here, by tensor product of representations, the usual meaning is intended: the result should be a linear representation of the same algebra on the product vector space. Imposing such additional structure typically leads to the idea of a Hopf algebra or a Lie algebra, as demonstrated below.
Motivation for a Hopf algebra
Consider, for example, two representations and . One might try to form a tensor product representation according to how it acts on the product vector space, so that
: <math>\rho(x)(v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x)(v)) \otimes (\tau(x)(w)).</math>
However, such a map would not be linear, since one would have
: <math>\rho(kx) \sigma(kx) \otimes \tau(kx) k\sigma(x) \otimes k\tau(x) k^2 (\sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)) k^2 \rho(x)</math>
for . One can rescue this attempt and restore linearity by imposing additional structure, by defining an algebra homomorphism , and defining the tensor product representation as
: <math>\rho = (\sigma\otimes \tau) \circ \Delta.</math>
Such a homomorphism Δ is called a comultiplication if it satisfies certain axioms. The resulting structure is called a bialgebra. To be consistent with the definitions of the associative algebra, the coalgebra must be co-associative, and, if the algebra is unital, then the co-algebra must be co-unital as well. A Hopf algebra is a bialgebra with an additional piece of structure (the so-called antipode), which allows not only to define the tensor product of two representations, but also the Hom module of two representations (again, similarly to how it is done in the representation theory of groups).
Motivation for a Lie algebra
One can try to be more clever in defining a tensor product. Consider, for example,
: <math>x \mapsto \rho (x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x)</math>
so that the action on the tensor product space is given by
: <math>\rho(x) (v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x) v)\otimes w + v \otimes (\tau(x) w) </math>.
This map is clearly linear in x, and so it does not have the problem of the earlier definition. However, it fails to preserve multiplication:
: <math>\rho(xy) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)</math>.
But, in general, this does not equal
: <math>\rho(x)\rho(y) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \sigma(x) \otimes \tau(y) + \sigma(y) \otimes \tau(x) + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)</math>.
This shows that this definition of a tensor product is too naive; the obvious fix is to define it such that it is antisymmetric, so that the middle two terms cancel. This leads to the concept of a Lie algebra.
Non-unital algebras
Some authors use the term "associative algebra" to refer to structures which do not necessarily have a multiplicative identity, and hence consider homomorphisms which are not necessarily unital.
One example of a non-unital associative algebra is given by the set of all functions whose limit as x nears infinity is zero.
Another example is the vector space of continuous periodic functions, together with the convolution product.
See also
* Abstract algebra
* Algebraic structure
* Algebra over a field
* Sheaf of algebras, a sort of an algebra over a ringed space
* Deligne's conjecture on Hochschild cohomology
Notes
Citations
References
*
*
*
*
* James Byrnie Shaw (1907) [http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?cmath;ccmath;viewtoc;subviewshort;idno=05160001 A Synopsis of Linear Associative Algebra], link from Cornell University Historical Math Monographs.
* Ross Street (1998) [https://web.archive.org/web/20050825034431/http://www-texdev.ics.mq.edu.au/Quantum/Quantum.ps Quantum Groups: an entrée to modern algebra], an overview of index-free notation.
*
*
*
Category:Algebras
Category:Algebraic geometry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_algebra | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.208174 |
2113 | Axiom of regularity | In mathematics, the axiom of regularity (also known as the axiom of foundation) is an axiom of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that states that every non-empty set A contains an element that is disjoint from A. In first-order logic, the axiom reads:
\forall x\,(x \neq \varnothing \rightarrow (\exists y \in x) (y \cap x = \varnothing)).
The axiom of regularity together with the axiom of pairing implies that no set is an element of itself, and that there is no infinite sequence (an) such that ai+1 is an element of ai for all i. With the axiom of dependent choice (which is a weakened form of the axiom of choice), this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence, in this context the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the sentence that there are no downward infinite membership chains.
The axiom was originally formulated by von Neumann; it was adopted in a formulation closer to the one found in contemporary textbooks by Zermelo. Virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity. However, regularity makes some properties of ordinals easier to prove; and it not only allows induction to be done on well-ordered sets but also on proper classes that are well-founded relational structures such as the lexicographical ordering on \{ (n, \alpha) \mid n \in \omega \land \alpha \text{ is an ordinal } \} \,.
Given the other axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the axiom of induction. The axiom of induction tends to be used in place of the axiom of regularity in intuitionistic theories (ones that do not accept the law of the excluded middle), where the two axioms are not equivalent.
In addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves.
Elementary implications of regularity
No set is an element of itself
Let A be a set, and apply the axiom of regularity to {A}, which is a set by the axiom of pairing. We see that there must be an element of {A} which is disjoint from {A}. Since the only element of {A} is A, it must be that A is disjoint from {A}. So, since A \cap \{A\} = \varnothing, we cannot have A an element of A (by the definition of disjoint).
No infinite descending sequence of sets exists
Suppose, to the contrary, that there is a function, f, on the natural numbers with f(n+1) an element of f(n) for each n. Define S = {f(n): n a natural number}, the range of f, which can be seen to be a set from the axiom schema of replacement. Applying the axiom of regularity to S, let B be an element of S which is disjoint from S. By the definition of S, B must be f(k) for some natural number k. However, we are given that f(k) contains f(k+1) which is also an element of S. So f(k+1) is in the intersection of f(k) and S. This contradicts the fact that they are disjoint sets. Since our supposition led to a contradiction, there must not be any such function, f.
The nonexistence of a set containing itself can be seen as a special case where the sequence is infinite and constant.
Notice that this argument only applies to functions f that can be represented as sets as opposed to undefinable classes. The hereditarily finite sets, Vω, satisfy the axiom of regularity (and all other axioms of ZFC except the axiom of infinity). So if one forms a non-trivial ultrapower of Vω, then it will also satisfy the axiom of regularity. The resulting model will contain elements, called non-standard natural numbers, that satisfy the definition of natural numbers in that model but are not really natural numbers. They are "fake" natural numbers which are "larger" than any actual natural number. This model will contain infinite descending sequences of elements. For example, suppose n is a non-standard natural number, then (n-1) \in n and (n-2) \in (n-1), and so on. For any actual natural number k, (n-k-1) \in (n-k). This is an unending descending sequence of elements. But this sequence is not definable in the model and thus not a set. So no contradiction to regularity can be proved.
Simpler set-theoretic definition of the ordered pair
The axiom of regularity enables defining the ordered pair (a,b) as {a,{a,b}}; see ordered pair for specifics. This definition eliminates one pair of braces from the canonical Kuratowski definition (a,b) = {{a},{a,b}}.
Every set has an ordinal rank
This was actually the original form of the axiom in von Neumann's axiomatization.
Suppose x is any set. Let t be the transitive closure of {x}. Let u be the subset of t consisting of unranked sets. If u is empty, then x is ranked and we are done. Otherwise, apply the axiom of regularity to u to get an element w of u which is disjoint from u. Since w is in u, w is unranked. w is a subset of t by the definition of transitive closure. Since w is disjoint from u, every element of w is ranked. Applying the axioms of replacement and union to combine the ranks of the elements of w, we get an ordinal rank for w, to wit \textstyle \operatorname{rank} (w) = \cup \{ \operatorname{rank} (z) + 1 \mid z \in w \}. This contradicts the conclusion that w is unranked. So the assumption that u was non-empty must be false and x must have rank.
For every two sets, only one can be an element of the other
Let X and Y be sets. Then apply the axiom of regularity to the set {X,Y} (which exists by the axiom of pairing). We see there must be an element of {X,Y} which is also disjoint from it. It must be either X or Y. By the definition of disjoint then, we must have either Y is not an element of X or vice versa.
The axiom of dependent choice and no infinite descending sequence of sets implies regularity
Let the non-empty set S be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of S has a non-empty intersection with S. We define a binary relation R on S by aRb :\Leftrightarrow b \in S \cap a, which is entire by assumption. Thus, by the axiom of dependent choice, there is some sequence (an) in S satisfying anRan+1 for all n in N. As this is an infinite descending chain, we arrive at a contradiction and so, no such S exists.
Regularity and the rest of ZF(C) axioms
Regularity was shown to be relatively consistent with the rest of ZF by Skolem and von Neumann, meaning that if ZF without regularity is consistent, then ZF (with regularity) is also consistent.
The axiom of regularity was also shown to be independent from the other axioms of ZFC, assuming they are consistent. The result was announced by Paul Bernays in 1941, although he did not publish a proof until 1954. The proof involves (and led to the study of) Rieger-Bernays permutation models (or method), which were used for other proofs of independence for non-well-founded systems.
Regularity and Russell's paradox
Naive set theory (the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension and the axiom of extensionality) is inconsistent due to Russell's paradox. In early formalizations of sets, mathematicians and logicians have avoided that contradiction by replacing the axiom schema of comprehension with the much weaker axiom schema of separation. However, this step alone takes one to theories of sets which are considered too weak. So some of the power of comprehension was added back via the other existence axioms of ZF set theory (pairing, union, powerset, replacement, and infinity) which may be regarded as special cases of comprehension. So far, these axioms do not seem to lead to any contradiction. Subsequently, the axiom of choice and the axiom of regularity were added to exclude models with some undesirable properties. These two axioms are known to be relatively consistent.
In the presence of the axiom schema of separation, Russell's paradox becomes a proof that there is no set of all sets. The axiom of regularity together with the axiom of pairing also prohibit such a universal set. However, Russell's paradox yields a proof that there is no "set of all sets" using the axiom schema of separation alone, without any additional axioms. In particular, ZF without the axiom of regularity already prohibits such a universal set.
If a theory is extended by adding an axiom or axioms, then any (possibly undesirable) consequences of the original theory remain consequences of the extended theory. In particular, if ZF without regularity is extended by adding regularity to get ZF, then any contradiction (such as Russell's paradox) which followed from the original theory would still follow in the extended theory.
The existence of Quine atoms (sets that satisfy the formula equation x = {x}, i.e. have themselves as their only elements) is consistent with the theory obtained by removing the axiom of regularity from ZFC. Various non-wellfounded set theories allow "safe" circular sets, such as Quine atoms, without becoming inconsistent by means of Russell's paradox.
Regularity, the cumulative hierarchy, and types
In ZF it can be proven that the class \bigcup_{\alpha} V_\alpha , called the von Neumann universe, is equal to the class of all sets. This statement is even equivalent to the axiom of regularity (if we work in ZF with this axiom omitted). From any model which does not satisfy the axiom of regularity, a model which satisfies it can be constructed by taking only sets in \bigcup_{\alpha} V_\alpha .
Herbert Enderton wrote that "The idea of rank is a descendant of Russell's concept of type". Comparing ZF with type theory, Alasdair Urquhart wrote that "Zermelo's system has the notational advantage of not containing any explicitly typed variables, although in fact it can be seen as having an implicit type structure built into it, at least if the axiom of regularity is included.
Dana Scott went further and claimed that:
In the same paper, Scott shows that an axiomatic system based on the inherent properties of the cumulative hierarchy turns out to be equivalent to ZF, including regularity.
History
The concept of well-foundedness and rank of a set were both introduced by Dmitry Mirimanoff. Mirimanoff called a set x "regular" () if every descending chain x ∋ x1 ∋ x2 ∋ ... is finite. Mirimanoff however did not consider his notion of regularity (and well-foundedness) as an axiom to be observed by all sets; in later papers Mirimanoff also explored what are now called non-well-founded sets ( in Mirimanoff's terminology).
Skolem and von Neumann pointed out that non-well-founded sets are superfluous and in the same publication von Neumann gives an axiom which excludes some, but not all, non-well-founded sets. In a subsequent publication, von Neumann gave an equivalent but more complex version of the axiom of class foundation:
A \neq \emptyset \rightarrow \exists x \in A\,(x \cap A = \emptyset).
The contemporary and final form of the axiom is due to Zermelo.
Regularity in the presence of urelements
Urelements are objects that are not sets, but which can be elements of sets. In ZF set theory, there are no urelements, but in some other set theories such as ZFA, there are. In these theories, the axiom of regularity must be modified. The statement "x \neq \emptyset" needs to be replaced with a statement that x is not empty and is not an urelement. One suitable replacement is (\exists y)[y \in x], which states that x is inhabited.
See also
Non-well-founded set theory
Scott's trick
Epsilon-induction
References
Sources
Reprinted in
Reprinted in From Frege to Gödel, van Heijenoort, 1967, in English translation by Stefan Bauer-Mengelberg, pp. 291–301.
Translation in
Translation in
External links
Inhabited set and the axiom of foundation on nLab
Category:Axioms of set theory
Category:Wellfoundedness | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_regularity | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.249677 |
2114 | IBM AIX | <!-- Many can be found at https://www.ibm.com/common/ssi/ -->
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AIX (pronounced ) is a series of proprietary Unix operating systems developed and sold by IBM since 1986. The name stands for "Advanced Interactive eXecutive". Current versions are designed to work with Power ISA based server and workstation computers such as IBM's Power line.
Background
Originally released for the IBM RT PC RISC workstation in 1986, AIX has supported a wide range of hardware platforms, including the IBM RS/6000 series and later Power and PowerPC-based systems, IBM System i, System/370 mainframes, PS/2 personal computers, and the Apple Network Server. Currently, it is supported on IBM Power Systems alongside IBM i and Linux.
AIX is based on UNIX System V with 4.3BSD-compatible extensions. It is certified to the UNIX 03 and UNIX V7 specifications of the Single UNIX Specification, beginning with AIX versions 5.3 and 7.2 TL5, respectively. Older versions were certified to the UNIX 95 and UNIX 98 specifications.
AIX was the first operating system to implement a journaling file system. IBM has continuously enhanced the software with features such as processor, disk, and network virtualization, dynamic hardware resource allocation (including fractional processor units), and reliability engineering concepts derived from its mainframe designs.
History
RS/6000 AIX file servers used for IBM.com in the 1990s]]
Unix began in the early 1970s at AT&T's Bell Labs research center, running on DEC minicomputers. By 1976, the operating system was used in various academic institutions, including Princeton, where Tom Lyon and others ported it to the S/370 to run as a guest OS under VM/370. This port later grew into UTS, a mainframe Unix offering from IBM's competitor Amdahl Corporation.
IBM's involvement with Unix began in 1979 when it assisted Bell Labs in porting Unix to the S/370 platform to be used as a build host for the 5ESS switch's software. During this process, IBM made modifications to the TSS/370 Resident Supervisor to better support Unix.
In 1984, IBM introduced its own Unix variant for the S/370 platform called VM/IX, developed by Interactive Systems Corporation using Unix System III. However, VM/IX was only available as a PRPQ (Programming Request for Price Quotation) and was not a General Availability product. It was replaced in 1985 by IBM IX/370, a fully supported product based on AT&T's Unix/360 6th Edition, later updated to Unix System V.
In 1986, IBM introduced AIX Version 1 for the IBM RT PC workstation. It was based on UNIX System V Releases 1 and 2, incorporating source code from 4.2 and 4.3 BSD UNIX.
AIX Version 2 followed in 1987 for the RT PC.
In 1990, AIX Version 3 was released for the POWER-based RS/6000 platform. It became the primary operating system for the RS/6000 series, which was later renamed IBM eServer pSeries, IBM System p, and finally IBM Power Systems.
AIX Version 4, introduced in 1994, added symmetric multiprocessing and evolved through the 1990s, culminating with AIX 4.3.3 in 1999. A modified version of Version 4.1 was also used as the standard OS for the Apple Network Server line by Apple Computer.
In the late 1990s, under Project Monterey, IBM and the Santa Cruz Operation attempted to integrate AIX and UnixWare into a multiplatform Unix for Intel IA-64 architecture. The project was discontinued in 2002 after limited commercial success.
In 2003, the SCO Group filed a lawsuit against IBM, alleging misappropriation of UNIX System V source code in AIX. The case was resolved in 2010 when a jury ruled that Novell owned the rights to Unix, not SCO.
Supported hardware platforms
IBM RT PC
The original AIX (sometimes called AIX/RT) was developed for the IBM RT PC workstation by IBM in conjunction with Interactive Systems Corporation, who had previously ported UNIX System III to the IBM PC for IBM as PC/IX. Installation media consisted of eight 1.2M floppy disks. The RT was based on the IBM ROMP microprocessor, the first commercial RISC chip. This was based on a design pioneered at IBM Research (the IBM 801).
One of the novel aspects of the RT design was the use of a microkernel, called Virtual Resource Manager (VRM). The keyboard, mouse, display, disk drives and network were all controlled by a microkernel. One could "hotkey" from one operating system to the next using the Alt-Tab key combination. Each OS in turn would get possession of the keyboard, mouse and display. Besides AIX v2, the PICK OS also included this microkernel.
Much of the AIX v2 kernel was written in the PL.8 programming language, which proved troublesome during the migration to AIX v3. AIX v2 included full TCP/IP networking, as well as SNA and two networking file systems: NFS, licensed from Sun Microsystems, and Distributed Services (DS). DS had the distinction of being built on top of SNA, and thereby being fully compatible with DS on and on midrange systems running OS/400 through IBM i. For the graphical user interfaces, AIX v2 came with the X10R3 and later the X10R4 and X11 versions of the X Window System from MIT, together with the Athena widget set. Compilers for Fortran and C were available.
IBM PS/2 series
AIX PS/2 (also known as AIX/386) was developed by Locus Computing Corporation under contract to IBM. AIX PS/2, first released in October 1988, ran on IBM PS/2 personal computers with Intel 386 and compatible processors.
The product was announced in September 1988 with a baseline tag price of $595, although some utilities, such as UUCP, were included in a separate Extension package priced at $250. nroff and troff for AIX were also sold separately in a Text Formatting System package priced at $200. The TCP/IP stack for AIX PS/2 retailed for another $300. The X Window System package was priced at $195, and featured a graphical environment called the AIXwindows Desktop, based on IXI's X.desktop. The C and FORTRAN compilers each had a price tag of $275. Locus also made available their DOS Merge virtual machine environment for AIX, which could run MS DOS 3.3 applications inside AIX; DOS Merge was sold separately for another $250. IBM also offered a $150 AIX PS/2 DOS Server Program, which provided file server and print server services for client computers running PC DOS 3.3.
The last version of PS/2 AIX is 1.3. It was released in 1992 and announced to add support for non-IBM (non-microchannel) computers as well. Support for PS/2 AIX ended in March 1995.IBM mainframesIn 1988, IBM announced AIX/370, also developed by Locus Computing. AIX/370 was IBM's fourth attempt to offer Unix-like functionality for their mainframe line, specifically the System/370 (the prior versions were a TSS/370-based Unix system developed jointly with AT&T c.1980, in 1991, which was based on OSF/1, and also ran on the System/390 platform. This development effort was made partly to allow IBM to compete with Amdahl UTS. Unlike AIX/370, AIX/ESA ran both natively as the host operating system, and as a guest under VM. AIX/ESA, while technically advanced, had little commercial success, partially because UNIX functionality was added as an option to the existing mainframe operating system, MVS, as MVS/ESA SP Version 4 Release 3 OpenEdition in 1994, and continued as an integral part of MVS/ESA SP Version 5, OS/390 and z/OS, with the name eventually changing from OpenEdition to Unix System Services. IBM also provided OpenEdition in VM/ESA Version 2 through z/VM.
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IA-64 systems
As part of Project Monterey, IBM released a beta test version of AIX 5L for the IA-64 (Itanium) architecture in 2001, but this never became an official product due to lack of interest.
Apple Network Servers
The Apple Network Server (ANS) systems were PowerPC-based systems designed by Apple Computer to have numerous high-end features that standard Apple hardware did not have, including swappable hard drives, redundant power supplies, and external monitoring capability. These systems were more or less based on the Power Macintosh hardware available at the time but were designed to use AIX (versions 4.1.4 or 4.1.5) as their native operating system in a specialized version specific to the ANS called AIX for Apple Network Servers.
AIX was only compatible with the Network Servers and was not ported to standard Power Macintosh hardware. It should not be confused with A/UX, Apple's earlier version of Unix for 68k-based Macintoshes.
POWER ISA/PowerPC/Power ISA-based systems
servers running IBM.com in early 1998]]
servers running IBM.com in early 1998]]
The release of AIX version 3 (sometimes called AIX/6000) coincided with the announcement of the first POWER1-based IBM RS/6000 models in 1990.
AIX v3 innovated in several ways on the software side. It was the first operating system to introduce the idea of a journaling file system, JFS, which allowed for fast boot times by avoiding the need to ensure the consistency of the file systems on disks (see fsck) on every reboot. Another innovation was shared libraries which avoid the need for static linking from an application to the libraries it used. The resulting smaller binaries used less of the hardware RAM to run, and used less disk space to install. Besides improving performance, it was a boon to developers: executable binaries could be in the tens of kilobytes instead of a megabyte for an executable statically linked to the C library. AIX v3 also scrapped the microkernel of AIX v2, a contentious move that resulted in v3 containing no PL.8 code and being somewhat more "pure" than v2.
Other notable subsystems included:
* IRIS GL, a 3D rendering library, the progenitor of OpenGL. IRIS GL was licensed by IBM from SGI in 1987, then still a fairly small company, which had sold only a few thousand machines at the time. SGI also provided the low-end graphics card for the RS/6000, capable of drawing 20,000 gouraud-shaded triangles per second. The high-end graphics card was designed by IBM, a follow-on to the mainframe-attached IBM 5080, capable of rendering 990,000 vectors per second.
* PHIGS, another 3D rendering API, popular in automotive CAD/CAM circles, and at the core of CATIA.
* Full implementation of version 11 of the X Window System, together with Motif as the recommended widget toolkit and window manager.
* Network file systems: NFS from Sun; AFS, the Andrew File System; and DFS, the Distributed File System.
* NCS, the Network Computing System, licensed from Apollo Computer (later acquired by HP).
* DPS on-screen display system. This was notable as a "plan B" in case the X11+Motif combination failed in the marketplace. However, it was highly proprietary, supported only by Sun, NeXT, and IBM. This cemented its failure in the marketplace in the face of the open systems challenge of X11+Motif and its lack of 3D capability.
In addition, AIX applications can run in the PASE subsystem under IBM i.
Source code
IBM formerly made the AIX for RS/6000 source code available to customers for a fee; in 1991, IBM customers could order the AIX 3.0 source code for a one-time charge of US$60,000; subsequently, IBM released the AIX 3.1 source code in 1992, and AIX 3.2 in 1993. These source code distributions excluded certain files (authored by third-parties) which IBM did not have rights to redistribute, and also excluded layered products such as the MS-DOS emulator and the C compiler. Furthermore, in order to be able to license the AIX source code, the customer first had to procure source code license agreements with AT&T and the University of California, Berkeley.
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* AIX V7.3, December 10, 2021
** Requires POWER8 or newer CPUs
* AIX V7.2, October 5, 2015
** Live update for Interim Fixes, Service Packs and Technology Levels replaces the entire AIX kernel without impacting applications
** Flash based filesystem caching
** Cluster Aware AIX automation with repository replacement mechanism
** SRIOV-backed VNIC, or dedicated VNIC virtualized network adapter support
** RDSv3 over RoCE adds support of the Oracle RDSv3 protocol over the Mellanox Connect RoCE adapters
** Supports secure boot on POWER9 systems.
** Requires POWER7 or newer CPUs
* AIX V7.1, September 10, 2010
** Support for 256 cores / 1024 threads in a single LPAR
** The ability to run AIX V5.2 or V5.3 inside of a Workload Partition
** An XML profile based system configuration management utility
** Support for export of Fibre Channel adapters to WPARs
** VIOS disk support in a WPAR
** Cluster Aware AIX
** AIX Event infrastructure
** Role-based access control (RBAC) with domain support for multi-tenant environments
** Requires POWER4 or newer CPUs
* AIX V6.1, November 9, 2007 August 13, 2004, October 18, 2002,
* AIX 5L 5.1, May 4, 2001,
** Minimum level required for POWER4 hardware and the last release that worked on the Micro Channel architecture
** 64-bit kernel, installed but not activated by default
** JFS2
** Ability to run in a Logical Partition on POWER4
** The L stands for Linux affinity
** Trusted Computing Base (TCB)
** Support for mirroring with striping
* AIX 4.3.3, September 17, 1999
** Online backup function
** Workload Manager (WLM)
** Introduction of topas utility
* AIX 4.3.2, October 23, 1998
* AIX 4.3, October 31, 1997 and the Linux LVM implementation is similar to the HP-UX LVM implementation.
** SMIT was introduced.IBM System/370 releases
* AIX/ESA Version 2 Release 2
** Announced December 15, 1992
** Available February 26, 1993
** Withdrawn Jun 19, 1993
** Runs only in S/370-ESA mode
* AIX/ESA Version 2 Release 1
** Announced February 5, 1991
** Available February February 22, 1991
** Withdrawn December 31, 1992
** Does not run in XA, ESA or z mode
<!-- AIX/ESA V1? -->
* AIX/370 Version 1 Release 1
System Management Interface Tool
SMIT is the System Management Interface Tool for AIX. It allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands, rather than using the command line. Invocation is typically achieved with the command <code>smit</code>. Experienced system administrators make use of the <code>F6</code> function key which generates the command line that SMIT will invoke to complete it.
SMIT also generates a log of commands that are performed in the <code>smit.script</code> file. The <code>smit.script</code> file automatically records the commands with the command flags and parameters used. The <code>smit.script</code> file can be used as an executable shell script to rerun system configuration tasks. SMIT also creates the <code>smit.log</code> file, which contains additional detailed information that can be used by programmers in extending the SMIT system.
<code>smit</code> and <code>smitty</code> refer to the same program, though <code>smitty</code> invokes the text-based version, while <code>smit</code> will invoke an X Window System based interface if possible; however, if <code>smit</code> determines that X Window System capabilities are not present, it will present the text-based version instead of failing. Determination of X Window System capabilities is typically performed by checking for the existence of the <code>DISPLAY</code> variable.DatabaseObject Data Manager (ODM) is a database of system information integrated into AIX, analogous to the registry in Microsoft Windows. A good understanding of the ODM is essential for managing AIX systems.
Data managed in ODM is stored and maintained as objects with associated attributes. Interaction with ODM is possible via application programming interface (API) library for programs, and command-line utilities such as odmshow, odmget, odmadd, odmchange and odmdelete for shell scripts and users. SMIT and its associated AIX commands can also be used to query and modify information in the ODM. ODM is stored on disk using Berkeley DB files.
Example of information stored in the ODM database are:
*Network configuration<ref name=":1" />
*Logical volume management configuration
*Installed software information<ref name=":1" />
*Information for logical devices or software drivers
*List of all AIX supported devices
*Physical hardware devices installed and their configuration
*Menus, screens and commands that SMIT uses<ref name":1" />See also
* AOS, IBM's educational-market port of 4.3BSD
* IBM PowerHA SystemMirror (formerly HACMP)
* List of Unix systems
* nmon
* Operating systems timeline
* Service Update Management Assistant
* Vital Product Data (VPD)
References
Category:IBM AIX
Category:Power ISA operating systems
Category:PowerPC operating systems
IBM Aix
Category:Object-oriented database management systems
Category:1986 software
Category:X86 operating systems | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.282349 |
2115 | AppleTalk | <!--Fill in: Year (4 digits), month and day (2 digits)-->
| based on | influenced
| osilayer | ports
| rfcs | hardware LocalTalk, others
}}
AppleTalk is a discontinued proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by Apple Computer for their Macintosh computers. AppleTalk includes a number of features that allow local area networks to be connected with no prior setup or the need for a centralized router or server of any sort. Connected AppleTalk-equipped systems automatically assign addresses, update the distributed namespace, and configure any required inter-networking routing.
AppleTalk was released in 1985 and was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s and 1990s. Versions were also released for the IBM PC and compatibles and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk support was also available in most networked printers (especially laser printers), some file servers, and a number of routers.
The rise of TCP/IP during the 1990s led to a reimplementation of most of these types of support on that protocol, and AppleTalk became unsupported as of the release of Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009. Many of AppleTalk's more advanced autoconfiguration features have since been introduced in Bonjour, while Universal Plug and Play serves similar needs.
History
AppleNet
After the release of the Apple Lisa computer in January 1983, Apple invested considerable effort in the development of a local area networking (LAN) system for the machines. Known as AppleNet, it was based on the seminal Xerox XNS protocol stack but running on a custom 1 Mbit/s coaxial cable system rather than Xerox's 2.94 Mbit/s Ethernet. AppleNet was announced early in 1983 with a full introduction at the target price of $500 for plug-in AppleNet cards for the Lisa and the Apple II.
At that time, early LAN systems were just coming to market, including Ethernet, Token Ring, Econet, and ARCNET. This was a topic of major commercial effort at the time, dominating shows like the National Computer Conference (NCC) in Anaheim in May 1983. All of the systems were jockeying for position in the market, but even at this time, Ethernet's widespread acceptance suggested it was to become a de facto standard. It was at this show that Steve Jobs asked Gursharan Sidhu a seemingly innocuous question: "Why has networking not caught on?"
Four months later, in October, AppleNet was cancelled. At the time, they announced that "Apple realized that it's not in the business to create a networking system. We built and used AppleNet in-house, but we realized that if we had shipped it, we would have seen new standards coming up." In January, Jobs announced that they would instead be supporting IBM's Token Ring, which he expected to come out in a "few months".
AppleBus
Through this period, Apple was deep in development of the Macintosh computer. During development, engineers had made the decision to use the Zilog 8530 serial controller chip (SCC) instead of the lower-cost and more common UART to provide serial port connections. The SCC cost about $5 more than a UART, but offered much higher speeds of up to 250 kilobits per second (or higher with additional hardware) and internally supported a number of basic networking-like protocols like IBM's Bisync.
The SCC was chosen because it would allow multiple devices to be attached to the port. Peripherals equipped with similar SCCs could communicate using the built-in protocols, interleaving their data with other peripherals on the same bus. This would eliminate the need for more ports on the back of the machine, and allowed for the elimination of expansion slots for supporting more complex devices. The initial concept was known as AppleBus, envisioning a system controlled by the host Macintosh polling "dumb" devices in a fashion similar to the modern Universal Serial Bus.AppleBus networkingThe Macintosh team had already begun work on what would become the LaserWriter and had considered a number of other options to answer the question of how to share these expensive machines and other resources. A series of memos from Bob Belleville clarified these concepts, outlining the Mac, LaserWriter, and a file server system which would become the Macintosh Office. By late 1983 it was clear that IBM's Token Ring would not be ready in time for the launch of the Mac, and might miss the launch of these other products as well. In the end, Token Ring would not ship until October 1985.
Jobs' earlier question to Sidhu had already sparked a number of ideas. When AppleNet was cancelled in October, Sidhu led an effort to develop a new networking system based on the AppleBus hardware. This new system would not have to conform to any existing preconceptions, and was designed to be worthy of the Mac – a system that was user-installable and required no configuration or fixed network addresses – in short, a true plug-and-play network. Considerable effort was needed, but by the time the Mac was released, the basic concepts had been outlined, and some of the low-level protocols were on their way to completion. Sidhu mentioned the work to Belleville only two hours after the Mac was announced.
The "new" AppleBus was announced in early 1984, allowing direct connection from the Mac or Lisa through a small box that is plugged into the serial port and connected via cables to the next computer upstream and downstream. Adaptors for Apple II and Apple III were also announced. Apple also announced that an AppleBus network could be attached to, and would appear to be a single node within, a Token Ring system. Details of how this would work were sketchy.AppleTalk Personal Network
Just prior to its release in early 1985, AppleBus was renamed AppleTalk. Initially marketed as AppleTalk Personal Network, it comprised a family of network protocols and a physical layer.
The physical layer had a number of limitations, including a speed of only 230.4 kbit/s, a maximum distance of from end to end, and only 32 nodes per LAN. But as the basic hardware was built into the Mac, adding nodes only cost about $50 for the adaptor box. In comparison, Ethernet or Token Ring cards cost hundreds or thousands of dollars. Additionally, the entire networking stack required only about 6 kB of RAM, allowing it to run on any Mac.
The relatively slow speed of AppleTalk allowed further reductions in cost. Instead of using RS-422's balanced transmit and receive circuits, the AppleTalk cabling used a single common electrical ground, which limited speeds to about 500 kbit/s, but allowed one conductor to be removed. This meant that common three-conductor cables could be used for wiring. Additionally, the adaptors were designed to be "self-terminating", meaning that nodes at the end of the network could simply leave their last connector unconnected. There was no need for the wires to be connected back together into a loop, nor the need for hubs or other devices.
The system was designed for future expansion; the addressing system allowed for expansion to 255 nodes in a LAN (although only 32 could be used at that time), and by using "bridges" (which came to be known as "routers", although technically not the same) one could interconnect LANs into larger collections. "Zones" allowed devices to be addressed within a bridge-connected internet. Additionally, AppleTalk was designed from the start to allow use with any potential underlying physical link, and within a few years, the physical layer would be renamed LocalTalk, so as to differentiate it from the AppleTalk protocols.
The main advantage of AppleTalk was that it was completely maintenance-free. To join a device to a network, a user simply plugged the adaptor into the machine, then connected a cable from it to any free port on any other adaptor. The AppleTalk network stack negotiated a network address, assigned the computer a human-readable name, and compiled a list of the names and types of other machines on the network so the user could browse the devices through the Chooser. AppleTalk was so easy to use that ad hoc networks tended to appear whenever multiple Macs were in the same room. Apple would later use this in an advertisement showing a network being created between two seats in an airplane.PhoneNet and other adaptorsA thriving third-party market for AppleTalk devices developed over the next few years. One particularly notable example was an alternate adaptor designed by BMUG and commercialised by Farallon as PhoneNET in 1987. This was essentially a replacement for Apple's connector that had conventional phone jacks instead of Apple's round connectors. PhoneNet allowed AppleTalk networks to be connected together using normal telephone wires, and with very little extra work, could run analog phones and AppleTalk on a single four-conductor phone cable.
Other companies took advantage of the SCC's ability to read external clocks in order to support higher transmission speeds, up to 1 Mbit/s. In these systems, the external adaptor also included its own clock, and used that to signal the SCC's clock input pins. The best-known such system was Centram's FlashTalk, which ran at 768 kbit/s, and was intended to be used with their TOPS networking system. A similar solution was the 850 kbit/s DaynaTalk, which used a separate box that plugged in between the computer and a normal LocalTalk/PhoneNet box. Dayna also offered a PC expansion card that ran up to 1.7 Mbit/s when talking to other Dayna PC cards. Several other systems also existed with even higher performance, but these often required special cabling that was incompatible with LocalTalk/PhoneNet, and also required patches to the networking stack that often caused problems. AppleTalk over Ethernet As Apple expanded into more commercial and education markets, they needed to integrate AppleTalk into existing network installations. Many of these organisations had already invested in a very expensive Ethernet infrastructure and there was no direct way to connect a Macintosh to Ethernet. AppleTalk included a protocol structure for interconnecting AppleTalk subnets and so as a solution, EtherTalk was initially created to use the Ethernet as a backbone between LocalTalk subnets. To accomplish this, organizations would need to purchase a LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge and Apple left it to third parties to produce these products. A number of companies responded, including Hayes and a few newly formed companies like Kinetics.
LocalTalk, EtherTalk, TokenTalk, and AppleShare
By 1987, Ethernet was clearly winning the standards battle over Token Ring, and in the middle of that year, Apple introduced EtherTalk 1.0, an implementation of the AppleTalk protocol over the Ethernet physical layer. Introduced for the newly released Macintosh II computer, one of Apple's first two Macintoshes with expansion slots (the Macintosh SE had one slot of a different type), the operating system included a new Network control panel that allowed the user to select which physical connection to use for networking (from "Built-in" or "EtherTalk"). At introduction, Ethernet interface cards were available from 3Com and Kinetics that plugged into a Nubus slot in the machine. The new networking stack also expanded the system to allow a full 255 nodes per LAN. With EtherTalk's release, AppleTalk Personal Network was renamed LocalTalk, the name it would be known under for the bulk of its life. Token Ring would later be supported with a similar TokenTalk product, which used the same Network control panel and underlying software. Over time, many third-party companies would introduce compatible Ethernet and Token Ring cards that used these same drivers.
The appearance of a Macintosh with a direct Ethernet connection also magnified the Ethernet and LocalTalk compatibility problem: Networks with new and old Macs needed some way to communicate with each other. This could be as simple as a network of Ethernet Mac II's trying to talk to a LaserWriter that only connected to LocalTalk. Apple initially relied on the aforementioned LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge products, but contrary to Apple's belief that these would be low-volume products, by the end of 1987, 130,000 such networks were in use. AppleTalk was at that time the most used networking system in the world, with over three times the installations of any other vendor.
1987 also marked the introduction of the AppleShare product, a dedicated file server that ran on any Mac with 512 kB of RAM or more. A common AppleShare machine was the Mac Plus with an external SCSI hard drive. AppleShare was the #3 network operating system in the late 1980s, behind Novell NetWare and Microsoft's MS-Net. AppleShare was effectively the replacement for the failed Macintosh Office efforts, which had been based on a dedicated file server device.AppleTalk Phase II and other developmentsA significant re-design was released in 1989 as AppleTalk Phase II. In many ways, Phase II can be considered an effort to make the earlier version (never called Phase I) more generic. LANs could now support more than 255 nodes, and zones were no longer associated with physical networks but were entirely virtual constructs used simply to organize nodes. For instance, one could now make a "Printers" zone that would list all the printers in an organization, or one might want to place that same device in the "2nd Floor" zone to indicate its physical location. Phase II also included changes to the underlying inter-networking protocols to make them less "chatty", which had previously been a serious problem on networks that bridged over wide-area networks.
By this point, Apple had a wide variety of communications products under development, and many of these were announced along with AppleTalk Phase II. These included updates to EtherTalk and TokenTalk, AppleTalk software and LocalTalk hardware for the IBM PC, EtherTalk for Apple's A/UX operating system allowing it to use LaserWriters and other network resources, and the Mac X.25 and MacX products.
Ethernet had become almost universal by 1990, and it was time to build Ethernet into Macs direct from the factory. However, the physical wiring used by these networks was not yet completely standardized. Apple solved this problem using a single port on the back of the computer into which the user could plug an adaptor for any given cabling system. This FriendlyNet system was based on the industry-standard Attachment Unit Interface or AUI, but deliberately chose a non-standard connector that was smaller and easier to use, which they called "Apple AUI", or AAUI. FriendlyNet was first introduced on the Quadra 700 and Quadra 900 computers, and used across much of the Mac line for some time. As with LocalTalk, a number of third-party FriendlyNet adaptors quickly appeared.
As 10BASE-T became the de facto cabling system for Ethernet, second-generation Power Macintosh machines added a 10BASE-T port in addition to AAUI. The PowerBook 3400c and lower-end Power Macs also added 10BASE-T. The Power Macintosh 7300/8600/9600 were the final Macs to include AAUI, and 10BASE-T became universal starting with the Power Macintosh G3 and PowerBook G3.
The capital-I Internet
From the beginning of AppleTalk, users wanted to connect the Macintosh to TCP/IP network environments. In 1984, Bill Croft at Stanford University pioneered the development of IP packets encapsulated in DDP as part of the SEAGATE (Stanford Ethernet–AppleTalk Gateway) project. SEAGATE was commercialized by Kinetics in their LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge as an additional routing option. A few years later, MacIP was separated from the SEAGATE code and became the de facto method for IP packets to be routed over LocalTalk networks. By 1986, Columbia University released the first version of the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) that allowed higher integration of Unix, TCP/IP, and AppleTalk environments. In 1988, Apple released MacTCP, a system that allowed the Mac to support TCP/IP on machines with suitable Ethernet hardware. However, this left many universities with the problem of supporting IP on their many LocalTalk-equipped Macs. It was soon common to include MacIP support in LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridges. MacTCP would not become a standard part of the Classic Mac OS until 1994, by which time it also supported SNMP and PPP.
For some time in the early 1990s, the Mac was a primary client on the rapidly expanding Internet. Among the better-known programs in wide use were Fetch, Eudora, eXodus, NewsWatcher, and the NCSA packages, especially NCSA Mosaic and its offspring, Netscape Navigator. Additionally, a number of server products appeared that allowed the Mac to host Internet content. Through this period, Macs had about 2 to 3 times as many clients connected to the Internet as any other platform, despite the relatively small overall microcomputer market share.
As the world quickly moved to IP for both LAN and WAN uses, Apple was faced with maintaining two increasingly outdated code bases on an ever-wider group of machines as well as the introduction of the PowerPC-based machines. This led to the Open Transport efforts, which re-implemented both MacTCP and AppleTalk on an entirely new code base adapted from the Unix standard STREAMS. Early versions had problems and did not become stable for some time. By that point, Apple was deep in their ultimately doomed Copland efforts.Legacy and abandonmentWith the purchase of NeXT and subsequent development of Mac OS X, AppleTalk was strictly a legacy system. Support was added to Mac OS X in order to provide support for a large number of existing AppleTalk devices, notably laser printers and file shares, but alternate connection solutions common in this era, notably USB for printers, limited their demand. As Apple abandoned many of these product categories, and all new systems were based on IP, AppleTalk became less and less common. AppleTalk support was finally removed from the macOS line in Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009.
However, the loss of AppleTalk did not reduce the desire for networking solutions that combined its ease of use with IP routing. Apple has led the development of many such efforts, from the introduction of the AirPort router to the development of the zero-configuration networking system and their implementation of it, Rendezvous, later renamed Bonjour.
As of 2020, AppleTalk support has been completely removed from legacy support with macOS 11 Big Sur.
Design
The AppleTalk design rigorously followed the OSI model of protocol layering. Unlike most of the early LAN systems, AppleTalk was not built using the archetypal Xerox XNS system. The intended target was not Ethernet, and it did not have 48-bit addresses to route. Nevertheless, many portions of the AppleTalk system have direct analogs in XNS.
One key differentiation for AppleTalk was it contained two protocols aimed at making the system completely self-configuring. The AppleTalk address resolution protocol (AARP) allowed AppleTalk hosts to automatically generate their own network addresses, and the Name Binding Protocol (NBP) was a dynamic system for mapping network addresses to user-readable names. Although systems similar to AARP existed in other systems, Banyan VINES for instance. Beginning about 2002 Rendezvous (the combination of DNS-based service discovery, Multicast DNS, and link-local addressing) provided capabilities and usability using IP that were similar to those of AppleTalk.
Both AARP and NBP had defined ways to allow "controller" devices to override the default mechanisms. The concept was to allow routers to provide the information or "hardwire" the system to known addresses and names. On larger networks where AARP could cause problems as new nodes searched for free addresses, the addition of a router could reduce "chattiness." Together AARP and NBP made AppleTalk an easy-to-use networking system. New machines were added to the network by plugging them in and optionally giving them a name. The NBP lists were examined and displayed by a program known as the Chooser which would display a list of machines on the local network, divided into classes such as file-servers and printers.
Addressing
An AppleTalk address was a four-byte quantity. This consisted of a two-byte network number, a one-byte node number, and a one-byte socket number. Of these, only the network number required any configuration, being obtained from a router. Each node dynamically chose its own node number, according to a protocol (originally the LocalTalk Link Access Protocol LLAP and later, for Ethernet/EtherTalk, the AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol, AARP) which handled contention between different nodes accidentally choosing the same number. For socket numbers, a few well-known numbers were reserved for special purposes specific to the AppleTalk protocol itself. Apart from these, all application-level protocols were expected to use dynamically assigned socket numbers at both the client and server end.
Because of this dynamism, users could not be expected to access services by specifying their address. Instead, all services had names which, being chosen by humans, could be expected to be meaningful to users, and also could be sufficiently long to minimize the chance of conflicts.
As NBP names translated to an address, which included a socket number as well as a node number, a name in AppleTalk mapped directly to a service being provided by a machine, which was entirely separate from the name of the machine itself. Thus, services could be moved to a different machine and, so long as they kept the same service name, there was no need for users to do anything different in order to continue accessing the service. And the same machine could host any number of instances of services of the same type, without any network connection conflicts.
Contrast this with A records in the DNS, in which a name translates to a machine's address, not including the port number that might be providing a service. Thus, if people are accustomed to using a particular machine name to access a particular service, their access will break when the service is moved to a different machine. This can be mitigated somewhat by insistence on using CNAME records indicating service rather than actual machine names to refer to the service, but there is no way of guaranteeing that users will follow such a convention. Some newer protocols, such as Kerberos and Active Directory use DNS SRV records to identify services by name, which is much closer to the AppleTalk model. Protocols
AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol
The AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol (AARP) resolves AppleTalk addresses to link layer addresses. It is functionally equivalent to ARP and obtains address resolution by a method very similar to ARP.
AARP is a fairly simple system. When powered on, an AppleTalk machine broadcasts an AARP probe packet asking for a network address, intending to hear back from controllers such as routers. If no address is provided, one is picked at random from the "base subnet", 0. It then broadcasts another packet saying "I am selecting this address", and then waits to see if anyone else on the network complains. If another machine has that address, the newly connecting machine will pick another address, and keep trying until it finds a free one. On a network with many machines it may take several tries before a free address is found, so for performance purposes the successful address is recorded in NVRAM and used as the default address in the future. This means that in most real-world setups where machines are added a few at a time, only one or two tries are needed before the address effectively becomes constant.
AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol
The AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP) was a comparatively late addition to the AppleTalk protocol suite, done when it became clear that a TCP-style reliable connection-oriented transport was needed. Significant differences from TCP were that:
* A connection attempt could be rejected.
* There were no "half-open" connections; once one end initiated a tear-down of the connection, the whole connection would be closed (i.e., ADSP is full-duplex, not dual simplex).
* AppleTalk had an included attention message system which allowed short messages to be sent which would bypass the normal stream data flow. These were delivered reliably but out of order with respect to the stream. Any attention message would be delivered as soon as possible instead of waiting for the current stream byte sequence point to become current. Apple Filing Protocol The Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), formerly AppleTalk Filing Protocol, is the protocol for communicating with AppleShare file servers. Built on top of AppleTalk Session Protocol (for legacy AFP over DDP) or the Data Stream Interface (for AFP over TCP), it provides services for authenticating users (extensible to different authentication methods including two-way random-number exchange) and for performing operations specific to the Macintosh HFS filesystem. AFP is still in use in macOS, even though most other AppleTalk protocols have been deprecated. AppleTalk Session Protocol The AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) was an intermediate protocol, built on top of AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP), which in turn was the foundation of AFP. It provided basic services for requesting responses to arbitrary commands and performing out-of-band status queries. It also allowed the server to send asynchronous attention messages to the client. AppleTalk Transaction Protocol
The AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP) was the original reliable transport-level protocol for AppleTalk, built on top of DDP. At the time it was being developed, a full, reliable connection-oriented protocol like TCP was considered to be too expensive to implement for most of the intended uses of AppleTalk. Thus, ATP was a simple request/response exchange, with no need to set up or tear down connections.
An ATP request packet could be answered by up to eight response packets. The requestor then sent an acknowledgement packet containing a bit mask indicating which of the response packets it received, so the responder could retransmit the remainder.
ATP could operate in either "at-least-once" mode or "exactly-once" mode. Exactly-once mode was essential for operations which were not idempotent; in this mode, the responder kept a copy of the response buffers in memory until successful receipt of a release packet from the requestor, or until a timeout elapsed. This way, it could respond to duplicate requests with the same transaction ID by resending the same response data, without performing the actual operation again.
Datagram Delivery Protocol
The Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) was the lowest-level data-link-independent transport protocol. It provided a datagram service with no guarantees of delivery. All application-level protocols, including the infrastructure protocols NBP, RTMP and ZIP, were built on top of DDP. AppleTalk's DDP corresponds closely to the Network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model.
Name Binding Protocol
The Name Binding Protocol (NBP) was a dynamic, distributed system for managing AppleTalk names. When a service started up on a machine, it registered a name for itself as chosen by a human administrator. At this point, NBP provided a system for checking that no other machine had already registered the same name. Later, when a client wanted to access that service, it used NBP to query machines to find that service. NBP provided browsability ("what are the names of all the services available?") as well as the ability to find a service with a particular name. A year later AppleShare PC was released, allowing PCs to access AppleShare file servers.
The "TOPS Teleconnector" MS-DOS networking system over AppleTalk system enabled MS-DOS PCs to communicate over AppleTalk network hardware; it comprised an AppleTalk interface card for the PC and a suite of networking software allowing such functions as file, drive and printer sharing. As well as allowing the construction of a PC-only AppleTalk network, it allowed communication between PCs and Macs with TOPS software installed. (Macs without TOPS installed could use the same network but only to communicate with other Apple machines.) The Mac TOPS software did not match the quality of Apple's own either in ease of use or in robustness and freedom from crashes, but the DOS software was relatively simple to use in DOS terms, and was robust.
The BSD and Linux operating systems support AppleTalk through an open source project called Netatalk, which implements the complete protocol suite and allows them to both act as native file or print servers for Macintosh computers, and print to LocalTalk printers over the network.
The Windows Server operating systems supported AppleTalk starting with Windows NT and ending after Windows Server 2003. Miramar included AppleTalk in its PC MacLAN product which was discontinued by CA in 2007. GroupLogic continues to bundle its AppleTalk protocol with its ExtremeZ-IP server software for Macintosh-Windows integration which supports Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista as well prior versions. HELIOS Software GmbH offers a proprietary implementation of the AppleTalk protocol stack, as part of their HELIOS UB2 server. This is essentially a File and Print Server suite that runs on a whole range of different platforms.
In addition, Columbia University released the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) which implemented the protocol suite for various Unix flavours including Ultrix, SunOS, BSD and IRIX. This package is no longer actively maintained.
See also
*Netatalk is a free, open-source implementation of the AppleTalk suite of protocols.
*Network File System
*Remote File Sharing
*Samba
*Server Message Block
Notes
ReferencesCitationsBibliography
*
*
*
External links
* [https://biosrhythm.com/?p=2767 Pushing AppleTalk Across the Internet]
Category:Apple Inc. software
Category:Network operating systems
Category:Network protocols | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleTalk | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.301368 |
2116 | Apple II | }}
(original Apple II)
| discontinued =
| os =
| cpu =
| storage =
| display = NTSC video out (built-in RCA connector)
| predecessor = Apple I
| successor = Apple III (intended)
| sound = Internal beeper
}}
Apple II ("apple two, stylized as Apple ][") is a series of microcomputers manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. from 1977 to 1993. The original Apple II model, which gave the series its name, was designed by Steve Wozniak and was first sold on June 10, 1977. Its success led to it being followed by the Apple II Plus, Apple IIe, Apple IIc, and Apple IIc Plus, with the 1983 IIe being the most popular. The name is trademarked with square brackets as Apple ][, then, beginning with the IIe, as Apple //.
The Apple II was a major advancement over its predecessor, the Apple I, in terms of ease of use, features, and expandability. It became one of several recognizable and successful computers throughout the 1980s, although this was mainly limited to the US. It was aggressively marketed through volume discounts and manufacturing arrangements to educational institutions, which made it the first computer in widespread use in American secondary schools, displacing the early leader Commodore PET. The effort to develop educational and business software for the Apple II, including the 1979 release of the popular VisiCalc spreadsheet, made the computer especially popular with business users and families.
The Apple II computers are based on the 6502 8-bit processor and can display text and two resolutions of color graphics. A software-controlled speaker provides one channel of low-fidelity audio. A model with more advanced graphics and sound and a 16-bit processor, the Apple II<small>GS</small>, was added in 1986. It remained compatible with earlier Apple II models, but the II<small>GS</small> has more in common with mid-1980s systems like the Atari ST, Amiga, and Acorn Archimedes.
Despite the introduction of the Motorola 68000-based Macintosh in 1984, the Apple II series still reportedly accounted for 85% of the company's hardware sales in the first quarter of fiscal 1985. Apple continued to sell Apple II systems alongside the Macintosh until terminating the II<small>GS</small> in December 1992 and the IIe in November 1993. The last II-series Apple in production, the IIe card for Macintoshes, was discontinued on October 15, 1993; having been one of the longest running mass-produced home computer series, the total Apple II sales of all of its models during its 16-year production run were about 6 million units (including about 1.25 million Apple II<small>GS</small> models)<!-- Cites: - the previous entry claimed only 2 million Apple II-line machines had been produced total, which is incorrect (in fact Apple surpassed 2 million Apple II sales in 1984) --> with the peak occurring in 1983 when 1 million were sold.
Hardware
Unlike preceding home microcomputers, the Apple II was sold as a finished consumer appliance rather than as a kit (unassembled or preassembled). Apple marketed the Apple II as a durable product, including a 1981 ad in which an Apple II survived a fire started when a cat belonging to one early user knocked over a lamp.
All the machines in the series, except the IIc, share similar overall design elements. The plastic case was designed to look more like a home appliance than a piece of electronic equipment, and the case can be opened without the use of tools. All models in the Apple II series have a built-in keyboard, with the exception of the II<small>GS</small> which has a separate keyboard.
Apple IIs have color and high-resolution graphics modes, sound capabilities and a built-in BASIC programming language. The motherboard holds eight expansion slots and an array of random access memory (RAM) sockets that can hold up to 48 kilobytes. Over the course of the Apple II series' life, an enormous amount of first- and third-party hardware was made available to extend the capabilities of the machine. The IIc was designed as a compact, portable unit, not intended to be disassembled, and cannot use most of the expansion hardware sold for the other machines in the series.
Software
The original Apple II has the operating system in ROM along with a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC. Apple eventually released Applesoft BASIC, a more advanced variant of the language which users can run instead of Integer BASIC. The Apple II series eventually supported over 1,500 software programs.<!-- apparently we can cite VanLOVEs Apple Handbook and The Apple Educators Guide by Gerald VanDiver and Rolland Love on this -->
When the Disk II floppy disk drive was released in 1978, a new operating system, Apple DOS, was commissioned from Shepardson Microsystems and developed by Paul Laughton, adding support for the disk drive. The final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3.
Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical file system and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card, the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. With the release of MousePaint in 1984 and the Apple II<small>GS</small> in 1986, the platform took on the look of the Macintosh user interface, including a mouse.
Much commercial Apple II software shipped on self-booting disks and does not use standard DOS disk formats. This discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks, and improved loading speed.
Models
Apple II
and external DAA]]
The first Apple II computers went on sale on June 10, 1977 with a MOS Technology 6502 (later Synertek) microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz, 4 KB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into the ROMs. The video controller displayed 40 columns by 24 lines of monochrome, upper-case-only (the original character set matches ASCII characters 0x20 to 0x5F) text on the screen, with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a TV monitor, or on a regular TV set by way of a separate RF modulator. The original retail price of the computer was (with 4 KB of RAM) and (with the maximum 48 KB of RAM). To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing was represented using rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore.
An external -inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II, attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), was used for data storage and retrieval to replace cassettes. The Disk II interface, created by Steve Wozniak, was regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.
Rather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker; all other sounds (including two, three and, eventually, four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by software that clicked the speaker at just the right times.
The Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices, including Apple II peripheral cards such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and real-time clocks. There were plug-in expansion cards – such as the Z-80 SoftCard
The original Apple II was discontinued at the start of 1981; it was superseded by the Apple II+.
Apple II Plus
The Apple II Plus, introduced in June 1979, included the Applesoft BASIC programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, which was previously available as an upgrade, supported floating-point arithmetic, and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple II series (though it ran at a noticeably slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC).
Except for improved graphics and disk-booting support in the ROM, and the removal of the 2k 6502 assembler to make room for the floating point BASIC, the II+ was otherwise identical to the original II in terms of electronic functionality. There were small differences in the physical appearance and keyboard. RAM prices fell during 1980–81 and all II+ machines came from the factory with a full 48 KB of memory already installed.
Apple II Europlus and J-Plus
After the success of the first Apple II in the United States, Apple expanded its market to include Europe, the Middle East, Australia and the Far East in 1979, with the Apple II Europlus (Europe, Australia) and the Apple II J-Plus (Japan). In these models, Apple made the necessary hardware, software and firmware changes in order to comply to standards outside of the US.
Apple IIe
The Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the Apple IIe, a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine that used newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 KB of RAM.
The IIe RAM was configured as if it were a 48 KB Apple II Plus with a language card. The machine had no slot 0, but instead had an auxiliary slot that could accept a 1 KB memory card to enable the 80-column display. This card contained only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display was built into the Apple IIe. An "extended 80-column card" with more memory increased the machine's RAM to 128 KB.
The Apple IIe was the most popular machine in the Apple II series. It has the distinction of being the longest-lived Apple computer of all time—it was manufactured and sold with only minor changes for nearly 11 years. The IIe was the last Apple II model to be sold, and was discontinued in November 1993.
During its lifespan two variations were introduced: the Apple IIe Enhanced (four replacement chips to give it some of the features of the later model Apple IIc) and the Apple IIe Platinum (a modernized case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a numeric keypad).
Some of the feature of the IIe were carried over from the less successful Apple III, among them the ProDOS operating system.
Apple IIc
The Apple IIc was released in April 1984, billed as a portable Apple II because it could be easily carried due to its size and carrying handle, which could be flipped down to prop the machine up into a typing position. Unlike modern portables, it lacked a built-in display and battery. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the Snow White design language, and the only one that used its unique creamy off-white color.
The Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the 65C02 low-power variant of the 6502 processor, and featured a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive and 128 KB RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a port usable by either a joystick or mouse. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all.
Two different monochrome LC displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to 15 V DC, though the IIc itself will accept between 12 V and 17 V DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter.
Apple II<small>GS</small>
The Apple II<small>GS</small>, released on September 15, 1986, is the penultimate and most advanced model in the Apple II series, and a radical departure from prior models. It uses a 16-bit microprocessor, the 65C816 operating at 2.8 MHz with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM. The graphics are significantly improved, with 4096 colors and new modes with resolutions of 320×200 and 640×400. The audio capabilities are vastly improved, with a built-in music synthesizer that far exceeded any other home computer.
The Apple II<small>GS</small> evolved the platform while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. Its Mega II chip contains the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor). This, combined with the 65816's ability to execute 65C02 code directly, provides full support for legacy software, while also supporting 16-bit software running under a new OS.
The OS eventually included a Macintosh-like graphical Finder for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with desk accessories. Later, the II<small>GS</small> gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, a multitasking Unix-like shell and TrueType font support.
The GS includes a 32-voice Ensoniq 5503 DOC sample-based sound synthesizer chip with 64 KB dedicated RAM, 256 KB (or later 1.125 MB) of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports with just a regular apple software preinstalled. (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices) and, built-in AppleTalk networking.Apple IIc Plus
The final Apple II model was the Apple IIc Plus introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5.25-inch floppy drive had been replaced with a -inch drive, the power supply was moved inside the case, and the processor was a fast 4 MHz 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the II<small>GS</small>.
The IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and II<small>GS</small>. Unlike the IIe IIc and II<small>GS</small>, the IIc Plus came only in one version (American) and was not officially sold anywhere outside the US. The Apple IIc Plus ceased production in 1990, with its two-year production run being the shortest of all the Apple II computers.
Apple IIe Card
Although not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the Apple IIe Card, an expansion card for the Macintosh LC, was released. Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (using the Mega II chip from the Apple II<small>GS</small>), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation, with an option to run at roughly double the speed of the original IIe (about 1.8 MHz). However, the video output was emulated in software, and, depending on how much of the screen the currently running program was trying to update in a single frame, performance could be much slower compared to a real IIe. This is due to the fact that writes from the 65C02 on the IIe Card to video memory were caught by the additional hardware on the card, so the video emulation software running on the Macintosh side could process that write and update the video display. But, while the Macintosh was processing video updates, execution of Apple II code would be temporarily halted.
With a breakout cable which connected to the back of the card, the user could attach up to two UniDisk or Apple 5.25 Drives, up to one UniDisk 3.5 drive, and a DE-9 Apple II joystick. Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could also be "borrowed" by the card when in Apple II mode, including extra RAM, the Mac's internal 3.5-inch floppy drives, AppleTalk networking, any ProDOS-formatted hard disk partitions, the serial ports, mouse, and real-time clock. The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple II<small>GS</small>.
Advertising, marketing, and packaging
Mike Markkula, a retired Intel marketing manager, provided the early critical funding for Apple Computer. From 1977 to 1981, Apple used the Regis McKenna agency for its advertisements and marketing. In 1981, Chiat-Day acquired Regis McKenna's advertising operations and Apple used Chiat-Day. At Regis McKenna Advertising, the team assigned to launch the Apple II consisted of Rob Janoff, art director, Chip Schafer, copywriter and Bill Kelley, account executive. Janoff came up with the Apple logo with a bite out of it. The design was originally an olive green with matching company logotype all in lowercase. Steve Jobs insisted on promoting the color capability of the Apple II by putting rainbow stripes on the Apple logo. In its letterhead and business card implementation, the rounded "a" of the logotype echoed the "bite" in the logo. This logo was developed simultaneously with an advertisement and a brochure; the latter being produced for distribution initially at the first West Coast Computer Faire.
Since the original Apple II, Apple has paid high attention to its quality of packaging, partly because of Steve Jobs' personal preferences and opinions on packaging and final product appearance. All of Apple's packaging for the Apple II series looked similar, featuring much clean white space and showing the Apple rainbow logo prominently. For several years up until the late 1980s, Apple used the Motter Tektura font for packaging, until changing to the Apple Garamond font.
Apple ran the first advertisement for the Apple II, a two-page spread ad titled "Introducing Apple II", in BYTE in July 1977. The first brochure, was entitled "Simplicity" and the copy in both the ad and brochure pioneered "demystifying" language intended to make the new idea of a home computer more "personal." The Apple II introduction ad was later run in the September 1977 issue of Scientific American.
Apple later aired eight television commercials for the Apple II<small>GS</small>, emphasizing its benefits to education and students, along with some print ads.Clones
The Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the United States and abroad, in a similar way to the IBM PC. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Most could not be legally imported into the United States. Apple sued and sought criminal charges against clone makers in more than a dozen countries.
Data storage
Cassette
Originally the Apple II used Compact Cassette tapes for program and data storage. A dedicated tape recorder along the lines of the Commodore Datasette was never produced; Apple recommended using the Panasonic RQ309 in some of its early printed documentation. The uses of common consumer cassette recorders and a standard video monitor or television set (with a third-party RF modulator) made the total cost of owning an Apple II less expensive and helped contribute to the Apple II's success.
Cassette storage may have been inexpensive, but it was also slow and unreliable. The Apple II's lack of a disk drive was "a glaring weakness" in what was otherwise intended to be a polished, professional product. Recognizing that the II needed a disk drive to be taken seriously, Apple set out to develop a disk drive and a DOS to run it. Wozniak spent the 1977 Christmas holidays designing a disk controller that reduced the number of chips used by a factor of 10 compared to existing controllers. Still lacking a DOS, and with Wozniak inexperienced in operating system design, Jobs approached Shepardson Microsystems with the project. On April 10, 1978, Apple signed a contract for $13,000 with Shepardson to develop the DOS.
Even after disk drives made the cassette tape interfaces obsolete they were still used by enthusiasts as simple one-bit audio input-output ports. Ham radio operators used the cassette input to receive slow scan TV (single frame images). A commercial speech recognition Blackjack program was available, after some user-specific voice training it would recognize simple commands (Hit, stand). Bob Bishop's "Music Kaleidoscope" was a simple program that monitored the cassette input port and based on zero-crossings created color patterns on the screen, a predecessor to current audio visualization plug-ins for media players. Music Kaleidoscope was especially popular on projection TV sets in dance halls.
The OS Disk
Apple and many third-party developers made software available on tape at first, but after the Disk II became available in 1978, tape-based Apple II software essentially disappeared from the market. The initial price of the Disk II drive and controller was US$595, although a $100 off coupon was available through the Apple newsletter "Contact". The controller could handle two drives and a second drive (without controller) retailed for $495.
The Disk II single-sided floppy drive used 5.25-inch floppy disks; double-sided disks could be used, one side at a time, by turning them over and notching a hole for the write protect sensor. The first disk operating systems for the were and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 KB on each disk, organized into 35 tracks of 13 256-byte sectors each. After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 KB thanks to a minor firmware change on the disk controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable as two PROMs on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare; however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track, a program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks. It was possible for software developers to create a DOS 3.2 disk which would also boot on a system with firmware.
Later, double-sided drives, with heads to read both sides of the disk, became available from third-party companies. (Apple only produced double-sided 5.25-inch disks for the Lisa 1 computer).
On a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. (It was possible, with a special utility, to reclaim most of this space for data if a disk did not need to be bootable.) A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic "chattering" sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail – and read and execute code from sector 0. The code contained in there would then pull in the rest of the operating system. DOS stored the disk's directory on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average seek time to the frequently used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported.
Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage "crackers" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk was not in files that could be accessed easily.
Some third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5.25-inch disks, yielding 160 KB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known commercial software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; a two byte modification to DOS to format the extra track was common.
The Apple Disk II stored 140 KB on single-sided, "single-density" floppy disks, but it was very common for Apple II users to extend the capacity of a single-sided floppy disk to 280 KB by cutting out a second write-protect notch on the side of the disk using a "disk notcher" or hole puncher and inserting the disk flipped over. Double-sided disks, with notches on both sides, were available at a higher price, but in practice the magnetic coating on the reverse of nominally single-sided disks was usually of good enough quality to be used (both sides were coated in the same way to prevent warping, although only one side was certified for use). Early on, diskette manufacturers routinely warned that this technique would damage the read/write head of the drives or wear out the disk faster, and these warnings were frequently repeated in magazines of the day. In practice, however, this method was an inexpensive way to store twice as much data for no extra cost, and was widely used for commercially released floppies as well.
Later, Apple IIs were able to use 3.5-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 KB and hard disks. did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 KB had to be split up into multiple "virtual disk volumes."
DOS 3.3 was succeeded by ProDOS, a 1983 descendant of the Apple ///'s SOS. It added support for subdirectories and volumes up to 32 MB in size. ProDOS became the DOS of choice; AppleWorks and other newer programs required it.
Legacy
's computer and game console museum]]
The Apple II series of computers had an enormous impact on the technology industry and expanded the role of microcomputers in society. The Apple II was the first personal computer many people ever saw. Its price was within the reach of many middle-class families, and a partnership with MECC helped make the Apple II popular in schools. By the end of 1980 Apple had already sold over 100,000 Apple IIs, and at the introduction of the II<small>GS</small>, models in the range had been sold. However, in other markets, the range saw rather more limited adoption, with only 120,000 units selling in the UK over this nine-year period.
The Apple II's popularity bootstrapped the computer game and educational software markets and began the boom in the word processor and computer printer markets. The first spreadsheet application, VisiCalc, was initially released for the Apple II, and many businesses bought them just to run VisiCalc. Its success drove IBM in part to create the IBM PC, which many businesses purchased to run spreadsheet and word processing software, at first ported from Apple II versions.
The Apple II's slots, allowing any peripheral card to take control of the bus and directly access memory, enabled an independent industry of card manufacturers who together created a flood of hardware products that let users build systems that were far more powerful and useful (at a lower cost) than any competing system, most of which were not nearly as expandable and were universally proprietary. The first peripheral card was a blank prototyping card intended for electronics enthusiasts who wanted to design their own peripherals for the Apple II.
Specialty peripherals kept the Apple II in use in industry and education environments for many years after Apple Computer stopped supporting the Apple II. Well into the 1990s every clean-room (the super-clean facility where spacecraft are prepared for flight) at the Kennedy Space Center used an Apple II to monitor the environment and air quality. Most planetariums used Apple IIs to control their projectors and other equipment.
Even the game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output. The early manuals included instructions for how to build a circuit with only four commonly available components (one transistor and three resistors) and a software routine to drive a common Teletype Model 33 machine. Don Lancaster used the game port I/O to drive a LaserWriter printer.
Modern use
Today, emulators for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on macOS, Linux, Microsoft Windows, homebrew enabled Nintendo DS and other operating systems. Numerous disk images of Apple II software are available free over the Internet for use with these emulators. AppleWin and MESS are among the best emulators compatible with most Apple II images. The MESS emulator supports recording and playing back of Apple II emulation sessions, as does Home Action Replay Page (a.k.a. HARP).
There is still a small annual convention, KansasFest, dedicated to the platform.
In 2017, the band 8 Bit Weapon released the world's first 100% Apple II-based music album entitled, "Class Apples". The album featured dance-oriented cover versions of classical music by Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart recorded directly off the Apple II motherboard.
See also
*Apple Industrial Design Group
*List of publications and periodicals devoted to the Apple II
*Apple II peripheral cards
*Apple II graphics
*List of Apple II application software
*List of Apple II games
*List of Apple II<small>GS</small> games
References
*External links
*[http://www.epocalc.net/php/liste_models.php?texteapple+2+clone&lookAll+fields epocalc] Apple II clones list
*"[http://www.businessinsider.com/pictures-of-apples-first-employees-2013-12 These Pictures Of Apple's First Employees Are Absolutely Wonderful]", contains a c.1977 photograph taken inside Apple of early employees Chrisann Brennan, Mark Johnson, and Robert Martinengo standing in front of a stack of Apple IIs that they had tested, assembled, and were about to ship (Business Insider, December 26, 2013).
Apple II computers
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1977
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1993
Category:Discontinued Apple Inc. products | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.323940 |
2117 | Apple III | }}
| price – (equivalent to –}} in )}}
| discontinued =
| unitssold = 65,000–75,000
| unitsshipped | os Apple SOS
| power | cpu Synertek 6502B @ 1.8 MHz
| memory = of RAM, expandable to
| display = 80×24 text<br />560×192 pixels (monochrome)<br />280×192 pixels (16 colors or grayscale)
| graphics | sound 6-bit DAC
| input | dimensions
| weight | predecessor Apple II<br>
| successor = Apple III Plus<br>Apple Lisa
| memory card = inch floppy disk
}}
The Apple III (styled as apple ///) is a business-oriented personal computer produced by Apple Computer and released in 1980. Running the Apple SOS operating system, it was intended as the successor to the Apple II; however, it was largely considered a failure in the market. It was designed to provide features business users wanted: a true typewriter-style keyboard with upper and lowercase letters (the Apple II only supported uppercase at the time) and an 80-column display.
It had the internal code name of "Sara", named after Wendell Sander's daughter. The system was announced on May 19, 1980, and released in late November that year. Serious stability issues required a design overhaul and a recall of the first 14,000 machines produced. The Apple III was formally reintroduced on November 9, 1981.
Damage to the computer's reputation had already been done, however, and it failed to do well commercially. Development stopped, and the Apple III was discontinued on April 24, 1984. Its last successor, the III Plus, was dropped from the Apple product line in September 1985.
An estimated 65,000 to 75,000 Apple III computers were sold. The Apple III's failure led Apple to reevaluate its plan to phase out the Apple II, prompting the eventual continuation of development of the older machine. As a result, later Apple II models incorporated some hardware and software technologies of the Apple III.
Overview
Design
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs expected hobbyists to purchase the Apple II; however, because of VisiCalc and Disk II, small businesses purchased 90% of the computers. The Apple III was designed to be a business computer and successor. Though the Apple II contributed to the inspirations of several important business products, such as VisiCalc, Multiplan, and Apple Writer, the computer's hardware architecture, operating system, and developer environment are limited. Apple management intended to clearly establish market segmentation by designing the Apple III to appeal to the 90% business market, leaving the Apple II to home and education users. Management believed that "once the Apple III was out, the Apple II would stop selling in six months", Wozniak said.
The Apple III is powered by a 2 megahertz Synertek 6502A or 6502B 8-bit CPU (operating effectively between 1.4 to 1.8 MHz due to video or memory refresh cycles) and, like some of the later machines in the Apple II family, uses bank switching techniques to address memory beyond the 6502's traditional 64 KB limit, up to 256 KB in the III's case. Third-party vendors produced memory upgrade kits that allow the Apple III to reach up to 512 KB of random-access memory (RAM). Other Apple III built-in features include an 80-column, 24-line display with upper and lowercase characters, a numeric keypad, dual-speed (pressure-sensitive) cursor control keys, 6-bit (DAC) audio, and a built-in 140-kilobyte 5.25-inch floppy disk drive. Graphics modes include 560x192 in black and white, and 280x192 with 16 colors or shades of gray. Unlike the Apple II, the Disk III controller is part of the logic board.
The Apple III is the first Apple product to allow the user to choose both a screen font and a keyboard layout: either QWERTY or Dvorak. These choices cannot be changed while programs were running. This was unlike the Apple IIc, which has a keyboard switch directly above the keyboard, allowing the user to switch on the fly.
Software
The Apple III introduced an advanced operating system called Apple SOS, pronounced "apple sauce". Its ability to address resources by name allows the Apple III to be more scalable than the Apple II's addressing by physical location such as <code>PR#6</code> and <code>CATALOG, D1</code>. Apple SOS allows the full capacity of a storage device to be used as a single volume, such as the Apple ProFile hard disk drive, and it supports a hierarchical file system. Some of the features and code base of Apple SOS were later adopted into the Apple II's ProDOS and GS/OS operating systems, as well as Lisa 7/7 and Mac OS.
With a starting price of $4,340 (equivalent to $17,356 as of 2024) and a maximum price of $7,800 (equivalent to $31,194 as of 2024), the Apple III was more expensive than many of the CP/M-based business computers that were available at the time. However this number is proven to be wildly incorrect, given the manual 'RESOURCE GUIDE: Of Apple /// and Apple /// Plus Software and Hardware' published and released by Apple Computer, Inc. in May 1984 lists in excess of 500+ software packages produced by many and varied publishers. Given software publishers and specialised hardware manufacturers such as On-Three, Inc. produced products for the Apple III well in to the late 90s, in excess of 500 products can also be seen as way too conservative.
Because Apple did not view the Apple III as suitable for hobbyists, it did not provide much of the technical software information that accompanies the Apple II. also saying Apple II cards are compatible but risk violating government RFI regulations, and require Apple III-specific device drivers; BYTE stated that "Apple provides virtually no information on how to write them". As with software, Apple provided little hardware technical information with the computer
With the introduction of the revised Apple III a year after launch, Apple began offering the ProFile external hard disk system. The $3,495 revised model also includes 256 KB of RAM as the standard configuration. It introduced the Apple III Plus in December 1983 at a price of US$2,995. This newer version includes a built-in clock, video interlacing, standardized rear port connectors, 55-watt power supply, 256 KB of RAM as standard, and a redesigned, Apple IIe-like keyboard.
Jobs insisted on the idea of having no fan or air vents, in order to make the computer run quietly. He would later push this same ideology onto almost all Apple models he had control of, from the Apple Lisa and Macintosh 128K to the iMac. To allow the computer to dissipate heat, the base of the Apple III was made of heavy cast aluminum, which supposedly acts as a heat sink. One advantage to the aluminum case was a reduction in RFI (Radio Frequency Interference), a problem which had plagued the Apple II series throughout its history. Unlike the Apple II, the power supply was mounted – without its own shell – in a compartment separate from the logic board. The decision to use an aluminum shell ultimately led to engineering issues which resulted in the Apple III's reliability problems. The lead time for manufacturing the shells was high, and this had to be done before the motherboard was finalized. Later, it was realized that there was not enough room on the motherboard for all of the components unless narrow traces were used.
Many Apple IIIs were thought to have failed due to their inability to properly dissipate heat. inCider stated in 1986 that "Heat has always been a formidable enemy of the Apple ///", BYTE wrote, "the integrated circuits tended to wander out of their sockets". It has been rumored Apple advised customers to tilt the front of the Apple III six inches above the desk and then drop it to reseat the chips as a temporary solution. Other analyses blame a faulty automatic chip insertion process, not heat.
Case designer Jerry Manock denied the design flaw charges, insisting that tests proved that the unit adequately dissipated the internal heat. The primary cause, he claimed, was a major logic board design problem. The logic board used "fineline" technology that was not fully mature at the time, with narrow, closely spaced traces. When chips were "stuffed" into the board and wave-soldered, solder bridges would form between traces that were not supposed to be connected. This caused numerous short circuits, which required hours of costly diagnosis and hand rework to fix. Apple designed a new circuit board with more layers and normal-width traces. The new logic board was laid out by one designer on a huge drafting board, rather than using the costly CAD-CAM system used for the previous board, and the new design worked.
Earlier Apple III units came with a built-in real time clock. The hardware, however, would fail after prolonged use. while Apple Business BASIC offers an extra-long integer type, also taking 8 bytes for storage. Both languages also retain 2-byte integers, and maximum 255-character strings.
Other new features common to both languages include:
*Incorporation of disk-file commands within the language.
*Operators for MOD and for integer-division.
*An optional ELSE clause in IF...THEN statements.
*HEX$() function for hexadecimal-format output.
*INSTR function for finding a substring within a string.
*PRINT USING statement to control format of output. Apple Business BASIC had an option, in addition to directly specifying the format with a string expression, of giving the line number where an IMAGE statement gave the formatting expression, similar to a FORMAT statement in FORTRAN.
Some features work differently in each language:
{| class="wikitable"
! scope"col" width"150px" |
! scope"col" width"230px" | Apple III Microsoft BASIC
! scope"col" width"265px" | Apple Business BASIC
|-
| integer division operator
| \ (backslash)
| DIV
|-
| reading the keyboard without waiting
| INKEY$ function returns a one-character string representing the last key pressed, or the null string if no new key pressed since last reading
| KBD read-only "reserved variable" returns the ASCII code of the last key pressed; the manual fails to document what is returned if no new key pressed since last reading
|-
| reassigning a portion of a string variable
| MID$() assignment statement || SUB$() assignment statement
|-
| determining position of text output
| POS() function to read horizontal screen position, and LPOS() function to read horizontal position on printer
| HPOS and VPOS assignable "reserved variables" to read or set the horizontal or vertical position for text screen output
|-
| accepting hexadecimal-format values
| "&H"-formatted expressions
| TEN() function to give numerical value from string representing hexadecimal
|-
| result of ASC("")
(null string operand)
| causes an error
| returns the value −1
|}
Microsoft BASIC additional features
* function to replace Applesoft's command.
* statement to input an entire line of text, regardless of punctuation, into a single string variable.
* and statements to automatically direct output to paper.
* and statements to left- or right-justify a string expression within a given string variable's character length.
* function for output, and "&"- or "&O"-formatted expressions, for manipulating octal notation.
* function for generating blank spaces outside of a statement, and function to do likewise with any character.
*... statements, for loop structures built on general Boolean conditions without an index variable.
*Bitwise Boolean (16-bit) operations (, , ), with additional operators , , .
*Line number specification in the command.
* options of (to skip to the statement after that which caused the error) or a specified line number (which replaces the idea of exiting error-handling by -line, thus avoiding Applesoft II's stack error problem).
*Multiple parameters in user-defined () functions.
*A return to the old Applesoft One concept of having multiple functions at different addresses, by establishing ten different functions, numbered to , with separate statements to define the address of each. The argument passed to a function can be of any specific type, including string. The returned value can also be of any type, by default the same type as the argument passed.
There is no support for graphics provided within the language, nor for reading analog controls or buttons; nor is there a means of defining the active window of the text screen.
Business BASIC additional features
Apple Business BASIC eliminates all references to absolute memory addresses. Thus, the POKE command and PEEK() function were not included in the language, and new features replaced the CALL statement and USR() function. The functionality of certain features in Applesoft that had been achieved with various PEEK and POKE locations is now provided by:
* BUTTON() function to read game-controller buttons
* WINDOW statement to define the active window of the text screen by its coordinates
* KBD, HPOS, and VPOS system variables
External binary subroutines and functions are loaded into memory by a single INVOKE disk-command that loads separately-assembled code modules. A PERFORM statement is then used to call an INVOKEd procedure by name, with an argument-list. INVOKEd functions would be referenced in expressions by EXFN. (floating-point) or EXFN%. (integer), with the function name appended, plus the argument-list for the function.
Graphics are supported with an INVOKEd module, with features including displaying text within graphics in various fonts, within four different graphics modes available on the Apple III.
Reception
|floatright |width30% |quotealignright }}
Despite devoting the majority of its R&D to the Apple III and so ignoring the II that for a while dealers had difficulty in obtaining the latter, the III's technical problems made marketing the computer difficult. Ed Smith, who after designing the APF Imagination Machine worked as a distributor's representative, described the III as "a complete disaster". He recalled that he "was responsible for going to every dealership, setting up the Apple III in their showroom, and then explaining to them the functions of the Apple III, which in many cases didn't really work".SalesBYTE reported in 1982 that Apple had sold only 10,000 of the original Apple III, compared to 350,000 Apple IIs sold by the end of 1981. Pohlman reported that Apple was only selling 500 units a month by late 1981, mostly as replacements. The company was able to eventually raise monthly sales to 5,000, but the IBM PC's successful launch had encouraged software companies to develop for it instead, prompting Apple to shift focus to the Lisa and Macintosh. By early 1984, sales were primarily to existing III owners, Apple itself—its 4,500 employees were equipped with some 3,000-4,500 units—and some small businesses. Wozniak estimated that Apple had spent $100 million on the III instead of improving the II and better competing against IBM. Pohlman claimed that there was a "stigma" at Apple associated with having contributed to the computer. Most employees who worked on the III reportedly left Apple.
References
;Sources
*
External links
* [http://www.vectronicsappleworld.com/archives/appleii/0002.php The Ill-Fated Apple III]
* [http://www.1000bit.it/scheda.asp?id=16 Many manuals and diagrams]
* [http://www.blackcatsystems.com/software/sara.html Sara – Apple /// emulator]
* [http://lowendmac.com/2015/ill-fated-apple-iii/ The Ill-Fated Apple III] Low End Mac
* [http://lowendmac.com/2015/apple-iii-chaos-apples-first-failure/ Apple III Chaos: Apple's First Failure] Low End Mac
Category:Apple II family
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1980
Category:Products and services discontinued in 1984
Category:Discontinued Apple Inc. products
Category:8-bit computers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_III | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.342575 |
2118 | AVL tree | {{Infobox data structure-amortized
| name = AVL tree
| type = Tree
| invented_by = Georgy Adelson-Velsky and Evgenii Landis
| invented_year = 1962|
| space_avg = <math>\text{O}(n)</math>
| search_avg <math>\text{O}(\log n)</math>
| search_worst <math>\text{O}(\log n)</math> It is the first self-balancing binary search tree data structure to be invented.
AVL trees are often compared with red–black trees because both support the same set of operations and take <math>\text{O}(\log n)</math> time for the basic operations. For lookup-intensive applications, AVL trees are faster than red–black trees because they are more strictly balanced. Similar to red–black trees, AVL trees are height-balanced. Both are, in general, neither weight-balanced nor <math>\mu</math>-balanced for any <math>\mu\leq\tfrac{1}{2}</math>; that is, sibling nodes can have hugely differing numbers of descendants.
Definition
Balance factor
In a binary tree the balance factor of a node X is defined to be the height difference
:<math> \text{BF}(X) :\text{Height}(\text{RightSubtree}(X)) - \text{Height}(\text{LeftSubtree}(X)) </math>
of its two child sub-trees rooted by node X.
A node X with <math>\text{BF}(X)<0</math> is called "left-heavy", one with <math>\text{BF}(X)>0</math> is called "right-heavy", and one with <math>\text{BF}(X)0</math> is sometimes simply called "balanced".Properties
Balance factors can be kept up-to-date by knowing the previous balance factors and the change in height – it is not necessary to know the absolute height. For holding the AVL balance information, two bits per node are sufficient.
The height <math>h</math> (counted as the maximal number of levels) of an AVL tree with <math>n</math> nodes lies in the interval: In order for search to work effectively it has to employ a comparison function which establishes a total order (or at least a total preorder) on the set of keys. The number of comparisons required for successful search is limited by the height and for unsuccessful search is very close to , so both are in .Traversal
As a read-only operation the traversal of an AVL tree functions the same way as on any other binary tree. Exploring all nodes of the tree visits each link exactly twice: one downward visit to enter the subtree rooted by that node, another visit upward to leave that node's subtree after having explored it.
Once a node has been found in an AVL tree, the next or previous node can be accessed in amortized constant time. So it is necessary to check each of the node's ancestors for consistency with the invariants of AVL trees: this is called "retracing". This is achieved by considering the balance factor of each node.
Since with a single insertion the height of an AVL subtree cannot increase by more than one, the temporary balance factor of a node after an insertion will be in the range For each node checked, if the temporary balance factor remains in the range from –1 to +1 then only an update of the balance factor and no rotation is necessary. However, if the temporary balance factor is ±2, the subtree rooted at this node is AVL unbalanced, and a rotation is needed.
The function Join on two AVL trees and and a key will return a tree containing all elements in , as well as . It requires to be greater than all keys in and smaller than all keys in . If the two trees differ by height at most one, Join simply create a new node with left subtree , root and right subtree . Otherwise, suppose that is higher than for more than one (the other case is symmetric). Join follows the right spine of until a node which is balanced with . At this point a new node with left child , root and right child is created to replace c. The new node satisfies the AVL invariant, and its height is one greater than . The increase in height can increase the height of its ancestors, possibly invalidating the AVL invariant of those nodes. This can be fixed either with a double rotation if invalid at the parent or a single left rotation if invalid higher in the tree, in both cases restoring the height for any further ancestor nodes. Join will therefore require at most two rotations. The cost of this function is the difference of the heights between the two input trees.
function JoinRightAVL(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
(l, k', c) = expose(T<sub>L</sub>)
if (Height(c) <= Height(T<sub>R</sub>)+1)
T' = Node(c, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
if (Height(T') <= Height(l)+1) then return Node(l, k', T')
else return rotateLeft(Node(l, k', rotateRight(T')))
else
T' = JoinRightAVL(c, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
T<nowiki>''</nowiki> = Node(l, k', T')
if (Height(T') <= Height(l)+1) return T<nowiki></nowiki>
else return rotateLeft(T<nowiki></nowiki>)
function JoinLeftAVL(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
/* symmetric to JoinRightAVL */
function Join(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
if (Height(T<sub>L</sub>)>Height(T<sub>R</sub>)+1) return JoinRightAVL(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
if (Height(T<sub>R</sub>)>Height(T<sub>L</sub>)+1) return JoinLeftAVL(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
return Node(T<sub>L</sub>, k, T<sub>R</sub>)
Here Height(v) is the height of a subtree (node) . (l,k,r) = expose(v) extracts 's left child , the key of 's root, and the right child . Node(l,k,r) means to create a node of left child , key , and right child .
To split an AVL tree into two smaller trees, those smaller than key , and those greater than key , first draw a path from the root by inserting into the AVL. After this insertion, all values less than will be found on the left of the path, and all values greater than will be found on the right. By applying Join, all the subtrees on the left side are merged bottom-up using keys on the path as intermediate nodes from bottom to top to form the left tree, and the right part is asymmetric. The cost of Split is , order of the height of the tree.
function Split(T, k)
if (T = nil) return (nil, false, nil)
(L,m,R) = expose(T)
if (k = m) return (L, true, R)
if (k<m)
(L',b,R') = Split(L,k)
return (L', b, Join(R', m, R))
if (k>m)
(L',b,R') = Split(R, k)
return (Join(L, m, L'), b, R'))
The union of two AVL trees and representing sets and , is an AVL that represents .
function Union(t<sub>1</sub>, t<sub>2</sub>):
if t<sub>1</sub> = nil:
return t<sub>2</sub>
if t<sub>2</sub> = nil:
return t<sub>1</sub>
(t<sub><</sub>, b, t<sub>></sub>) = Split(t<sub>2</sub>, t<sub>1</sub>.root)
return Join(Union(left(t<sub>1</sub>), t<sub><</sub>), t<sub>1</sub>.root, Union(right(t<sub>1</sub>), t<sub>></sub>))
Here, Split is presumed to return two trees: one holding the keys less its input key, one holding the greater keys. (The algorithm is non-destructive, but an in-place destructive version exists as well.)
The algorithm for intersection or difference is similar, but requires the Join2 helper routine that is the same as Join but without the middle key. Based on the new functions for union, intersection or difference, either one key or multiple keys can be inserted to or deleted from the AVL tree. Since Split calls Join but does not deal with the balancing criteria of AVL trees directly, such an implementation is usually called the "join-based" implementation.
The complexity of each of union, intersection and difference is <math>\text{O}\left(m \log \left({n\over m}+1\right)\right)</math> for AVL trees of sizes <math>m</math> and <math>n \; (\ge m)</math>. More importantly, since the recursive calls to union, intersection or difference are independent of each other, they can be executed in parallel with a parallel depth <math>\text{O}(\log m\log n)</math>. but there are RB trees which are not AVL balanced. For maintaining the AVL (or RB) tree's invariants, rotations play an important role. In the worst case, even without rotations, AVL or RB insertions or deletions require inspections and/or updates to AVL balance factors (or RB colors). RB insertions and deletions and AVL insertions require from zero to three tail-recursive rotations and run in amortized time, thus equally constant on average. AVL deletions requiring rotations in the worst case are also on average. RB trees require storing one bit of information (the color) in each node, while AVL trees mostly use two bits for the balance factor, although, when stored at the children, one bit with meaning «lower than sibling» suffices. The bigger difference between the two data structures is their height limit.
For a tree of size
*an AVL tree's height is at most
*:<math>
\begin{array}{ll}
h & \leqq \; c \log_2 (n + d) + b \\
& < \; c \log_2 (n + 2) + b
\end{array}
</math>
:where <math>\varphi :\tfrac{1+\sqrt 5}2 \approx 1.618</math> the golden ratio, <math>c : \tfrac 1{\log_2 \varphi} \approx 1.440,</math> <math>b :\tfrac{c}2 \log_2 5 - 2 \approx \; -0.328,</math> and <math>d:1+\tfrac{1}{\varphi^4\sqrt{5}} \approx 1.065</math>.
*a RB tree's height is at most
*:<math>
\begin{array}{ll}
h & \leqq \; 2\log_2(n+1)
\end{array}
</math> .
AVL trees are more rigidly balanced than RB trees with an asymptotic relation AVL/RB ≈0.720 of the maximal heights. For insertions and deletions, Ben Pfaff shows in 79 measurements a relation of AVL/RB between 0.677 and 1.077 with median ≈0.947 and geometric mean ≈0.910.<ref name"Pfaff1" />See also
*WAVL tree
*Weight-balanced tree
*Splay tree
*Scapegoat tree
*B-tree
*T-tree
*List of data structures
References
<references />
Further reading
* Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. . Pages 458–475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees.
* .External links
*
Category:1962 in computing
Category:Articles with example pseudocode
Category:Binary trees
Category:Soviet inventions
Category:Search trees
Category:Amortized data structures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVL_tree | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.383661 |
2120 | Aliphatic compound | thumb|right|220px|Acyclic aliphatic/non-aromatic compound (butane) thumb|right|170px|Cyclic aliphatic/non-aromatic compound (cyclobutane)
In organic chemistry, hydrocarbons (compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen) are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds and aliphatic compounds (; G. aleiphar, fat, oil). Aliphatic compounds can be saturated (in which all the C-C bonds are single requiring the structure to be completed, or 'saturated', by hydrogen) like hexane, or unsaturated, like hexene and hexyne. Open-chain compounds, whether straight or branched, and which contain no rings of any type, are always aliphatic. Cyclic compounds can be aliphatic if they are not aromatic.
Structure
Aliphatics compounds can be saturated, joined by single bonds (alkanes), or unsaturated, with double bonds (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). If other elements (heteroatoms) are bound to the carbon chain, the most common being oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine, it is no longer a hydrocarbon, and therefore no longer an aliphatic compound. However, such compounds may still be referred to as aliphatic if the hydrocarbon portion of the molecule is aliphatic, e.g. aliphatic amines, to differentiate them from aromatic amines.
The least complex aliphatic compound is methane (CH4).
Properties
Most aliphatic compounds are flammable, allowing the use of hydrocarbons as fuel, such as methane in natural gas for stoves or heating; butane in torches and lighters; various aliphatic (as well as aromatic) hydrocarbons in liquid transportation fuels like petrol/gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel; and other uses such as ethyne (acetylene) in welding.
Examples of aliphatic compounds
The most important aliphatic compounds are:
n-, iso- and cyclo-alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons)
n-, iso- and cyclo-alkenes and -alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons).
Important examples of low-molecular aliphatic compounds can be found in the list below (sorted by the number of carbon-atoms):
Formula Name Structural formula Chemical classification Methane 75px Alkane Acetylene 75px Alkyne Ethylene 75px Alkene Ethane 75px Alkane Propyne 75px Alkyne Propene 100px Alkene Propane 100px Alkane 1,2-Butadiene 100px Diene 1-Butyne 100px Alkyne 1-Butene 65px Alkene Butane 100px Alkane Cyclohexene 40px Cycloalkene n-pentane 75px Alkane Cycloheptane 50px Cycloalkane Methylcyclohexane 75px Cyclohexane Cubane 75px Prismane, Platonic hydrocarbon Nonane 100px Alkane Dicyclopentadiene 125px Diene, Cycloalkene Phellandrene 50px50px Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene α-Terpinene 90px Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene Limonene 50px50px Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene Undecane 125px Alkane Squalene 125px Terpene, Polyene Polyethylene 75px Alkane
References
Category:Organic compounds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliphatic_compound | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.399830 |
2122 | Astrology | }}
<!-- "Astrology" is an uncountable noun, and it is used as such throughout the lead. It is not meant to suggest a connection between unrelated astrological systems (e.g. Chinese and Mayan), each of which could be referred to as "astrology". -->
Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that propose that information about human affairs and terrestrial events may be discerned by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Different cultures have employed forms of astrology since at least the 2nd millennium BCE, these practices having originated in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.
Most, if not all, cultures have attached importance to what they observed in the sky, and some—such as the Hindus, Chinese, and the Maya—developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th century BCE Mesopotamia, from where it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Islamic world, and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.
Throughout its history, astrology has had its detractors, competitors and skeptics who opposed it for moral, religious, political, and empirical reasons. Nonetheless, prior to the Enlightenment, astrology was generally considered a scholarly tradition and was common in learned circles, often in close relation with astronomy, meteorology, medicine, and alchemy. It was present in political circles and is mentioned in various works of literature, from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, and Pedro Calderón de la Barca. During the Enlightenment, however, astrology lost its status as an area of legitimate scholarly pursuit. and have shown it to have no scientific validity or explanatory power. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing in the western world, and common belief in it largely declined, until a continuing resurgence starting in the 1960s. Etymology
engraving, 15th century]]
The word astrology comes from the early Latin word astrologia, which derives from the Greek —from ἄστρον astron ("star") and -λογία -logia, ("study of"—"account of the stars"). The word entered the English language via Latin and medieval French, and its use overlapped considerably with that of astronomy (derived from the Latin astronomia). By the 17th century, astronomy became established as the scientific term, with astrology referring to divinations and schemes for predicting human affairs. History
Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Maya developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. A form of astrology was practised in the Old Babylonian period of Mesopotamia, . This was a first step towards recording the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organising a communal calendar. By the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with heliacal risings of the stars.
Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astrological references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa is thought to have been compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE. A scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash ( – 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellations that would be most favourable for the planned construction of a temple. However, there is controversy about whether these were genuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an integrated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the records of the first dynasty of Babylon (1950–1651 BCE). This astrology had some parallels with Hellenistic Greek (western) astrology, including the zodiac, a norming point near 9 degrees in Aries, the trine aspect, planetary exaltations, and the dodekatemoria (the twelve divisions of 30 degrees each). The Babylonians viewed celestial events as possible signs rather than as causes of physical events. Accordingly, they shaped their entire lives in accordance with their interpretations of astral configurations and phenomena. Criticism of astrology by academic skeptics such as Carneades, Cicero, and Favorinus; Pyrrhonists such as Sextus Empiricus; and neoplatonists such as Plotinus, has been preserved.
Carneades argued that belief in fate denies free will and morality; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.
Cicero, in De Divinatione, leveled a critique of astrology that some modern philosophers consider to be the first working definition of pseudoscience and the answer to the demarcation problem. The philosopher of science Massimo Pigliucci, building on the work of the historian of science, Damien Fernandez-Beanato, argues that Cicero outlined a "convincing distinction between astrology and astronomy that remains valid in the twenty-first century." Cicero stated the twins objection (that with close birth times, personal outcomes can be very different), later developed by Augustine. He argued that since the other planets are much more distant from the Earth than the Moon, they could have only very tiny influence compared to the Moon's. He also argued that if astrology explains everything about a person's fate, then it wrongly ignores the visible effect of inherited ability and parenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or the effects of the weather on people. The historian Stefano Rapisarda notes that the text is formally "equally balanced between pro and contra, and no final or definite answer is given."
Favorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides, and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates.
Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac, and wrote an entire book, Against the Astrologers (Πρὸς ἀστρολόγους, Pros astrologous), compiling arguments against astrology. Against the Astrologers was the fifth section of a larger work arguing against philosophical and scientific inquiry in general, Against the Professors (Πρὸς μαθηματικούς, Pros mathematikous).
Plotinus, a neoplatonist, had a lasting interest in astrology, including the question of how the world of humans could be affected by the stars, and (if so) whether astrology could predict events on Earth. He argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on human affairs should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the Moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the Moon's point of view, half of its surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as then the planet sees some light from the Moon, but when the Moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet in question.
Hellenistic Egypt
Tetrabiblos, translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli|alt=Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, the Hellenistic text that founded Western astrology]]
In 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians. The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology.
With the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyptian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four elements. 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain decans, particularly Sothis. The astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the Tetrabiblos formed the basis of Western astrology, and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more."
Greece and Rome
The conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposed the Greeks to ideas from Syria, Babylon, Persia and central Asia. Around 280 BCE, Berossus, a priest of Bel from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of Kos, teaching astrology and Babylonian culture. By the 1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology, one using horoscopes to describe the past, present and future; the other, theurgic, emphasising the soul's ascent to the stars. Greek influence played a crucial role in the transmission of astrological theory to Rome.
The first definite reference to astrology in Rome comes from the orator Cato, who in 160 BCE warned farm overseers against consulting with Chaldeans, who were described as Babylonian 'star-gazers'. Among both Greeks and Romans, Babylonia (also known as Chaldea) became so identified with astrology that 'Chaldean wisdom' became synonymous with divination using planets and stars. The 2nd-century Roman poet and satirist Juvenal complains about the pervasive influence of Chaldeans, saying, "Still more trusted are the Chaldaeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will believe has come from Hammon's fountain."
One of the first astrologers to bring Hermetic astrology to Rome was Thrasyllus, astrologer to the emperor Tiberius, the first emperor to have had a court astrologer, though his predecessor Augustus had used astrology to help legitimise his Imperial rights. Medieval world Hindu
The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the , and Sārāvalī by .
The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE. English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.
Islamic
translation of Abū Maʿshar's De Magnis Coniunctionibus ('Of the great conjunctions'), Venice, 1515]]
Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars following the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th. The second Abbasid caliph, Al Mansur (754–775) founded the city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as Bayt al-Hikma 'House of Wisdom', which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included Mashallah, who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad, and Sahl ibn Bishr, (a.k.a. Zael), whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century, and William Lilly in the 17th century. Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the Latin translations of the 12th century. Europe
meets the Emperor Justinian in the Sphere of Mercury, in Canto 5 of the Paradiso.]]
criticised the predictive part of astrology.]]
In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his Etymologiae that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the Sun, the Moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous.
The first astrological book published in Europe was the Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus ("Book of the Planets and Regions of the World"), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored by Gerbert of Aurillac. Ptolemy's second century AD Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli in 1138. The thirteenth century mathematician Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the prime vertical into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs, though the system was used earlier in the East. The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber Astronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century. to the astrological planets, though he adapted traditional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint,
John Gower in the fourteenth century defined astrology as essentially limited to the making of predictions. The influence of the stars was in turn divided into natural astrology, with for example effects on tides and the growth of plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly predictable effects on people. The fourteenth-century sceptic Nicole Oresme however included astronomy as a part of astrology in his Livre de divinacions. Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction of events such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappropriate, but that such prediction was a valid field of inquiry. However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose the timing of actions (so-called interrogation and election) as wholly false, and rejected the determination of human action by the stars on grounds of free will. The friar Laurens Pignon (c. 1368–1449) similarly rejected all forms of divination and determinism, including by the stars, in his 1411 Contre les Devineurs. This was in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab astronomer Albumasar (787–886) whose Introductorium in Astronomiam and De Magnis Coniunctionibus argued the view that both individual actions and larger scale history are determined by the stars.
In the late 15th century, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola forcefully attacked astrology in Disputationes contra Astrologos, arguing that the heavens neither caused, nor heralded earthly events. His contemporary, Pietro Pomponazzi, a "rationalistic and critical thinker", was much more sanguine about astrology and critical of Pico's attack. Renaissance and Early Modern
Utriusque Cosmi Historia, 1617]]
Renaissance scholars commonly practised astrology. Gerolamo Cardano cast the horoscope of king Edward VI of England, while John Dee was the personal astrologer to queen Elizabeth I of England. Catherine de Medici paid Michael Nostradamus in 1566 to verify the prediction of the death of her husband, king Henry II of France, made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus. Major astronomers who practised as court astrologers included Tycho Brahe in the royal court of Denmark, Johannes Kepler to the Habsburgs, Galileo Galilei to the Medici, and Giordano Bruno who was burnt at the stake for heresy in Rome in 1600. The distinction between astrology and astronomy was not entirely clear. Advances in astronomy were often motivated by the desire to improve the accuracy of astrology. Kepler, for example, was driven by a belief in harmonies between Earthly and celestial affairs, yet he disparaged the activities of most astrologers as "evil-smelling dung".
Ephemerides with complex astrological calculations, and almanacs interpreting celestial events for use in medicine and for choosing times to plant crops, were popular in Elizabethan England. In 1597, the English mathematician and physician Thomas Hood made a set of paper instruments that used revolving overlays to help students work out relationships between fixed stars or constellations, the midheaven, and the twelve astrological houses. Hood's instruments also illustrated, for pedagogical purposes, the supposed relationships between the signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of the human body adherents believed were governed by the planets and signs. While Hood's presentation was innovative, his astrological information was largely standard and was taken from Gerard Mercator's astrological disc made in 1551, or a source used by Mercator. Despite its popularity, Renaissance astrology had what historian Gabor Almasi calls "elite debate", exemplified by the polemical letters of Swiss physician Thomas Erastus who fought against astrology, calling it "vanity" and "superstition." Then around the time of the new star of 1572 and the comet of 1577 there began what Almasi calls an "extended epistemological reform" which began the process of excluding religion, astrology and anthropocentrism from scientific debate. By 1679, the yearly publication La Connoissance des temps eschewed astrology as a legitimate topic. Enlightenment period and onwards
Chicago women discuss spiritualism (1906).]]
During the Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for astrology fell away, leaving only a popular following supported by cheap almanacs. One English almanac compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the age by printing a derisive Discourse on the Invalidity of Astrology, while in France Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire of 1697 stated that the subject was puerile.
Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century, as part of a general revival of spiritualism and—later, New Age philosophy, and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes. Early in the 20th century the psychiatrist Carl Jung developed some concepts concerning astrology, which led to the development of psychological astrology.
Principles and practice
Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, a science, and a method of divination. Though most cultural astrology systems share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many use methods that differ from those in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as "Indian astrology" and in modern times referred to as "Vedic astrology") and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the world's cultural history.
Western
Western astrology is a form of divination based on the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as a person's birth. It uses the tropical zodiac, which is aligned to the equinoctial points.
Western astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, Moon and planets, which are analysed by their movement through signs of the zodiac (twelve spatial divisions of the ecliptic) and by their aspects (based on geometric angles) relative to one another. They are also considered by their placement in houses (twelve spatial divisions of the sky). Astrology's modern representation in western popular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology, which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an individual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the total chart.
The horoscope visually expresses the set of relationships for the time and place of the chosen event. These relationships are between the seven 'planets', signifying tendencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zodiac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a particular sign and a particular house at the chosen time, when observed from the chosen place, creating two kinds of relationship. A third kind is the aspect of each planet to every other planet, where for example two planets 120° apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship, but two planets 90° apart ('square') are in a conflicted relationship. Together these relationships and their interpretations are said to form "...the language of the heavens speaking to learned men."
Hindu
The earliest Vedic text on astronomy is the Vedanga Jyotisha; Vedic thought later came to include astrology as well.
Hindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrology by the 3rd century BCE, though incorporating the Hindu lunar mansions. The names of the signs (e.g. Greek 'Krios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'), the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrological Hindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apoklima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary conjunction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) in Varaha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidence of a Greek origin for Hindu astrology. The Indian techniques may also have been augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.
Chinese and East Asian
Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Five phases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches, and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology, the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portents and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.
The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-Eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci (十二次). The Chinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animal signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ziping and Zi Wei Dou Shu () are still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.
The Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to the Chinese, except for second animal being the Water Buffalo instead of the Ox, and the fourth animal the Cat instead of the Rabbit. The<!--Japanese zodiac includes the boar instead of the Pig, and the--> Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian calendar. The Thai zodiac <!--includes a Naga in place of the Dragon and -->begins, not at Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of the fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use. Theological viewpoints Ancient Augustine (354430) believed that the determinism of astrology conflicted with the Christian doctrines of man's free will and responsibility, and God not being the cause of evil, but he also grounded his opposition philosophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time. Medieval
]]
Some of the practices of astrology were contested on theological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Avicenna. They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of Islamic scholars, by suggesting that the Will of God can be known and predicted. For example, Avicenna's 'Refutation against astrology', Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm, argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle that planets may act as agents of divine causation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars. Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, also used physical arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology. He recognised that the stars are much larger than the planets, and argued: <blockquote>And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to [the head] and [the tail], which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?
Scientific analysis and criticism
The scientific community rejects astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe, and considers it a pseudoscience. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict basic and well understood aspects of biology and physics. Those who have faith in astrology have been characterised by scientists including Bart J. Bok as doing so "...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary".
Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias, a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology. Astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not. Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief. Demarcation Under the criterion of falsifiability, first proposed by the philosopher of science Karl Popper, astrology is a pseudoscience. Popper regarded astrology as "pseudo-empirical" in that "it appeals to observation and experiment," but "nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards." In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment.
In contrast to Popper, the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical. Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically, made predictions that categorically failed, this in itself does not make astrology unscientific, nor do attempts by astrologers to explain away failures by saying that creating a horoscope is very difficult. Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine; astrologers followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research, While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life, astrology is not scientific.
For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.|title|source}} Effectiveness Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity. Where it has made falsifiable predictions under controlled conditions, they have been falsified. One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) questionnaire. The double-blind experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the Mars effect. A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence.
Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information.
Lack of mechanisms and consistency
Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult, because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict. Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.
Many astrologers believe that astrology is scientific, while some have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity.
Western astrology has taken the earth's axial precession (also called precession of the equinoxes) into account since Ptolemy's Almagest, so the "first point of Aries", the start of the astrological year, continually moves against the background of the stars. The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars; tropical astrologers distinguish the constellations from their historically associated sign, thereby avoiding complications involving precession.
Reception in the social sciences
The general consensus of astronomers and other natural scientists is that astrology is a pseudoscience which carries no predictive capability, with many philosophers of science considering it a "paradigm or prime example of pseudoscience." Some scholars in the social sciences have cautioned against categorizing astrology, especially ancient astrology, as "just" a pseudoscience or projecting the distinction backwards into the past. Thagard, while demarcating it as a pseudoscience, notes that astrology "should be judged as not pseudoscientific in classical or Renaissance times...Only when the historical and social aspects of science are neglected does it become plausible that pseudoscience is an unchanging category." Historians of science such as Tamsyn Barton, Roger Beck, Francesca Rochberg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff argue that such a wholesale description is anachronistic when applied to historical contexts, stressing that astrology was not pseudoscience before the 18th century and the importance of the discipline to the development of medieval science. R. J. Hakinson writes in the context of Hellenistic astrology that "the belief in the possibility of [astrology] was, at least some of the time, the result of careful reflection on the nature and structure of the universe."
Nicholas Campion, both an astrologer and academic historian of astrology, argues that Indigenous astronomy is largely used as a synonym for astrology in academia, and that modern Indian and Western astrology are better understood as modes of cultural astronomy or ethnoastronomy. Roy Willis and Patrick Curry draw a distinction between propositional episteme and metaphoric metis in the ancient world, identifying astrology with the latter and noting that the central concern of astrology "is not knowledge (factual, let alone scientific) but (ethical, spiritual and pragmatic)". Similarly, historian of science Justin Niermeier-Dohoney writes that astrology was "more than simply a science of prediction using the stars and comprised a vast body of beliefs, knowledge, and practices with the overarching theme of understanding the relationship between humanity and the rest of the cosmos through an interpretation of stellar, solar, lunar, and planetary movement." Scholars such as Assyriologist Matthew Rutz have begun using the term "astral knowledge" rather than astrology "to better describe a category of beliefs and practices much broader than the term 'astrology' can capture." Cultural impact Western politics and society In the West, political leaders have sometimes consulted astrologers. For example, the British intelligence agency MI5 employed Louis de Wohl as an astrologer after it was reported that Adolf Hitler used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was "...interested to know what Hitler's own astrologers would be telling him from week to week." In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a "complete charlatan", and later evidence showed that Hitler considered astrology "complete nonsense". After John Hinckley's attempted assassination of US President Ronald Reagan, first lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer Joan Quigley to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, Donald Regan.
There was a boom in interest in astrology in the late 1960s. The sociologist Marcello Truzzi described three levels of involvement of "Astrology-believers" to account for its revived popularity in the face of scientific discrediting. He found that most astrology-believers did not think that it was a scientific explanation with predictive power. Instead, those superficially involved, knowing "next to nothing" about astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaper astrology columns, and could benefit from "tension-management of anxieties" and "a cognitive belief-system that transcends science." Those at the second level usually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice and predictions. They were much younger than those at the first level, and could benefit from knowledge of the language of astrology and the resulting ability to belong to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the third level were highly involved and usually cast horoscopes for themselves. Astrology provided this small minority of astrology-believers with a "meaningful view of their universe and [gave] them an understanding of their place in it." This third group took astrology seriously, possibly as an overarching religious worldview (a sacred canopy, in Peter L. Berger's phrase), whereas the other two groups took it playfully and irreverently. Adorno believed that popular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to statements that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers who go against conformity, by discouraging performance at work etc., risk losing their jobs. Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase opium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting, "occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes." while a 2018 Pew survey found a figure of 29%. According to data released in the National Science Foundation's 2014 Science and Engineering Indicators study, "Fewer Americans rejected astrology in 2012 than in recent years." The NSF study noted that in 2012, "slightly more than half of Americans said that astrology was 'not at all scientific,' whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010. The comparable percentage has not been this low since 1983." India and Japan In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic astrology. Indian politics have also been influenced by astrology. It is still considered a branch of the Vedanga. In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology, resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology.
In February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that challenged its status as a science.
In Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions in the years of Fire Horse. Adherents believe that women born in hinoeuma years are unmarriageable and bring bad luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the hinoeuma year.
Literature and music
astrological play, The Woman in the Moon, 1597]]
The fourteenth-century English poets John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer both referred to astrology in their works, including Gower's Confessio Amantis and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.
's Astrologo Fingido, Madrid, 1641]]
In the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, The Woman in the Moon, is wholly motivated by astrology, while Christopher Marlowe makes astrological references in his plays Doctor Faustus and Tamburlaine (both c. 1590), William Shakespeare's attitude towards astrology is unclear, with contradictory references in plays including King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, and Richard II. Calderón de la Barca wrote the 1641 comedy Astrologo Fingido (The Pretended Astrologer); the plot was borrowed by the French playwright Thomas Corneille for his 1651 comedy Feint Astrologue.
The most famous piece of music influenced by astrology is the orchestral suite The Planets. Written by the British composer Gustav Holst (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of The Planets is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets. Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet, though the movements are not in the order of the planets from the Sun. The composer Colin Matthews wrote an eighth movement entitled Pluto, the Renewer, first performed in 2000, as the suite was written prior to Pluto's discovery. In 1937, another British composer, Constant Lambert, wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called Horoscope. In 1974, the New Zealand composer Edwin Carr wrote The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment for orchestra without strings. Camille Paglia acknowledges astrology as an influence on her work of literary criticism Sexual Personae (1990). The American comedian Harvey Sid Fisher is known for his comedic songs about astrology.
Astrology features strongly in Eleanor Catton's The Luminaries, recipient of the 2013 Man Booker Prize. See also
* Astrology and science
* Astrology software
* Barnum effect
* Glossary of astrology
* List of astrological traditions, types, and systems
* List of topics characterised as pseudoscience
* Jewish astrology
* Scientific skepticism
* Worship of heavenly bodies
Notes
References
Works cited
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Further reading
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External links
* [http://cura.free.fr/DIAL.html Digital International Astrology Library] (ancient astrological works)
* [http://www.biblioastrology.com/en/index.aspx Biblioastrology (www.biblioastrology.com)] (specialised bibliography)
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/astronomy_astrology/bibliography Paris Observatory]
Category:Pseudoscience | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.466807 |
2123 | Abyssinia (disambiguation) | Abyssinia is a historical name for the Ethiopian Empire.
Abyssinia may also refer to:
Arts and media
Abyssinia, a theatrical show by Bert Williams
Abyssinia (1987 musical), a show first staged in 1987
Abyssinia (1906 musical), 1906 Broadway musical by Will Marion Cook, Bert Williams, Jesse A. Shipp, and Alex Rogers
"Abyssinia", a song by the Patti Smith Group on Radio Ethiopia
Abyssinia, a 2003 novel by Ursula Dubosarsky
"Abyssinia, Henry", an episode of the television series M*A*S*H
Places
Abyssinia Lines, a neighbourhood of Jamshed Town in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
Apostolic Vicariate of Abyssinia, the former Eastern Catholic missionary
Vessels
HMS Abyssinia (1870), a British armoured ship
SS Abyssinia, an 1870 Canadian Pacific steamship
Other uses
Abyssinian languages, family of languages spoken in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan
Abyssinian peoples, ethnic or pan-ethnic identifier used to refer to Ethiopians and Eritreans
Abyssinia (battle honour)
Abyssinia Creek, The Pilbara, Western Australia
See also
Abyssinian (disambiguation)
Habash (disambiguation)
Habishi (disambiguation)
History of Ethiopia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssinia_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.471949 |
2125 | Algebraic extension | In mathematics, an algebraic extension is a field extension such that every element of the larger field is algebraic over the smaller field ; that is, every element of is a root of a non-zero polynomial with coefficients in . A field extension that is not algebraic, is said to be transcendental, and must contain transcendental elements, that is, elements that are not algebraic.
The algebraic extensions of the field \Q of the rational numbers are called algebraic number fields and are the main objects of study of algebraic number theory. Another example of a common algebraic extension is the extension \Complex/\R of the real numbers by the complex numbers.
Some properties
All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all algebraic numbers is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers.
Let be an extension field of , and . The smallest subfield of that contains and is commonly denoted K(a). If is algebraic over , then the elements of can be expressed as polynomials in with coefficients in K; that is, K(a)=K[a], the smallest ring containing and . In this case, K(a) is a finite extension of and all its elements are algebraic over . In particular, K(a) is a -vector space with basis \{1,a,...,a^{d-1}\}, where d is the degree of the minimal polynomial of . These properties do not hold if is not algebraic. For example, \Q(\pi)\neq \Q[\pi], and they are both infinite dimensional vector spaces over \Q.
An algebraically closed field F has no proper algebraic extensions, that is, no algebraic extensions E with F K > F then E is an algebraic extension of K.
These finitary results can be generalized using transfinite induction:
This fact, together with Zorn's lemma (applied to an appropriately chosen poset), establishes the existence of algebraic closures.
Generalizations
Model theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of M into N is called an algebraic extension if for every x in N there is a formula p with parameters in M, such that p(x) is true and the set
\left\{y\in N \mid p(y)\right\}
is finite. It turns out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the usual definition of algebraic extension. The Galois group of N over M can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for the general case.
Relative algebraic closures
Given a field k and a field K containing k, one defines the relative algebraic closure of k in K to be the subfield of K consisting of all elements of K that are algebraic over k, that is all elements of K that are a root of some nonzero polynomial with coefficients in k.
See also
Integral element
Lüroth's theorem
Galois extension
Separable extension
Normal extension
Notes
References
Category:Field extensions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_extension | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.482940 |
2126 | Ani DiFranco | | birth_place = Buffalo, New York, US
| origin | instrument
| genre =
| occupation =
| discography = Ani DiFranco discography
| years_active = 1989–present
| label = Righteous Babe
| website =
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Angela Maria "Ani" DiFranco (; born September 23, 1970) is an American-Canadian singer-songwriter. She has released more than 20 albums. DiFranco's music has been classified as folk rock and alternative rock, although it has additional influences from punk, funk, hip hop and jazz. She has released all her albums on her own record label, Righteous Babe.
DiFranco supports many social and political movements by performing benefit concerts, appearing on benefit albums and speaking at rallies. Through the Righteous Babe Foundation, DiFranco has backed grassroots cultural and political organizations supporting causes including abortion rights and LGBT visibility. She counts American folk singer and songwriter Pete Seeger among her mentors.
DiFranco released a memoir, No Walls and the Recurring Dream, on May 7, 2019, via Viking Books
On February 9, 2024, DiFranco made her Broadway debut in Hadestown as Persephone, reprising the role she played in the concept album of the same name.Early life and educationDiFranco was born in Buffalo, New York, on September 23, 1970, the daughter of Elizabeth (Ross) and Dante Americo DiFranco, who had met while attending the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Her father was of Italian descent, and her mother was from Montreal. DiFranco started playing Beatles covers at local bars and busking with her guitar teacher, Michael Meldrum, at the age of nine. By 14 she was writing her own songs. She played them at bars and coffee houses throughout her teens. DiFranco graduated from the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts high school at 16 and began attending classes at Buffalo State College. She was living by herself, having moved out of her mother's apartment after she became an emancipated minor when she was 15.
Career
DiFranco started her own record company, Righteous Babe Records, in 1989 at age 19.
In 1996, bassist Sara Lee joined the touring group, whose live rapport is showcased on the 1997 album Living in Clip. DiFranco would later release Lee's solo album Make It Beautiful on Righteous Babe. In 1998, Stochansky left to pursue a solo career as a singer-songwriter. A new touring ensemble consisting of Jason Mercer on bass, Julie Wolf on keyboards, and Daren Hahn on drums, augmented at times by a horn section, accompanied DiFranco on tour between 1998 and 2002.
The 1990s were a period of heightened exposure for DiFranco, as she continued playing ever larger venues around the world and attracted international attention of the press, including cover stories in Spin, Ms., and Magnet, among others, as well as appearances on MTV and VH1. Her playfully ironic cover of the Bacharach/David song "Wishin' and Hopin'" appeared under the opening titles of the film ''My Best Friend's Wedding.
She guest starred on a 1998 episode of the Fox sitcom King of the Hill'', as the voice of Peggy's feminist guitar teacher, Emily.
Beginning in 1999, Righteous Babe Records began releasing albums by other artists including Sara Lee, Sekou Sundiata, Arto Lindsay, Bitch and Animal, That One Guy, Utah Phillips, Hamell on Trial, Andrew Bird, Kurt Swinghammer, Buddy Wakefield, Anaïs Mitchell and Nona Hendryx.
On September 11, 2001, DiFranco was in Manhattan and later penned the poem "Self Evident" about the experience. The poem was featured in the book ''It's a Free Country: Personal Freedom in America After September 11''. The poem's title also became the name of DiFranco's first book of poetry released exclusively in Italy by Minimum Fax. It was later also featured in Verses, a book of her poetry published in the U.S. by Seven Stories press. DiFranco has written and performed many spoken-word pieces throughout her career and was showcased as a poet on the HBO series Def Poetry in 2005.
Since her 2005 release Knuckle Down (co-produced by Joe Henry) DiFranco's touring band and recordings have featured bass player Todd Sickafoose and in turns other musicians such as Allison Miller, Andy Borger, Herlin Riley, and Terence Higgins on drums and Mike Dillon on percussion and vibes.
On September 11, 2007, she released the first retrospective of her career, a two-disc compilation entitled Canon and simultaneously a retrospective collection of poetry book Verses. On September 30, 2008, she released Red Letter Year.
In 2009, DiFranco appeared at Pete Seeger's 90th birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden, debuting her revamped version of the 1930s labor anthem "Which Side Are You On?" in a duet with Bruce Cockburn and also duetting with Kris Kristofferson on the folk classic "There's a Hole in the Bucket".
DiFranco released an album on January 17, 2012, ¿Which Side Are You On?. It includes collaborations with Pete Seeger, Ivan Neville, Cyril Neville, Skerik, Adam Levy, Righteous Babe recording artist Anaïs Mitchell, CC Adcock, and a host of New Orleans–based horn players known for their work in such outfits as Galactic, Bonerama, and Rebirth Brass Band.
In 2014, she released her eighteenth album, Allergic to Water. In 2017, she released her nineteenth, Binary.
On May 7, 2019, DiFranco released a memoir, No Walls and the Recurring Dream, via Viking Books. It is described as a "coming-of-age story".
In 2021, DiFranco released the album Revolutionary Love which was largely inspired by Valarie Kaur's book See No Stranger.
DiFranco signed the October 2023 Artists4Ceasefire open letter to Joe Biden calling for a ceasefire during the Israeli bombardment of Gaza.
, and Steve Albini at The New Yorker festival in September 2005.]]
Personal life
DiFranco came out as bisexual in her twenties, and has written songs about love and sex with women and men. She addressed the controversy about her sexuality in the song "In or Out" on the album Imperfectly (1992). However, in 2015 she told the blog GoPride.com that she was "not so queer anymore, but definitely a woman-centered woman and just a human rights-centered artist." In a 2019 interview with Jezebel, she stated that she preferred the term "queer" because "bisexual" "always sounded very medical, like something you do to a frog in 9th grade science or something", and further added that "the irony is I'm pretty fuckin' hetero, which is unfortunate for me because many of my deepest connections are with women. But, naw, I just like what's in boys' pants better." In 1998, she married her sound engineer Andrew Gilchrist in a Unitarian Universalist service in Canada. DiFranco and Gilchrist divorced in 2003.
In 1990, she wrote "Lost Woman Song", which was inspired by abortions she had at ages eighteen and twenty.
DiFranco's father died in the summer of 2004. In July 2005, DiFranco developed tendinitis and took a nine-month hiatus from touring. In January 2007 DiFranco gave birth to her first child, a daughter, at her Buffalo home. She married the child's father, Mike Napolitano, also her regular producer, in 2009. In an interview on September 13, 2012, DiFranco mentioned that she was pregnant with her second child. In April 2013, she gave birth to her second child, a son.
DiFranco has resided in the Bywater, New Orleans, neighborhood since 2008.
DiFranco has described herself as an atheist. On the subject of religion, DiFranco has stated:
DiFranco has spoken critically of cancel culture, saying it is "just gonna get us nowhere" and "The human family can't divorce each other". DiFranco herself has received criticism for planning a 2013 songwriting retreat at Nottoway, a former slave plantation.
DiFranco wrote in her memoir that she "[sympathized] with both sides" regarding the controversial trans-exclusionary policies of the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. In a 2019 interview, she elaborated on this statement, discussing her perception that cisgender women were being "asked again ... to move over and make room for somebody else," and later expressed that she understood the difficulty "for anybody outside of a very specific group to experience it the way that group does," saying that "maybe [women's spaces] should be a little more [inclusive]". Living in Clip, DiFranco's 1998 double live album, is the only one to achieve gold record status to date. DiFranco was praised by The Buffalo News in 2006 as "Buffalo's leading lady of rock music".
Starting in 2003, DiFranco was nominated four consecutive times for Best Recording Package at the Grammy Awards, winning in 2004 for Evolve.
On July 21, 2006, DiFranco received the Woman of Courage Award at the National Organization for Women (NOW) Conference and Young Feminist Summit in Albany, New York. DiFranco was one of the first musicians to receive the award, given each year to a woman who has set herself apart by her contributions to the feminist movement.
In 2009, DiFranco received the Woody Guthrie Award for being a voice of positive social change.
Music
Style
DiFranco's guitar playing is often characterized by a signature staccato style, rapid fingerpicking and many alternate tunings. She delivers many of her lines in a speaking style notable for its rhythmic variation. Her lyrics, which often include alliteration, metaphor, word play and a more or less gentle irony, have also received praise for their sophistication.
Although DiFranco's music has been classified as both folk rock and alternative rock, she has reached across genres since her earliest albums incorporating first punk, then funk, hiphop, and jazz influences.
While primarily an acoustic guitarist she has used a variety of instruments and styles: brass instrumentation was prevalent in 1998's Little Plastic Castle; a simple walking bass in her 1997 cover of Hal David and Burt Bacharach's "Wishin' and Hopin'; strings on the 1997 live album Living in Clip and 2004's Knuckle Down; and electronics and synthesizers in 1999's To the Teeth and 2006's Reprieve.
DiFranco has stated that "folk music is not an acoustic guitar – that's not where the heart of it is. I use the word 'folk' in reference to punk music and rap music. It's an attitude, it's an awareness of one's heritage, and it's a community. It's subcorporate music that gives voice to different communities and their struggle against authority."
Musical collaborations, cover versions, and samples
DiFranco has collaborated with a wide range of artists. In 1997, she appeared on Canadian songwriter Bruce Cockburn's Charity of Night album. In 1998, she produced fellow folksinger Dan Bern's album Fifty Eggs.
She developed a deep association with folksinger and social activist Utah Phillips throughout the mid-1990s, sharing her stage and her audience with the older musician until his death in 2008 and resulting in two collaborative albums: ''The Past Didn't Go Anywhere (1996) and Fellow Workers (1999, with liner notes by Howard Zinn). The Past'' is built around Phillips's storytelling, an important part of his art that had not previously been documented on recordings; on the album, DiFranco provides musical settings for his speaking voice. Funk and soul jazz musician Maceo Parker and rapper Corey Parker have both appeared on DiFranco's albums and featured appearances by her on theirs. Parker and DiFranco toured together in 1999.
She has appeared on several compilations of the songs of Pete Seeger and frequented his Hudson Clearwater Revival Festival. In 2001, she appeared on Brazilian artist Lenine's album Falange Canibal. In 2002, her rendition of Greg Brown's "The Poet Game" appeared on ''Going Driftless: An Artist's Tribute to Greg Brown. Also in 2002 she recorded a duet with Jackie Chan of the Irving Gordon song "Unforgettable" for a record of unlikely collaborations, When Pigs Fly: Songs You Never Thought You'd Hear''.
In 2005, she appeared on Dar Williams' record My Better Self, duetting on William's cover of Pink Floyd's "Comfortably Numb". She performed with Cyndi Lauper on "Sisters of Avalon" a track from Lauper's 2005 The Body Acoustic album. In 2006, she produced Hamell on Trial's album Songs for Parents Who Enjoy Drugs. In 2008, she appeared on Todd Sickafoose's album Tiny Resisters. In 2010, she co-produced a track with Margaret Cho called "Captain Cameltoe" for the comedian's Cho Dependant album. In 2011, she appeared on Rob Wasserman's album Note of Hope, an exploration of the writings of Woody Guthrie with musical accompaniment, though the track in which she appeared, "Voice", was actually recorded 13 years earlier. Also in 2011 she duetted with Greg Dulli on the Twilight Singers record Dynamite Steps.
Other artists have covered and sampled DiFranco's work throughout the years. Her spoken word poem "Self Evident" was covered by Public Enemy founder Chuck D's group called Impossebulls. Alana Davis had some commercial success with DiFranco's song "32 Flavors".
Samples from the track "Coming Up" were used by DJ Spooky in his album Live Without Dead Time, produced for AdBusters Magazine in 2003.
In 2010, DiFranco played Persephone on Anaïs Mitchell's album Hadestown.
DiFranco was approached by Zoe Boekbinder to work on their Prison Music Project, an album of collaborations between incarcerated and formerly incarcerated writers and musicians on the outside. DiFranco co-produced the project with Boekbinder and co-wrote and performed "Nowhere but Barstow and Prison." The album Long Time Gone was released on Righteous Babe Records in 2020 after ten years in the making.
Lyrical content
Although much of DiFranco's material is autobiographical, it is often also strongly political. Many of her songs are concerned with contemporary social issues such as racism, sexism, sexual abuse, homophobia, reproductive rights, poverty, and war. In 2008, she donated a song to Aid Still Required's CD to assist with the restoration of the devastation done to Southeast Asia from the 2004 tsunami.
The combination of personal and political is partially responsible for DiFranco's early popularity among politically active college students, particularly those of the left wing, some of whom set up fan pages on the web to document DiFranco's career as early as 1994. DiFranco's rapid rise in popularity in the mid-1990s was fueled mostly by personal contact and word of mouth rather than mainstream media. over the years, including, for example, providing all instrumentals and vocals and recording the album herself at her home on an analog 8-track reel to reel, and handling much of the artwork and packaging design for her 2004 album Educated Guess. She has referenced this independence from major labels in song more than once, including "The Million You Never Made" (Not a Pretty Girl), which discusses the act of turning down a lucrative contract, "The Next Big Thing" (Not So Soft), which describes an imagined meeting with a label head-hunter who evaluates the singer based on her looks, and "Napoleon" (Dilate), which sympathizes sarcastically with an unnamed friend who did sign with a label.
The business grew organically starting in 1990 with the first cassette tape. Connections were made when women in colleges started duplicating and sharing tapes. Offers to play at colleges started coming in and her popularity grew largely by word of mouth and through women's groups or organizations. Zango and Goldenrod, two music distributors specializing in women's music, started carrying DiFranco's music. In general they sold music to independent music stores and women's book stores. In 1995, Righteous Babe Records signed with Koch International for DiFranco's release of Not a Pretty Girl. Her records could then be found in large and small record stores alike.
DiFranco has occasionally joined with Prince in discussing publicly the problems associated with major record companies. Righteous Babe Records employs a number of people in her hometown of Buffalo. In a 1997 open letter to Ms. magazine she expressed displeasure that what she considers a way to ensure her own artistic freedom was seen by others solely in terms of its financial success.ActivismFrom the earliest days of her career, DiFranco has lent her voice and her name to a broad range of social movements, performing benefit concerts, appearing on benefit albums, speaking at rallies, and offering info table space to organizations at her concerts and the virtual equivalent on her website, among other methods and actions. In 1999, she created her own not-for-profit organization; as the Buffalo News has reported, "Through the Righteous Babe Foundation, DiFranco has backed various grassroots cultural and political organizations, supporting causes ranging from abortion rights to gay visibility." raising money for Sister Helen Prejean's "Not in Our Name" anti-death penalty organization. DiFranco's commitment to opposing the death penalty is longstanding; she has also been a long time supporter of the Southern Center for Human Rights.
During the 2000 U.S. presidential election, she actively supported and voted for Green Party candidate Ralph Nader, though in an open letter she made clear that if she lived in a swing state, she would vote for Al Gore to prevent George W. Bush from being elected.
In 2004, DiFranco visited Burma in order to learn about the Burmese resistance movement and the country's fight for democracy. During her travels she met with then-detained resistance leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Her song "In The Way" was later featured on For the Lady, a benefit CD that donated all proceeds to the United States Campaign for Burma.
During the 2004 presidential primaries, she supported liberal, anti-war Democrat Dennis Kucinich, who appeared on stage with her during several of her concerts. After the primary season ended, and John Kerry was the clear Democratic candidate, DiFranco launched a "Vote Dammit!" tour of swing states encouraging audience members to vote. In 2005, she lobbied Congress against the proliferation of nuclear power in general and the placement of nuclear waste dumps on Indian land in particular. In 2008, she again backed Kucinich in his bid for the presidency.
In 2002, Righteous Babe Records established the "Aiding Buffalo's Children" program in conjunction with members of the local community to raise funds for Buffalo's public school system. To kick off the program, DiFranco donated "a day's pay"—the performance fee from her concert that year at Shea's Performing Arts Center— to ABC and challenged her fans to do the same. Aiding Buffalo's Children has since been folded into the Community Foundation of Greater Buffalo, contributing to a variety of charitable funds.
In 2005, when Hurricane Katrina devastated DiFranco's newly adopted home town of New Orleans, she collected donations from fans around the world through The Righteous Babe Store website for the Katrina Piano Fund, helping musicians replace instruments lost in the hurricane, raising over $47,500 for the cause.
In 2010, after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, she performed at the "For Our Coast" benefit concert joining Marianne Faithfull, C. C. Adcock and others at the Acadiana Center for the Arts Theater in Lafayette, raising money for Gulf Aid Acadiana, and the Gulf Aid show with Lenny Kravitz, Mos Def, and others at Mardi Gras World River City in New Orleans, both shows raising money to help protect the wetlands, clean up the coast and to assist the fishermen and their families affected by the spill.
DiFranco also sits on the board for The Roots of Music,
Scot Fisher, formerly Righteous Babe label president and DiFranco's manager for many years, has been a longtime advocate of the preservation movement in Buffalo. In 1999, he and DiFranco purchased a decaying church on the verge of demolition in downtown Buffalo and began the lengthy process of restoring it. In 2006, the building opened its doors again, first briefly as "The Church" and then as "Babeville," housing two concert venues, the record label's business office, and Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center.
DiFranco is also a member of the Toronto-based charity Artists Against Racism for which she participated in a radio PSA.
In October 2023, DiFranco signed an open letter to Joe Biden, President of the United States, of artists calling for a ceasefire of the Israeli bombardment of Gaza.Awards and nominations{|class"wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Nominated work !! Award !! Result
|-
| 2017 || Ani DiFranco || A2IM Lifetime Achievement Award ||
|-
| 2021 || Ani DiFranco || John Lennon Real Love Award ||
|-
| 2024 || Hadestown || Broadway.com Audience Award for Favorite Replacement (Female) ||
|}
Discography
Studio albums
*Ani DiFranco (1990)
*Not So Soft (1991)
*Imperfectly (1992)
*Puddle Dive (1993)
*Out of Range (1994)
*Not a Pretty Girl (1995)
*Dilate (1996)
*Little Plastic Castle (1998)
*Up Up Up Up Up Up (1999)
*To the Teeth (1999)
*Revelling/Reckoning (2001)
*Evolve (2003)
*Educated Guess (2004)
*Knuckle Down (2005)
*Reprieve (2006)
*Red Letter Year (2008)
*¿Which Side Are You On? (2012)
*Allergic to Water (2014)
*Binary (2017)
*Revolutionary Love (2021)
*Unprecedented Sh!t (2024)
with Utah Phillips
*''The Past Didn't Go Anywhere (1996)
*Fellow Workers (1999)
Live albums
* 1994 – An Acoustic Evening With
* 1994 – Women in (E)motion (German Release)
* 1997 – Living in Clip
* 2002 – So Much Shouting, So Much Laughter
* 2004 – Atlanta – 10.9.03 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2004 – Sacramento – 10.25.03 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2004 – Portland – 4.7.04 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2005 – Boston – 11.16.03 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2005 – Chicago – 1.17.04 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2005 – Madison – 1.25.04 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2005 – Rome – 11.15.04 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2006 – Carnegie Hall – 4.6.02 (Official Bootleg series No. 1 – available in stores)
* 2007 – Boston – 11.10.06 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2008 – Hamburg – 10.18.07 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2009 – Saratoga, CA – 9.18.06 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2009 – Chicago – 9.22.07 (Official Bootleg series #1)
* 2010 – Live at Bull Moose Music (Limited edition)
* 2012 – Buffalo – April 22, 2012 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2013 – London – October 29, 2008 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2014 – Ridgefield, CT – November 18, 2009 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2014 – Harrisburg, PA – January 23, 2008 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2015 – New York, NY – March 30, 1995 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2016 – Glenside, PA – November 11, 2012 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2016 – Melbourne, FL – January 19, 2016 (Official Bootleg series #2)
* 2018 – Charlottesville, VA 5.12.18 (Official Bootleg series #3)
* 2019 – Woodstock, NY Jun 16, 2019 (Official Bootleg series #3)
* 2020 – Keene, NH Nov 16, 2019 (Official Bootleg series #3)
*2021 – Revolutionary Love: Live at Big Blue
EPs
* 1996 – More Joy, Less Shame
* 1999 – Little Plastic Remixes (limited distribution)
* 2000 – Swing Set
* 2016 – Play GodVideos
* 2002 – Render: Spanning Time with Ani DiFranco
* 2004 – Trust
* 2008 – Live at Babeville
Compilations
* 1993 – Like I Said: Songs 1990–91
* 1995 – Live from Mountain Stage, Vol. 8 – "Buildings & Bridges (live)"
* 1996 – Women's Work – "Cradle and All (live)"
* 1996 – Women: Live from Mountain Stage – "Egos Like Hairdos (live)"
* 1997 – Divine Divas: A World of Women's Voices – "Amazing Grace"
* 1998 – Live at World Café Vol. 6 – "Buildings & Bridges (live)"
* 1998 – Modern Day Storytellers – "Buildings & Bridges"
* 1998 – Rare on Air Vol. 4 (KCRW) – "Gravel (live)"
* 1998 – Where Have All the Flowers Gone: Songs of Pete Seeger – "My Name is Lisa Kalvelage"
* 1998 – Women of Spirit – "Done Wrong"
* 1999 – Respect: A Century of Women in Music – "32 Flavors"
* 2000 – Badlands: A Tribute to Bruce Springsteen's Nebraska – "Used Cars"
* 2000 – Best of Hard Rock Café Live – "Little Plastic Castle (live)"
* 2000 – 'Til We Outnumber 'Em'' – Performed "Do Re Mi" solo and "Ramblin' Round" with Indigo Girls; Producer
* 2001 – Live @ The World Café Vol. 10 – "32 Flavors"
* 2001 – Best of Sessions at West 54th – "32 Flavors"
* 2002 – Gascd – "Your Next Bold Move"
* 2002 – Going Driftless: An Artist Tribute to Greg Brown – "The Poet Game"
* 2002 – ''When Pigs Fly: Songs You Never Thought You'd Hear – "Unforgettable" w/ Jackie Chan
* 2003 – Peace Not War – "Self Evident"
* 2004 – Peace Not War Vol. 2 – "Animal"
* 2004 – For the Lady – "In the Way"
* 2005 – Bonnaroo Music Festival 2004 (CD & DVD) – "Evolve (live)"
* 2006 – Music Is Hope – "Napoleon (remix)"
* 2006 – Dead Man Walking: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture – "Crime for Crime", "Fuel", "Up Up Up Up Up Up"
* 2007 – Canon
* 2007 – Sowing the Seed: The 10th Anniversary Appleseed Recordings – "Waist Deep in the Big Muddy"
* 2007 – Cool as Folk: Cambridge Folk Festival – "Cradle and All (live)"
* 2009 – Singing Through the Hard Times: A Utah Phillips Celebration – "The International"
* 2011 – Note of Hope: A Celebration of Woody Guthrie – "Voice"
* 2011 – Every Mother Counts – "Present/Infant" (Remix)
* 2012 – Occupy This Album – "Which Side Are You On? (a capella)"
* 2019 – No Walls Mixtape
* 2020 – Prison Music Project: Long Time Gone – "Nowhere but Barstow and Prison"
As producer
* 1998 – Dan Bern – Fifty Eggs
* 2010 – Margaret Cho – Cho Dependent – co-producer on "Captain Cameltoe"
* 2017 – Peter Mulvey – Are You Listening?
* 2020 – Prison Music Project: Long Time Gone
* 2008 – Dr. John – The City That Care Forgot – Contributed backing vocals to the title track.
* 2009 – Jason Karaban – Sobriety Kills
* 2010 – Anaïs Mitchell – Hadestown
* 2010 – Preservation Hall Jazz Band – Preservation: An Album to Benefit Preservation Hall & The Preservation Hall Music Outreach Program – Featured on "Freight Train"
* 2011 – Twilight Singers – Dynamite Steps'' – Featured on "Blackbird and the Fox"
*2016 – Ryan Harvey – Featured on "Old Man Trump"
*2019 – Rising Appalachia – Leylines – Featured on "Speak Out"
*2021 – Pieta Brown – Featured on "We Are Not Machines"Poetry
* 2004 – Self-evident: poesie e disegni
* 2007 – Verses
References
External links
*
* [http://www.righteousbabe.com/ The Righteous Babe homepage]
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090508135825/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/anidifranco Ani DiFranco] at Rolling Stone
Category:1970 births
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Category:LGBTQ women singers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani_DiFranco | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.541695 |
2127 | Arene (disambiguation) | An Arene, or aromatic hydrocarbon, is a hydrocarbon with alternating double and single bonds between carbon atoms forming rings.
Arene may also refer to:
Arene (gastropod), a genus of marine snails in the family Areneidae
Arene (mythology), the wife of Aphareus and mother of Idas and Lynceus in Greek mythology
Arene, Elis, an ancient town in Elis, Greece, also known as Samiko
Jean Arènes (1898–1960), French botanist who described many new species of the genus Dombeya
Paul Arène (1843–1896), Provençal poet and French writer
See also
Arena (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arene_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.545100 |
2129 | Arizona Diamondbacks | Diamondback}}
| colors Sedona red, teal, black, white<!-- Please DO NOT change or re-order the colors or color codes. Thank you. --><br />
| y3 = 1998
| nicknames = The D-backs
* The Desert Snakes
* Los Serpientes
* The Answerbacks
* The Earlybacks
* The Givebacks
* The Neversaydiebacks
| pastnames | ballpark Chase Field
| y4 = 1998
| pastparks | WS (1)
| WORLD CHAMPIONS =
| LEAGUE = National League
| P = (2)
| PENNANTS = | }}
| misc1 | OTHER PENNANTS
| DIV = West
| DV = (5)
| Division Champs =
| misc5 | OTHER DIV CHAMPS
| WC = (2)
| Wild Card =
| misc6 | owner Ken Kendrick
| president = Derrick Hall
| manager = Torey Lovullo
| gm = Mike Hazen
| presbo = Mike Hazen
| mascots = D. Baxter the Bobcat
| website =
}}
The Arizona Diamondbacks are an American professional baseball team based in Phoenix, Arizona. The Diamondbacks compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West Division. The franchise was established on March 9, 1995, and began play in 1998 as an expansion team. The team plays its home games at Chase Field. Along with the Tampa Bay Rays, the Diamondbacks are one of the newest teams in the MLB and are the youngest team to win a World Series.
After a fifth-place finish in their inaugural season, the Diamondbacks made several off-season acquisitions, including future Hall of Fame pitcher Randy Johnson, who won four consecutive Cy Young Awards in his first four seasons with the team. In 1999, Arizona won 100 games and their first division championship. In 2001, they won the World Series over the three-time defending champion New York Yankees, becoming the fastest expansion team in major league history to win the World Series and the first and only men's major professional sports team in the State of Arizona to win a championship. 22 years later, they would return to the World Series, only to lose to the Texas Rangers in five games, thus earning the Diamondbacks their first World Series loss in team history.
From 1998 to 2024, the Diamondbacks had an overall record of ().History
On March 9, 1995, Phoenix was awarded an expansion franchise to begin play for the season. A $130 million franchise fee was paid to Major League Baseball and on January 16, 1997, the Diamondbacks were voted into the National League. The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the Colorado Rockies on March 31, 1998, at Bank One Ballpark. The ballpark was renamed Chase Field in 2005, as a result of Bank One Corporation's merger with JPMorgan Chase & Co.
Since their debut, the Diamondbacks have won two Wild Card Series, five NL West division titles, two NL pennants, and the 2001 World Series.
They later became the fastest expansion franchise in baseball history to win a World Series. The Diamondbacks defeated the Yankees in Game 7 during the 2001 postseason.
After beating the Philadelphia Phillies 4–2 in Game 7 of the 2023 NLCS at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, the Arizona Diamondbacks returned to the World Series for the first time since 2001 – against the Texas Rangers on October 27, 2023.
They lost the series 4–1 at home in Arizona on November 1, 2023.
Logos and uniforms
1998–2006
The Diamondbacks' original colors were purple, black, teal and copper. Their logo was an italicized block letter "A" with a diamond pattern, with the crossbar represented by a snake's tongue. This period saw the Diamondbacks wear several uniform combinations.
At home, the Diamondbacks wore cream uniforms with purple pinstripes. The primary sleeved uniform, worn from 1998 to 2000, featured the full team name ("Diamond" and "Backs" stacked together) in front and chest numbers. The alternate sleeveless version contained the "A" logo on the right chest, and was paired with purple undershirts. Before the 2001 season, the sleeved uniform was changed to feature the "A" logo. In all three uniforms, player names were teal with purple trim, and numbers were purple with white with teal trim.
The Diamondbacks' primary road gray uniform also had purple pinstripes. The first version featured "Arizona" in purple with white and teal trim along with black drop shadows, with chest numbers added. Player names were in purple with white trim, and numbers were teal with white and purple trim. In 2001, the uniform became sleeveless with black undershirts, and the lettering scheme was changed to purple with white, copper and black accents.
The alternate home purple uniform featured "Arizona" in teal with white and copper trim and black drop shadows. The letters were rendered in teal with copper and white trim, but were changed to copper with teal and white trim after only one season. This set was worn until 2002.
The alternate road black uniform featured the "A" logo on the right chest, while letters were purple with white trim and numbers were teal with white and purple trim. A zigzag pattern of teal, copper and purple was featured on the sleeves. In 2001, the uniform was changed to feature "Arizona" in front. The letters became purple with white and copper trim.
The Diamondbacks initially wore four different cap versions. The primary home cap is all-purple, while the road cap is black with a teal brim. They also wore a cream cap with purple brim, and a teal cap with purple brim. All designs featured the primary "A" logo. In 1999, the road cap became all-black and contained the alternate "D-snake" logo rendered in copper. Also, the teal and cream alternate caps were dropped.
The left sleeve of all four uniforms contained the snake logo with the full team name until the 2004 season, when it became exclusive to the road black uniform.
2007–2015
The franchise unveiled new uniforms and colors of Sedona red, Sonoran sand and black on November 8, 2006. The red shade is named for the sandstone canyon at Red Rock State Park near Sedona, while the beige (sand) shade is named for the Sonoran Desert.
Starting with the 2020 season, the Diamondbacks made slight redesigns to their uniforms. The snakeskin patterns were removed while the teal-trimmed grey uniforms were retired. The team also reverted to a standard grey uniform after wearing a darker shade on the previous set. Two home white uniforms remain in use: the primary Sedona Red and the alternate teal. They would also wear two black uniforms: one with the primary "A" logo on the left chest and the other with "Los D-Backs" trimmed in teal. Three cap designs were also unveiled, all with a black base: the primary "A" cap, the teal-trimmed "snake" cap (paired exclusively on the teal alternates), and the sand-trimmed "snake" cap with red brim (paired exclusively on the Sedona Red alternates). The Nike swoosh logo is also placed on the right chest near the shoulder. In 2022, the Diamondbacks introduced a red "A" cap with black brim.
In 2021, the Diamondbacks were one of seven teams to wear Nike "City Connect" uniforms. The design is primarily sand and has "Serpientes" in black script lettering emblazoned in front. The first "S" in "Serpientes" was shaped to resemble a rattlesnake. The right sleeve has the flag of Arizona patch recolored to the Diamondbacks' red, sand and black scheme, and the left sleeve has the "A" logo recolored to black and sand. Numerals are in red. The cap is primarily sand with black brim and has the "A" logo in black and sand; the regular batting helmet is used with the uniform. Initially, the Diamondbacks wore white pants with this uniform, but has since switched to sand pants.
Before the 2023 season, the Diamondbacks promoted the alternate white uniform with teal accents to its primary home uniform and retired the previous Sedona Red white uniform. This is due to a new Nike rule that limits teams to four regular uniforms plus the "City Connect" uniform.Since 2024Coming off their second World Series appearance in , the Diamondbacks unveiled refreshed uniform designs starting in 2024. Turquoise returned full-time as an accent color on all uniforms along with Sedona red and black, but sand was removed except on the "City Connect" uniform. The home uniform is now a cream base with black piping, featuring the "A" logo on the left chest. The road grey uniform with black piping featured "Arizona" in Sedona red with teal and black outlines. The alternate black uniform with teal piping shared the same features as the home uniform. The alternate Sedona red uniform incorporated the full "Diamondbacks" wordmark in black with teal and Sedona red outlines, along with teal numbers trimmed in black on the left chest. All uniforms featured the snake head alternate logo on either sleeve, with the sponsor logo (Avnet since 2023) on the other sleeve. The home cap is Sedona red with black brim and featured the "A" logo, and its all-black counterpart is worn with both the home and black alternate uniform. The road cap is black with Sedona red trim and featured the return of the "D-snake" logo and is worn with both the road and alternate Sedona red uniform. The all-Sedona red alternate cap shared the same features as the road cap and is worn with the Sedona red uniform.Regular season home attendance
]]
{| cellpadding"1" style"width:300px; font-size:90%; border:2px solid #C41E3A;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"
| colspan5 style";"|Home Attendance
|- style=;"
| Year || Total attendance || Game average || League rank
|-
| 1998
| 3,610,290
| 44,571
| 2nd
|-
| 1999
| 3,019,654
| 37,280
| 5th
|-
| 2000
| 2,942,251
| 36,324
| 6th
|-
| 2001
| 2,736,451
| 33,783
| 9th
|-
| 2002
| 3,198,977
| 39,494
| 2nd
|-
| 2003
| 2,805,542
| 34,636
| 5th
|-
| 2004
| 2,519,560
| 31,106
| 8th
|-
| 2005
| 2,059,424
| 25,425
| 12th
|-
| 2006
| 2,091,685
| 25,823
| 14th
|-
| 2007
| 2,325,249
| 28,707
| 12th
|-
| 2008
| 2,509,924
| 30,987
| 11th
|-
| 2009
| 2,128,765
| 26,281
| 11th
|-
| 2010
| 2,056,697
| 25,391
| 13th
|-
| 2011
| 2,105,432
| 25,993
| 12th
|-
| 2012
| 2,177,617
| 26,884
| 13th
|-
| 2013
| 2,134,895
| 26,357
| 14th
|-
| 2014
| 2,073,730
| 25,602
| 14th
|-
| 2015
| 2,080,145
| 25,681
| 12th
|-
| 2016
| 2,036,216
| 25,138
| 11th
|-
| 2017
| 2,134,375
| 26,350
| 11th
|-
| 2018
| 2,242,695
| 27,688
| 9th
|-
| 2019
| 2,135,510
| 26,364
| 12th
|-
| 2020
| 0
| 0
| N/A
|-
| 2021
| 1,043,010
| 12,877
| 13th
|-
| 2022
| 1,605,199
| 19,817
| 12th
|-
| 2023
| 1,961,182
| 24,212
| 12th
|-
| 2024
| 2,341,876
| 28,912
| 11th
|}
Radio and television
On July 18, 2023, a federal bankruptcy court granted Bally Sports' parent company Diamond Sports Group a motion to decline its contract with the Diamondbacks as part of its chapter 11 bankruptcy. As a result, Major League Baseball's local media division assumed production of the Diamondbacks' regional telecasts (maintaining staff such as commentators) and distributed them via local television providers and MLB.tv. As of 2024, these games are branded as DBacks.TV. Games air on the following cable providers and networks:
*Cox (Phoenix) (CH. 34)
*Cox (Tucson) (CH. 26)
*Cox (Las Vegas) (YurView Las Vegas)
*DirecTV/DirecTV Stream (CH. 686)
*Charter (CH. 304 or CH. 444)
*Xfinity/Comcast (CH. 1261)
*FuboTV
The primary television play-by-play voice for the team's first nine seasons of play was Thom Brennaman, who also broadcast baseball and college football games nationally for Fox Television. Brennaman was the TV announcer for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds (along with his father Marty Brennaman) before being hired by Diamondbacks founder Jerry Colangelo in 1996, two years before the team would begin play.
In October 2006, Brennaman left the Diamondbacks to call games with his father for the Reds beginning in 2007, signing a four-year deal.
On November 1, 2006, the team announced that the TV voice of the Milwaukee Brewers since 2002, Daron Sutton, would be hired as the Diamondbacks primary TV play-by-play voice. Sutton was signed to a five-year contract with a team option for three more years. Sutton's signature chants included "let's get some runs" when the D-backs trail in late innings.
Former Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs first baseman Mark Grace and knuckleballer Tom Candiotti were the Diamondbacks primary color analysts for the 2006 and 2007 seasons. Former Diamondbacks third baseman Matt Williams also did color commentary on occasion, as did Cardinals and NBC broadcast legend Joe Garagiola, a longtime Phoenix-area resident and father of Joe Garagiola Jr., the first GM of the Diamondbacks.
The Diamondbacks announced in July 2007 that for the 2008 season, all regionally broadcast Diamondbacks TV games would be shown exclusively on Fox Sports Arizona (now Bally Sports Arizona) and a few could possibly be shown on the national MLB on Fox telecasts. Bally Sports Arizona is seen in 2.8 million households in Arizona and New Mexico. The previous flagship station since the inaugural 1998 season was KTVK (Channel 3), a popular over-the-air independent station (and former longtime ABC affiliate) in Phoenix.
From 2009 to 2012, Grace and Sutton were tagged as the main broadcasters of the Diamondbacks with pre-game and postgame shows on Fox Sports Arizona, being hosted by Joe Borowski.
On June 21, 2012, Sutton was suspended indefinitely amid rumors of insubordination. On August 24, the team announced that Grace had requested an indefinite leave of absence after being arrested for his second DUI in less than two years. Grace was later indicted on four DUI counts.) For the remainder of the 2012 season, Sutton was replaced by Greg Schulte (Jeff Munn replaced Schulte on the radio broadcast) and Grace was replaced by Luis Gonzalez. At the end of the 2012 season, the team announced that neither Sutton nor Grace would return for the 2013 season.
On October 18, 2012, the team announced that Bob Brenly would return as a broadcaster to replace Grace and that he would be joined by then-ESPN personality Steve Berthiaume.
The English language flagship radio station is KTAR. Greg Schulte was the regular radio play-by-play voice, a 25-year veteran of sports radio in the Phoenix market, also well known for his previous work on Phoenix Suns, Arizona Cardinals and Arizona State University (ASU) broadcasts. It was announced in February 2023 that he would be retiring after the 2023 MLB season. He would call games with analyst Tom Candiotti. Mike Ferrin served in the same role for six years before parting ways with the team, and he was replaced by Chris Garagiola in December 2021.
Spanish broadcasts
The flagship Spanish language radio station is KHOV-FM 105.1 with Oscar Soria, Rodrigo López, and Richard Saenz.
Games were televised in Spanish on KPHE-LP—with Oscar Soria and Jerry Romo as the announcers, but this arrangement ended prior to the 2009 season due to the team switching fully to Fox Sports Arizona and the lack of carriage of KPHE-LP on the Cox cable system.AchievementsBaseball Hall of Famers
(Hall of Famer) pitching for the Arizona Diamondbacks.]]
Ford C. Frick Award recipients
Arizona Sports Hall of Fame
(1999–2006)]]
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
| colspan"5" style ";"|Diamondbacks in the Arizona Sports Hall of Fame
|-
! width40px style""|No.
! width120px style""|Name
! width40px style""|Position
! width100px style""|Tenure
! width300px style""|Notes
|-
| — || Jerry Colangelo || Owner || 1998–2004 ||
|-
| 20 || Luis Gonzalez || LF || 1999–2006 ||
|-
| 38 || Curt Schilling || P || 2000–2003 || Grew up in Phoenix, attended Yavapai College
|-
| 51 || Randy Johnson || P || 1999–2004<br>2007–2008 ||
|-
| 17 || Mark Grace || 1B || 2001–2003 || Diamondbacks Broadcaster from 2004 – 2012
|-
| — || Derrick Hall || Executive || 2005–present || Attended Arizona State University
|-
| — || Roland Hemond || Executive || 1996–2000<br>2007–2017 ||
|}
Arizona Diamondbacks Hall of Fame
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
!scope="row" |Year
|Year inducted
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| Bold
|Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| }}
|Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame as a Diamondback
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#cfc;"| Bold
|Recipient of the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
| colspan"5" style";|Arizona Diamondbacks Hall of Fame
|-
!scope"col" style";|Year
!scope"col" style";|No.
!scope"col" style";| Name
!scope"col" style";| Position(s)
!scope"col" style";| Tenure
|-
|rowspan=2|2024 || 20 || Luis Gonzalez || LF || 1999–2006
|-
| 51 || style="background:#ffb;"|Randy Johnson || P || 1999–2004<br/>2007–2008
|}
Award Winners
Cy Young Award
*Randy Johnson – 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002
*Brandon Webb – 2006
NL Rookie of the Year Award
*Corbin Carroll – 2023
NL Manager of the Year Award
*Bob Melvin – 2007
*Kirk Gibson – 2011
*Torey Lovullo – 2017
Hank Aaron Award
*Paul Goldschmidt – 2013
Roberto Clemente Award
*Curt Schilling – 2001
Gold Glove Award
Pitcher
*Zack Greinke – 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
Catcher
*Gabriel Moreno – 2023
First baseman
*Paul Goldschmidt – 2013, 2015, 2017
*Christian Walker – 2022, 2023, 2024
Second baseman
*Orlando Hudson – 2006, 2007
Shortstop
*Nick Ahmed – 2018, 2019
Outfielder
*Steve Finley – 1999, 2000
*Gerardo Parra – 2011, 2013
*A. J. Pollock – 2015
*David Peralta – 2019
Silver Slugger Award
Pitcher
*Micah Owings – 2007
*Daniel Hudson – 2011
*Zack Greinke – 2019
First baseman
*Paul Goldschmidt – 2013, 2015, 2017, 2018
Second baseman
*Aaron Hill – 2012
*Ketel Marte - 2024
Outfielder
*Luis Gonzalez – 2001
*Justin Upton – 2011
*David Peralta – 2018
All-time leaders
(2011–2018) had an on-base percentage of .398, during his tenure in Phoenix]]
;Hitting
:Games played: Luis Gonzalez (1999–2006) – 1,194
:At bats: Luis Gonzalez – 4,488
:Hits: Luis Gonzalez – 1,337
:Batting average: Luis Gonzalez – .289
:Runs: Luis Gonzalez – 780
:Doubles: Luis Gonzalez – 310
:Triples: Stephen Drew – 52
:Home runs: Luis Gonzalez – 224
:Runs batted in: Luis Gonzalez – 774
:On-base percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .398
:Walks: Paul Goldschmidt* – 655
:Strikeouts: Paul Goldschmidt* – 1,059
:Slugging percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .532
:Stolen bases: Tony Womack – 182
;Pitching
:ERA: Randy Johnson (1999–2004, 2007–08) – 2.83
:Wins: Randy Johnson – 118
:Losses: Randy Johnson/Brandon Webb (2003–10) – 62
:Games: Andrew Chafin* – 380
:Saves: José Valverde – 98
:Innings: Randy Johnson – 1630.1
:Starts: Randy Johnson – 232
:Strikeouts: Randy Johnson – 2,077
:Complete games: Randy Johnson – 38
:Shutouts: Randy Johnson – 14
:WHIP: Curt Schilling – 1.04
* all stats are as of February 8, 2025, from the Arizona Diamondbacks website.
<nowiki>*</nowiki> signifies active Major League player
Championships
}}
Retired numbers
}}
*No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997 to honor Jackie Robinson.
Season record
Roster
Rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers
The rivalry between the Diamondbacks and the Los Angeles Dodgers has been one of the fiercest divisional matchups for several years. Animosity between the two teams began to escalate during the 2010s in multiple incidents involving either team throwing pitches at one another or instigating into large-scale brawls between both benches. After eliminating the Diamondbacks and clinching the division on September 19, 2013, multiple Dodgers players celebrated the win by jumping into the pool at Chase Field. The two sides met during the 2017 National League Division Series as the Diamondbacks were swept 3–0 by the Dodgers en route to their appearance in the World Series that season. The Dodgers led the series 257–191 with a 3–0 lead in the postseason. After clinching the 2023 NL Wild Card berth and defeating the Milwaukee Brewers in the National League Wild Card Series, the Diamondbacks played the Dodgers again in the 2023 NLDS. There, the Diamondbacks emphatically swept the Dodgers to even the all-time postseason record between the two clubs at 3–3.
Minor league affiliations
The Arizona Diamondbacks farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope"col" style""|Class
!scope"col" style""|Team
!scope"col" style""|League
!scope"col" style""|Location
!scope"col" style""|Ballpark
!scope"col" style""|Affiliated
|-
| Triple-A
!scope="row"| Reno Aces
| Pacific Coast League
| Reno, Nevada
| Greater Nevada Field
| align="right"| 2009
|-
| Double-A
!scope="row"| Amarillo Sod Poodles
| Texas League
| Amarillo, Texas
| Hodgetown
| align="right"| 2021
|-
| High-A
!scope="row"| Hillsboro Hops
| Northwest League
| Hillsboro, Oregon
| Ron Tonkin Field
| align="right"| 2013
|-
| Single-A
!scope="row"| Visalia Rawhide
| California League
| Visalia, California
| Valley Strong Ballpark
| align="right"| 2007
|-
| rowspan=3| Rookie
!scope="row"| ACL D-backs
| Arizona Complex League
| Scottsdale, Arizona
| Salt River Fields at Talking Stick
| align="right"| 2024
|-
!scope="row"| DSL Arizona Black
| rowspan=2|Dominican Summer League
| rowspan=2|Boca Chica, Santo Domingo
| rowspan=2|Baseball City Complex
| rowspan2 align"right"| 2016
|-
!scope="row"| DSL Arizona Red
|}
See also
* List of Arizona Diamondbacks team records
* List of Arizona Diamondbacks broadcasters
* List of managers and ownership of the Arizona Diamondbacks
References
External links
*
}}
;|list1=
}}
Category:Major League Baseball teams
Category:Baseball teams established in 1998
Category:Cactus League
Category:Sports in Phoenix, Arizona
Category:Professional baseball teams in Arizona
Category:1998 establishments in Arizona | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.583188 |
2130 | Aesthetics | Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art. Aesthetics examines values about, and critical judgments of, artistic taste and preference. It thus studies how artists imagine, create, and perform works of art, as well as how people use, enjoy, and criticize art. Aesthetics considers why people consider certain things beautiful and not others, as well as how objects of beauty and art can affect our moods and our beliefs.
Aesthetics tries to find answers to what exactly is art and what makes good art. It considers what happens in our minds when we view visual art, listen to music, read poetry, enjoy delicious food, and engage in large artistic projects like creating and experiencing plays, fashion shows, films, and television programs. It can also focus on how humans regard various forms of beauty in the natural world. Its function is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature".EtymologyThe word aesthetic is derived from the Ancient Greek (, "perceptive, sensitive, pertaining to sensory perception"), which in turn comes from (, "I perceive, sense, learn") and is related to (, "perception, sensation"). Aesthetics in this central sense has been said to start with the series of articles on "The Pleasures of the Imagination", which the journalist Joseph Addison wrote in the early issues of the magazine The Spectator in 1712. Baumgarten chose "aesthetics" because he wished to emphasize the experience of art as a means of knowing. Baumgarten's definition of aesthetics in the fragment Aesthetica (1750) is occasionally considered the first definition of modern aesthetics.
The term was introduced into the English language by Thomas Carlyle in his Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825).
History of aesthetics
The history of the philosophy of art as aesthetics covering the visual arts, the literary arts, the musical arts and other artists forms of expression can be dated back at least to Aristotle and the ancient Greeks. Aristotle writing of the literary arts in his Poetics stated that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. Aristotle applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself.
Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language.
The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.Aesthetics and the philosophy of artSome writers distinguish aesthetics from the philosophy of art, claiming that the former is the study of beauty and taste while the latter is the study of works of art. Slater holds that the "full field" of aesthetics is broad, but in a narrow sense it can be limited to the theory of beauty, excluding the philosophy of art.
Aesthetic experience refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily a work of art), while artistic judgment refers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art in general or a specific work of art. In the words of one philosopher, "Philosophy of art is about art. Aesthetics is about many things—including art. But it is also about our experience of breathtaking landscapes or the pattern of shadows on the wall opposite your office.
Philosophers of art weigh a culturally contingent conception of art versus one that is purely theoretical. They study the varieties of art in relation to their physical, social, and cultural environments. Aesthetic philosophers sometimes also refer to psychological studies to help understand how people see, hear, imagine, think, learn, and act in relation to the materials and problems of art. Aesthetic psychology studies the creative process and the aesthetic experience.
Aesthetic judgment, universals, and ethics
Aesthetic judgment
believed that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment.]]
Aesthetics examines affective domain response to an object or phenomenon. Judgements of aesthetic value rely on the ability to discriminate at a sensory level. However, aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination.
For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition", but also the sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind." Thus, sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure.
For Immanuel Kant (Critique of Judgment, 1790), "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging reflective contemplation. Judgements of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once. Kant observed of a man "if he says that 'Canary wine is pleasant,' he is quite content if someone else corrects his expression and remind him that he ought to say instead: 'It is pleasant to me,'" because "every one has his own [sense of] taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere "pleasantness" because "if he gives out anything as beautiful, he supposes in others the same satisfaction—he judges not merely for himself, but for every one, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things."
Viewer interpretations of beauty may on occasion be observed to possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an education process and awareness of elite cultural values learned through exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined how the elite in society define the aesthetic values like taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values can result in variations by class, cultural background, and education. According to Kant, beauty is subjective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. In the opinion of Władysław Tatarkiewicz, there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality, artistic expression and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of art.
The question of whether there are facts about aesthetic judgments belongs to the branch of metaphilosophy known as meta-aesthetics.
Factors involved in aesthetic judgment
s often have aesthetic appeal]]
Aesthetic judgment is closely tied to disgust. Responses like disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions including physiological responses like the gag reflex. Disgust is triggered largely by dissonance; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in physical reactions. For example, the awe inspired by a sublime landscape might physically manifest with an increased heart-rate or pupil dilation.
As seen, emotions are conformed to 'cultural' reactions, therefore aesthetics is always characterized by 'regional responses', as Francis Grose was the first to affirm in his Rules for Drawing Caricaturas: With an Essay on Comic Painting (1788), published in W. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, Bagster, London s.d. (1791? [1753]), pp. 1–24. Francis Grose can therefore be claimed to be the first critical 'aesthetic regionalist' in proclaiming the anti-universality of aesthetics in contrast to the perilous and always resurgent dictatorship of beauty. 'Aesthetic Regionalism' can thus be seen as a political statement and stance which vies against any universal notion of beauty to safeguard the counter-tradition of aesthetics related to what has been considered and dubbed un-beautiful just because one's culture does not contemplate it, e.g. Edmund Burke's sublime, what is usually defined as 'primitive' art, or un-harmonious, non-cathartic art, camp art, which 'beauty' posits and creates, dichotomously, as its opposite, without even the need of formal statements, but which will be 'perceived' as ugly.
Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value. In a current context, a Lamborghini might be judged to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or it may be judged to be repulsive partly because it signifies over-consumption and offends political or moral values.
The context of its presentation also affects the perception of artwork; artworks presented in a classical museum context are liked more and rated more interesting than when presented in a sterile laboratory context. While specific results depend heavily on the style of the presented artwork, overall, the effect of context proved to be more important for the perception of artwork than the effect of genuineness (whether the artwork was being presented as original or as a facsimile/copy).
Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. What a thing means or symbolizes is often what is being judged. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to some 20th-century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty and the Critic's Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behaviour, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory is employed.
A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. For instance, the source of a painting's beauty has a different character to that of beautiful music, suggesting their aesthetics differ in kind. The distinct inability of language to express aesthetic judgment and the role of social construction further cloud this issue.
Aesthetic universals
The philosopher Denis Dutton identified six universal signatures in human aesthetics:
# Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills.
# Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and do not demand that it keep them warm or put food on the table.
# Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style.
# Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art.
# Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world.
# Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience.
Artists such as Thomas Hirschhorn have indicated that there are too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, Hirschhorn's installations deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific devotional functions. "Rules of composition" that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's 4′33″ do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works' realization). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Dutton's categories seek to universalize traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as André Malraux and others have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea "art" itself) were non-existent.
Aesthetic ethics
Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiful and attractive. John Dewey has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in our understanding of behaviour being "fair"—the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationale for peace education.
Beauty
Beauty is one of the main subjects of aesthetics, together with art and taste. Many of its definitions include the idea that an object is beautiful if perceiving it is accompanied by aesthetic pleasure. Among the examples of beautiful objects are landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty is a positive aesthetic value that contrasts with ugliness as its negative counterpart.
Different intuitions commonly associated with beauty and its nature are in conflict with each other, which poses certain difficulties for understanding it. On the one hand, beauty is ascribed to things as an objective, public feature. On the other hand, it seems to depend on the subjective, emotional response of the observer. It is said, for example, that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder". It may be possible to reconcile these intuitions by affirming that it depends both on the objective features of the beautiful thing and the subjective response of the observer. One way to achieve this is to hold that an object is beautiful if it has the power to bring about certain aesthetic experiences in the perceiving subject. This is often combined with the view that the subject needs to have the ability to correctly perceive and judge beauty, sometimes referred to as "sense of taste". Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their value, of a loving attitude towards them or of their function.
As summarized by Berys Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."
Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."
Various attempts have been made to define Post-Modern Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.
Croce suggested that "expression" is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities. Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed to make visible what is usually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after the Greek word for beauty, κάλλος kallos). André Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originated in the eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art. Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari. Walter Benjamin echoed Malraux in believing aesthetics was a comparatively recent invention, a view proven wrong in the late 1970s, when Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links between beauty, information processing, and information theory. Denis Dutton in "The Art Instinct" also proposed that an aesthetic sense was a vital evolutionary factor.
Jean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike kitsch realism, "... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain."
Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical affect. Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty, Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing.
The relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.
Aesthetics and science
The field of experimental aesthetics was founded by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the 19th century. Experimental aesthetics in these times had been characterized by a subject-based, inductive approach. The analysis of individual experience and behaviour based on experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. In particular, the perception of works of art, music, sound, or modern items such as websites or other IT products is studied. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Modern approaches mostly come from the fields of cognitive psychology (aesthetic cognitivism) or neuroscience (neuroaesthetics).
Truth in beauty and mathematics
Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous, as reflected in the statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by John Keats, or by the Hindu motto "Satyam Shivam Sundaram" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes equated with truth. Recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks. However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell and physicist Marcelo Gleiser have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray.
Computational approaches
with continuously colored environment]]
Computational approaches to aesthetics emerged amid efforts to use computer science methods "to predict, convey, and evoke emotional response to a piece of art. In this field, aesthetics is not considered to be dependent on taste but is a matter of cognition, and, consequently, learning. In 1928, the mathematician George David Birkhoff created an aesthetic measure <math>M O/C</math> as the ratio of order to complexity.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Max Bense, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and information theory. Max Bense, for example, built on Birkhoff's aesthetic measure and proposed a similar information theoretic measure <math>M_\ddot{a}R/H</math>, where <math>R</math> is the redundancy and <math>H</math> the entropy, which assigns higher value to simpler artworks.
In the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty. This theory takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates that among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjective observer, the most aesthetically pleasing is the one that is encoded by the shortest description, following the direction of previous approaches. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between that which is beautiful and that which is interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively perceived beauty. He supposes that every observer continually tries to improve the predictability and compressibility of their observations by identifying regularities like repetition, symmetry, and fractal self-similarity.
Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of images. Typically, these approaches follow a machine learning approach, where large numbers of manually rated photographs are used to "teach" a computer about what visual properties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. A study by Y. Li and C. J. Hu employed Birkhoff's measurement in their statistical learning approach where order and complexity of an image determined aesthetic value. The image complexity was computed using information theory while the order was determined using fractal compression.
There have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music. Computational approaches have also been attempted in film making as demonstrated by a software model developed by Chitra Dorai and a group of researchers at the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center. The tool predicted aesthetics based on the values of narrative elements.Evolutionary aesthetics
Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences of Homo sapiens are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. One example being that humans are argued to find beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral environment. Another example is that body symmetry and proportion are important aspects of physical attractiveness which may be due to this indicating good health during body growth. Evolutionary explanations for aesthetical preferences are important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian literary studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.
Applied aesthetics
As well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects, such as crosses or tools. For example, aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency. Art slides were linked to slides of pharmacological data, which improved attention and retention by simultaneous activation of intuitive right brain with rational left. It can also be used in topics as diverse as cartography, mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website design.Other approaches
Guy Sircello has pioneered efforts in analytic philosophy to develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing on the concepts of beauty, love and sublimity. In contrast to romantic theorists, Sircello argued for the objectivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that basis.
British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that "'post-conceptual art' aesthetic does not concern a particular type of contemporary art so much as the historical-ontological condition for the production of contemporary art in general ...". Osborne noted that contemporary art is 'post-conceptual' in a public lecture delivered in 2010.
Gary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless aesthetics derived from Karl Marx's concept of alienation, and Louis Althusser's antihumanism, using elements of Freud's group psychology, defining a concept of the 'aesthetic level of practice'.
Gregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work of art serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individual's identity into the world of objects, as well as being the irruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. As well, art is used to memorialize individuated biographies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they are part of something greater than themselves.
Criticism
The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been criticized by some sociologists and writers of art and society. Raymond Williams, for example, argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated from the art world, but rather that there is a continuum of cultural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art. By "art" we may frame several artistic "works" or "creations" as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event which creates it and this leaves some works or other possible "art" outside of the frame work, or other interpretations such as other phenomenon which may not be considered as "art".
Pierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kant's idea of the "aesthetic". He argues that Kant's "aesthetic" merely represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible and equally valid "aesthetic" experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.
Timothy Laurie argues that theories of musical aesthetics "framed entirely in terms of appreciation, contemplation or reflection risk idealizing an implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely through musical objects, rather than seeing them as a person for whom complex intentions and motivations produce variable attractions to cultural objects and practices". See also
* Aestheticism
* Aesthetics of science
* Art and Theosophy
* Art periods
* Esthesic and poietic
* Everyday Aesthetics
* Japanese aesthetics
* Medieval aesthetics
* Mise en scène
* Theological aesthetics
* Theory of art
}}
References
Sources
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External links
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* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/aes-cont/ Aesthetics in Continental Philosophy] article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/m-aesthe/ Medieval Theories of Aesthetics] article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110127123626/http://revues.mshparisnord.org/appareil/index.php?id=61 Revue online Appareil]
* [http://www.ditext.com/anka/beardsley/post.html Postscript 1980 – Some Old Problems in New Perspectives]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/art.htm Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141103070457/http://knowledgeworld.com.bd/what-is-art/ More about Art, culture and Education]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-concept The Concept of the Aesthetic]
* [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/aesthetics/v-1 Aesthetics] entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150321060625/http://www.philosophyarchive.com/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Aesthetics Philosophy of Aesthetics] entry in the Philosophy Archive
* [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Module-1.pdf Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9hf Beauty] , BBC Radio 4 discussion with Angie Hobbs, Susan James & Julian Baggini (In Our Time, 19 May 2005)
Category:Aesthetics
Category:1730s neologisms
Category:Humanities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.616882 |
2134 | Ark of the Covenant | thumb|upright=1.25|
Moses and Joshua bowing before the Ark () by James Tissot
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The Ark of the Covenant,|ʾĂrōn haBǝrīṯ}}; ; ; ;}} also known as the Ark of the Testimony|ʾĂrōn hāʿĒdūṯ|labelnone}}}} or the Ark of God,|ʾĂrōn-YHWH|labelnone}} or |ʾĂrōn hāʾĔlōhīm|labelnone}}}} is a purported religious storage chest and relic held to be the most sacred object by the Israelites.
Religious tradition describes it as a wooden storage chest decorated in solid gold accompanied by an ornamental lid known as the Seat of Mercy. According to the Book of Exodus and First Book of Kings in the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament, the Ark contained the Tablets of the Law, by which God delivered the Ten Commandments to Moses at Mount Sinai. According to the Book of Exodus, the Book of Numbers, and the Epistle to the Hebrews in the New Testament, it also contained Aaron's rod and a pot of manna.
The biblical account relates that approximately one year after the Israelites' exodus from Egypt, the Ark was created according to the pattern that God gave to Moses when the Israelites were encamped at the foot of Mount Sinai. Thereafter, the gold-plated acacia chest's staves were lifted and carried by the Levites approximately 2,000 cubits () in advance of the people while they marched. God spoke with Moses "from between the two cherubim" on the Ark's cover.
There are ongoing academic discussions about whether there were multiple arks, whether the original Ark contained a statue of Yahweh, and about the implications of a recent excavation at Kiriath Jearim for the historical reconstruction of the Ark.
Biblical account
Construction and description
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According to the Book of Exodus, God instructed Moses to build the Ark during his 40-day stay upon Mount Sinai. He was shown the pattern for the tabernacle and furnishings of the Ark, and told that it would be made of shittim wood (also known as acacia wood) to house the Tablets of Stone.
The Book of Exodus gives detailed instructions on how the Ark is to be constructed. It is to be cubits in length, cubits breadth, and cubits height (approximately ) of acacia wood. Then it is to be gilded entirely with gold, and a crown or molding of gold is to be put around it. Four rings of gold are to be attached to its four corners, two on each side—and through these rings staves of shittim wood overlaid with gold for carrying the Ark are to be inserted; and these are not to be removed.Mobile vanguard
The biblical account continues that, after its creation by Moses, the Ark was carried by the Israelites during their 40 years of wandering in the desert. Whenever the Israelites camped, the Ark was placed in the tent of meeting, inside the Tabernacle.
When the Israelites, led by Joshua toward the Promised Land, arrived at the banks of the River Jordan, the Ark was carried in the lead, preceding the people, and was the signal for their advance. During the crossing, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters, and remained so until the priests—with the Ark—left the river after the people had passed over. As memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood.
During the Battle of Jericho, the Ark was carried around the city once a day for six days, preceded by the armed men and seven priests sounding seven trumpets of rams' horns. On the seventh day, the seven priests sounding the seven trumpets of rams' horns before the Ark compassed the city seven times, and, with a great shout, Jericho's wall fell down flat and the people took the city.
After the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark. When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark. The Ark was then kept at Shiloh after the Israelites finished their conquest of Canaan. We next hear of the Ark in Bethel, where it was being cared for by the priest Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron. According to this verse, it was consulted by the people of Israel when they were planning to attack the Benjaminites at the Battle of Gibeah. Later the Ark was kept at Shiloh again, where it was cared for by Hophni and Phinehas, two sons of Eli.Capture by the Philistines
According to the biblical narrative, a few years later the elders of Israel decided to take the Ark onto the battlefield to assist them against the Philistines, having recently been defeated at the battle of Eben-Ezer. They were again heavily defeated, with the loss of 30,000 men. The Ark was captured by the Philistines, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head". The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it, and his daughter-in-law, bearing a son at the time the news of the Ark's capture was received, named him Ichabod—explained as "The glory has departed Israel" in reference to the loss of the Ark. Ichabod's mother died at his birth.
The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune befell them. At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with tumors; a plague of rodents was sent over the land. This may have been the bubonic plague. The affliction of tumours was also visited upon the people of Gath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed.Return of the Ark to the Israelites
, 1800]]
After the Ark had been among them for seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the tumors and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set up in the field of Joshua of Beit Shemesh, and the people of Beit Shemesh offered sacrifices and burnt offerings according to the first five verses of 1 Samuel 6. Verse 9, 1 Samuel 6 states that out of curiosity, the people of Beit Shemesh gazed at the Ark, and as a punishment, God struck down seventy of them (fifty thousand and seventy in some translations). The men of Beit Shemesh sent to Qiryath Ye'arim to have the Ark removed in verse 21, and it was taken to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it. Qiryath Ye'arim remained the abode of the Ark for twenty years, according to 1 Samuel 7.
Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In 1 Chronicles 13:3, it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consulting the Ark in the days of Saul.
During the reign of King David
of David bringing the Ark into Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6)]]
In the biblical narrative, at the beginning of his reign over the United Monarchy, King David removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart that carried the Ark, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was struck dead by God for touching it. The place was subsequently named "Perez-Uzzah", literally , as a result. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and it stayed there for three months.
On hearing that God had blessed Obed-edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen ephod[...] danced before the Lord with all his might" and in the sight of all the public gathered in Jerusalem, a performance which caused him to be scornfully rebuked by his first wife, Saul's daughter Michal. In Zion, David put the Ark in the tent he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household. David used the tent as a personal place of prayer.
The Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark. David's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped on the advice of the prophet Nathan. The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah; and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of Absalom's conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem.
The Temple of King Solomon
According to the Biblical narrative, when Abiathar was dismissed from the priesthood by King Solomon for having taken part in Adonijah's conspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark. Solomon worshipped before the Ark after his dream in which God promised him wisdom.
During the construction of Solomon's Temple, a special inner room, named ('Holy of Holies'), was prepared to receive and house the Ark; and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark—containing the original tablets of the Ten Commandments—was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord".
When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because it contained the Ark. King Josiah also had the Ark returned to the Temple, from which it appears to have been removed by one of his predecessors (cf. 2 Chronicles 33–34 and 2 Kings 21–23).During the reign of King Hezekiah
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Prior to king Josiah who is the last biblical figure mentioned as having seen the Ark, king Hezekiah had seen the Ark. Hezekiah is also known for protecting Jerusalem against the Assyrian Empire by improving the city walls and diverting the waters of the Gihon Spring through a tunnel known today as Hezekiah's Tunnel, which channeled the water inside the city walls to the Pool of Siloam.
In a noncanonical text known as the Treatise of the Vessels, Hezekiah is identified as one of the kings who had the Ark and the other treasures of Solomon's Temple hidden during a time of crisis. This text lists the following hiding places, which it says were recorded on a bronze tablet: (1) a spring named Kohel or Kahal with pure water in a valley with a stopped-up gate; (2) a spring named Kotel (or "wall" in Hebrew); (3) a spring named Zedekiah; (4) an unidentified cistern; (5) Mount Carmel; and (6) locations in Babylon.
To many scholars, Hezekiah is also credited as having written all or some of the Book of Kohelet (Ecclesiastes in the Christian tradition), in particular the famously enigmatic epilogue. Notably, the epilogue appears to refer to the Ark story with references to almond blossoms (i.e., Aaron's rod), locusts, silver, and gold. The epilogue then cryptically refers to a pitcher broken at a fountain and a wheel broken at a cistern.
Although scholars disagree on whether the Pool of Siloam's pure spring waters were used by pilgrims for ritual purification, many scholars agree that a stepped pilgrimage road between the pool and the Temple had been built in the first century CE. This roadway has been partially excavated, but the west side of the Pool of Siloam remains unexcavated.
The invasion of the Kingdom of Babylon
In 587 BC, when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem, an ancient Greek version of the biblical third Book of Ezra, 1 Esdras, suggests that Babylonians took away the vessels of the ark of God, but does not mention taking away the Ark:
In Rabbinic literature, the final disposition of the Ark is disputed. Some rabbis hold that it must have been carried off to Babylon, while others hold that it must have been hidden lest it be carried off into Babylon and never brought back. A late 2nd-century rabbinic work known as the states the opinions of these rabbis that Josiah, the king of Judah, stored away the Ark, along with the jar of manna, and a jar containing the holy anointing oil, the rod of Aaron which budded and a chest given to Israel by the Philistines.
Service of the Kohathites
The Kohathites were one of the Levite houses from the Book of Numbers. Theirs was the responsibility to care for "the most holy things" in the tabernacle. When the camp, then wandering the Wilderness, set out the Kohathites would enter the tabernacle with Aaron and cover the ark with the screening curtain and "then they shall put on it a covering of fine leather, and spread over that a cloth all of blue, and shall put its poles in place." The ark was one of the items of the tent of meeting that the Kohathites were responsible for carrying.
Jewish tradition on location today
The Talmud in Yoma suggests that the Ark was removed from the Temple towards the end of the era of the First Temple and the Second Temple never housed it. According to one view, it was taken to Babylon when Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem in 587 BCE, exiling King Jeconiah along with the upper classes.
Another perspective proposes that Josiah, king of Judah, hid the Ark in anticipation of the Temple's destruction. Where it was hidden remains uncertain. One account in the Talmud mentions a priest's suspicion of a tampered stone in a chamber designated for wood storage, hinting at the Ark's concealment.
Alternatively, it's suggested that the Ark remained underground in the Holy of Holies. Some of the Chazal, including the Radak and Maimonides, propose that Solomon designed tunnels beneath the Temple to safeguard the Ark that Josiah later used. Attempts to excavate this area have yielded little due to political sensitivities.
An opinion found in the II Maccabees 2:4-10, asserts that Jeremiah hid the Ark and other sacred items in a cave on Mount Nebo (now in Jordan), anticipating the Neo-Babylonian invasion.
Archaeology and historical context
Archaeological evidence shows strong cultic activity at Kiriath-Jearim in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, well after the ark was supposedly removed from there to Jerusalem. Thomas Römer suggests that this may indicate that the ark was not moved to Jerusalem until much later, possibly during the reign of King Josiah (reigned ). He notes that this might explain why the ark featured prominently in the history before Solomon, but not after. Additionally, 2 Chronicles 35:3 However, Yigal Levin argues that there is no evidence that Kiriath-Jearim was a cultic center in the monarchical era or that it ever housed any "temple of the Ark".
K. L. Sparks believes the story of the Ark was written independently around the 8th century BC in a text referred to as the "Ark Narrative" and then incorporated into the main biblical narrative just before the Babylonian exile.
Römer also suggests that the ark may have originally carried sacred stones "of the kind found in the chests of pre-Islamic Bedouins" and speculates that these may have been either a statue of Yahweh or a pair of statues depicting both Yahweh and his companion goddess Asherah. In contrast, Scott Noegel has argued that the parallels between the ark and these practices "remain unconvincing" in part because the Bedouin objects lack the ark's distinctive structure, function, and mode of transportation. Specifically, unlike the ark, the Bedouin chests "contained no box, no lid, and no poles," they did not serve as the throne or footstool of a god, they were not overlaid with gold, did not have kerubim figures upon them, there were no restrictions on who could touch them, and they were transported on horses or camels.
Noegel suggests that the ancient Egyptian Solar barque is a more plausible model for the Israelite ark, since Egyptian barques had all the features just mentioned. Noegel adds that the Egyptians also were known to place written covenants beneath the feet of statues, proving a further parallel to the placement of the covenantal tablets inside the ark.
Yigal Levin holds that some biblical texts suggest that the Ark of the Covenant was only one among many other different arks at regional shrines prior to the centralization of worship in Jerusalem, although other scholars disagree. While one author has questioned whether the Ark ever existed, other scholars have defended its historicity and antiquity based on linguistic evidence and significant parallels with similar artifacts from New Kingdom Egypt. prophesied a future time, possibly the end of days, when the Ark will no longer be talked about or be made use of again:
—they will no longer say, 'The Ark of the Covenant of the ' and it will not come to mind; they will not mention it, and will not recall it, and it will not be used any more.}}
Rashi comments on this verse that "The entire people will be so imbued with the spirit of sanctity that God's Presence will rest upon them collectively, as if the congregation itself was the Ark of the Covenant."
Second Book of Maccabees
According to Second Maccabees, at the beginning of chapter 2:
[...] prompted by a divine message[...] gave orders that the Tent of Meeting and the ark should go with him. Then he went away to the mountain from the top of which Moses saw God's promised land. When he reached the mountain, Jeremiah found a cave-dwelling; he carried the tent, the ark, and the incense-altar into it, then blocked up the entrance. Some of his companions came to mark out the way, but were unable to find it. When Jeremiah learnt of this he reprimanded them. "The place shall remain unknown", he said, "until God finally gathers his people together and shows mercy to them. The Lord will bring these things to light again, and the glory of the Lord will appear with the cloud, as it was seen both in the time of Moses and when Solomon prayed that the shrine might be worthily consecrated."}}
The "mountain from the top of which Moses saw God's promised land" would be Mount Nebo, located in what is now Jordan.
Samaritan tradition
Samaritan tradition claims that the Ark of the Covenant had been kept at a sanctuary on Mt. Gerizim.
New Testament
The physical ark of the Old Testament
, France]]
In the New Testament, the Ark is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews and the Revelation to St. John. Hebrews 9:4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron's rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant." says the prophet saw God's temple in heaven opened, "and the ark of his covenant was seen within his temple."
The Blessed Virgin Mary as the “New Ark”
In the Gospel of Luke, the author's accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark.
The contents of the ark are seen by theologians such as the Church Fathers and Thomas Aquinas as personified by Jesus Christ: the manna as the Holy Eucharist; Aaron's rod as Jesus' eternal priestly authority; and the tablets of the Law, as the Lawgiver himself.
Catholic scholars connect the pregnant, birthing Woman of the Apocalypse from Revelation 12:1-2, with the Blessed Virgin Mary, whom they identify as the "Ark of the New Covenant." Carrying the saviour of mankind within her, she herself became the Holy of Holies. This is the interpretation given in the third century by Gregory Thaumaturgus, and in the fourth century by Saint Ambrose, Saint Ephraem of Syria and Saint Augustine. The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches that Mary is a metaphorical version of the ark: "Mary, in whom the Lord himself has just made his dwelling, is the daughter of Zion in person, the ark of the covenant, the place where the glory of the Lord dwells. She is 'the dwelling of God[...] with men."
Saint Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, is credited with writing about the connections between the Ark and the Virgin Mary: "O noble Virgin, truly you are greater than any other greatness. For who is your equal in greatness, O dwelling place of God the Word? To whom among all creatures shall I compare you, O Virgin? You are greater than them all O (Ark of the) Covenant, clothed with purity instead of gold! You are the Ark in which is found the golden vessel containing the true manna, that is, the flesh in which Divinity resides" (Homily of the Papyrus of Turin).
The Ark in other faiths
According to Uri Rubin, the Ark of the Covenant has a religious basis in Islam (and the Baháʼí Faith), which gives it special significance.Claims of current statusAccording to the Book of MaccabeesThe Book of 2 Maccabees 2:4–10, written around 100 B.C. claims that the prophet Jeremiah, following “being warned by God" before the Babylonian invasion, took the Ark, the Tabernacle, and the Altar of Incense, and buried them in a cave, informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy."Ethiopia
in Axum allegedly houses the original Ark of the Covenant]]
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant in Axum. The Ark is kept under guard in a treasury near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. Replicas of the tablets within the Ark, or tabots, are kept in every Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Each tabot is kept in its own holy of holies, each with its own dedication to a particular saint; the most popular of these include Saint Mary, Saint George and Saint Michael.
The Kebra Nagast is often said to have been composed to legitimise the Solomonic dynasty, which ruled the Ethiopian Empire following its establishment in 1270, but this is not the case. It was originally composed in some other language (Coptic or Greek), then translated into Arabic, and translated into Geʽez in 1321. It narrates how the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I with divine assistance, while a forgery was left in the Temple in Jerusalem. Although the Kebra Nagast is the best-known account of this belief, the belief predates the document. Abu al-Makarim, writing in the last quarter of the twelfth century, makes one early reference to this belief that they possessed the Ark. "The Abyssinians possess also the Ark of the Covenant", he wrote, and, after a description of the object, describes how the liturgy is celebrated upon the Ark four times a year, "on the feast of the great nativity, on the feast of the glorious Baptism, on the feast of the holy Resurrection, and on the feast of the illuminating Cross."
In his controversial 1992 book The Sign and the Seal, British writer Graham Hancock reports on the Ethiopian belief that the ark spent several years in Egypt before it came to Ethiopia via the Nile River, where it was kept on the islands of Lake Tana for about four hundred years and finally taken to Axum. Archaeologist John Holladay of the University of Toronto called Hancock's theory "garbage and hogwash"; Edward Ullendorff, a former professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, said he "wasted a lot of time reading it." In a 1992 interview, Ullendorff says that he examined the ark held in the church in Axum in 1941. Describing the ark there, he says, "They have a wooden box, but it's empty. Middle- to late-medieval construction, when these were fabricated ad hoc."
On 25 June 2009, the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, Abune Paulos, said he would announce to the world the next day the unveiling of the Ark of the Covenant, which he said had been kept safe and secure in a church in Axum. The following day, he announced that he would not unveil the Ark after all, but that instead he could attest to its current status.Southern AfricaThe Lemba people of South Africa and Zimbabwe have claimed that their ancestors carried the Ark south, calling it the ngoma lungundu "voice of God", eventually hiding it in a deep cave in the Dumghe mountains, their spiritual home.
On 14 April 2008, in a UK Channel 4 documentary, Tudor Parfitt, taking a literalist approach to the Biblical story, described his research into this claim. He says that the object described by the Lemba has attributes similar to the Ark. It was of similar size, was carried on poles by priests, was not allowed to touch the ground, was revered as a voice of their God, and was used as a weapon of great power, sweeping enemies aside.
In his book The Lost Ark of the Covenant'' (2008), Parfitt also suggests that the Ark was taken to Arabia following the events depicted in the Second Book of Maccabees, and cites Arabic sources which maintain it was brought in distant times to Yemen. Genetic Y-DNA analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but no specific Jewish connection. Lemba tradition maintains that the Ark spent some time in a place called Sena, which might be Sena, Yemen. Later, it was taken across the sea to East Africa and may have been taken inland at the time of Great Zimbabwe. According to their oral traditions, it self-destructed sometime after the Lemba's arrival with the Ark. Using a core from the original, the Lemba priests constructed a new one. This replica was discovered in a cave by a Swedish-German missionary named Harald Philip Hans von Sicard in the 1940s and eventually found its way to the Museum of Human Science in Harare.
Accordingly, another tale claims that the Ark was kept within the Basilica of Saint John Lateran, surviving the pillages of Rome by King of the Visigoths Alaric I and King of the Vandals Gaiseric but was eventually lost when the basilica burned in the fifth century.IrelandBetween 1899 and 1902, the British-Israel Association of London carried out limited excavations of the Hill of Tara in Ireland looking for the Ark of the Covenant. The Irish nationalists including Maud Gonne and the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (RSAI) campaigned successfully to have them stopped before they destroyed the hill.
The British Israelites believed that the Ark was located at the grave of the Egyptian princess Tea Tephi, who according to Irish legend came to Ireland in the 6th century BC and married Irish King Érimón. Because of the historical importance of Tara, Irish nationalists like Douglas Hyde and W. B. Yeats voiced their protests in newspapers and in 1902 Maud Gonne led a protest against the excavations at the site.In literature and the artsPhilip Kaufman conceived of the Ark of the Covenant as the main plot device of Steven Spielberg's 1981 adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark, where it is found by Indiana Jones in the Egyptian city of Tanis in 1936. In early 2020, a prop version made for the film (which does not actually appear onscreen) was featured on television series Antiques Roadshow.
In the Danish family film The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar from 2006, the main part of the treasure found in the end is the Ark of the Covenant. The power of the Ark comes from static electricity stored in separated metal plates like a giant Leyden jar.
In Harry Turtledove's novel Alpha and Omega (2019) the ark is found by archeologists, and the characters have to deal with the proven existence of God.
The Ark has been depicted many times in art for two thousand years, some examples are in the article above, a few more are here.
Yom HaAliyah
Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) () is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan to commemorate the Israelites crossing the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant.
See also
* Copper Scroll
* List of artifacts in biblical archaeology
* The Exodus Decoded (2006 television documentary)
* History of ancient Israel and Judah
* Jewish symbolism
* Mikoshi, a portable Shinto shrine
* Gihon Spring
* Josephus
* Mount Gerizim
* Temple menorah
* Pool of Siloam
* Samaritans
* Siloam Tunnel
* Solomon's Temple
Footnotes
References
Further reading
* Carew, Mairead, Tara and the Ark of the Covenant: A Search for the Ark of the Covenant by British Israelites on the Hill of Tara, 1899–1902. Royal Irish Academy, 2003.
* Cline, Eric H. (2007), From Eden to Exile: Unravelling Mysteries of the Bible, National Geographic Society,
* Falk, David A. (2020), The Ark of the Covenant in Its Egyptian Context: An Illustrated Journey, Hendrickson Publishers,
* Foster, Charles, Tracking the Ark of the Covenant. Monarch, 2007.
* Grierson, Roderick & Munro-Hay, Stuart, The Ark of the Covenant. Orion Books Ltd, 2000.
* Hancock, Graham, The Sign and the Seal: The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant. Touchstone Books, 1993.
* Haran, M., The Disappearance of the Ark, IEJ 13 (1963), pp. 46–58
* Hertz, J. H., The Pentateuch and Haftoras. Deuteronomy. Oxford University Press, 1936.
* Hubbard, David (1956) The Literary Sources of the Kebra Nagast Ph.D. dissertation, St. Andrews University, Scotland
* Munro-Hay, Stuart, The Quest For The Ark of The Covenant: The True History of The Tablets of Moses. L. B. Tauris & Co Ltd., 2006.
* Ritmeyer, L., ''The Ark of the Covenant: Where It Stood in Solomon's Temple. Biblical Archaeology Review 22/1: 46–55, 70–73, 1996
* Stolz, Fritz. "Ark of the Covenant." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 125. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999.
External links
* Portions of this article have been taken from the Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906. [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid1777&letterA&search=Ark%20of%20the%20Covenant Ark of the Covenant]
* The Catholic Encyclopedia'', Volume I. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01721a.htm Ark of the Covenant]
*
* Smithsonian.com [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/keepers-of-the-lost-ark-179998820/ "Keepers of the Lost Ark?"]'
* Shyovitz, David, [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ark.html The Lost Ark of the Covenant]. Jewish Virtual Library
Category:Hebrew Bible objects
Category:Hebrew Bible words and phrases
Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem
Category:Book of Exodus
Category:Containers
Category:Relics
Category:Chests (furniture)
Category:Individual wooden objects
Category:Gold objects
Category:Epistle to the Hebrews
Category:Lost works of art | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.650018 |
2136 | Angles (tribe) | Angles}}
/
| image = Anglo-Saxon_Homelands_and_Settlements.svg
| image_caption = The spread of Angles (orange) and Saxons (blue) to the British Isles around 500AD
| regions = origin: southern Jutland:<br>Schleswig (Angeln, Schwansen, Danish Wahld, North Frisia/North Frisian Islands)<br>Holstein (Eiderstedt, Dithmarschen)<br>destination: Heptarchy (England)
| languages = Old English
| religions = Originally Germanic and Anglo-Saxon paganism, later Christianity
| related_groups Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Frisian, Anglo-Normans, English, Lowland Scots, Anglo, Saxons, Frisii, Jutes
| footnotes =
}}
reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. Suevian peoples in red, and other Irminones in purple]]
The Angles were one of the main Germanic peoples who settled in Great Britain in the post-Roman period. They founded several kingdoms of the Heptarchy in Anglo-Saxon England. Their name, which probably derives from the Angeln peninsula, is the root of the name England ("Engla land"), as well as ultimately the word English for its people and language. According to Tacitus, writing around 100 AD, a people known as Angles (Anglii) lived beyond (apparently northeast of) the Lombards and Semnones, who lived near the River Elbe. Alternatively, the Angles may have been called such because they were a fishing people or were originally descended from such.
According to , Dan and Angul were made rulers by the consent of their people because of their bravery. The Danes and Angles are respectively named from them.
Greco-Roman historiography
Tacitus
.]]
The earliest surviving mention of the Angles is in chapter 40 of Tacitus's Germania written around AD 98. Tacitus describes the "Anglii" as one of the more remote Suebic tribes compared to the Semnones and Langobardi, who lived near the Elbe and were better known to the Romans. He grouped the Angles with several other tribes in that region, the Reudigni, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines, and Nuithones. According to Tacitus, they were all living behind ramparts of rivers and woods, and therefore inaccessible to attack. Schütte, in his analysis, believes that the Angles are placed correctly relative to the Langobardi to their west, but that these have been positioned in the wrong place. The Langobardi also appear in the expected position on the lower Elbe, and the Angles would be expected to their northwest, based upon Tacitus.
Another theory is that all or part of the Angles dwelt or moved among other coastal people, perhaps confederated up to the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the ancient canton of Engilin) on the Unstrut valleys below the Kyffhäuserkreis, from which region the Lex Anglorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. The ethnic names of Frisians and Warines are also attested in these Saxon districts.
Procopius
An especially early reference to the Angli in Britain is the 6th-century Byzantine historian Procopius who however expressed doubts about the stories he had heard about events in the west, which he apparently heard through Frankish diplomats. He never mentions the Saxons, but he states that an island called Brittia (which he believed to be distinct from Britain itself), was settled by three nations: the Angili, Frissones, and Brittones, each ruled by its own king. Each nation was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who "allow them to settle in the part of their land which appears to be more deserted, and by this means they say they are winning over the island. Thus it actually happened that not long ago the king of the Franks, in sending some of his intimates on an embassy to the Emperor Justinian in Byzantium, sent with them some of the Angili, thus seeking to establish his claim that this island was ruled by him." Procopius claimed that the Angles had recently sent a large army of 400 ships to Europe, from Brittia to the Rhine, to enforce a marriage agreement with the Warini who he lived north of the Franks at that time.
Medieval historiography
, 8th century]]
Bede (died 735) stated that the Anglii, before coming to Great Britain, dwelt in a land called Angulus, "which lies between the province of the Jutes and the Saxons, and remains unpopulated to this day." Similar evidence is given by the 9th-century Historia Brittonum''. King Alfred the Great and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this place with Angeln, in the province of Schleswig (though it may then have been of greater extent), and this identification agrees with the indications given by Bede.
In the Norwegian seafarer Ohthere of Hålogaland's account of a two-day voyage from the Oslo fjord to Schleswig, he reported the lands on his starboard bow, and Alfred appended the note "on these islands dwelt the Engle before they came hither". noted by Loyn}} Confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund and Offa of Angel, from whom the Mercian royal family claimed descent and whose exploits are connected with Angeln, Schleswig, and Rendsburg.<ref name="lex anglorum"/>
Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the fifth century, the Anglii invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the legal code issued to the Thuringians: Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum.<ref name="lex anglorum"/>
The Angles are the subject of a legend about Pope Gregory I, who happened to see a group of Angle children from Deira for sale as slaves in the Roman market. As the story was told by Bede, Gregory was struck by the unusual appearance of the slaves and asked about their background. When told they were called Anglii (Angles), he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: "Bene, nam et angelicam habent faciem, et tales angelorum in caelis decet esse coheredes" (It is well, for they have an angelic face, and such people ought to be co-heirs of the angels in heaven). Supposedly, this encounter inspired the pope to launch a mission to bring Christianity to their countrymen.
Archaeology
The province of Schleswig has proved rich in prehistoric antiquities that date apparently from the fourth and fifth centuries. A large cremation cemetery has been found at Borgstedt, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, and it has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in pagan graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsberg moor (in Angeln) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, etc., and in Nydam, even ships. By the help of these discoveries, Angle culture in the age preceding the invasion of Britannia can be pieced together.Anglian kingdoms in England
According to sources such as the History of Bede, after the invasion of Britannia, the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. H. R. Loyn has observed in this context that "a sea voyage is perilous to tribal institutions", and the apparently tribe-based kingdoms were formed in England. Early times had two northern kingdoms (Bernicia and Deira) and two midland ones (Middle Anglia and Mercia), which had by the seventh century resolved themselves into two Angle kingdoms, viz., Northumbria and Mercia.
Northumbria held suzerainty amidst the Germanic presence in the British Isles in the 7th century, but was eclipsed by the rise of Mercia in the 8th century. Both kingdoms fell in the great assaults of the Danish Viking armies in the 9th century. Their royal houses were effectively destroyed in the fighting, and their Angle populations came under the Danelaw. Further south, the Saxon kings of Wessex withstood the Danish assaults. Then in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the kings of Wessex defeated the Danes and liberated the Angles from the Danelaw.
They united their house in marriage with the surviving Angle royalty, and were accepted by the Angles as their kings. This marked the passing of the old Anglo-Saxon world and the dawn of the "English" as a new people. The regions of East Anglia and Northumbria are still known by their original titles. Northumbria once stretched as far north as what is now southeast Scotland, including Edinburgh, and as far south as the Humber estuary and even the river Witham.
The rest of that people stayed at the centre of the Angle homeland in the northeastern portion of the modern German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Jutland Peninsula. There, a small peninsular area is still called Angeln today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern Flensburg on the Flensburger Fjord to the City of Schleswig and then to Maasholm, on the Schlei inlet.
Notes
References Bibliography *
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* }}
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Category:Early Germanic peoples
Category:History of Northumberland
Category:Ingaevones
Category:Migration Period
Category:Peoples of Anglo-Saxon England | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles_(tribe) | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.660344 |
2137 | Aster CT-80 | | lifespan | price
| discontinued | unitssold
| unitsshipped | media
| os = TRS-DOS, CP/M
| power | soc
| cpu = Zilog Z80
| memory = 64 KB
| storage | memory card floppy discs, cassette
| display = 128 x 48 black and white graphics; 32 x 16, 64 x 16 and 80 x 25 characters black and white text; (256 x 192 in 16 colors graphics with optional TMS9918, 640 x 288, black and white graphics with optional NEC μPD7220)
| graphics = (optional TMS9918 or NEC μPD7220)
| sound = Beeper
| input | controllers
| camera | touchpad
| connectivity | platform
| service | dimensions
| weight | topgame
| compatibility | predecessor
| successor | related
| website = <!---->
| CPUspeed = 4
}}The Aster CT-80 is a 1982 personal computer developed by the small Dutch company MCP (later renamed to Aster Computers), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several Eurocard PCB's with DIN 41612 connectors, and a backplane all based on a 19-inch rack configuration. It was the first commercially available Dutch personal/home computer. The Aster computer could use the software written for the popular Tandy TRS-80 computer while fixing many of the problems of that computer, but it could also run CP/M software, with a large amount of free memory Transient Program Area, (TPA) and a full 80×25 display, and it could be used as a Videotext terminal. Although the Aster was a clone of the TRS-80 Model I it was in fact more compatible with the TRS-80 Model III and ran all the software of these systems including games. It also had a built-in speaker which was compatible with such games software.Models
Three models were sold. The first model (launched June 1982) looked like the IBM PC, a rectangular base unit with two floppy drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate detachable keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened Apple with a built-in keyboard.
All units ran much faster than the original TRS-80, at 4 MHz, (with a software selectable throttle to the original speed for compatibility purposes) and the display supported upper and lower case, hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic), and an improved character font set. The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 KB, more than four times the capacity of the original TRS-80. A special version of NewDos/80, (an improved TRS-DOS compatible Disk operating system) was used to support these disk capacities when using the TRS-80 compatibility mode.
For the educational market a version of the first model was produced with a new plastic enclosure (the First Asters had an all-metal enclosure) that also had an opening on the top in which a cassette recorder could be placed. This model was used in a cluster with one Aster (with disk drives) for the teacher, and eight disk less versions for the pupils. The pupils could download software from the teachers computer through a network based on a fast serial connection, as well as sending back their work to the teachers computer. There was also hardware in place through which the teacher could see the display of each pupils screen on his own monitor.
Working modes
The Aster used 64 KB of RAM and had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy or with a TRS-DOS floppy, the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible, with 48 KB of RAM. When the boot loader detected a CP/M floppy, the Aster would reconfigure its internal memory architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free RAM for programs (TPA) and an 80 x 25 display. This dual-architecture capability only existed on one other TRS-80 clone, the LOBO Max-80.
With a special configuration tool, the CT-80 could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems.
A third mode was entered with a special boot floppy which turned the Aster into a Videotex terminal with a 40x25 display and a Videotex character set, The software used the built in RS-232 interface of the Aster to control a modem through which it could contact a Prestel service provider.
Sales
Most Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand of them) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the "honderd scholen project" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the technical and other demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Another important demand was that the computers could be used in a network (Aster developed special software and hardware for that). Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to Philips and their P2000 homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the technical demands, was made in Austria and did not have network hardware nor software.Company
Aster computers was based in the small town of Arkel near the town of Gorinchem.
Initially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product), because it was specialized in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. The director of the company was interested in Microprocessor technology and noticed there was a market for selling kits to computer building amateurs, so they started selling electronic kits to hobbyists, and employed four persons at that time . They also assembled kits for people without soldering skills, especially the "junior Computer" from Elektor (a copy of the KIM-1), and the ZX80 from Sinclair. Among the kits sold there were also alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. But these needed the infamous TRS-80 expansion interface, which was very expensive, and had a very unreliable floppy disk controller because it used the WD1771 floppy disk controller chip without an external "data separator". To fix this problem MCP developed a small plugin board which could be plugged into the socket for the WD1771, and which contained a data separator, and a socket for the WD1791 to support dual-density operation. Still, the expansion interface was expensive and due to its design it was also unreliable. So they decided to also develop their own alternative in the form of an improved floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into a floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion offered by this solution was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips inside the base unit would be replaced by 64 KB RAM chips.
While this went on MCP renamed itself to MCP CHIP but ran into problems with the German computer magazine CHIP, and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, the Video Genie (another TRS-80 clone), the Luxor ABC 80 and the Apple II.
They also sold the exotic Olivetti M20, a very early 16-bit personal computer that was one of the very few systems to use a Z8000 CPU.
After designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialized) the company realized that they could do better than just re-designing the expansion interface. They observed that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display 'snow' was irritating, as was the missing lower case support, the CPU speed could be improved, the quality and layout of the keyboard was bothersome, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems could not run well on a TRS-80. So they decided to design a TRS-80 and CP/M software-compatible computer system, which (following the lead of Apple Computer) they decided to name after a "typical Dutch flower". So they called it the Aster CT-80 (CP/M/Tandy-1980). Why they went with Aster, and not the more well known Tulip is unknown, perhaps they thought it would be to presumptuous, or perhaps the fact that "Aster" is also a Dutch girls' name has something to do with it. Remarkably "Aster" was also the name given to a Dutch Supercomputer much later, in 2002.
The first version of the Aster consisted of four "Eurocards", one Z80 CPU card with 64 KB memory, one Motorola MC6845-based video card, one double density floppy disk controller card and one "keyboard/RS-232/cassette interface" card. Plus a "backplane card", (which connected all the other cards) and a keyboard. And was intended for hobbyists, to be sold as a kit consisting of the parts and the PCB's for the computer and attached keyboard. After selling a few kits, MCP became convinced there was a much bigger market for an improved model sold as a completed working system. However the original kit version lacked many features that prevented its use as a serious computer system. Because the original designer had left the company another employee completely redesigned most of the system, (adding a display snow remover circuit, true 80/64 column text mode support, (with different size letters for TRS-80 and CP/M mode, so that in TRS-80 mode the full screen was also used, not just a 64×16 portion of the 80×25 screen) with an improved font set (adding "gray scale" version of the TRS-80 mozaik graphics and many special PETSCII like characters), and a more flexible and reliable floppy disk controller and keyboard interface plus many other small improvements), also an enclosure was developed for the main computer system, (in the form of a 19-inch rack for the Eurocards) and for two floppy disk drives and the power supply. A software engineer was hired to write the special "dual boot mode" BIOS and the special CP/M BIOS. The "dual boot mode" BIOS actually discovered whether a TRS-DOS, or Aster CP/M disk was placed in the drive, and would, depending on the type of disk, reorganise the internal memory architecture of the system, to either be 100% TRS-80 compatible or optimally support CP/M, with as much "workspace" as possible, and the 80×25 video mode. It also was responsible for switching to ROM BASIC when the system was turned on with the break key pressed, and later supported a primitive LAN system, using the RS-232 port with modified cabling. The very first of the ready made computers were sold with the "kit" versions of the euro cards, the version with redesigned cards came a month or so later.
Soon the little shop became much too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby (formerly a window glass factory), and started mass-producing the Aster for a period of a few years, in which time its staff grew twentyfold.
After the Aster having been a few years on the Market Tandy released its own improved model, the TRS-80 Model III computer which solved many of the same problems that the Aster also had solved, but the model 3 still did not fully support CP/M as the Aster did. In the meantime IBM had released its original IBM PC, which incidentally looked remarkably like the Asters base with floppy drives + separate keyboard set-up.
The Aster was chosen for Dutch schools by the Dutch ministry of education, in a set-up with eight disk-less Asters, and one Aster with high-capacity floppy drives all connected by a LAN based on the Aster's high-speed serial port hardware, and special cables that permitted that any single computer on the LAN could broadcast to all other computers. The floppy based system was operated by the teacher who could send programs from his floppy disk, and data, to the student's disk-less systems thanks to the special BIOS in those systems. The students could send programs and data back to the teacher through the same LAN, or could save to a cassette recorder built into the disk-less units. Through a special "video-switch" the teacher was also able to see a copy of each student's display on his own screen. About a thousand of such systems were sold for many hundreds of Dutch schools.
Because of cash flow problems (resulting from growing too fast, insufficient financial backing, technical problems, and a sudden problem with Z80 processor deliveries) the company suddenly folded even before it came to full fruition.
Perhaps the Aster computer inspired another Dutch computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower—the Tulip's Tulip System-1 which appeared about the same time Aster folded.
Most of the engineers who designed the hardware and software of the Aster went on to design hardware and software for the (then new) MSX system for a company called "Micro Technology b.v.".Unreleased add ons
To enhance and modernize the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card, (due to the modular nature of the Aster it was simply a matter of changing the video card, and/or CPU card to upgrade the system):
* A very High resolution monochrome video card with blitter and hardware text line and arc drawing capability, was designed for CAD applications, based on the NEC μPD7220 chip designed for graphic terminals, but was also used by some personal computers like the DEC Rainbow, and notably also for the Tulip System I.
* A colour video card with sprite capability based on the same TMS9918 video chip as the TI-99/4 and MSX computers, designed for gaming, and more creative and colorful educational software. A working prototype of this card was finished.
* A replacement card for the original TRS-80 compatible video card, software compatible to the original one, but with added color and very high resolution capabilities. was also on the drawing board. Based on a newer, slightly more flexible, version of the Asters original Motorola MC6845 video chip, the Rockwell 6545, it worked by adding a new video mode, one with the ability to reprogram an extended, (2048 characters instead of 256 characters) version of the character set, supported by an extended character memory of the video card that did not use one (8 bit) byte per character, but an 11 bit "word", so it could address each one of the available 2048 unique programmable characters. This meant it could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1024 (64x16) or 2000 (80x25) characters on the screen. By filling the character pointer memory with values from zero to 1999 this essentially turned the text mode display into a very high resolution graphics mode, with the "font memory", acting as the high resolution Raster graphics video memory. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this meant that video resolutions of 512 x 192 pixels (in 64x16 character mode), or 640 x 300 pixels (in 80x25 character mode) were created, which was quite high for the time. The "double width" mode of the TRS-80 was also supported, so 256 x 192 pixels (in 32x16 character mode), or 320 x 300 pixels (in 40x25 character mode) were also possible. The video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character, by providing one byte per character position (2K) of "color ram". One nibble of such a byte then controlled the foreground color, and the other nibble controlled the background color, a system very similar to the ZX Spectrum, in fact in the 256x192 mode the display mode was virtually identical to the video of the ZX Spectrum. The color memory was also available in the "normal" TRS-80 and CP/M text modes, which meant that existing TRS-80 and CP/M software could be easily modified to add color. This video card would also support fast scrolling of high resolution color screens for games, because it had the indirection of the character pointers, so it was possible to quickly scroll the high resolution display, (or use other effects) by simply manipulating the 1920/1024 bytes of text video instead of the 24,576 bytes of high-resolution video memory.
A hard disk interface was also in the works, which would, add a SCSI interface, and the necessary software. A working prototype was developed that added a 40MB hard disk.
On the software front, work was being done to implement the replacement for the aging "user interface" of CP/M, (the Command Console Processor CCP) with the more modern ZCPR.
Finally a replacement for the aging Z80 processor was being developed in the form of an Intel 8086 board, and additional 512K 16 bit memory boards. Such replacements of CPU and memory system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that was designed to support both 8 and 16 bit processors, and used a modular Eurocard based design with slots to spare for expansion. In theory the system could support the Z80 and the 8086 simultaneously. Plans were formulated to support CP/M-86 and even MS-DOS.
None of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before any of them could be released.
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200909/http://www.museo8bits.com/aster_ct80.htm Pictures of the Aster CT-80 model one from a Spanish computer museum, the educational model with an opening for a cassette player is the one on the right]
* [http://niels.horn.tripod.com/_images/mkb_hist_1983.jpg A picture of the Aster CT-80 model two used for a business application]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001080154/http://www.computermuseumgroningen.nl/tandy/clones/aster.jpg A picture of the Aster CT-80 model three without cover (Computermuseumgroningen does not have this item anymore)]
* [https://www.electrickery.nl/comp/trs80/doc/VoorlopigeManualAsterCT-80.pdf Preliminary manual for the Aster CT-80 (in Dutch)]
Category:Z80-based home computers
Category:Home computers<!-- Leave this, otherwise navigation is impossible for those who don't know what a Z80 is -->
Category:Personal computers
Category:TRS-80
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1982
Category:Computers designed in the Netherlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aster_CT-80 | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.668202 |
2138 | Arthur Wellesley | Arthur Wellesley may refer to:
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), Anglo-Irish soldier and British prime minister
Arthur Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington (1807–1884), British soldier and nobleman
Arthur Wellesley, 4th Duke of Wellington (1849–1934), British soldier and nobleman
Arthur Wellesley, 5th Duke of Wellington (1876–1941), British soldier and nobleman
Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Douro (born 1978), grandson of the 8th Duke
Arthur Wellesley Hughes (1870–1950), also known as Arthur Wellesley, Canadian musician and composer
Arthur Wellesley, 4th Earl Cowley (1890–1962), British actor and nobleman
See also
Arthur (disambiguation)
Wellesley (disambiguation)
Duke of Wellington (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.672447 |
2139 | Lists of animated television series | These are lists of animated television series. Animated television series are television programs produced by means of animation. Animated series produced for theaters are not included in this lists; for those, see List of animated short film series. These lists include compilation series of theatrical shorts such as The Bugs Bunny Show since they often feature some new wrap-around animation.
Lists by decade
List of animated television series of the 1940s and 1950s
List of animated television series of the 1960s
List of animated television series of the 1970s
List of animated television series of the 1980s
List of animated television series of the 1990s
List of animated television series of the 2000s
List of animated television series of the 2010s
List of animated television series of the 2020s
Other lists
List of animated television series created for syndication
List of animated television series by episode count
List of children's animated television series
List of adult animated television series
List of American prime time animated television series
List of anime series by episode count
List of anime franchises by episode count
List of American animated television series
List of Canadian animated television series
List of Chinese animated television series
List of French animated television series
List of Indian animated television series
List of Korean animated series
List of Philippine animated television series
List of South African animated television series
List of Flash animated television series
List of animated series with LGBTQ characters
See also
Lists of animated films
External links
日本のテレビアニメ作品一覧 - Lists of Japanese animated television series on Japanese Wikipedia
Don Markstein's Toonopedia – Very large index page
The Big Cartoon Database
80sCartoons – Nostalgia for those who grew up in the 1980s in the West
Anime sorted by release date, JP Works DB
Category:Lists of television series by genre | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_animated_television_series | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.695227 |
2140 | Atlanta Braves | | logo = Atlanta Braves.svg
| uniformlogo = Atlanta Braves Insignia.svg
| past league = National Association
| y7 = 1871
| y8 = 1875
| current league = National League
| y1 = 1876
| division = East Division
| y2 = 1994
| past division = West Division
| y5 = 1969
| y6 = 1993
| Uniform = MLB-NLE-ATL-Uniform.png
| retirednumbers =
| colors Navy blue, scarlet red, gold, white<!-- Please DO NOT remove the URL references or change the HTML color codes; they are OFFICIAL, per https://www.mlbstatic.com/team-logos/team-cap-on-light/144.svg. Thank you. --><br />
| y3 = 1966
| nicknames = The Bravos
* The Team of the 90s
* America's Team
| pastnames =
* Milwaukee Braves (–)
* Boston Braves (–)
* Boston Bees (–)
* Boston Braves (–)
* Boston Rustlers ()
* Boston Doves (–)
* Boston Beaneaters (–)
* Boston Red Caps (–)
* Boston Red Stockings (–)
| ballpark = Truist Park (–present)
| y4 | pastparks
* Turner Field (–)
* Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium (–)
* Milwaukee County Stadium (–)
* Braves Field (–)
* Fenway Park (–)
* Congress Street Grounds ()
* South End Grounds (–)
| WS = (4)
| WORLD CHAMPIONS = | | | }}
| LEAGUE = NL
| P = (18)
| PENNANTS = | | | | |}}
| misc1 = NA Pennants (4)
| OTHER PENNANTS =
| DIV = NL East
| DV = (18)
| Division Champs =
| misc5 = NL West Division titles (5)
| OTHER DIV CHAMPS =
| WC = (3)
| Wild Card =
| misc7 = Pre-modern World Series (1)
| OTHER DIV CHAMPS 2 =
| misc6 | owner Atlanta Braves Holdings, Inc.<br>Traded as:<br> (Series A)<br> (Series B)<br> (Series C)<br>Russell 2000 components (BATRA, BATRK)
| president = Derek Schiller
| manager = Brian Snitker
| gm Alex Anthopoulos
| presbo Alex Anthopoulos
| mascots Blooper
| website =
}}
The Atlanta Braves are an American professional baseball team based in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The Braves compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) East Division. The club was founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1871 as the Boston Red Stockings. The Braves are one of two remaining National League charter franchises that debuted in 1876 and are the oldest continuously operating professional sports franchise in North America. The franchise was known by various names until it adopted the Boston Braves name in 1912.
After 81 seasons and one World Series title in Boston, the club moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1953. With a roster of star players such as Hank Aaron, Eddie Mathews, and Warren Spahn, the Milwaukee Braves won the World Series in 1957. Despite the team's success, fan attendance declined. The club's owners moved the team to Atlanta, Georgia, in 1966.
The Braves did not find much success in Atlanta until 1991. From 1991 to 2005, the Braves were one of the most successful teams in baseball, winning an unprecedented 14 consecutive division titles, making an MLB record eight consecutive National League Championship Series appearances, and producing one of the greatest pitching rotations in the history of baseball including Hall of Famers Greg Maddux, John Smoltz, and Tom Glavine.
The club has won an MLB record 23 divisional titles, 18 National League pennants, and four World Series championships. The Braves are the only Major League Baseball franchise to have won the World Series in three different home cities. At the end of the 2024 season, the Braves' overall win–loss record is (). Since moving to Atlanta in 1966, the Braves have an overall win–loss record of () through the end of 2024.HistoryBoston (1871–1952)1871–1913The Cincinnati Red Stockings, formed in 1869, were the first openly all-professional baseball team but disbanded after the 1870 season. Manager Harry Wright and players moved to Boston, forming the Boston Red Stockings, a charter team in the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBBP). Led by the Wright brothers, Ross Barnes, and Al Spalding, they dominated the National Association, winning four of five championships. Despite a weaker roster in the league's first year, they rebounded to secure the 1877 and 1878 pennants. Managed by Frank Selee, they were a dominant force in the 19th century, winning eight pennants. By 1898, the team was known as the Beaneaters and they won 102 games that season, with stars like Hugh Duffy, Tommy McCarthy, and "Slidin'" Billy Hamilton.
In 1901, the American League was introduced, causing many Beaneaters players including stars Duffy and Jimmy Collins to leave for clubs of the rival league. The team struggled, having only one winning season from 1900 to 1913. In 1907, they temporarily dropped the red color from their stockings due to infection concerns.
The club underwent various nickname changes until becoming the Braves before the 1912 season. The president of the club, John M. Ward named the club after the owner, James Gaffney.1914: Miracle
| image2 = 1914 Boston BaseballMagazine.jpg
| alt2 | width2
}}
In 1914, the Boston Braves experienced a remarkable turnaround in what would become one of the most memorable seasons in baseball history. Starting with a dismal 4–18 record, the Braves found themselves in last place, trailing the league-leading New York Giants by 15 games after losing a doubleheader to the Brooklyn Robins on July 4. However, the team rebounded with an incredible hot streak, going 41–12 from July 6 to September 5. On August 3, Joseph Lannin the president of the Red Sox, offered Fenway Park to the Braves free of charge for the remainder of the season since their usual home, the South End Grounds, was too small. On September 7 and 8, they defeated the Giants in two out of three games, propelling them into first place. Despite being in last place as late as July 18, the Braves secured the pennant, becoming the only team under the old eight-team league format to achieve this after being in last place on the Fourth of July. They were in last place as late as July 18, but were close to the pack, moving into fourth on July 21 and second place on August 12.
The Braves entered the 1914 World Series led by captain and National League Most Valuable Player, Johnny Evers. The Boston club were slight underdogs against Connie Mack's Philadelphia A's. However, they swept the Athletics and won the world championship. Inspired by their success, owner Gaffney constructed a modern park, Braves Field, which opened in August 1915 and was the largest park in the majors at the time, boasting 40,000 seats and convenient public transportation access.
1915–1952
From 1917 to 1933, the Boston Braves struggled. After a series of different owners, Emil Fuchs bought the team in 1923. Fuchs brought his longtime friend, pitching great Christy Mathewson, as part of the syndicate that bought the club. However, the death of pitching legend in 1925 left Fuchs in control. Despite Fuchs' commitment to success, the team faced challenges overcoming the damage from previous years. It wasn't until 1933 and 1934, under manager Bill McKechnie, that the Braves became competitive, but it did little to help the club's finances.
In an effort to boost fan attendance and finances, Fuchs orchestrated a deal with the New York Yankees to acquire Babe Ruth in 1935. Ruth was appointed team vice president with promises of profit shares and managerial prospects. Initially, Ruth seemed to provide a spark on opening day, but his declining skills became evident. Ruth's inability to run and poor fielding led to internal strife, and it became clear that his titles were symbolic. Despite World War II causing a brief setback, the team, led by pitcher Warren Spahn, enjoyed impressive seasons in 1946 and 1947 under Perini's ownership. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September, Boston Post writer Gerald Hern wrote this poem about the pair:
:''First we'll use Spahn
:then we'll use Sain
:Then an off day
:followed by rain
:Back will come Spahn
:followed by Sain
:And followed
:we hope
:by two days of rain.''
The poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as "Spahn and Sain and pray for rain", entered the baseball vocabulary.
The 1948 World Series, which the Braves lost in six games to the Indians, turned out to be the Braves' last hurrah in Boston. On March 13, 1953, Perini announced he was moving the club to Milwaukee. Perini cited advent of television and the lack of enthusiasm for the Braves in Boston as the key factors in deciding to move the franchise. Manager Charlie Grimm was named NL Manager of the Year.
Throughout the 1950s, the Braves were a National League power; driven by sluggers Eddie Mathews and Hank Aaron, the team won two pennants and finished second twice between 1956 and 1959. In 1957, Aaron's MVP season led the Braves to their first pennant in nine years, then a World Series victory against the formidable New York Yankees. Despite a strong start in the World Series rematch the following season, the Braves ultimately lost the last three games and the World Series. In the National League Championship Series the Braves were swept by the "Miracle Mets". They would post only two winning seasons between 1970 and 1981. Fans in Atlanta had to be satisfied with the achievements of Hank Aaron, who by the end of the 1973 season, had hit 713 home runs, one short of Ruth's record. On April 4, opening day of the next season, he hit No. 714 in Cincinnati, and on April 8, in front of his home fans and a national television audience, he finally beat Ruth's mark with a home run to left-center field off left-hander Al Downing of the Los Angeles Dodgers. Aaron spent most of his career as a Milwaukee and Atlanta Brave before being traded to the Milwaukee Brewers on November 2, 1974.Ted Turner and Time Warner era1976–1977: Ted Turner buys the team
purchased the team in 1976, and played a large role in the team's operation.]]
In 1976, the team was purchased by media magnate Ted Turner, owner of superstation WTBS, as a means to keep the team (and one of his main programming staples) in Atlanta.1978–1990
The Braves didn't enjoy much success between 1978 and 1990, however, in the 1982 season, led by manager Joe Torre, the Braves secured their first divisional title since 1969. The team was led by standout performances from key players like Dale Murphy, Bob Horner, Chris Chambliss, Phil Niekro, and Gene Garber. The Braves were swept in the NLCS in three games by the Cardinals. Murphy won the Most Valuable Player award for the National League in 1982 and 1983.1991–2005: 14 consecutive division titlesFrom 1991 to 2005, the Atlanta Braves enjoyed a remarkable era of success in baseball, marked by a record-setting 14 consecutive division titles, five National League pennants, and a World Series championship in 1995. Bobby Cox returned as manager in 1990, leading the team's turnaround after finishing the previous season with the worst record in baseball. Notable developments included the drafting of Chipper Jones in 1990 and the hiring of general manager John Schuerholz from the Kansas City Royals.
The Braves' remarkable journey began in 1991, known as the "Worst to First" season. Overcoming a shaky start, the Braves bounced back led by young pitchers Tom Glavine and John Smoltz. The team secured the NL pennant in a memorable playoff race, ultimately losing a closely contested World Series to the Minnesota Twins. The following year, the Braves won the NLCS in dramatic fashion against the Pirates but fell short in the World Series against the Toronto Blue Jays.
In 1993, the Braves strengthened their pitching staff with the addition of Cy Young Award winner Greg Maddux in free agency. Despite posting a franchise-best 104 wins, they lost in the NLCS to the Philadelphia Phillies. The team moved to the Eastern Division in 1994, sparking a heated rivalry with the New York Mets.
The player's strike cut short the 1994 season just before the division championships, but the Braves rebounded in 1995, defeating the Cleveland Indians to win the World Series. With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. The Braves reached the World Series in 1996 and 1999 but were defeated both times by the New York Yankees.
In 1996, Time Warner acquired Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System, including the Braves. Despite their continued success with a ninth consecutive division title in 2000, the Braves faced postseason disappointment with a sweep by the St. Louis Cardinals in the NLDS. The team won division titles from 2002 to 2004 but experienced early exits in the NLDS each year.
Liberty Media era
Liberty Media buys the team
prior to his final regular-season game on September 30, 2012. Jones announced he would retire after 19 seasons with the Braves]]
In December 2005, Time Warner, put the club up for sale, leading to negotiations with Liberty Media. After over a year of talks, a deal was reached in February 2007 for Liberty Media to acquire the Braves for $450 million, a magazine publishing company, and $980 million in cash. The sale, valued at approximately $1.48 billion, was contingent on approval from 75 percent of MLB owners and Commissioner Bud Selig. Bobby Cox and Chipper Jones retire Bobby Cox's final year as manager in 2010 saw the Braves return to the postseason for the first time since 2005. The team secured the NL Wild Card but fell to the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series in four closely contested games, marking the conclusion of Bobby Cox's managerial career. The following season the Braves suffered a historic September collapse to miss the postseason. The club bounced back in 2012 and returned to the postseason in Chipper Jones' final season. The Braves won 94 games in 2012, but that wasn't enough to win the NL East, so they faced the St. Louis Cardinals in the inaugural Wild Card Game. Chipper Jones last game was a memorable one: the Braves lost the one game playoff 6–3, but the game would be remembered for a controversial infield fly call that helped end a Braves rally in the 8th inning. Following an MLB investigation into international signing rule violations, general manager John Coppolella resigned and faced a baseball ban. Alex Anthopoulos took over as the new general manager. The team's chairman, Terry McGuirk, apologized for the scandal and expressed confidence in Anthopoulos' integrity. Under Anthopoulos, the Braves made the playoffs in six of his first seven seasons. In 2020 the Braves reached the National League Championship Series, but ultimately lost to the Dodgers after leading 3–1.
hosts the 2021 World Series Champion Atlanta Braves on September 26, 2022, in the East Room of the White House.]]
In the 2021 season, the Braves won the National League East with an 88–73 record. In the postseason, they quickly defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the NL Division Series 3–1. The Braves again faced the Dodgers in the 2021 NLCS, and won in six games to take Atlanta's first National League pennant since 1999. The Braves advanced to the World Series. They defeated the Houston Astros in six games to win their fourth World Series title.
Logos and uniforms
The Braves logos have evolved over the years, featuring a Native American warrior from 1945 to 1955, followed by a laughing Native American with a mohawk and a feather from 1956 to 1965. The modern logo, introduced in 1987, includes the cursive word "Braves" with a tomahawk below it.
Uniform changes occurred in 1987, with the team adopting uniforms reminiscent of their 1950s classic look. For the 2023 season, the Braves had four uniform combinations, including the classic white home and gray road uniforms, a navy blue road jersey for alternate games, and two alternate uniforms for home games - a Friday night red uniform and a City Connect uniform worn on Saturdays, paying tribute to Hank Aaron. The City Connect uniform features "The A" across the chest, accompanied by a cap with the "A" logo and 1974 uniform colors.World Series championshipsOver the 120 years since the inception of the World Series (119 total World Series played), the Braves franchise has won a total of four World Series Championships. The Braves are the only franchise to have won a World Series in three different cities. During the 1914 season, it became evident that the South End Grounds was too small to accommodate larger crowds, prompting the team to play some games at Fenway Park. The team played there until moving to Atlanta in 1966.
The city of Atlanta constructed Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium in 1965 after reaching an agreement with the Braves to relocate from Milwaukee. The Braves played at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium until 1997, when they moved to Turner Field. Originally built as Centennial Olympic Stadium for the 1996 Summer Olympics, the venue was later converted into a ballpark for the Braves. Turner Field served as the Braves' home ballpark through the 2016 season.Current parksTruist Park
The Atlanta Braves home ballpark has been Truist Park since 2017. Truist Park is located approximately 10 miles (16 km) northwest of downtown Atlanta in the unincorporated community of Cumberland, in Cobb County, Georgia. The Braves opened Truist Park on April 14, 2017, with a four-game sweep of the San Diego Padres. The park received positive reviews. Woody Studenmund of the Hardball Times called the park a "gem" saying that he was impressed with "the compact beauty of the stadium and its exciting approach to combining baseball, business and social activities." J.J. Cooper of Baseball America praised the "excellent sight lines for pretty much every seat."CoolToday Park
Since 2019, the Braves have played spring training games at CoolToday Park in North Port, Florida. The ballpark opened on March 24, 2019, with the Braves' 4–2 win over the Tampa Bay Rays. The Braves left Champion Stadium, their previous Spring Training home near Orlando to reduce travel times and to get closer to other teams' facilities. CoolToday Park also serves as the Braves' year round rehabilitation facility.
Attendance
{| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"
|+
|
|
{| style="width:300px; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #CE1F43;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"
| colspan"6" style";" | Home Attendance at Truist Park
|-
! style=";" | Year
! style=";" | Total Attendance
! style=";" | Game Average
! style=";" | Stadium Capacity by %
! style=";" | Major League Rank by #
|-
| 2017
| 2,505,252
| 30,929
| 75.3%
| 13th
|-
| 2018
| 2,555,781
| 31,552
| 76.8%
| 12th
|-
| 2019
| 2,654,920
| 32,776
| 79.8%
| 12th
|-
|2020
|0*
|0*
|NA
|NA
|-
|2021
|2,300,247
|29,490
|71.8%
|2nd
|-
|2022
|3,129,931
|38,641
|94.0%
|4th
|-
|2023
|3,191,505
|39,401
|95.9%
|5th
|}
|}
(*) – There were no fans allowed in any MLB stadium in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Major rivalry
New York Mets
Although their first major confrontation occurred when the Mets swept the Braves in the 1969 NLCS, the rivalry did not become especially heated until the 1994 season when division realignment put both the Mets and the Braves in the National League East division.
The Braves faced the Mets in the 1999 National League Championship Series. The Braves initially took a 3–0 series lead, seemingly on the verge of a sweep, but the Mets rallied in Game 4 and Game 5. The National League East title and a first-round bye came down to a crucial three-game series at Truist Park from September 30 to October 2. The Mets entered with a slight lead but faltered as the Braves swept the series.
Nationwide fanbase
In addition to having strong fan support in the Metro Atlanta area and the state of Georgia, the Braves are often referred to as "America's Team" in reference to the team's games being broadcast nationally on TBS from the 1970s until 2007, giving the team a nationwide fan base.
The Braves boast heavy support within the Southeastern United States particularly in states such as Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee and Florida.Tomahawk chop
In 1991, fans of the Atlanta Braves popularized the "tomahawk chop" during games. The use of foam tomahawks faced criticism from Native American groups, who regarded it as demeaning. Despite protests, the Braves' public relations director defended it as a "proud expression of unification and family." During the off-season, discussions ensued with Native American representatives, and amid pressure in 2020 to change their name, the Braves announced ongoing talks about the chop but insisted the team name would remain unchanged.
The debate over the tomahawk chop continued into 2021. While some Native American leaders, like Richard Sneed, the Principal Chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, expressed personal indifference or tolerance, acknowledging it as an acknowledgment of Native American strength, others vehemently opposed it. Sneed emphasized larger issues facing Native American communities and questioned the focus on the chop. The Eastern Cherokee Band of Indians and the Braves initiated efforts to incorporate Cherokee language and culture into the team's activities, stadium, and merchandise, aiming for greater cultural sensitivity despite differing opinions within the Native American community.
Achievements
Awards
Braves players have won seven Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards, with Dale Murphy notably earning the honor in back-to-back years, 1982 and 1983. Five Braves pitchers have received the Cy Young Award, given to the league's best pitcher, including Greg Maddux, who won it three consecutive times in 1993, 1994, and 1995.
Two Braves managers have been named Manager of the Year, with Bobby Cox winning the award three times, in 1991, 2004, and 2005. Additionally, seven Braves players have been honored with the Rookie of the Year awards.Team recordsRetired numbers
The Braves have retired eleven numbers in the history of the franchise. Most recently, Andruw Jones' number 25 was retired in 2023. Other retired numbers include Chipper Jones' number 10, John Smoltz's number 29, Bobby Cox's number 6, Tom Glavine's number 47, and Greg Maddux's number 31. Additionally, the Braves have retired Hank Aaron's number 44, Dale Murphy's number 3, Phil Niekro's number 35, Eddie Mathews' number 41, and Warren Spahn's number 21. Jackie Robinson's number 42 is also retired across all of Major League Baseball, with the exception of Jackie Robinson Day.
Six of the eleven numbers (Cox, Jones, Jones, Smoltz, Maddux and Glavine) were on the Braves at the same time. Of the eleven Braves whose numbers have been retired, all who are eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame have been elected with the exceptions of Dale Murphy and Andruw Jones. The color and design of the retired numbers on commemorative markers and other in-stadium signage reflect the primary uniform design at the time the player was on the team.
}}
Baseball Hall of Famers
]]
]]
]]
, Hall of Famer]]
Braves Hall of Fame
, outfielder]]
, Hall of Famer]]
]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
!scope="row" |Year
|Year inducted
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| Bold
|Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#ffb;"| }}
|Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame as a Brave
|-
!scope"row" style"background:#cfc;"| Bold
|Recipient of the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
| colspan"5" style";|Braves Hall of Fame
|-
!scope"col" style";|Year
!scope"col" style";|No.
!scope"col" style";| Name
!scope"col" style";| Position(s)
!scope"col" style";| Tenure
|-
| rowspan4|1999 || 21 || style"background:#ffb;"|Warren Spahn}} || P || 1942, 1946–1964
|-
| 35 || style="background:#ffb;"|Phil Niekro}} || P || 1964–1983, 1987
|-
| 41 || style="background:#ffb;"|Eddie Mathews}} || 3B<br>Manager || 1952–1966<br>1972–1974
|-
| 44 || style="background:#ffb;"|Hank Aaron}} || RF || 1954–1974
|-
| rowspan=2|2000 || — || Ted Turner || Owner/President || 1976–1996
|-
| 3 || Dale Murphy || OF || 1976–1990
|-
| 2001 || 32 || Ernie Johnson Sr. || P<br>Broadcaster || 1950, 1952–1958<br>1962–1999
|-
| rowspan=2|2002 || 28, 33 || Johnny Sain || P<br>Coach || 1942, 1946–1951<br>1977, 1985–1986
|-
| — || Bill Bartholomay || Owner/President || 1962–1976
|-
| 2003 || 1, 23 || Del Crandall || C || 1949–1963
|-
| rowspan=4|2004 || — || Pete Van Wieren || Broadcaster || 1976–2008
|-
| — || style="background:#ffb;"|Kid Nichols}} || P || 1890–1901
|-
| 1 || Tommy Holmes || OF<br>Manager || 1942–1951<br>1951–1952
|-
| — || Skip Caray || Broadcaster || 1976–2008
|-
| rowspan=2|2005 || — || Paul Snyder || Executive || 1973–2007
|-
| — || Herman Long || SS || 1890–1902
|-
| rowspan=2|2006 || — || Bill Lucas || GM || 1976–1979
|-
| 11, 48 || Ralph Garr || OF || 1968–1975
|-
| 2007 || 23 || David Justice || OF || 1989–1996
|-
| 2009 || 31 || style"background:#ffb;"|Greg Maddux || P || 1993–2003
|-
| 2010 || 47 || style"background:#ffb;"|Tom Glavine}} || P || 1987–2002, 2008
|-
| 2011 || 6 || style"background:#ffb;"|Bobby Cox}} || Manager || 1978–1981, 1990–2010
|-
| 2012 || 29 || style"background:#ffb;"|John Smoltz}} || P || 1988–1999, 2001–2008
|-
| 2013 || 10 || style"background:#ffb;"|Chipper Jones}} || 3B/LF || 1993–2012
|-
| rowspan=3|2014 || 8 || Javy López || C || 1992–2003
|-
| 1 || style="background:#ffb;"|Rabbit Maranville}} || SS/2B || 1912–1920<br>1929–1933, 1935
|-
| — || Dave Pursley || Trainer || 1961–2002
|-
| 2015 || — || style="background:#ffb;"| Don Sutton || Broadcaster || 1989–2006, 2009–2020
|-
| rowspan=2|2016 || 25 || Andruw Jones || CF || 1996–2007
|-
| — || style="background:#ffb;"|John Schuerholz || Executive || 1990–2016
|-
| rowspan=2|2018 || 15 || Tim Hudson || P || 2005–2013
|-
| — || Joe Simpson || Broadcaster || 1992–present
|-
| rowspan2|2019 || — || style"background:#ffb;"|Hugh Duffy || OF || 1892–1900
|-
| 5, 9 || Terry Pendleton || 3B<br>Coach || 1991–1994, 1996<br>2002–2017
|-
| rowspan3|2022 || 9 || Joe Adcock || 1B/OF || 1953–1962
|-
| 54 || Leo Mazzone || Coach || 1990–2005
|-
| 9, 15 || style="background:#ffb;"|Joe Torre || C/1B/3B<br>Manager || 1960–1968 <br>1982–1984
|-
| rowspan2|2023 || 25, 43, 77 || Rico Carty || LF || 1963–1972
|-
| — || Fred Tenney || 1B || 1894–1907, 1911
|}
Roster
Minor league affiliates
The Atlanta Braves farm system consists of six minor league affiliates.
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope"col" style""|Class
!scope"col" style""|Team
!scope"col" style""|League
!scope"col" style""|Location
!scope"col" style""|Ballpark
!scope"col" style""|Affiliated
|-
| Triple-A
!scope="row"| Gwinnett Stripers
| International League
| Lawrenceville, Georgia
| Coolray Field
| align="right"| 2009
|-
| Double-A
!scope="row"| Columbus Clingstones
| Southern League
| Columbus, Georgia
| Synovus Park
| align="right"| 2025
|-
| High-A
!scope="row"| Rome Emperors
| South Atlantic League
| Rome, Georgia
| AdventHealth Stadium
| align="right"| 2003
|-
| Single-A
!scope="row"| Augusta GreenJackets
| Carolina League
| North Augusta, South Carolina
| SRP Park
| align="right"| 2021
|-
| rowspan=2| Rookie
!scope="row"| FCL Braves
| Florida Complex League
| North Port, Florida
| CoolToday Park
| align="right"| 1976
|-
!scope="row"| DSL Braves
| Dominican Summer League
| Boca Chica, Santo Domingo
| Atlanta Braves Complex
| align="right"| 2022
|}
Radio and television
The Braves regional games are broadcast on FanDuel Sports Network Southeast with a limited number of select games on Peachtree TV (Atlanta's CW, WPCH 17.1) and the Peachtree Sports Network (PSN). Brandon Gaudin serves as the play-by-play announcer and C.J. Nitkowski as lead analyst. Jeff Francoeur and Tom Glavine will also join the broadcast for a few games during the season. Peter Moylan, Nick Green, and John Smoltz also appear in the booth for select games as in-game analysts.
The radio broadcast team is led by the tandem of play-by-play announcer Ben Ingram and analyst Joe Simpson. Braves games are broadcast across Georgia and seven other states on at least 172 radio affiliates, including flagship station 680 The Fan in Atlanta and stations as far away as Richmond, Virginia; Louisville, Kentucky; and the US Virgin Islands. The games are carried on at least 82 radio stations in Georgia.ReferencesFootnotesCitationsFurther reading*
* External links
*
* [https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/ATL/ Team index page] at Baseball Reference
* [http://www.milwaukeebraves.info Milwaukee Braves informational website]
* [https://archive.today/20130119132809/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/teams/atlanta-braves/index.html Sports Illustrated Atlanta Braves Page]
* [https://www.espn.com/mlb/team/_/name/atl/atlanta-braves ESPN Atlanta Braves Page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120912055434/http://www.masshistory.com/boston-braves History of the Boston Braves on MassHistory.com]
}}
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Category:Major League Baseball teams
Category:Grapefruit League
Category:Liberty Media subsidiaries
Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Category:Companies traded over-the-counter in the United States
<!-- Category:Atlanta Braves already in these. DO NOT RESTORE PER WP:CAT Category:Sports in Atlanta, Georgia
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Category:Baseball teams in Georgia (U.S. state) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta_Braves | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.774958 |
2141 | Atari ST | | lifespan | price (monochrome)
* (color monitor)}}
| discontinued =
| unitssold
| unitsshipped | media
| os = Digital Research's GEM on Atari TOS
| power | soc
| cpu = 68000 @ 8+ MHz
| memory = 512 KB to 4 MB
| storage | memory card
| display | graphics 320 × 200 (16 colors)<br>640 × 200 (4 colors)<br>640 × 400 (monochrome)
| sound = YM2149F
| input | controllers
| connectivity | platform
| dimensions | weight
| compatibility | predecessor Atari 8-bit computers
| successor | related
| website = <!---->
}}
Atari ST is a line of personal computers from Atari Corporation and the successor to the company's 8-bit home computers. The initial model, the Atari 520ST, had limited release in April–June 1985, and was widely available in July. It was the first personal computer with a bitmapped color graphical user interface, using a version of Digital Research's GEM environment from February 1985. The Atari 1040ST, released in 1986 with 1 MB of memory, was the first home computer with a cost per kilobyte of RAM under US$1/KB. referring to the Motorola 68000's 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals.
The ST was sold with either Atari's color monitor or less expensive monochrome monitor. Color graphics modes are available only on the former while the highest-resolution mode requires the monochrome monitor. Some models can display the color modes on a TV. In Germany and some other markets, the ST gained a foothold for CAD and desktop publishing. With built-in MIDI ports, it was popular for music sequencing and as a controller of musical instruments among amateur and professional musicians. The Atari ST's primary competitor was the Amiga from Commodore.
The 520ST and 1040ST were followed by the Mega series, the STE, and the portable STacy. In the early 1990s, Atari released three final evolutions of the ST with significant technical differences from the original models: TT030 (1990), Mega STE (1991), and Falcon (1992). Atari discontinued the entire ST computer line in 1993, shifting the company's focus to the Jaguar video game console.
Development
The Atari ST was born from the rivalry between home computer makers Atari, Inc. and Commodore International. Jay Miner, one of the designers of the custom chips in the Atari 2600 and Atari 8-bit computers, tried to convince Atari management to create a new chipset for a video game console and computer. When his idea was rejected, he left Atari to form a small think tank called Hi-Toro in 1982 and began designing the new "Lorraine" chipset.
Hi-Toro, by then renamed Amiga, ran out of capital to complete Lorraine's development, and Atari, now owned by Warner Communications, paid Amiga to continue its work. In return, Atari received exclusive use of the Lorraine design for one year as a video game console. After that time, Atari had the right to add a keyboard and market the complete computer, designated the 1850XLD.
Tramel Technology
After leaving Commodore International in January 1984, Jack Tramiel formed Tramel (without an "i") Technology, Ltd. with his sons and other ex-Commodore employees and, in April, began planning a new computer. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and worldwide distribution network, Tramiel negotiated with Warner in May and June 1984. He secured funding and bought Atari's consumer division, which included the console and home computer departments, in July. As executives and engineers left Commodore to join Tramel Technology, Commodore responded by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for infringement of trade secrets. The Tramiels did not purchase the employee contracts with the assets of Atari, Inc. and re-hired approximately 100 of the 900 former employees. Tramel Technology soon changed its name to Atari Corporation.
Commodore and Amiga
Amid rumors that Tramiel was negotiating to buy Atari, Amiga Corp. entered discussions with Commodore. This led to Commodore wanting to purchase Amiga Corporation outright, which Commodore believed would cancel any outstanding contracts, including Atari's. Instead of Amiga Corp. delivering Lorraine to Atari, Commodore delivered a check of $500,000 on Amiga's behalf, in effect returning the funds Atari invested in Amiga for the chipset. Tramiel countered by suing Amiga Corp. on August 13, 1984, seeking damages and an injunction to bar Amiga (and effectively Commodore) from producing anything with its technology.
The lawsuit left the Amiga team in limbo during mid-1984. Commodore eventually moved forward, with plans to improve the chipset and develop an operating system. Commodore announced the Amiga 1000 with the Lorraine chipset in July 1985, but it wasn't available in quantity until 1986. The delay gave Atari time to deliver the Atari 520ST in June 1985. In March 1987, the two companies settled the dispute out of court in a closed decision.
ST hardware
The lead architect of the new computer project at Tramel Technology and Atari Corporation was ex-Commodore employee Shiraz Shivji, who previously worked on the Commodore 64's development. Different CPUs were investigated, including the 32-bit National Semiconductor NS32000, but engineers were disappointed with its performance, and they moved to the Motorola 68000. The Atari ST design was completed in five months in 1984, concluding with it being shown at the January 1985 Consumer Electronics Show.
Operating system
Soon after the Atari buyout, Microsoft suggested to Tramiel that it could port Windows to the platform, but the delivery date was out by two years.
GEM is based on CP/M-68K, a direct port of CP/M to the 68000. By 1985, CP/M was becoming increasingly outdated; it did not support subdirectories, for example. Digital Research was also in the process of building GEMDOS, a disk operating system for GEM, and debated whether a port of it could be completed in time for product delivery in June. The decision was eventually taken to port it, resulting in a GEMDOS file system which became part of Atari TOS (for "The Operating System", colloquially known as the "Tramiel Operating System"). This gave the ST a fast, hierarchical file system, essential for hard drives, and provided programmers with function calls similar to MS-DOS. The Atari ST character set is based on codepage 437.
Release
After six months of intensive effort following Tramiel's takeover, Atari announced the 520ST at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas in January 1985. InfoWorld assessed the prototypes shown at computer shows as follows:<blockquote>Pilot production models of the Atari machine are much slicker than the hand-built models shown at earlier computer fairs; it doesn't look like a typical Commodore 64-style, corner-cutting, low-cost Jack Tramiel product of the past.</blockquote>Atari unexpectedly displayed the ST at Atlanta COMDEX in May. Similarities to the original Macintosh and Tramiel's role in its development resulted in it being nicknamed Jackintosh. Atari's rapid development of the ST amazed many, But Jack Tramiel admitted that sales of its earlier 8-bit systems were "very, very slow", By November, Atari stated that more than 50,000 520STs had been sold, "with U.S. sales alone well into five figures". The machine had gone from concept to store shelves in a little under one year.
Atari had intended to release the 130ST with 128 KB of RAM and the 260ST with 256 KB. However, the ST initially shipped without TOS in ROM and required booting TOS from floppy, taking 206 KB RAM away from applications. The 260ST was launched in Europe on a limited basis. Early models have six ROM sockets for easy upgrades to TOS.
The ST was less expensive than most contemporaries, including the Macintosh Plus, and is faster than many. Largely as a result of its price and performance factor, the ST became fairly popular, especially in Europe where foreign-exchange rates amplified prices. The company's English advertising slogan of the era was "Power Without the Price". An Atari ST and terminal emulation software was much cheaper than a Digital VT220 terminal, commonly needed by offices with central computers.
By late 1985, the 520ST<sup>M</sup> added an RF modulator for TV display.
Industry reaction
Computer Gaming World stated that Tramiel's poor pre-Atari reputation would likely make computer stores reluctant to deal with the company, hurting its distribution of the ST. One retailer said, "If you can believe Lucy when she holds the football for Charlie Brown, you can believe Jack Tramiel"; another said that because of its experience with Tramiel, "our interest in Atari is zero, zilch". Neither Atari nor Commodore could persuade large chains like ComputerLand or BusinessLand to sell its products.
At Las Vegas COMDEX in November 1985, the industry was surprised by more than 30 companies exhibiting ST software while the Amiga had almost none. After Atlanta COMDEX, The New York Times reported that "more than 100 software titles will be available for the [ST], most written by small software houses that desperately need work", John C. Dvorak wrote that the public saw both Commodore and Atari as selling "cheap disposable" game machines, in part because of their computers' sophisticated graphics.
Design
The original 520ST case design was created by Ira Velinsky, Atari's chief Industrial Designer. It is wedge-shaped, with bold angular lines and a series of grilles cut into the rear for airflow. The keyboard has soft tactile feedback and rhomboid-shaped function keys across the top. It is an all-in-one unit, similar to earlier home computers like the Commodore 64, but with a larger keyboard with cursor keys and a numeric keypad. The original has an external floppy drive (SF354) and AC adapter. Starting with the 1040ST, the floppy drive and power supply are integrated into the base unit. Ports The ports on the 520ST remained largely unchanged over its history.Standard
* RS-232c serial port (DB25 male, operating as basic 9-conductor DTE)
* Centronics printer port (DB25 female, officially compliant only with the most basic unidirectional standard with a single, "Busy" input line; unofficially offering some bidirectional capabilities)
* Atari joystick ports (DE-9 male) for the mouse and game controllers
* 2 MIDI ports (5-pin DIN, "IN" and "OUT")
Because of its bi-directional design, the Centronics printer port can be used for joystick input, and several games used available adaptors that used the printer socket, providing two additional 9-pin joystick ports.
ST-specific
* Monitor port (custom 13-pin DIN, 12 of the pins in a rectangular pattern, carrying signals for both RGB and monochrome monitors, monophonic audio and, in later models, composite video)
* ACSI (similar to SCSI) DMA port (custom-sized 19-pin D-sub, for hard disks and laser printers, capable of up to 2 MB/s with efficient programming)
* Floppy port (14-pin DIN, listed as operating at 250 kbit/s)
* ST cartridge port (double-sided 40-contact edge connector socket, for 128 KB ROM cartridges)
Monitor
The ST supports a monochrome or colour monitor. The colour hardware supports two resolutions: 320 × 200 pixels, with 16 of 512 colours; and 640 × 200, with 4 of 512 colours. The monochrome monitor was less expensive and has a single resolution of 640 × 400 at 71.25 Hz. The attached monitor determines available resolutions, so each application either supports both types of monitors or only one. Most ST games require colour with productivity software favouring the monochrome. The Philips CM8833-II was a popular color monitor for the Atari ST. Floppy drive
Atari initially used single-sided 3.5 inch floppy disk drives that could store up to 360 KB. Later drives were double-sided and stored 720 KB. Some commercial software, particularly games, shipped by default on single-sided disks, even supplying two 360 KB floppies instead of a single double-sided one, to avoid alienating early adopters.
Some software uses formats which allow the full disk to be read by double-sided drives but still lets single-sided drives access side A of the disk. Many magazine coverdisks (such as the first 30 issues of ST Format) were designed this way, as were a few games. The music in Carrier Command and the intro sequence in Populous are not accessible to single-sided drives, for example.
STs with double-sided drives can read disks formatted by MS-DOS, but IBM PC compatibles can not read Atari disks because of differences in the layout of data on track 0.
Later systems
1040ST
Atari upgraded the basic design in 1986 with the 1040STF, stylized as 1040ST<sup>F</sup>: essentially a 520ST with twice the RAM and with the power supply and a double-sided floppy drive with twice the capacity, and built-in instead of external. This adds to the size of the machine, but reduces cable clutter. The joystick and mouse ports, formerly on the right side of the machine, are in a recess underneath the keyboard. An "FM" variant includes an RF modulator allowing a television to be used instead of a monitor.
The trailing "F" and "FM" were often dropped in common usage. With a list price of in the US, BYTE hailed it as the first computer to break the $1000 per megabyte price barrier.
A limited number of 1040STFs shipped with a single-sided floppy drive of 360KB storage capacity verses 720KB in the double sided version.
Mega
Initial sales were strong, especially in Europe, where Atari sold 75% of its computers. West Germany became Atari's strongest market, Atari introduced the ST1 at Comdex in 1986. Renamed to Mega, it includes a high-quality detached keyboard, a stronger case to support the weight of a monitor, and an internal bus expansion connector. An optional 20 MB hard drive can be placed below or above the main case. Initially equipped with 2 or 4 MB of RAM (a 1 MB version, the Mega 1, followed), the Mega machines can be combined with Atari's laser printer for a low-cost desktop publishing package.
A custom blitter coprocessor improved some graphics performance, but was not included in all models. Developers wanting to use it had to detect its presence in their programs. Properly written applications using the GEM API automatically make use of the blitter.
STE
In late 1989, Atari Corporation released the 520ST<sup>E</sup> and 1040ST<sup>E</sup> (also written STE), enhanced version of the ST with improvements to the multimedia hardware and operating system. It features an increased color palette of 4,096 colors from the ST's 512 (though the maximum displayable palette without programming tricks is still limited to 16 in the lowest 320 × 200 resolution, and even fewer in higher resolutions), genlock support, and a blitter coprocessor (stylized as "BLiTTER") which can quickly move large blocks of data (particularly, graphics data) around in RAM. The STE is the first Atari with PCM audio; using a new chip, it added the ability to play back 8-bit (signed) samples at 6258 Hz, 12,517 Hz, 25,033 Hz, and even 50,066 Hz, via direct memory access (DMA). The channels are arranged as either a mono track or a track of LRLRLRLR... bytes. RAM is now much more simply upgradable via SIMMs.
Two enhanced joystick ports were added (two normal joysticks can be plugged into each port with an adapter), with the new connectors placed in more easily accessed locations on the side of the case. The enhanced joystick ports were re-used in the Atari Jaguar console and are compatible.
The STE models initially had software and hardware conflicts resulting in some applications and video games written for the ST line being unstable or even completely unusable, primarily caused by programming direct hardware calls which bypassed the operating system. Furthermore, even having a joystick plugged in would sometimes cause strange behavior with a few applications (such as the WYSIWYG word-processor application 1st Word Plus). Sleepwalker was the only STE-only game from a major publisher, but there were STe enhancements in games such as Another World, Zool and The Chaos Engine, as well as exclusives from smaller companies.
The last STE machine, the Mega STE, is an STE in a grey Atari TT case that had a switchable 16 MHz, dual-bus design (16-bit external, 32-bit internal), optional Motorola 68881 FPU, built-in 1.44 MB "HD" 3-inch floppy disk drive, VME expansion slot, a network port (very similar to that used by Apple's LocalTalk) and an optional built-in 3" hard drive. It also shipped with TOS 2.00 (better support for hard drives, enhanced desktop interface, memory test, 1.44 MB floppy support, bug fixes). It was marketed as more affordable than a TT but more powerful than an ordinary ST.
Atari TT
In 1990, Atari released the high-end workstation-oriented Atari TT030, based on a 32 MHz Motorola 68030 processor. The "TT" name ("Thirty-two/Thirty-two") continued the nomenclature because the 68030 chip has 32-bit buses both internally and externally. Originally planned with a 68020 CPU, the TT has improved graphics and more powerful support chips. The case has a new design with an integrated hard-drive enclosure.
Falcon
The final model of ST computer is the Falcon030. Like the TT, it is 68030-based, at 16 MHz, but with improved video modes and an on-board Motorola 56001 audio digital signal processor. Like the Atari STE, it supports sampling frequencies above 44.1 kHz; the sampling master clock is 98340 Hz (which can be divided by a number between 2 and 16 to get the actual sampling frequencies). It can play the STE sample frequencies (up to 50066 Hz) in 8 or 16 bit, mono or stereo, all by using the same DMA interface as the STE, with a few additions. It can both play back and record samples, with 8 mono channels and 4 stereo channels, allowing musicians to use it for recording to hard drive. Although the 68030 microprocessor can use 32-bit memory, the Falcon uses a 16-bit bus, which reduces performance and cost. In another cost-reduction measure, Atari shipped the Falcon in an inexpensive case much like that of the ST<sup>F</sup> and ST<sup>E</sup>. Aftermarket upgrade kits allow it to be put in a desktop or rack-mount case, with the keyboard separate.
Released in 1992, the Falcon was discontinued by Atari the following year. In Europe, C-Lab licensed the Falcon design from Atari and released the C-Lab Falcon Mk I, identical to Atari's Falcon except for slight modifications to the audio circuitry. The Mk II added an internal 500 MB SCSI hard disk; and the Mk X further added a desktop case. C-Lab Falcons were also imported to the US by some Atari dealers.
Software
As with the Atari 8-bit computers, That year, WordPerfect threatened to discontinue the Atari ST version of its word processor because the company discovered that pirate bulletin board systems (BBSs) were distributing it, causing ST-Log to warn that "we had better put a stop to piracy now ... it can have harmful effects on the longevity and health of your computer". A positive review of Typhoon Thompson in Antic concluded:
In 1989, magazines published a letter by Gilman Louie, head of Spectrum HoloByte. He stated that he had been warned by competitors that releasing a game like Falcon on the ST would fail because BBSs would widely disseminate it. Within 30 days of releasing the non-copy protected ST version, the game was available on BBSs with maps and code wheels. Because the ST market was smaller than that for the IBM PC, it was more vulnerable to piracy which, Louie said, seemed to be better organized and more widely accepted for the ST. He reported that the Amiga version sold in six weeks twice as much as the ST version in nine weeks, and that the Mac and PC versions had four times the sales. Computer Gaming World stated "This is certainly the clearest exposition ... we have seen to date" of why software companies produced less software for the ST than for other computers.
Several third-party OSes were developed for, or ported to, the Atari ST. Unix clones include Idris, Minix, and the MiNT OS which was developed specifically for the Atari ST.
Audio
Plenty of professional quality MIDI-related software was released. The popular Windows and Macintosh applications Cubase and Logic Pro originated on the Atari ST (the latter as Creator, Notator, Notator-SL, and Notator Logic). Another popular and powerful ST music sequencer application, KCS, contains a "Multi-Program Environment" that allows ST users to run other applications, such as the synthesizer patch editing software XoR (now known as Unisyn on the Macintosh), from within the sequencer application.
Music tracker software became popular on the ST, such as the TCB Tracker, aiding the production of quality music from the Yamaha synthesizer, now called chiptunes.
Due to the ST having comparatively large amounts of memory for the time, sound sampling packages became feasible. Replay Professional features a sound sampler using the ST cartridge port to read in parallel from the cartridge port from the ADC. For output of digital sound, it uses the on-board frequency output, sets it to 128 kHz (inaudible) and then modulates the amplitude of that.
MasterTracks Pro originated on Macintosh, then ST, then IBM PC version. It continued on Windows and macOS, along with the original company's notation applications Encore.
Applications
]]
Professional desktop publishing software includes Timeworks Publisher, PageStream and Calamus. Word processors include WordPerfect, Microsoft Write, AtariWorks, Signum, Script and First Word (bundled with the machine). Spreadsheets include 3D-Calc, and databases include Zoomracks. Graphics applications include NEOchrome, DEGAS & DEGAS Elite, Deluxe Paint, STAD, and Cyber Paint (which author Jim Kent would later evolve into Autodesk Animator) with advanced features such as 3D design and animation. The Spectrum 512 paint program uses rapid palette switching to expand the on-screen color palette to 512), brought 3D modelling, sculpting, scripting, and computer animation to the desktop. Video capture and editing applications use dongles connected to the cartridge port for low frame rate, mainly silent and monochrome, but progressed to sound and basic color in still frames. At the end, Spectrum 512 and CAD-3D teamed up to produce realistic 512-color textured 3D renderings, but processing was slow, and Atari's failure to deliver a machine with a math coprocessor had Hudson and Yost looking towards the PC as the future before a finished product could be delivered to the consumer. In his autobiography Child of Change, he regards this facility as "the most important development in chess research since printing".
Graphical touchscreen point of sale software for restaurants was originally developed for Atari ST by Gene Mosher under the ViewTouch copyright and trademark. Instead of using GEM, he developed a GUI and widget framework for the application using the NEOchrome paint program.
Software development
The 520ST was bundled with both Digital Research Logo and Atari ST BASIC. Third-party BASIC systems with better performance were eventually released: HiSoft BASIC, GFA BASIC, FaST BASIC, DBASIC, LDW BASIC, Omikron BASIC, BASIC 1000D and STOS. In the later years of the Atari ST, Omikron Basic was bundled with it in Germany.
Atari's initial development kit from Atari is a computer and manuals. The cost discouraged development. The later Atari Developer's Kit consists of software and manuals for . It includes a resource kit, C compiler (first Alcyon C, then Mark Williams C), debugger, 68000 assembler, and non-disclosure agreement. The third-party Megamax C development package was .
Other development tools include 68000 assemblers (MadMac from Atari, HiSoft Systems's Devpac, TurboAss, GFA-Assembler), Pascal (OSS Personal Pascal, Maxon Pascal, PurePascal), Modula-2, C compilers (Lattice C, Pure C, Megamax C, GNU C, Aztec C, AHCC), LISP, and Prolog.
Games
The ST had success in gaming due to the low cost, fast performance, and colorful graphics compared to contemporary PCs or 8-bit systems. ST game developers include Steve Bak, Peter Molyneux, Doug Bell, Jeff Minter, Éric Chahi, Jez San, and David Braben.
When the Atari ST was released in 1985, it seemed to be aimed at the professional market. However, the inclusion of two joystick ports and a low-resolution mode of 320x200 pixels, with 16 colours from a 512-colour palette, hinted at its potential for gaming. Initially, it was uncertain whether these new 16-bit machines could really deliver a next-generation gaming experience, as the games at launch didn't show a significant visual improvement over the 8-bit systems of the time.
After a while, the first ST games began to appear that people were attracted to:
* Time Bandits - which brought the labyrinth action to the ST, but was not technically superior to the 8-bit.
* Major Motion - a Spy Hunter clone that could be played with the mouse.
* Arena - a decathlon game that had to be played with the keyboard, but had graphics with a level of detail beyond the capabilities of any 8-bit system.
* Megaroids - an Asteroids clone in a medium resolution of 640x200 in 4 colours. This made it outstanding at the time.
* Joust - an arcade port showing the new capabilities of bitmap graphics compared to the character set graphics of 8-bit systems - [Moon Patrol] - offered a high resolution 640x400 black and white version.
* Sundog - An RPG with simple graphics, but a great story that made it a timeless classic.
As developers became more familiar with the ST's capabilities, they were able to exploit its full potential. This resulted in games with visuals that far surpassed anything seen on 8-bit systems. Notable examples include
* Goldrunner - Its sampled sound, bitmap graphics and incredibly smooth scrolling were truly impressive.
* Starglider - Featuring a multi-second title sample, a remarkable feat for the time, its fast, colourful 3D wireframe graphics showcased the power of the 16-bit processor.
* Gauntlet - Arcade port with the ability to play with 4 players via a parallel port joystick adapter.
* ST Karate - Fighting game with remarkable graphics
* Oids - 2D physics-based action game inspired by Thrust.
It wasn't long before ST games were gracing the covers of leading computer game magazines. It became standard practice to develop games on the ST and then port them to other platforms. Several of these titles went on to have a significant impact on the history of computer gaming:
* The realtime pseudo-3D role-playing video game Dungeon Master, was developed and released first on the ST, and is considered to be the best-selling software ever produced for the platform.
* Simulation games like Falcon and Flight Simulator II use the ST's graphics hardware, as do many arcade ports.
* The 1987 first-person shooter, MIDI Maze, uses the MIDI ports to connect up to 16 machines for networked deathmatch play.
* The 3D Rollercoaster Racer Stunt Car Racer had remarkably fast 3D graphics, surpassing those of other systems, largely due to the ST's powerful CPU.
* The exceptional arcade convertion Super Sprint remained exclusive to the ST for several years, cementing its status as one of the system's signature titles.
Beyond the mainstream releases, there was also a flourishing scene of games designed specifically for the Atari ST's monochrome mode. With its 640x400 resolution, coupled with the crisp display of Atari's SM124 monitor, this mode provided a canvas for some truly distinctive games, offering unique aesthetics and gameplay:
* Oxyd - Based on the classic memory card game, Oxyd delivered a uniquely compelling puzzle experience.
* Ballerburg - A game that captivated a generation and arguably paved the way for titles like Worms.
* Bolo - a breakout game like no other.
The Atari ST enjoyed a period of dominance throughout the second half of the 1980s, but its influence began to diminish as the next decade dawned. Competitors with custom chips gained the upper hand for a time until the PC took over. During this period, games were predominantly developed on these rival systems and subsequently ported to the ST. The inherent nature of game conversions meant that the original, optimised for its native hardware, often suffered compromises in the translation. A prime example is [Wolfchild], a superb game in its original form, but the ST version was noticeably inferior due to a rushed port.
While the enhanced capabilities of the Atari 1040 STE were welcomed by the Atari ST community, the number of games that truly utilised them was limited. This was largely due to the relatively small user base of STe owners, making exclusive STe development commercially unviable. However, some titles did manage to garner positive attention beyond the Atari community:
* Obsession - A pinball simulation that boasted numerous tables, leveraging the STe's expanded colour palette and improved hardware scrolling.
* Substation - A first-person shooter set within an icy environment.
* Brutal Football - A very well done sports game, that showed off the STe's Blitter chip.
* Sleepwalker - an STe only game by [Ocean] Software.
The Atari Falcon, intended as the successor to the ST/STe, found a dedicated following within the Atari scene, resulting in a vibrant homebrew community. Sadly, the Falcon's overall market penetration was insufficient to make a widespread impact. Notable titles include:
* Crown of creation - An impressive 3D game.
* Ishar I, II, III - A series of well-regarded dungeon crawlers.
* Racer 2 - A highly polished driving game.
Although often overlooked by mainstream publications, the Atari ST gaming scene remains vibrant and active. Dedicated Atari enthusiasts continue to develop and release new games. Notable examples include:
* Stario Land - A meticulously crafted platformer, reminiscent of Mario, which demonstrated the capabilities of smooth scrolling on the ST, subtly highlighting the shortcomings of earlier attempts like The Great Giana Sisters.
* Double Bobble 2000 - A faithful and enjoyable recreation of Bubble Bobble, specifically for the Falcon.
* Grav - A challenging and visually impressive shoot-em-up.
* Hector vs The Mutant Vampire Tomatoes From Hel -: A quirky and entertaining action-platformer.
These titles, along with others, serve as a testament to the enduring passion of the Atari ST community.
Beyond the ongoing development of new games, the Atari ST community maintains a lively presence through various initiatives. Notably, the Atari ST Offline Tournament (STOT), established in 2007, provides a monthly platform for high-score competitions, keeping classic games in active rotation. Furthermore, gatherings and dedicated MIDI Maze events demonstrate the enduring popularity of networked play on the ST.
Social media platforms, particularly YouTube, feature numerous channels dedicated to showcasing Atari ST games. Online resources like AtariMania (archiving), Atari-Forum (community), Atari Legend (the central Atari ST portal), and AtariCrypt (a diverse hub) serve as essential pillars of the community, ensuring the Atari ST remains a vibrant and active platform.
Emulators
Spectre GCR emulates the Macintosh. MS-DOS emulators were released in the late 1980s. PC-Ditto has a software-only version, and a hardware version that plugs into the cartridge slot or kludges internally. After running the software, an MS-DOS boot disk is required to load the system. Both run MS-DOS programs in CGA mode, though much more slowly than on an IBM PC. Other options are the PC-Speed (NEC V30), AT-Spee (Intel 80286), and ATonce-386SX (Intel 80386SX) hardware emulator boards.
Music industry
The ST's low cost, built-in MIDI ports, and fast, low-latency response times made it a favorite with musicians.
* Prominent Russian film music and song composer Aleksandr Zatsepin started using personal computers for work with Atari 1040ST and continued using Cubase and Vienna Symphonic Library.
* German electronic music pioneers Tangerine Dream relied heavily on the Atari ST in the studio and for live performances during the late 1980s and 1990s.
* The album notes for Mike Oldfield's Earth Moving state that it was recorded using an Atari ST and C-Lab MIDI software.
* The Fatboy Slim album ''You've Come a Long Way, Baby'' was created using an Atari ST.
* In the Paris performance of Jean Michel Jarre's album Waiting for Cousteau, the Paris La Défense – Une Ville En Concert, musicians have attached Atari ST machines with C-Lab Unitor software to their keyboards, as seen in the TV live show and video recordings.
* White Town's "Your Woman", which reached No. 1 in the UK singles charts, was created using an Atari ST.
* The Utah Saints used a 520ST and 1040ST running Cubase during the recording of both of their albums, Utah Saints and Two, with their 1040ST still occasionally used for re-recording or remixing early tracks up to 2015.
* Cabaret Voltaire founder Richard H. Kirk said in 2016 that he continues to write music on an Atari 1040ST with C-Lab.
* Darude used Cubase on an Atari 1040ST when he created his 2000 hit "Sandstorm".
* Depeche Mode used a combination of an Atari ST and Cubase in the studio during the production of Songs of Faith and Devotion in 1992. The machine is visible in the documentary included with the 2006 remaster of the album.
* Record producer Jimmy Hotz used an Atari ST to produce Fleetwood Mac's Tango in the Night album, and records for B. B. King and Dave Mason.
* English DJ and house producer Joey Negro.
* English songwriters and record producers Stock, Aitken, and Waterman.
* Dario G used the Atari ST to produce the dance track "Sunchyme" which reached No. 2 in the UK charts. Technical specifications
All STs are made up of both custom and commercial chips.
* Custom chips:
** ST Shifter "Video shift register chip": Enables bitmap graphics using 32 KB of contiguous memory for all resolutions. Screen address has to be a multiple of 256.
** ST GLU "Generalized Logic Unit": Control logic for the system used to connect the ST's chips. Not part of the data path, but needed to bridge chips with each other.
** ST MMU "Memory Management Unit": Provides signals needed for CPU/blitter/DMA and Shifter to access dynamic RAM. Even memory accesses are given to CPU/blitter/DMA while odd cycles are reserved for DRAM refresh or used by Shifter for displaying contents of the frame buffer.
** ST DMA "Direct Memory Access": Used for floppy and hard drive data transfers. Can directly access main memory in the ST.
* Support chips:
** MC6850P ACIA "Asynchronous Common Interface Adapter": Enables the ST to directly communicate with MIDI devices and keyboard (two chips used). for MIDI, for keyboard.
** MC68901 MFP "Multi Function Peripheral": Used for interrupt generation/control, serial and misc. control input signals. Atari TT030 has two MFP chips.
** WD-1772-PH "Western Digital Floppy Disk Controller": Floppy controller chip.
** YM2149F PSG "Programmable Sound Generator": Provides three-voice sound synthesis, also used for floppy signalling, serial control output and printer parallel port.
** HD6301V1 "Hitachi keyboard processor": Used for keyboard scanning and mouse/joystick ports.
ST/ST<sup>F</sup>/ST<sup>M</sup>/ST<sup>FM</sup>
As originally released in the 520ST:
* CPU: Motorola 68000 16-/32-bit CPU @ 8 MHz. 16-bit data/32-bit internal/24-bit address.
* RAM: 512 KB or 1 MB
* Display modes (60 Hz NTSC, 50 Hz PAL, 71.2 Hz monochrome):
** Low resolution: 320 × 200 (16 color), palette of 512 colors
** Medium resolution: 640 × 200 (4 color), palette of 512 colors
** High resolution: 640 × 400, monochrome
* Sound: Yamaha YM2149 3-voice square wave plus 1-voice white noise mono Programmable Sound Generator
* Drive: Single-sided 3" floppy disk drive, 360 KB capacity when formatted to standard 9 sector, 80 track layout.
* Ports: TV out (on ST-M and ST-FM models, NTSC or PAL standard RF-modulated), MIDI in/out (with 'out-thru'), RS-232 serial, Centronics parallel (printer), monitor (RGB or Composite Video color and mono, 13-pin DIN), extra disk drive port (14-pin DIN), DMA port (ACSI port, Atari Computer System Interface) for hard disks and Atari Laser Printer (sharing RAM with computer system), joystick and mouse ports (9-pin MSX standard)
* Operating System: TOS v1.00 with Graphics Environment Manager (GEM)
Very early machines have the OS on a floppy disk before a final version was burned into ROM. This version of TOS was bootstrapped from a small core boot ROM.
In 1986, most production models became ST<sup>F</sup>s, with an integrated single- (520STF) or double-sided (1040STF) double density floppy disk drive built-in, but no other changes. Also in 1986, the 520ST<sup>M</sup> (or 520STM) added an RF modulator for allowing the low and medium resolution color modes when connected to a TV. Later F and FM models of the 520 had a built-in double-sided disk drive instead of a single-sided one.
ST<sup>E</sup>
As originally released in the 520ST<sup>E</sup>/1040ST<sup>E</sup>:
* All of the features of the 520STFM/1040STFM
* Extended palette of 4,096 available colors to choose from
* Blitter chip (stylized as BLiTTER) to copy/fill/clear large data blocks with a max write rate of 4 Mbytes/s
* Hardware support for horizontal and vertical fine scrolling and split screen (using the Shifter video chip)
* DMA sound chip with 2-channels stereo 8-bit PCM sound at 6.25/12.5/25/50 kHz and stereo RCA audio-out jacks (using enhancements to the Shifter video chip to support audio shifting)
* National LMC 1992 audio controller chip, allowing adjustable left/right/master volume and bass and treble EQ via a Microwire interface
* Memory: 30-pin SIMM memory slots (SIPP packages in earliest versions) allowing upgrades up to 4 MB Allowable memory sizes including only 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5 and 4.0 MB due to configuration restraints (however, 2.5 MB is not officially supported and has compatibility problems). Later third-party upgrade kits allow a maximum of 14 MB w/Magnum-ST, bypassing the stock MMU with a replacement unit and the additional chips on a separate board fitting over it.
* Ability to synchronize the video timings with an external device so that a video Genlock device can be used without having to make any modifications to computer's hardware
* Analogue joypad ports (2), with support for devices such as paddles and light pens in addition to joysticks/joypads. The Atari Jaguar joypads and Power Pad joypads (gray version of Jaguar joypads marketed for the ST<sup>E</sup> and Falcon) can be used without an adapter. Two standard Atari-style digital joysticks could be plugged into each analogue port with an adapter.
* TOS 1.06 (also known as TOS 1.6) or TOS 1.62 (which fixed some major backwards-compatibility bugs in TOS 1.6) in two socketed 128 KB ROM chips.
* Socketed PLCC 68000 CPU
Models
The members of the ST family are listed below, in roughly chronological order:
; 520ST: original model with 512 KB RAM, external power supply, no floppy disk drive. The early models had only a bootstrap ROM and TOS had to be loaded from disk.
; 520ST+: same as the original model 520ST, but with 1 MB of RAM,
; 260ST: originally intended to be a 256 KB variant, but actually sold in small quantities in Europe with 512 KB. Used after the release of the 520ST+ to differentiate the cheaper 512 KB models from the 1 MB models. Because the early 520STs were sold with TOS on disk, which used up 192 KB of RAM, the machine only had around 256 KB left.
; 520ST<sup>M</sup>: a 520ST with a built-in modulator for TV output and 512 KB RAM.
; 520ST<sup>FM</sup>: a 520STM with a redesigned motherboard in a larger case with a built-in floppy disk drive (in some cases a single-sided drive only), and 512 KB RAM.
; 520ST<sup>F</sup>: a 520STFM without RF modulator
; 1040ST<sup>F</sup>: a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk drive, but without RF modulator
; 1040ST<sup>FM</sup>: a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk drive with RF modulator
; Mega ST (MEGA 1, MEGA 2, MEGA 4): redesigned motherboard with 1, 2 or 4 MB of RAM, respectively, in a much improved "pizza box" case with a detached keyboard. All MEGA mainboards have a PLCC socket for the BLiTTER chip and some early models did not include the BLiTTER chip. They also included a real-time clock and internal expansion connector. Some early MEGA 2 had a MEGA 4 mainboard with half of the memory chip places unpopulated and the MEGA 2 can be upgraded by adding the additional DRAM chips and some resistors for the control lines. The MEGA 1 mainboards had a redesigned memory chip area and could not be upgraded in this way as there are only places for the 1 MB DRAM chips.
; 520ST<sup>E</sup> and 1040ST<sup>E</sup>: a 520STFM/1040STFM with enhanced sound, a BLiTTER chip, and a 4096-color palette, in the older 1040-style all-in-one case
; Mega STE: same hardware as 1040STE except for a faster 16 MHz processor with 16K cache, an onboard SCSI controller, additional faster RS232 port, VME expansion port, in an ST gray version of the TT case
; STacy: a portable (but definitely not laptop) version of the ST with the complete ST keyboard, an LCD screen simulating 640x400 hi-res, and a mini-trackball intended mostly for travelers and musicians because of the backlit screen and its built-in midi ports. Originally designed to operate on 12 standard C cell flashlight batteries for portability, when Atari finally realized how quickly the machine would use up a set of batteries (especially when rechargeable batteries of the time supplied insufficient power compared to the intended alkalines), they simply glued the lid of the battery compartment shut.
; ST BOOK: a later portable ST, more portable than the STacy, but sacrificing several features in order to achieve this, notably the backlight and internal floppy disk drive. Files were meant to be stored on a small amount (one megabyte) of internal flash memory 'on the road' and transferred using serial or parallel links, memory flashcards or external (and externally powered) floppy disk to a desktop ST once back indoors. The screen is highly reflective for the time, but still hard to use indoors or in low light, it is fixed to the 640 × 400 1-bit mono mode, and no external video port was provided. Despite its limitations, it gained some popularity, particularly amongst musicians.
Unreleased
The 130ST was intended to be a 128 KB variant. It was announced at the 1985 CES alongside the 520ST but never produced. The 4160ST<sup>E</sup> was a 1040ST<sup>E</sup>, but with 4 MB of RAM. A small quantity of development units were produced, but the system was never officially released. Atari did produce a quantity of 4160STE metallic case badges which found their way to dealers, so it's not uncommon to find one attached to systems which were originally 520/1040STE. No such labels were produced for the base of the systems.
Related systems
Atari Transputer Workstation is a standalone machine developed in conjunction with Perihelion Hardware, containing modified ST hardware and up to 17 transputers capable of massively parallel operations for tasks such as ray tracing.
Clones
Following Atari's departure from the computer market, both Medusa Computer Systems and Milan Computer manufactured Atari Falcon/TT-compatible machines with 68040 and 68060 processors. The FireBee is an Atari ST/TT clone based on the Coldfire processor. The GE-Soft Eagle is a 32 MHz TT clone.
Peripherals
* SF354: Single-sided double-density 3-inch floppy drive (360 KB) with external power supply
* SF314: Double-sided double-density 3-inch floppy drive (720 KB) with external power supply
* PS3000: Combined 12-inch color monitor and 360k 3-inch floppy drive (SF354). Speaker. Manufactured by JVC in limited quantity (≈1000), only a few working models remain.
* SM124: Monochrome monitor, 12-inch screen (9.5-inch displayed image), speaker, 640 × 400 pixels, 70 Hz refresh
* SM125: Monochrome monitor, 12-inch screen, up/down/sideways swivel stand, speaker, 640x400 pixels, 70 Hz refresh
* SM147: Monochrome monitor, 14-inch screen, no speaker, replacement for SM124
* SC1224: Color monitor, 12-inch screen, 640 × 200 pixels plus speaker
* SC1425: Color monitor, 14-inch screen, One speaker on the left of screen, a jack to plug ear-listeners
* SC1435: Color monitor, 14-inch screen, stereo speakers, replacement for SC1224 (rebadged Magnavox 1CM135)
* SM195: Monochrome monitor, 19-inch screen for TT030. 1280 × 960 pixels. 70 Hz refresh
* SH204: External hard drive, 20 MB MFM drive, "shoe box" case made of metal
* SH205: External hard drive, Mega ST matching case, 20 MB MFM 3.5-inch (Tandon TM262) or 5.25-inch (Segate ST225) drive with ST506 interface (became later the Megafile 20)
* Megafile 20, 30, 60: External hard drive, Mega ST matching case, ACSI bus; Megafile 30 and 60 had a 5.25-inch RLL (often a Seagate ST238R 30 MB or Seagate ST277R 60 MB drive) with ST506 interface
* Megafile 44: Removable cartridge drive, ACSI bus, Mega ST matching case
* SLM804: Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, used ST's memory and processor to build pages for printing
* SLM605: Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, smaller than SLM804. See also * Bitstream Speedo Fonts – the fonts included in the Atari ST References External links
* [http://www.atari.st/ "The little green desktop"]
* [http://www.atarimania.com/atari-st-tt-falcon.html Atarimania: Atari ST software preservation project]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/computers/16BITS/a1632bit.html Atari ST Computer Systems, Peripherals and Prototypes]
* [https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1986-09/1986_09_BYTE_11-09_The_68000_Family#page/n233/mode/2up BYTE Magazine September 1986, Atari ST Software Development]
Category:68000-based home computers
Category:All-in-one computers
Category:Atari ST
Category:Home computers<!-- Leave this, or else it breaks navigation for those who don't know what a 68k is-->
Category:Products introduced in 1985
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_ST | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.811358 |
2142 | List of artificial intelligence projects | The following is a list of current and past, non-classified notable artificial intelligence projects.
<!-- SEE NOTE AT BOTTOM OF ARTICLE BEFORE ADDING AN ENTRY. -->
Specialized projects
Brain-inspired
* Blue Brain Project, an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.
* Google Brain, a deep learning project part of Google X attempting to have intelligence similar or equal to human-level.
* Human Brain Project, ten-year scientific research project, based on exascale supercomputers.
Cognitive architectures
* 4CAPS, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under Marcel A. Just
* ACT-R, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under John R. Anderson.
* AIXI, Universal Artificial Intelligence developed by Marcus Hutter at IDSIA and ANU.
* CALO, a DARPA-funded, 25-institution effort to integrate many artificial intelligence approaches (natural language processing, speech recognition, machine vision, probabilistic logic, planning, reasoning, many forms of machine learning) into an AI assistant that learns to help manage your office environment.
* CHREST, developed under Fernand Gobet at Brunel University and Peter C. Lane at the University of Hertfordshire.
* CLARION, developed under Ron Sun at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and University of Missouri.
* CoJACK, an ACT-R inspired extension to the JACK multi-agent system that adds a cognitive architecture to the agents for eliciting more realistic (human-like) behaviors in virtual environments.
* Copycat, by Douglas Hofstadter and Melanie Mitchell at the Indiana University.
* DUAL, developed at the New Bulgarian University under Boicho Kokinov.
* FORR developed by Susan L. Epstein at The City University of New York.
* IDA and LIDA, implementing Global Workspace Theory, developed under Stan Franklin at the University of Memphis.
* OpenCog Prime, developed using the OpenCog Framework.
* Procedural Reasoning System (PRS), developed by Michael Georgeff and Amy L. Lansky at SRI International.
* Psi-Theory developed under Dietrich Dörner at the Otto-Friedrich University in Bamberg, Germany.
* Soar, developed under Allen Newell and John Laird at Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Michigan.
* Society of Mind and its successor The Emotion Machine proposed by Marvin Minsky.
* Subsumption architectures, developed e.g. by Rodney Brooks (though it could be argued whether they are cognitive).Games* AlphaGo, software developed by Google that plays the Chinese board game Go.
* Chinook, a computer program that plays English draughts; the first to win the world champion title in the competition against humans.
* Deep Blue, a chess-playing computer developed by IBM which beat Garry Kasparov in 1997.
* Halite, an artificial intelligence programming competition created by Two Sigma in 2016.
* Libratus, a poker AI that beat world-class poker players in 2017, intended to be generalisable to other applications.
* The Matchbox Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine (sometimes called the Machine Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine or MENACE) was a mechanical computer made from 304 matchboxes designed and built by artificial intelligence researcher Donald Michie in 1961.
* Quick, Draw!, an online game developed by Google that challenges players to draw a picture of an object or idea and then uses a neural network to guess what the drawing is.
* The Samuel Checkers-playing Program (1959) was among the world's first successful self-learning programs, and as such a very early demonstration of the fundamental concept of artificial intelligence (AI).
* Stockfish AI, an open source chess engine currently ranked the highest in many computer chess rankings.
* TD-Gammon, a program that learned to play world-class backgammon partly by playing against itself (temporal difference learning with neural networks).Internet activism* Serenata de Amor, project for the analysis of public expenditures and detect discrepancies.
Knowledge and reasoning
* Alice (Microsoft), a project from Microsoft Research Lab aimed at improving decision-making in Economics
* Braina, an intelligent personal assistant application with a voice interface for Windows OS.
* Cyc, an attempt to assemble an ontology and database of everyday knowledge, enabling human-like reasoning.
* Eurisko, a language by Douglas Lenat for solving problems which consists of heuristics, including some for how to use and change its heuristics.
* Google Now, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Google's Android and Apple Inc.'s iOS, as well as Google Chrome web browser on personal computers.
* Holmes a new AI created by Wipro.
* Microsoft Cortana, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Microsoft's various Windows 10 editions.
* Mycin, an early medical expert system.
* Open Mind Common Sense, a project based at the MIT Media Lab to build a large common sense knowledge base from online contributions.
* Siri, an intelligent personal assistant and knowledge navigator with a voice-interface in Apple Inc.'s iOS and macOS.
* SNePS, simultaneously a logic-based, frame-based, and network-based knowledge representation, reasoning, and acting system.
* Viv (software), a new AI by the creators of Siri.
* Wolfram Alpha, an online service that answers queries by computing the answer from structured data.
* MindsDB, is an AI automation platform for building AI/ML powered features and applications.Motion and manipulation* AIBO, the robot pet for the home, grew out of Sony's Computer Science Laboratory (CSL).
* Cog, a robot developed by MIT to study theories of cognitive science and artificial intelligence, now discontinued.
Music
* Melomics, a bioinspired technology for music composition and synthesization of music, where computers develop their own style, rather than mimic musicians.
Natural language processing
<!-- Before adding an entry, see comments at the bottom of the list. -->
* AIML, an XML dialect for creating natural language software agents.
* Apache Lucene, a high-performance, full-featured text search engine library written entirely in Java.
* Apache OpenNLP, a machine learning based toolkit for the processing of natural language text. It supports the most common NLP tasks, such as tokenization, sentence segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, named entity extraction, chunking and parsing.
* Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.), a natural language processing chatterbot.
* ChatGPT, a chatbot built on top of OpenAI's GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 family of large language models.
* Claude, a family of large language models developed by Anthropic and launched in 2023. Claude LLMs achieved high coding scores in several recognized LLM benchmarks. [https://www.swebench.com/] [https://paperswithcode.com/sota/code-generation-on-humaneval]
* Cleverbot, successor to Jabberwacky, now with 170m lines of conversation, Deep Context, fuzziness and parallel processing. Cleverbot learns from around 2 million user interactions per month.
* ELIZA, a famous 1966 computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, which parodied person-centered therapy.
* FreeHAL, a self-learning conversation simulator (chatterbot) which uses semantic nets to organize its knowledge to imitate a very close human behavior within conversations.
* Gemini, a family of multimodal large language model developed by Google's DeepMind. Drives the Gemini chatbot, formerly known as Bard.
* GigaChat, a chatbot by Russian Sberbank.
* GPT-3, a 2020 language model developed by OpenAI that can produce text difficult to distinguish from that written by a human.
* Jabberwacky, a chatbot by Rollo Carpenter, aiming to simulate natural human chat.
* LaMDA, a family of conversational neural language models developed by Google.
* LLaMA, a 2023 language model family developed by Meta that includes 7, 13, 33 and 65 billion parameter models.[https://ai.meta.com/blog/large-language-model-llama-meta-ai/]
* Mycroft, a free and open-source intelligent personal assistant that uses a natural language user interface.
* PARRY, another early chatterbot, written in 1972 by Kenneth Colby, attempting to simulate a paranoid schizophrenic.
* SHRDLU, an early natural language processing computer program developed by Terry Winograd at MIT from 1968 to 1970.
* SYSTRAN, a machine translation technology by the company of the same name, used by Yahoo!, AltaVista and Google, among others.
* DBRX, 136 billion parameter open sourced large language model developed by Mosaic ML and Databricks.
Speech recognition
* CMU Sphinx, a group of speech recognition systems developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
* DeepSpeech, an open-source Speech-To-Text engine based on Baidu's deep speech research paper.
* Whisper, an open-source speech recognition system developed at OpenAI.
Speech synthesis
* 15.ai, a real-time artificial intelligence text-to-speech tool developed by an anonymous researcher from MIT.
* Amazon Polly, a speech synthesis software by Amazon.
* Festival Speech Synthesis System, a general multi-lingual speech synthesis system developed at the Centre for Speech Technology Research (CSTR) at the University of Edinburgh.
* WaveNet, a deep neural network for generating raw audio.
Video
* HeyGen is a video creation platform that generates digital avatars that recite and translate text inputs into varying languages.
* Synthesia is a video creation and editing platform, with AI-generated avatars that resemble real human beings.Other* 1 the Road, the first novel marketed by an AI.
* AlphaFold is a deep learning based system developed by DeepMind for prediction of protein structure.
* Otter.ai is a speech-to-text synthesis and summary platform, which allows users to record online meetings as text. It additionally creates live captions during meetings.
* Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations (SEAS), a model of the real world used by Homeland security and the United States Department of Defense that uses simulation and AI to predict and evaluate future events and courses of action.Multipurpose projectsSoftware libraries* Apache Mahout, a library of scalable machine learning algorithms.
* Deeplearning4j, an open-source, distributed deep learning framework written for the JVM.
* Keras, a high level open-source software library for machine learning (works on top of other libraries).
* Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit (previously known as CNTK), an open source toolkit for building artificial neural networks.
* OpenNN, a comprehensive C++ library implementing neural networks.
* PyTorch, an open-source Tensor and Dynamic neural network in Python.
* TensorFlow, an open-source software library for machine learning.
* Theano, a Python library and optimizing compiler for manipulating and evaluating mathematical expressions, especially matrix-valued ones.
GUI frameworks
* Neural Designer, a commercial deep learning tool for predictive analytics.
* Neuroph, a Java neural network framework.
* OpenCog, a GPL-licensed framework for artificial intelligence written in C++, Python and Scheme.
* RapidMiner, an environment for machine learning and data mining, now developed commercially.
* Weka, a free implementation of many machine learning algorithms in Java.
Cloud services
* Data Applied, a web based data mining environment.
* Watson, a pilot service by IBM to uncover and share data-driven insights, and to spur cognitive applications.
See also
* Comparison of cognitive architectures
* Comparison of deep-learning software
References
External links
* [https://github.com/search?qartificial+intelligence&refsearchresults&type=Repositories AI projects] on GitHub
* [http://sourceforge.net/directory/freshness:recently-updated/?q=artificial%20intelligence AI projects] on SourceForge
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Artificial intelligence projects
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.858338 |
2144 | Aaliyah | Aaliyah (album)|other uses}}
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| death_place = Marsh Harbour, Abaco Islands, Bahamas
| death_cause = Airplane crash
| burial_place = Ferncliff Cemetery,<br />Hartsdale, New York, US
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| years_active = 1989–2001
| relatives
| awards = Full list
| signature = AaliyahSignature.svg
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| instruments = Vocals
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Aaliyah Dana Haughton ( ; January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American singer, actress, dancer, and model. She has been credited with helping to redefine contemporary R&B, pop, and hip hop, earning her the nicknames the "Princess of R&B" and "Queen of Urban Pop".
Born in Brooklyn and raised in Detroit, she first gained recognition at the age of 10, when she appeared on the television show Star Search and performed in concert alongside Gladys Knight. At the age of 12, Aaliyah signed with Jive Records and her uncle Barry Hankerson's Blackground Records. Hankerson introduced her to R. Kelly, who became her mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer of her debut album, ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number (1994). The album sold three million copies in the United States and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). After allegations of an illegal marriage with Kelly, Aaliyah ended her contract with Jive and signed with Atlantic Records.
Aaliyah worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott for her second album, One in a Million (1996), which sold three million copies in the United States and more than eight million copies worldwide. In 2000, Aaliyah made her acting debut in the action film Romeo Must Die'', alongside Jet Li. She contributed to the film's soundtrack, which was supported by her single "Try Again". The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 solely through airplay, becoming the first in the chart's history to do so. After completing the film, Aaliyah subsequently filmed her starring role in Queen of the Damned (which was released posthumously), and in July 2001, released her eponymous third album, which topped the Billboard 200. The album spawned the singles "We Need a Resolution", "Rock the Boat" and "More Than a Woman".
On August 25, 2001, at the age of 22, Aaliyah was killed in the Marsh Harbour Cessna 402 crash along with eight other people on board, when the overloaded aircraft she was traveling in crashed shortly after takeoff. The pilot was later found to have traces of cocaine and alcohol in his body and was not qualified to fly the aircraft designated for the flight. Aaliyah's family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the aircraft's operator, which was settled out of court. In the decades following her death, Aaliyah's music has continued to achieve commercial success, aided by several posthumous releases. She has sold 8.1 million albums in the US and an estimated 24 to 32 million albums worldwide. Billboard lists her as the tenth most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years, and the 27th most successful in history. Her accolades include three American Music Awards and two MTV VMAs, along with five Grammy Award nominations.
Early life
Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born on January 16, 1979, in Brooklyn, New York City, the younger child of Diane and Michael "Miguel" Haughton, a warehouse worker. She was of African-American, Jamaican and Native American descent. Her name is the feminine form of the Arabic "Ali", meaning "highest, most exalted one, the best." Aaliyah was fond of her name, calling it "beautiful" and saying she was "very proud of it" and strove to live up to her name every day. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. In Detroit, her father began working in the warehouse business, one of his brother-in-law Barry Hankerson's widening interests. Her mother stayed home and raised her and her brother. Her mother enrolled her in voice lessons at an early age. After failing to land a role on the show she continued her acting through the Gesu Players. In 1989 at age ten she appeared on Star Search, where she performed "My Funny Valentine". Aaliyah chose to begin auditioning. Her mother made the decision to drop her surname. After attending a Gladys Knight concert with music executive Suge Knight, and seeing Aaliyah perform on stage, rapper Tupac Shakur wanted to sign her to a record deal. During her childhood, she had several pet animals including ducks, snakes and iguanas. Her cousin Jomo had a pet alligator, which Aaliyah felt was too much, remarking, "that was something I wasn't going to stroke."
Aaliyah attended Detroit schools and believed she was well-liked, but she was teased for her short stature. By age 15, however, she came to love her height. Her mother told her to be happy she was small and complimented her. Although some children disliked Aaliyah, she determined, "You always have to deal with people who are jealous, but there were so few it didn't even matter. The majority of kids supported me, which was wonderful." Even in her adult life, she considered herself small. She had "learned to accept and love" herself and added: "the most important thing is to think highly of yourself because if you don't, no one else will".
During her audition for acceptance to the Detroit High School for the Fine and Performing Arts, Aaliyah sang "Ave Maria" in Latin. Aaliyah held a 4.0 grade-point average when graduating from high school. She reflected: "I wanted to keep that 4.0. Being in the industry, you know, I don't want kids to think, 'I can just sing and forget about school.' I think it's very important to have an education, and even more important to have something to fall back on." She considered a future career teaching music, music history or drama if she did not make a living as a recording artist because, as she reasoned, "when you pick a career it has to be something you love".
Career
1991–1995: ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number
After Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his Blackground Records label at the age of 12. Hankerson later introduced her to recording artist and producer R. Kelly, It peaked at number 18 on the Billboard 200 and it was certified two times Platinum by the RIAA. To date the album has sold over 3 million copies in the US. In 2014, Vibe magazine estimated that the album had sold six million copies globally.
Upon its release, ''Age Ain't Nothing But a Number'' received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Some writers noted that Aaliyah's "silky vocals" and "sultry voice" blended with Kelly's new jack swing helped define R&B in the 1990s. Her sound was also compared to that of female quartet En Vogue. Christopher John Farley of Time magazine called the album a "beautifully restrained work", noting that Aaliyah's "girlish, breathy vocals rode calmly on R. Kelly's rough beats". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic felt that the album had its "share of filler", but described the singles as "slyly seductive".
Aaliyah's debut single, "Back & Forth", peaked at number 5 on the Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for three weeks. Two more singles charted: a cover of the Isley Brothers' "At Your Best (You Are Love)" peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100,1996–2000: One in a Million and Romeo Must Die
In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records. The album yielded the lead single "If Your Girl Only Knew", which peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 The year after her album was released, Aaliyah was featured on Timbaland & Magoo's debut single, "Up Jumps da Boogie".
In 1997 Aaliyah graduated with a 4.0 GPA from the Detroit High School for the Fine and Performing Arts, where she majored in drama. During her campaign with Tommy Hilfiger, the company sold over 2,400 pairs of the red, white and blue baggy jeans she wore in their advertisements. In December 1997, she performed the Christmas carol "What Child Is This?" at the annual Christmas in Washington television special. She also contributed to the soundtrack album for the animated film Anastasia, performing a cover version of "Journey to the Past" that earned songwriters Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Aaliyah performed the song at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony, becoming the youngest singer to perform at the event. Also in 1998, she released the song "Are You That Somebody?" which was featured on the Dr. Dolittle soundtrack. The song peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 She starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. Aaliyah purposely stayed away from reviews of the film to "make it easier on" herself, but she heard "that people were able to get into me, which is what I wanted." In contrast, some critics felt there was no chemistry between her and Jet Li, as well as viewing the film as too simplistic. This was echoed by Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times, who wrote that while Aaliyah was "a natural" and the film was conceived as a spotlight for both her and Li, "they have so little chemistry together you'd think they're putting out a fire instead of shooting off sparks.
In addition to acting, Aaliyah served as an executive producer of the film's soundtrack, for which she contributed four songs. "Try Again" was released as a single from the soundtrack; the song topped the Billboard Hot 100, making Aaliyah the first artist to top the chart based solely on airplay; this led the song to be released in a 12-inch vinyl and 7-inch single. The music video won the Best Female Video and Best Video from a Film awards at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards. It also earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female R&B Vocalist. The soundtrack went on to sell 1.5 million copies in the United States.2001: Aaliyah and Queen of the Damned
After completing Romeo Must Die, Aaliyah began to work on her second film, Queen of the Damned. She played the role of an ancient vampire, Queen Akasha, which she described as a "manipulative, crazy, sexual being". Ultimately, she filmed Queen of the Damned and recorded her third album at the same time so that it could be released in 2001.
During the recording stages for the album, Aaliyah's publicist disclosed that the album's release date was most likely in October 2000. Eventually, she finished recording the album in March 2001; after a year of recording tracks that began in March of the previous year.
Aaliyah was released five years after One in a Million on July 17, 2001, The first single from the album, "We Need a Resolution", peaked at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Rock the Boat" was released as a posthumous single. The music video premiered on BET's Access Granted, and it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show. The song peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100. Promotional posters for Aaliyah that had been put up in major cities such as New York and Los Angeles became makeshift memorials for grieving fans. In February 2002, the album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA. "More than a Woman" was replaced by George Harrison's "My Sweet Lord" which is the only time in the UK singles chart's history when a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one.
Aaliyah was signed to appear in several future films, including a romantic film titled Some Kind of Blue, and a Whitney Houston–produced remake of the 1976 film Sparkle. Before her death, Aaliyah filmed some scenes for the sequels of The Matrix as the character Zee. A portion of her role in The Matrix Reloaded was filmed; these unused scenes were included in the tribute section of the Matrix Ultimate Collection series.
Artistry
Voice
Farley.
Aaliyah released "musically risky singles into a notoriously fickle pop market", without being "concerned about conforming to the stereotypes of the marketplace". Her songs "gracefully walk a line between commerciality and experimentation".
In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Keith Harris said of her lyrical content that "When it came to sexual availability, she was between En Vogue maliciously taunting 'You're never gonna get it' and Tweet blankly cooing 'Oops, there goes my shirt.'" Lyrically, "Her first two albums carefully toed the line between adolescence and adulthood, displaying a woman exploring the terrain of love, trust, and lust; one who exuded a playful innocence while hinting at a more sultry side." Aaliyah did not usually write her own lyrics. She co-wrote that song with her brother Rashad Haughton, and "it reflects Aaliyah's dark perspective on romance". ABC News noted that her music was "evolving from the punchy pop-influenced hip hop and R&B to a more mature, introspective sound", on her third album. NME called her third album "radical" and said that it was "intended to consolidate her position as U.S. R&B's most experimental artist". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described her album Aaliyah as "a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward", and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed "unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone felt that Aaliyah was displaying stronger technique, giving her best vocal performances on the album.
Influences
As an artist, Aaliyah said she was inspired by a number of performers. These include Michael Jackson, Stevie Wonder, Sade, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, Donnie Hathaway, and Barbra Streisand. Jackson reciprocated Aaliyah's affection, saying, "I've loved her from the beginning because she always comes out and does something different, musically." Jackson also said she would have enjoyed collaborating with Aaliyah.
Music videos
According to director Paul Hunter from day one, "Aaliyah wanted her videos to stand out from clips by other R&B singers". He stated, "You can watch programming all day and see a certain type of video by female artists, "Then when one of hers comes on it's something special, something different to look at. That's what she was about." Acquaye further explained, "There's a state of hypnosis you submit to as she envelops you through sight and sound, tugging at your heartstrings. Between a sequence of sensual, strong movements, infectious instrumentals, and intuitive lyrics that spark emotions of desire, sex, and empowerment, you are enraptured in Aaliyah's physical presence". Kyann-Sian Williams from NME named "Are You That Somebody?" as a visual that, "pushed the boundaries when it came to dance breaks in music videos". Williams declared, "Until that time, dance breaks were usually reserved for boybands like *NSync and the Backstreet Boys, but Aaliyah claimed it for R&B stars too". For example, When she changed her hairstyle, Aaliyah took her mother's advice and covered her left eye, much like Veronica Lake. The look has become known as her signature and been referred to as fusion of "unnerving emotional honesty" and "a sense of mystique". In regards to her fashion choices, writer Jeff Lorez described her as a "model of understatement". Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote of Aaliyah's artistry and image, "she was lithe and dulcet in a way that signified neither jailbait nor hottie—an ingenue whose selling point was sincerity, not innocence and the obverse it implies." Emil Wilbekin, told CNN: "Aaliyah is an excellent role model because she started her career in the public eye at age 15 with a gold album,'' Age Ain't Nothing but a Number. And then her second album, One in a Million went double platinum. She had the leading role in Romeo Must Die'', which was a box office success. She's won numerous awards, several MTV music video awards, and aside from her professional successes, many of her lyrics are very inspirational and uplifting. She also carried herself in a very professional manner. She was well-spoken. She was beautiful, but she didn't use her beauty to sell her music. She used her talent. Many young hip-hop fans greatly admire her."
She was also seen by others as a sex symbol and did not have a problem with being considered one. "I know that people think I'm sexy and I am looked at as that, and it is cool with me," she stated. "It's wonderful to have sex appeal. If you embrace it, it can be a very beautiful thing. I am totally cool with that. Definitely. I see myself as sexy. If you are comfortable with it, it can be very classy and it can be very appealing." Aaliyah also felt though her image was "risque and sexy", it was important to remain respectable because she wanted to make songs that everyone could relate to without it being vulgar.
Personal life
In an 1995 interview with Honey, Aaliyah stated that she was Catholic and she attended church whenever she was at home. In 2001, she told Vibe magazine that she was mostly a homebody and liked "the simple things in life." After her father became ill, her brother Rashad became her manager. Her friend Kidada Jones said in the last year of Aaliyah's life, her parents had given her more freedom and she had spoken about wanting a family.
Illegal marriage
Aaliyah reportedly developed an intimate relationship with Kelly during the recording of her debut album. She told Vibe magazine in 1994 that she and Kelly would "go watch a movie" and "go eat" when she got tired and would then "come back and work". She described the relationship between her and Kelly as "rather close." In December 1994, Aaliyah told the Chicago Sun-Times that whenever she was asked about being married to Kelly, she urged them not to believe "all that mess" and that she and Kelly were "close" and "people took it the wrong way".
With the release of ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'', rumors circulated about a relationship between Aaliyah and R. Kelly, including the allegation that they had secretly married without her parents' knowledge. Vibe magazine later revealed a marriage certificate that listed the couple married on August 31, 1994, in Sheraton Gateway Suites in Rosemont, Illinois.
In his 2011 book The Man Behind the Man: Looking from the Inside Out, Demetrius Smith Sr., Kelly's former tour manager, revealed that Kelly married Aaliyah after she told him that she was pregnant. In the 2019 documentary Surviving R. Kelly, Smith described how he helped Aaliyah forge the necessary documents to show she was 18 to marry Kelly. Smith also said he was "not proud" of his role in facilitating their marriage. Additionally, the documentary revealed that Jovante Cunningham, a former backup dancer, claimed to have witnessed Kelly having sex with Aaliyah on his tour bus.
Aaliyah was known to avoid answering questions about Kelly after the professional split. During an interview with Christopher John Farley, she was asked whether she was still in contact with him and would ever work with him again. Farley said Aaliyah responded with a "firm, frosty 'no to both questions. Vibe magazine said Aaliyah changed the subject anytime "you bring up the marriage with her". Kelly later said that Aaliyah had opportunities to address their relationship after they separated professionally but chose not to. In 2019, Damon Dash revealed to Hip Hop Motivation that Aaliyah did not even speak of her relationship with Kelly in private; he tried multiple times to discuss it with her, but she would only say that Kelly was a "bad man". Dash said he was unable to watch Surviving R. Kelly because its interviews with visibly traumatized girls struggling to discuss their encounters with Kelly reminded him of how Aaliyah behaved when trying to recount her relationship with Kelly.
Other allegations were made about Kelly regarding underage girls in the years after Aaliyah's death, and their marriage was used as an example of his involvement with them. He has refused to discuss his relationship with her, citing her death. "Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that." In 2016, Kelly said that he was as in love with Aaliyah as he was with "anybody else." Aaliyah's mother, Diane Haughton, reflected that everything "that went wrong in her life" began with her relationship with Kelly. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges of sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly faced 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah's illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found Kelly guilty of nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022. On June 29, 2022, Kelly was sentenced to 30 years in prison.Relationship with Damon DashAaliyah was dating the co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records, Damon Dash, at the time of her death. Although they were not formally engaged, Dash claimed the couple had planned to marry in interviews given after Aaliyah's death. In the summer of 2000, Aaliyah was introduced to Dash by his accountant and they formed a friendship. Jay-Z mentioned Aaliyah and Dash in the remix of her song "Miss You", released in 2003. In August 2021, Dash told Entertainment Tonight Kevin Frazier, "I was reflecting [that] there hasn't been one day since she's passed, not one in the 20 years, that I haven't either heard her name, heard her record, or seen a picture of her ... Every single day she's present in my life and I feel lucky for that."
Death
On August 25, 2001, at 6:50 p.m. (EDT), Aaliyah and some employees of her record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402 light aircraft at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, the Bahamas, to travel to Opa-Locka Airport in Florida after they completed filming the video for "Rock the Boat". They had a flight scheduled the next day, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the US and decided to leave immediately. The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 on which they had originally arrived, but the whole party and all the equipment were accommodated on board. The plane crashed and caught fire shortly after takeoff, about from the end of the runway.
The passengers had grown impatient because the Cessna was supposed to arrive at 4:30 pm. EDT, but did not arrive until 6:15 pm. Another charter pilot, Lewis Key, said he overheard passengers arguing with their pilot, Luis Morales, before takeoff, adding that Morales warned them that there was too much weight for a "safe flight". Key added: "He tried to convince them the plane was overloaded, but they insisted they had chartered the plane and they had to be in Miami Saturday night." Key indicated that Morales gave in to the passengers and that he had trouble starting one of the engines.
According to findings from an inquest conducted by the coroner's office in the Bahamas, Aaliyah had "severe burns and a blow to the head" in addition to severe shock and a weak heart. The coroner theorized that she went into such a state of shock that even if she had survived the crash, her recovery would have been nearly impossible given the severity of her injuries. The bodies were taken to the morgue at Princess Margaret Hospital in Nassau, where they were kept for relatives to help identify them. Some of them were badly burned.
As the subsequent investigation determined, the aircraft was overloaded by when it attempted to take off, and was carrying one more passenger than it was certified for. The National Transportation Safety Board reported, "The airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27." The report indicated that the pilot was not approved to fly the plane. Morales falsely obtained his FAA license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, toxicology tests performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system.
Funeral
, where Aaliyah is interred]]
Aaliyah's private funeral Mass was held on August 31, 2001, at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan, following a procession from the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel. Her body was set in a silver-plated copper-deposit casket, which was carried in a horse-drawn, glass hearse. An estimated 800 mourners attended the procession.
Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim, and Sean Combs.<!--This is just a summary of attendees, not an exhaustive guest list. Please reach agreement with other edits on the talk page before inserting any further names.--> After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of her life.
Aaliyah's brother Rashad delivered the eulogy and described his sister as giving him strength: "Aaliyah, you left, but I'll see you always next to me and I can see you smiling through the sunshine. When our life is over, our book is done. I hope God keeps me strong until I see her again." He read the names of the other victims of the crash and concluded by asking mourners to pray for them as well. As Diane Haughton and the mourners left, they sang Aaliyah's song "One in a Million".
Posthumous releases
2001–2014: Queen of the Damned, compilations, and single releases
Immediately after Aaliyah's death, there was uncertainty over whether the music video for "Rock the Boat" would ever air. It made its world premiere on BET's Access Granted on October 9, 2001. She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for Aaliyah. Her second and final film, Queen of the Damned, was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production. It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square; millions of fans observed a moment of silence; and throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance. In December 2002, a collection of both previously unreleased and released material was issued as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, I Care 4 U. A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women's Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single, "Miss You", peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 In August of the following year, luxury fashion house Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah.
In April 2005, Aaliyah's second posthumous album, a double CD+DVD box set titled Ultimate Aaliyah, was released in the United Kingdom by Blackground Records. A documentary movie Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam was released in 2011, shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death. The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands.
In March 2012, music producer Jeffrey "J-Dub" Walker announced that the song "Steady Ground", which he produced for Aaliyah's third album, would be included in a posthumous Aaliyah album. Aaliyah's brother Rashad denied Walker's claim. On August 5, 2012, Blackground Records released the track "Enough Said" which was produced by Noah "40" Shebib and features Canadian rapper Drake. Four days later, Jomo Hankerson claimed a posthumous album was being produced that would feature new production by Timbaland and Missy Elliot, who both later denied being involved with the project. In June 2013, Aaliyah was featured on the track "Don't Think They Know" by Chris Brown, which appears on Brown's sixth studio album, X. Timbaland voiced his disapproval for "Enough Said" and "Don't Think They Know" in July 2013, but later apologized to Chris Brown, explaining that Aaliyah and her death were a "very sensitive subject".2015–present: Merchandise, catalog rerelease, and UnstoppableIn May 2015, Aaliyah was featured on the Tink track "Million", which contained samples from her song "One in a Million". In September 2015, Aaliyah by Xyrena, an official tribute fragrance, was announced. On December 25, 2015, Timbaland released the mixtape Kings Stay Kings which includes the unreleased Aaliyah song "Shakin" featuring rapper Strado. In June 2018, MAC Cosmetics released a cosmetics collection inspired by Aaliyah, The Aaliyah for Mac collection which was priced at $250 and sold out within minutes. MAC and i-D Magazine partnered up to release a short film titled "A-Z of Aaliyah" which coincided with the launch. On August 21, 2019, the Madame Tussauds museum unveiled a wax figure of Aaliyah at their Las Vegas location, modeled on her appearance in the "Try Again" music video. Four days later, Aaliyah's family announced that they were in talks with record companies to discuss the future of her discography.
In March 2021, Funko Pop! released an Aaliyah figurine. In August 2021, Blackground Records announced that Aaliyah's recorded works would be re-released on physical, digital, and streaming services in a deal between the label and Empire Distribution. One in a Million was reissued on August 20. After the album's re-release, One in a Million re-entered the UK Official Hip Hop and R&B Albums Chart Top 40 at number eight. In the US, the album reached the top ten on the Billboard 200 for the first time at number ten, selling 26,000 album-equivalent units in the week ending of August 26. Aaliyah was reissued September 10, 2021. After the album's re-release, Aaliyah re-entered the UK Official Hip Hop and R&B Albums Chart Top 40 at number seven and re-entered the US Billboard 200 chart at number 13. In celebration of the reissue, Blackground released an animated commercial titled "It's Been A Long Time" (in a similar style to the album's original 2001 commercial), directed by Takahiro Tanaka, showing Aaliyah resurrecting her music from out of a large underground vault. Compilation albums I Care 4 U and Ultimate Aaliyah were reissued October 8, 2021. Ultimate Aaliyah peaked at number 8 on the UK R&B Albums Chart Top 40 and charted for the first time in the US at number 41 on the Billboard 200.
On August 25, 2021, Barry Hankerson revealed in an interview with Big Tigger for WVEE that a posthumous album titled Unstoppable would be released in "a matter of weeks". The album was said to feature Drake, Snoop Dogg, Ne-Yo, Chris Brown, Future and use previously unreleased vocals from before Aaliyah's passing. On December 17, 2021, Background Records released the posthumous Aaliyah single "Poison" featuring The Weeknd. On January 4, 2022, Hankerson claimed that Unstoppable would be released later that month, however, it did not see a release and there was no related announcement from the label. In January 2024, Blackground Records hinted in an Instagram post that the release was "coming".
On January 16, 2025, Mattel released an Aaliyah Barbie Doll modeled on her appearance in the "One in a Million" music video.
Legacy
Aaliyah has been credited for helping redefine R&B, pop and hip hop in the 1990s, "leaving an indelible imprint on the music industry as a whole." According to Billboard, she revolutionized R&B with her sultry mix of pop, soul and hip hop. In a 2001 review of her third album, Ernest Hardy from Rolling Stone professed that Aaliyah's impact on R&B and pop has been enormous. Critic Bruce Britt stated that by combining "schoolgirl charm with urban grit, Aaliyah helped define the teen-oriented sound that has resulted in contemporary pop phenom's like Brandy, Christina Aguilera and Destiny's Child". her second studio album, One in a Million, became one of the most influential R&B albums of the decade. Music critic Simon Reynolds cited "Are You That Somebody?" as "the most radical pop single" of 1998. Kelefah Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that rather than being the song's focal point, Aaliyah "knew how to disappear into the music, how to match her voice to the bass line", While compiling a list of artists that take cues from Aaliyah, MTV Hive stated that it's easy to spot her influence on underground movements like dubstep, strains of indie pop, and lo-fi R&B movements. Erika Ramirez, an associate editor of Billboard, said at the time of Aaliyah's career "there weren't many artists using the kind of soft vocals the ways she was using it, and now you see a lot of artists doing that and finding success". Ramirez argued that Aaliyah's second album One in a Million was "very much ahead of its time, with the bass and electro kind of R&B sounds that they produced", and that the sound, "really stood out" at its time, was being replicated.
There has been continuing belief that Aaliyah would have achieved greater career success had it not been for her death. Emil Wilbekin mentioned the deaths of The Notorious B.I.G. and Tupac Shakur in conjunction with hers and added: "Her just-released third album and scheduled role in a sequel to The Matrix could have made her another Janet Jackson or Whitney Houston". Director of Queen of the Damned Michael Rymer said of Aaliyah, "God, that girl could have gone so far" and spoke of her having "such a clarity about what she wanted. Nothing was gonna step in her way. No ego, no nervousness, no manipulation. There was nothing to stop her." On July 18, 2014, it was announced that Alexandra Shipp replaced Zendaya for the role of Aaliyah for the Lifetime TV biopic movie Aaliyah: The Princess of R&B, which premiered on November 15, 2014. Zendaya drew criticism because people felt that she was too light skinned and did not greatly resemble Aaliyah. She voiced her strong respect for Aaliyah before dropping out of the project. She explained her choice to withdraw from the film in videos on Instagram. Aaliyah's family has been vocal in their disapproving of the film. Her cousin Jomo Hankerson stated the family would prefer a "major studio release along the lines" of ''What's Love Got to Do with It'', the biopic based on the life of Tina Turner. Aaliyah's family has consulted a lawyer to stop Lifetime from using "any of the music, or any of the photographs and videos" they own and Jomo Hankerson claimed the TV network "didn't reach out." On August 9, 2014, it was announced that Chattrisse Dolabaille and Izaak Smith had been cast as Aaliyah's collaborators Missy Elliott and Timbaland. Dolabaille and Smith both received criticism for their appearances in comparison with that of Missy Elliot and Timbaland. Despite negative reviews, the film's premiere drew 3.2 million viewers, becoming the second highest rated television movie of 2014.
On August 17, 2021, Atria Books (an imprint of Simon & Schuster) published Kathy Iandoli's Baby Girl: Better Known as Aaliyah, a biography that draws on interviews with Aaliyah's friends, mentors and family, and document how her career influenced a new generation of artists. It has not been authorized by the Haughton family. On August 5, 2022, Beyoncé released "The Queens Remix" to her single "Break My Soul", in which she name-drops Aaliyah, along with other cultural icons. On June 14, 2023, Aaliyah was the subject of the documentary Superstar: Aaliyah, which was broadcast on ABC. The documentary included interviews with Damon Dash, Barry Hankerson, Sevyn Streeter, Will.i.am, Justine Skye, and author Kathy Iandoli, and discussed Aaliyah's life, career and legacy.
Achievements
Aaliyah has sold 8.1 million albums in the United States and an estimated 24 to 32 million albums worldwide. Throughout the years, she has earned several honorific nicknames, including "Princess of R&B", "Pop Princess", and "Queen of Urban Pop",
as she "proved she was a muse in her own right". While Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone dubbed her the "undisputed queen of the midtempo come-on".
At the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards, Aaliyah was honored by Janet Jackson, Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Ginuwine and her brother, Rashad, who all paid tribute to her. Also during 2001, the United States Social Security Administration ranked the name Aaliyah as one of the 100 most popular names for newborn girls. In 2003, Aaliyah was ranked as one of "The Top 40 Women of the Video Era" in VH1's The Greatest series. Also, in 2003 in memory of Aaliyah, the Entertainment Industry Foundation created the Aaliyah Memorial Fund to donate money raised to charities she supported. In 2008, she was ranked at number 18 on BET's "Top 25 Dancers of All Time". In December 2009, Billboard ranked Aaliyah at number 70 on its Top Artists of the Decade, while her album Aaliyah was ranked at number 181 on the magazine's Top 200 Albums of the Decade. In 2010, Billboard listed her as the tenth most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years, and 27th most successful R&B artist overall. In 2011, Essence ranked her at number 14 on its 50 Most Influential R&B Starts list. In 2012, VH1 ranked her number 48 on their "Greatest Women in Music". In 2014, NME ranked her at number 18 on its 100 most influential artist list. In August 2018, Billboard ranked Aaliyah at number 47 on their Top 60 Female Artists of All-Time list. In 2020, the publication included her on its list of the 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time. Rolling Stone ranked her at number 40 on their 200 Best Singers of All Time list. In September 2023, she was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame. In March 2025, Billboard ranked Aaliyah at number 47 on its Top 100 Women Artists of the 21st Century list.Discography
<!-- Per Wikipedia:WikiProject Musicians/Article guidelines, The discography section of the musician's primary article should "provide a summary of the musician's major works. In most cases this is done using a simple list of their studio albums, leaving a complete listing of releases to the discography article." -->
Studio albums
* ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number (1994)
* One in a Million (1996)
* Aaliyah (2001)
Compilation albums
* I Care 4 U (2002)
* Ultimate Aaliyah (2005)
Filmography
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ List of film and television roles
|-
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Medium
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
| scope="row" | Star Search
| 1989
| TV show
| Herself
| 1 episode
|-
| All That
| 1995; 1997
| TV series
| Herself (Musical guest)
| 2 episodes
|-
| scope="row" | New York Undercover
| 1997
| TV series
| Herself (Musical guest)
| Season 3, episode 65: "Fade Out"
|-
| scope="row" | Romeo Must Die''
| 2000
| Feature film
| Trish O'Day
| Film debut
|-
| scope="row" | The Mim Rose
| 2000
| Short film
| Melissa
| Written and directed by Rashad Haughton
|-
| scope="row" | Queen of the Damned
| 2002
| Feature film
| Queen Akasha
| Posthumous release
|}
See also
* List of artists who reached number one in the United States
* List of awards and nominations received by Aaliyah
* List of fatalities from aviation accidents
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
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| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|
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<!--PLEASE DO NOT ADD FANSITES. MySpace and Facebook pages cannot be added as she did not create them.-->
*
*
*
* [https://www.grammy.com/grammys/artists/aaliyah Aaliyah] on Grammy Awards
*
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Category:21st-century African-American actresses | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaliyah | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.950570 |
2147 | Armour | thumb|Western Xia mail armour|alt=Torso-covering mail armour on a black mannequin
Armour (Commonwealth English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or from a potentially dangerous environment or activity (e.g. cycling, construction sites, etc.). Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships, armoured fighting vehicles, and some combat aircraft, mostly ground attack aircraft.
A second use of the term armour describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the development of armoured warfare, tanks and mechanised infantry and their combat formations came to be referred to collectively as "armour".
Etymology
thumb|Portrait of a Gentleman in Armour with Two Pages by Paris Bordone|alt=An oil painting depicts a partially-armoured man who is assisted by two boys, one of whom is tying on some armour onto his arm while the other holds his helmet. A group of soldiers are amassed in the background.
The word "armour" began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a "mail, defensive covering worn in combat". The word originates from the Old French , itself derived from the Latin meaning "arms and/or equipment", with the root meaning "arms or gear".
Personal
Armour has been used throughout recorded history. It has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with the use of leathers or fabrics as protection and evolving through chain mail and metal plate into today's modern composites. For much of military history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology and employment of armour.
Armour drove the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture, leather processing, and later decorative metal working. Its production was influential in the Industrial Revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. Armour was also an important factor in the development of firearms, which in turn revolutionised warfare.
History
thumb|upright|The Dendra panoply, Mycenaean Greek armour, |alt=Bronze armour and a helmet with pieces of boar's tusk
Significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. At times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.
Well-known armour types in European history include the lorica hamata, lorica squamata, and the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later medieval and renaissance knights, and breast and back plates worn by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–1915). The samurai warriors of Feudal Japan utilised many types of armour for hundreds of years up to the 19th century.
Early
thumb|upright|Wooden statue of Guan Yu in mountain pattern armour, 16th c. Ming dynasty|alt=Statue depicting a man in colorful armour
The first record of body armor in history was found on the Stele of Vultures in ancient Sumer in today's south Iraq, and various forms of scale mail can be seen in surviving records from the New Kingdom of Egypt, Zhou dynasty China, and dynastic India. Cuirasses and helmets were manufactured in Japan as early as the 4th century. Tankō, worn by foot soldiers and keikō, worn by horsemen were both pre-samurai types of early Japanese armour constructed from iron plates connected together by leather thongs. Japanese lamellar armour (keiko) passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, leggings and a helmet.
Armour did not always cover all of the body; sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was generally protected by means of a large shield. An example of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs (13th to 15th century CE).
In East Asia, many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures, including scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour, and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates (mingguangjia) were also used, with more elaborate versions for officers in war. The Chinese, during that time used partial plates for "important" body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, or mountain pattern armor. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros.
Mail, sometimes called "chainmail", made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC. Its invention is credited to the Celts; the Romans are thought to have adopted their design.
Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.
13th to 18th century Europe
thumb|upright|Child armour of Sigismund II Augustus, which was commissioned by Emperor Ferdinand I for his daughter Elizabeth of Austria's marriage to Sigismund II Augustus
Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century, were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.
The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century.
thumb|left|Heavily armoured riders and their barded war horses, 16th century|alt=Three statues of riders and horses in armour
Probably the most recognised style of armour in the world became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries.
By 1400, the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.
In the early 15th century, advances in weaponry allowed infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15 kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance.
In the early years of low velocity firearms, full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. Crossbow bolts, if still in use, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebusiers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.
The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour.
Later
thumb|Elements of a Light-Cavalry Armor, |alt=Metal armour for torso and arms
Gradually, starting in the mid-16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers.
Back and breast plates continued to be used throughout the entire period of the 18th century and through Napoleonic times, in many European heavy cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. In Japan, armour continued to be used until the late 19th century, with the last major fighting in which armour was used, this occurred in 1868. Samurai armour had one last short lived use in 1877 during the Satsuma Rebellion.
Though the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely, some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their increased weight on long marches, as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.
At the start of World War I, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry. By that period, the shiny metallic cuirass was covered in a dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets, to help mitigate the sunlight being reflected off the surfaces, thereby alerting the enemy of their location. Their armour was only meant for protection against edged weapons such as bayonets, sabres, and lances. Cavalry had to be wary of repeating rifles, machine guns, and artillery, unlike the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to give them some protection.
Present
Today, ballistic vests, also known as flak jackets, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police officers, security guards, corrections officers and some branches of the military.
The US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (ESAPIs) in the chest, sides, and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of . Dragon Skin is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing with mixed results. As of 2019, it has been deemed too heavy, expensive, and unreliable, in comparison to more traditional plates, and it is outdated in protection compared to modern US IOTV armour, and even in testing was deemed a downgrade from the IBA.
The British Armed Forces also have their own armour, known as Osprey. It is rated to the same general equivalent standard as the US counterpart, the Improved Outer Tactical Vest, and now the Soldier Plate Carrier System and Modular Tactical Vest.
The Russian Armed Forces also have armour, known as the 6B43, all the way to 6B45, depending on variant. Their armour runs on the GOST system, which, due to regional conditions, has resulted in a technically higher protective level overall.
File:Ancient German armour helmet.jpg|Medieval German helmet.|alt=Rusted metal helmet
File:Armors for Man and Horse, Syrian, Iranian and Turkish, comprehensively about 1450-1550,The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.jpg|Early Modern horse armour on display at Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, New York.|alt=Statue of horse and rider in armour
File:Rustning, Gustav Vasa - Livrustkammaren - 32921.tif|Plate armour|alt=Full set of plate metal armour
File:Riot Policeman in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester.jpg|Riot police with body protection against physical impact. However, it does not provide very much protection against firearms. |alt=Uniformed police officer wearing body armour
Vehicle
The first modern production technology for armour plating was used by navies in the construction of the ironclad warship, reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. The first tanks were produced during World War I. Aerial armour has been used to protect pilots and aircraft systems since the First World War.
In modern ground forces' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry were mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replaced light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch of warfare.
History
Ships
left|thumb| during her third commission between 1867 and 1871|alt=A ship with an iron hull
The first ironclad battleship, with iron armour over a wooden hull, , was launched by the French Navy in 1859 prompting the British Royal Navy to build a counter. The following year they launched , which was twice the size and had iron armour over an iron hull. After the first battle between two ironclads took place in 1862 during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmoured line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.
Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.
The rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armoured cruisers.
Trains
thumb|upright|An armoured train from 1915|alt=A train with metal plates affixed to the exterior
Armoured trains saw use from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, including the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880–81 and 1899–1902), the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921), the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918–1920).
Armoured fighting vehicles
Ancient siege engines were usually protected by wooden armour, often covered with wet hides or thin metal to prevent being easily burned.
Medieval war wagons were horse-drawn wagons that were similarly armoured. These contained guns or crossbowmen that could fire through gun-slits.
The first modern armoured fighting vehicles were armoured cars, developed . These started as ordinary wheeled motor-cars protected by iron shields, typically mounting a machine gun.
During the First World War, the stalemate of trench warfare during on the Western Front spurred the development of the tank. It was envisioned as an armoured machine that could advance under fire from enemy rifles and machine guns, and respond with its own heavy guns. It used caterpillar tracks to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.
Aircraft
With the development of effective anti-aircraft artillery in the period before the Second World War, military pilots, once the "knights of the air" during the First World War, became far more vulnerable to ground fire. As a response, armour plating was added to aircraft to protect aircrew and vulnerable areas such as engines and fuel tanks. Self-sealing fuel tanks functioned like armour in that they added protection but also increased weight and cost.
Present
thumb|The US Military's M1 Abrams MBT uses composite, reactive, and cage armour|alt=A tank
Tank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tank (MBT) conceived in the Cold War era can survive multiple rocket-propelled grenade strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the world's militaries due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry.
The armoured personnel carrier (APC) was devised during the First World War. It allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an APC and a light tank were combined in one vehicle.
Naval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedoes. Passive defence naval armour is limited to kevlar or steel (either single layer or as spaced armour) protecting particularly vital areas from the effects of nearby impacts. Since ships cannot carry enough armour to completely protect against anti-ship missiles, they depend more on defensive weapons destroying incoming missiles, or causing them to miss by confusing their guidance systems with electronic warfare.
Although the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what became the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft that first saw action in the Gulf War.
High-voltage transformer fire barriers are often required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, which form part of large electrical transformers, per NFPA 850. Such fire barriers may be designed to inherently function as armour, or may be passive fire protection materials augmented by armour, where care must be taken to ensure that the armour's reaction to fire does not cause issues with regards to the fire barrier being armoured to defeat explosions and projectiles in addition to fire, especially since both functions must be provided simultaneously, meaning they must be fire-tested together to provide realistic evidence of fitness for purpose.
Combat drones use little to no vehicular armour as they are not crewed vessels, this results in them being lightweight and small in size.
Animal armour
Horse armour
thumb|A 16th-century knight with a horse in full barding|alt=Statue of horse and rider in armour
Body armour for war horses has been used since at least 2000 BC. Cloth, leather, and metal protection covered cavalry horses in ancient civilisations, including ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Rome. Some formed heavy cavalry units of armoured horses and riders used to attack infantry and mounted archers. Armour for horses is called barding (also spelled bard or barb) especially when used by European knights.
During the late Middle Ages as armour protection for knights became more effective, their mounts became targets. This vulnerability was exploited by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in the 14th century, when horses were killed by the infantry, and for the English at the Battle of Crécy in the same century where longbowmen shot horses and the then dismounted French knights were killed by heavy infantry. Barding developed as a response to such events.
Examples of armour for horses could be found as far back as classical antiquity. Cataphracts, with scale armour for both rider and horse, are believed by many historians to have influenced the later European knights, via contact with the Byzantine Empire.
Surviving period examples of barding are rare; however, complete sets are on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Wallace Collection in London, the Royal Armouries in Leeds, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Horse armour could be made in whole or in part of cuir bouilli (hardened leather), but surviving examples of this are especially rare.
Elephant armour
thumb|alt=War elephant display in a museum|Model of an armoured elephant at the Royal Armouries Museum
War elephants were first used in ancient times without armour, but armour was introduced because elephants injured by enemy weapons would often flee the battlefield. Elephant armour was often made from hardened leather, which was fitted onto an individual elephant while moist, then dried to create a hardened shell. Alternatively, metal armour pieces were sometimes sewn into heavy cloth. Later lamellar armour (small overlapping metal plates) was introduced. Full plate armour was not typically used due to its expense and the danger of the animal overheating.
See also
Battledress
Bioinspired armor
Bomb suit
High-voltage transformer fire barriers
Linothorax
Powered exoskeleton
Rolled homogeneous armour
Commercial uses of armor
Notes
References
"Ballistic Protection Levels." BulletproofME.com Body Armor. ArmorUP L.P., n.d. 19 October 2014
External links
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Safety clothing
Category:Military equipment of antiquity | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour | 2025-04-05T18:25:55.988446 |
2148 | Armoured fighting vehicle | thumb|WW1 Mark V tank, in The Tank Museum
An armoured fighting vehicle (British English) or armored fighting vehicle (American English) (AFV) is an armed combat vehicle protected by armour, generally combining operational mobility with offensive and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked. Examples of AFVs are tanks, armoured cars, assault guns, self-propelled artilleries, infantry fighting vehicles (IFV), and armoured personnel carriers (APC).
Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their characteristics and intended role on the battlefield. The classifications are not absolute; two countries may classify the same vehicle differently, and the criteria change over time. For example, relatively lightly armed armoured personnel carriers were largely superseded by infantry fighting vehicles with much heavier armament in a similar role.
Successful designs are often adapted to a wide variety of applications. For example, the MOWAG Piranha, originally designed as an APC, has been adapted to fill numerous roles such as a mortar carrier, infantry fighting vehicle, and assault gun.
Armoured fighting vehicles began to appear in use in World War I with the armoured car, the tank, the self-propelled gun, and the personnel carrier seeing use. By World War II, armies had large numbers of AFVs, together with other vehicles to carry troops this permitted highly mobile manoeuvre warfare.
Evolution
thumb|right|Battle of Zama by Henri-Paul Motte, 1890
The concept of a highly mobile and protected fighting unit has been around for centuries; from Hannibal's war elephants to Leonardo's contraptions, military strategists endeavoured to maximize the mobility and survivability of their soldiers.
Armoured fighting vehicles were not possible until internal combustion engines of sufficient power became available at the start of the 20th century.
History
Pre-modern
right|thumb|A Helepolis-like Siege Engine showing ballistae, stairs and movement capstan
Modern armoured fighting vehicles represent the realization of an ancient concept – that of providing troops with mobile protection and firepower. Armies have deployed war machines and cavalries with rudimentary armour in battle for millennia. Use of these animals and engineering designs sought to achieve a balance between the conflicting paradoxical needs of mobility, firepower and protection.
Siege machine
thumb|Model of a vehicle sketched by Leonardo da Vinci
Siege engines, such as battering rams and siege towers, would often be armoured in order to protect their crews from enemy action. Polyidus of Thessaly developed a very large movable siege tower, the helepolis, as early as 340 BC, and Greek forces used such structures in the Siege of Rhodes (305 BC).
The idea of a protected fighting vehicle has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-century sketch of a mobile, protected gun-platform; the drawings show a conical, wooden shelter with apertures for cannons around the circumference. The machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage (or "lantern") gears. Leonardo claimed: "I will build armoured wagons which will be safe and invulnerable to enemy attacks. There will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome." Modern replicas have demonstrated that the human crew would have been able to move it over only short distances.
War wagon
Hussite forces in Bohemia developed war wagons – medieval horse-drawn wagons that doubled as wagon forts – around 1420 during the Hussite Wars. These heavy wagons were given protective sides with firing slits; their heavy firepower came from either a cannon or from a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by light cavalry and infantry using pikes and flails. Heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc. These carried a ball of about . thumb|Modern reconstruction of Hussite war wagon
Modern
By the end of World War II, most modern armies had vehicles to carry infantry, artillery and anti-aircraft weaponry. Most modern AFVs are superficially similar in design to their World War II counterparts, but with significantly better armour, weapons, engines, electronics, and suspension. The increase in the capacity of transport aircraft makes possible and practicable the transport of AFVs by air. Many armies are replacing some or all of their traditional heavy vehicles with lighter airmobile versions, often with wheels instead of tracks.
Armed and armoured car
thumb|F. R. Simms's Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car
The first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The British inventor F. R. Simms designed and built the Motor Scout in 1898. It was the first armed, petrol-engine powered vehicle ever built. It consisted of a De Dion-Bouton quadracycle with a Maxim machine gun mounted on the front bar. An iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour.
The armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle. The first of these was the Simms's Motor War Car, also designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a maximum speed of around . The armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse.
thumb|F. R. Simms's 1902 Motor War Car, the first armoured car to be built
Another early armoured car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner. Armoured cars were first used in large numbers on both sides during World War I as scouting vehicles.
Tank
In 1903, H. G. Wells published the short story "The Land Ironclads," positing indomitable war machines that would bring a new age of land warfare, the way steam-powered ironclad warships had ended the age of sail.
Wells's literary vision was realized in 1916, when, amidst the pyrrhic standstill of the Great War, the British Landship Committee deployed revolutionary armoured vehicles to break the stalemate. The tank was envisioned as an armoured machine that could cross ground under fire from machine guns and reply with its own mounted machine guns and naval artillery. These first British tanks of World War I moved on caterpillar tracks that had substantially lower ground pressure than wheeled vehicles, enabling them to pass the muddy, pocked terrain and slit trenches of the Battle of the Somme.
Troop transport
thumb|Mark IX tank, the first Armoured Personnel Carrier at the Tank Museum, Bovington
The tank eventually proved highly successful and, as technology improved, it became a weapon that could cross large distances at much higher speeds than supporting infantry and artillery. The need to provide the units that would fight alongside the tank led to the development of a wide range of specialised AFVs, especially during the Second World War (1939–1945).
The armoured personnel carrier, designed to transport infantry troops to the frontline, emerged towards the end of World War I. During the first actions with tanks, it had become clear that close contact with infantry was essential in order to secure ground won by the tanks. Troops on foot were vulnerable to enemy fire, but they could not be transported in the tank because of the intense heat and noxious atmosphere. In 1917, Lieutenant G. J. Rackham was ordered to design an armoured vehicle that could fight and carry troops or supplies. The Mark IX tank was built by Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., although just three vehicles had been finished at the time of the Armistice in November 1918, and only 34 were built in total.
Tankette
thumb|IJA Type 94 tankette at the Armor School History Museum
Different tank classifications emerged in the interwar period. The tankette was conceived as a mobile, two-man model, mainly intended for reconnaissance. In 1925, Sir John Carden and Vivian Loyd produced the first such design to be adopted – the Carden Loyd tankette. Tankettes saw use in the Royal Italian Army during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935–1936), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Army used tankettes in China for infantry support, reconnaissance and later for jungle warfare.
Self-propelled artillery
right|thumb|British Gun Carrier Mark I (60 pdr)
The British Gun Carrier Mark I, the first Self-propelled artillery, was fielded in 1917. It was based on the first tank, the British Mark I, and carried a heavy field-gun. The next major advance was the Birch gun (1925), developed for the British motorised warfare experimental brigade (the Experimental Mechanized Force). This mounted a field gun, capable of the usual artillery trajectories and even anti-aircraft use, on a tank chassis.
During World War II, most major military powers developed self-propelled artillery vehicles. These had guns mounted on a tracked chassis (often that of an obsolete or superseded tank) and provided an armoured superstructure to protect the gun and its crew. The first British design, "Bishop", carried the 25 pdr gun-howitzer in an extemporised mounting on a tank chassis that severely limited the gun's performance. It was replaced by the more effective Sexton. The Germans built many lightly armoured self-propelled anti-tank guns using captured French equipment (for example Marder I), their own obsolete light tank chassis (Marder II), or ex-Czech chassis (Marder III). These led to better-protected tank destroyers, built on a medium-tank chassis such as the Jagdpanzer IV or the Jagdpanther.
Anti-aircraft vehicle
The Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon debuted in WWI. The German 88 mm anti-aircraft gun was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks, and the British QF 3-inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front. Although the Birch gun was a general purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis, it was capable of elevation for anti-aircraft use. Vickers Armstrong developed one of the first SPAAGs based on the chassis of the Mk.E 6-ton light tank/Dragon Medium Mark IV tractor, mounting a Vickers QF-1 "Pom-Pom" gun of 40 mm. The Germans fielded the Sd.Kfz. 10/4 and 6/2, cargo halftracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively) by the start of the war.
Self-propelled multiple rocket-launcher
Rocket launchers such as the Soviet Katyusha originated in the late 1930s. The Wehrmacht fielded self-propelled rocket artillery in World War II – the Panzerwerfer and Wurfrahmen 40 equipped half-track armoured fighting vehicles. Many modern multiple rocket launchers are self propelled by either truck or tank chassis.
Design
Survivability
The level of armour protection between AFVs varies greatly – a main battle tank will normally be designed to take hits from other tank guns and anti-tank missiles, whilst light reconnaissance vehicles are often only armoured "just in case". Whilst heavier armour provides better protection, it makes vehicles less mobile (for a given engine power), limits its air-transportability, increases cost, uses more fuel and may limit the places it can go – for example, many bridges may be unable to support the weight of a main battle tank. A trend toward composite armour is taking the place of steel – composites are stronger for a given weight, allowing the tank to be lighter for the same protection as steel armour, or better protected for the same weight. Armour is being supplemented with active protection systems on a number of vehicles, allowing the AFV to protect itself from incoming projectiles.
thumb|upright=1.35|Armour-thickness chart for a Panther tank
The level of protection also usually varies considerably throughout the individual vehicle too, depending on the role of the vehicle and the likely direction of attack. For example, a main battle tank will usually have the heaviest armour on the hull front and the turret, lighter armour on the sides of the hull and the thinnest armour on the top and bottom of the tank. Other vehicles – such as the MRAP family – may be primarily armoured against the threat from IEDs and so will have heavy, sloped armour on the bottom of the hull.
Firepower
Weaponry varies by a very wide degree between AFVs – lighter vehicles for infantry carrying, reconnaissance or specialist roles may have only a autocannon or machine gun (or no armament at all), whereas heavy self-propelled artillery will carry howitzers, mortars or rocket launchers. These weapons may be mounted on a pintle, affixed directly to the vehicle or placed in a turret or cupola.
The greater the recoil of the weapon on an AFV, the larger the turret ring needs to be. A larger turret ring necessitates a larger vehicle. To avoid listing to the side, turrets on amphibious vehicles are usually located at the centre of the vehicle.
Grenade launchers provide a versatile launch platform for a plethora of munitions including, smoke, phosphorus, tear gas, illumination, anti-personnel, infrared and radar-jamming rounds.
Turret stabilization is an important capability because it enables firing on the move and prevents crew fatigue.
Maneuverability
thumb|Engine replacement for a Bergepanzer 2
Modern AFVs have primarily used either petrol (gasoline) or diesel piston engines. More recently, gas turbines have been used. Most early AFVs used petrol engines, as they offer a good power-to-weight ratio. However, they fell out of favour during World War II due to the flammability of the fuel.
Most current AFVs are powered by a diesel engine; modern technology, including the use of turbo-charging, helps to overcome the lower power-to-weight ratio of diesel engines compared to petrol.
Gas turbine (turboshaft) engines offer a very high power-to-weight ratio and were starting to find favour in the late 20th century – however, they offer very poor fuel consumption and as such some armies are switching from gas turbines back to diesel engines (i.e. the Russian T-80 used a gas turbine engine, whereas the later T-90 does not). The US M1 Abrams is a notable example of a gas turbine powered tank.
Modern classification by type and role
Notable armoured fighting vehicles extending from post-World War I to today.
Tank
The tank is an all terrain AFV incorporating artillery which is designed to fill almost all battlefield roles and to engage enemy forces by the use of direct fire in the frontal assault role. Though several configurations have been tried, particularly in the early experimental "golden days" of tank development, a standard, mature design configuration has since emerged to a generally accepted pattern. This features a main tank gun or artillery gun, mounted in a fully rotating turret atop a tracked automotive hull, with various additional secondary weapon systems throughout.
Philosophically, the tank is, by its very nature, an offensive weapon. Being a protective encasement with at least one gun position, it is essentially a pillbox or small fortress (though these are static fortifications of a purely defensive nature) that can move toward the enemy – hence its offensive utility. Psychologically, the tank is a force multiplier that has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.
Tank classifications
Tanks were classified either by size or by role.
File:Ripsaw M5.webp|alt=Ripsaw Ground Combat Vehicle|Ripsaw M5 unmanned light tank
File:PanzerIISaumur.jpg|A WWII German Panzer II light tank
File:T-34-76 RB8.JPG|Soviet-made Polish T-34 medium tank Model 1942 in Poznań, Poland. The model 1942's hexagonal turret distinguishes it from earlier models.
File:T29 Heavy Tank.png|American T29 Heavy Tank
Classification by relative size was common, as this also tended to influence the tanks' role.
Light tanks are smaller tanks with thinner armour and lower-powered guns, allowing for better tactical mobility and ease of strategic transport. These are intended for armoured reconnaissance, skirmishing, artillery observation, expeditionary warfare and supplementing airborne or naval landings. Light tanks are typically cheaper to build and maintain, but fare poorly against heavier tanks. They may be held in reserve for exploiting any breakthroughs in enemy lines, with the goal of disrupting communications and supply lines.
Medium tanks are mid-sized tanks with adequate armour and guns, and fair mobility, allowing for a balance of fighting abilities, mobility, cost-effectiveness, and transportability. Medium tanks are effective in groups when used against enemy tanks.
Heavy tanks are larger tanks with thick armour and more powerful guns, but less mobile and more difficult to transport. They were intended to be more than a match for typical enemy medium tanks, easily penetrating their armour while being much less susceptible to their attacks. Heavy tanks cost more to both build and maintain, and their heavy armour proved most effective when deployed in support infantry assaulting entrenched fortifications.
Over time, tanks tended to be designed with heavier armour and weapons, increasing the weight of all tanks, so these classifications are relative to the average for the nation's tanks for any given period. An older tank design might be reclassified over time, such as a tank being first deployed as a medium tank, but in later years relegated to light tank roles.
Tanks were also classified by roles that were independent of size, such as cavalry tank, cruiser tank, fast tank, infantry tank, "assault" tank, or "breakthrough" tank. Military theorists initially tended to assign tanks to traditional military infantry, cavalry, and artillery roles, but later developed more specialized roles unique to tanks.
In modern use, the heavy tank has fallen out of favour, being supplanted by more heavily armed and armoured descendant of the medium tanks – the universal main battle tank. The light tank has, in many armies, lost favour to cheaper, faster, lighter armoured cars; however, light tanks (or similar vehicles with other names) are still in service with a number of forces as reconnaissance vehicles, most notably the Russian Marines with the PT-76, the British Army with the Scimitar, and the Chinese Army with the Type 63.
Main battle tank
File:Karelian_Lock_23_(7827362).jpg| United States third-generation M1 Abrams tank
File:2013_Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade_(28).jpg| Russian T-90 main battle tank with 2A46 smoothbore gun
File:Leopard_2A6,_PzBtl_104.jpg| Modern Germany Leopard 2 main battle tank
File:ZTZ-99A_MBT_20170902.jpg| Chinese Type 99 main battle tank
Modern main battle tanks or "universal tanks" incorporate recent advances in automotive, artillery, armour, and electronic technology to combine the best characteristics of the historic medium and heavy tanks into a single, all-around type. They are also the most expensive to mass-produce. A main battle tank is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era. It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but its heavy dependency on fuel, maintenance, and ammunition makes it logistically demanding. It has the heaviest armour of any AFVs on the battlefield, and carries a powerful precision-guided munition weapon systems that may be able to engage a wide variety of both ground targets and air targets. Despite significant advances in anti-tank warfare, it still remains the most versatile and fearsome land-based weapon-systems of the 21st-century, valued for its shock action and high survivability.
Tankette
right|thumb|The Carden-Loyd tankette concept was adopted by many armies
thumb|Wiesel 2 Argus scout tankette
A tankette is a tracked armed and armoured vehicle resembling a small "ultra-light tank" or "super-light tank" roughly the size of a car, mainly intended for light infantry support or scouting. Tankettes were introduced in the mid-1920s as a reconnaissance vehicle and a mobile machine gun position They were one or two-man vehicles armed with a machine gun. Colloquially it may also simply mean a "small tank".
Tankettes were designed and built by several nations between the 1920s and 1940s following the British Carden Loyd tankette which was a successful implementation of "one man tank" ideas from Giffard Le Quesne Martel, a British Army engineer. They were very popular with smaller countries. Some saw some combat (with limited success) in World War II. However, the vulnerability of their light armour eventually caused the concept to be abandoned. However, the German Army uses a modern design of air-transportable armoured weapons carriers, the Wiesel AWC, which resembles the concept of a tankette.
Super-heavy tank
The term "super-heavy tank" has been used to describe armoured fighting vehicles of extreme size, generally over 75 tonnes. Programs have been initiated on several occasions with the aim of creating an invincible siegeworks/breakthrough vehicle for penetrating enemy formations and fortifications without fear of being destroyed in combat. Examples were designed in World War I and World War II (such as the Panzer VIII Maus), along with a few in the Cold War. However, few working prototypes were built and there is no clear evidence any of these vehicles saw combat, as their immense size would have made most designs impractical.
File:TOG II.jpg|British TOG II
File:Metro-maus1.jpg|German Panzer VIII Maus
Missile tank
200px|thumb|Soviet IT-1, Kubinka Tank Museum
A missile tank is a tank fulfilling the role of a main battle tank, but using only anti-tank surface-to-surface missiles for main armament. Several nations have experimented with prototypes, notably the Soviet Union during the tenure of Nikita Khrushchev (projects Object 167, Object 137Ml, Object 155Ml, Object 287, Object 775),
Flame tank
thumb|right|British Churchill Crocodile flame tank
A flame tank is an otherwise-standard tank equipped with a flamethrower, most commonly used to supplement combined arms attacks against fortifications, confined spaces, or other obstacles. The type only reached significant use in the Second World War, during which the United States, Soviet Union, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom (including members of the British Commonwealth) all produced flamethrower-equipped tanks. Usually, the flame projector replaced one of the tank's machineguns, however, some flame projectors replaced the tank's main gun. Fuel for the flame weapon was generally carried inside the tank, although a few designs mounted the fuel externally, such as the armoured trailer used on the Churchill Crocodile.
Flame tanks have been superseded by thermobaric weapons such as the Russian TOS-1.
Infantry tank
thumb|A British Matilda tank displaying a captured Italian flag
The idea for this tank was developed during World War I by British and French. The infantry tank was designed to work in concert with infantry in the assault, moving mostly at a walking pace, and carrying heavy armour to survive defensive fire. Its main purpose was to suppress enemy fire, crush obstacles such as barbed-wire entanglements, and protect the infantry on their advance into and through enemy lines by giving mobile overwatch and cover. The French Renault FT was the first iteration of this concept.
The British and French retained the concept between the wars and into the Second World War era. Because infantry tanks did not need to be fast, they could carry heavy armour. One of the best-known infantry tanks was the Matilda II of World War II. Other examples include the French R-35, the British Valentine, and the British Churchill.
Cruiser tank
thumb|2 pdr-armed Crusader tank in the desert
A cruiser tank, or cavalry tank, was designed to move fast and exploit penetrations of the enemy front. The idea originated in "Plan 1919", a British plan to break the trench deadlock of World War I in part via the use of high-speed tanks. The first cruiser tank was the British Whippet.
Between the wars, this concept was implemented in the "fast tanks" pioneered by J. Walter Christie. These led to the Soviet BT tank series and the British cruiser tank series.
During World War II, British cruiser tanks were designed to complement infantry tanks, exploiting gains made by the latter to attack and disrupt the enemy rear areas. In order to give them the required speed, cruiser designs sacrificed armour and armament compared to the infantry tanks. Pure British cruisers were generally replaced by more capable medium tanks such as the US Sherman and, to a lesser extent, the Cromwell by 1943.
The Soviet fast tank (bistrokhodniy tank, or BT tank) classification also came out of the infantry/cavalry concept of armoured warfare and formed the basis for the British cruisers after 1936. The T-34 was a development of this line of tanks as well, though their armament, armour, and all-round capability places them firmly in the medium tank category.
Armoured car
The armoured car is a wheeled, often lightly armoured, vehicle adapted as a fighting machine. Its earliest form consisted of a motorised ironside chassis fitted with firing ports. By World War I, this had evolved into a mobile fortress equipped with command equipment, searchlights, and machine guns for self-defence. It was soon proposed that the requirements for the armament and layout of armoured cars be somewhat similar to those on naval craft, resulting in turreted vehicles. The first example carried a single revolving cupola with a Vickers gun; modern armoured cars may boast heavier armament – ranging from twin machine guns to large calibre cannon.
Some multi-axled wheeled fighting vehicles can be quite heavy, and superior to older or smaller tanks in terms of armour and armament. Others are often used in military marches and processions, or for the escorting of important figures. Under peacetime conditions, they form an essential part of most standing armies. Armoured car units can move without the assistance of transporters and cover great distances with fewer logistical problems than tracked vehicles.
During World War II, armoured cars were used for reconnaissance alongside scout cars. Their guns were suitable for some defence if they encountered enemy armoured fighting vehicles, but they were not intended to engage enemy tanks. Armoured cars have since been used in the offensive role against tanks with varying degrees of success, most notably during the South African Border War, Toyota War, the Invasion of Kuwait, and other lower-intensity conflicts.
File:Rolls Royce 1920 Mk1 1 Bovington.jpg|Rolls-Royce Armoured Car in The Tank Museum, Bovington
File:T 17 Staghound Armored Car (1).jpg|American T17E1 Staghound armoured car of World War II
File:SATORY 9 JANVIER 2014 021 bis.jpg|French Renault VBC-90 six-wheeled armoured car.
Aerosledge
thumb|200px|The RF-8, a smaller World War II model, powered by an inexpensive automotive engine
An aerosledge is a type of propeller-driven snowmobile, running on skis, used for communications, mail deliveries, medical aid, emergency recovery and border patrolling in northern Russia, as well as for recreation. Aerosledges were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II.
Some early aerosledges were built by young Igor Sikorsky in 1909–10, before he built multi-engine airplanes and helicopters. They were very light plywood vehicles on skis, propelled by old airplane engines and propellers.
Scout car
A scout car is a military armoured reconnaissance vehicle, capable of off-road mobility and often carrying mounted weapons such as machine guns for offensive capabilities and crew protection. They often only carry an operational crew aboard, which differentiates them from wheeled armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry mobility vehicles (IMVs), but early scout cars, such as the open-topped US M3 scout car could carry a crew of seven. The term is often used synonymously with the more general term armoured car, which also includes armoured civilian vehicles. They are also differentiated by being designed and built for purpose, as opposed to improvised "technicals" which might serve in the same role.
File:Verkhnyaya Pyshma Tank Museum 2011 140.jpg|BA-64 at the UMMC Museum
File:BRDM-2 (1964) owned by James Stewart pic1.JPG|Soviet BRDM-2 amphibious scout car.
Reconnaissance vehicle
A reconnaissance vehicle, also known as a scout vehicle, is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance. Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in service. In some countries, light tanks such as the M551 Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons. Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low profile or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament ranges from a medium machine gun to an autocannon. Modern examples are often fitted with ATGMs and a wide range of sensors.
Armoured reconnaissance is the combination of terrestrial reconnaissance with armoured warfare by using tanks and wheeled or tracked armoured reconnaissance vehicles. While the mission of reconnaissance is to gather intelligence about the enemy with the use of reconnaissance vehicles, armoured reconnaissance adds the ability to fight for information, and to have an effect on and to shape the enemy through the performance of traditional armoured tasks. Some armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage Commando double in the reconnaissance role.
File:Stryker RV front q.jpg|United States Army M1127
File:Scimitar Light Tank MOD 45149231.jpg|British FV107 Scimitar tracked reconnaissance vehicle in the Salisbury Plain Training Area
Internal security vehicle
thumb|right|An American-made Bulgarian M1117
An internal security vehicle (ISV), also known as an armoured security vehicle (ASV), is a combat vehicle used for suppressing civilian unrest. Security vehicles are typically armed with a turreted heavy machine gun and auxiliary medium machine gun. The vehicle is designed to minimize firepower dead space. Non-lethal water cannons and tear gas cannons can provide suppressive fire in lieu of unnecessary deadly fire.
The vehicle must be protected against weapons typical of riots. Protection from improvised incendiary devices is achieved though coverage of the air intake and exhaust ports as well as a strong locking mechanism on the fuel opening. Turret and door locks prevent access to the interior of the vehicle by rioters. Vision blocks, ballistic glass and window shutters and outside surveillance cameras allow protected observation from within the vehicle. Wheeled 4x4 and 6x6 configurations are typical of security vehicles. Tracked security vehicles are often cumbersome and leave negative political connotations for being perceived as an imperial invading force.
Military light utility vehicle
Military light utility vehicles are the lightest weight class of military vehicles. It refers to light 4x4 military vehicles with light or no armour and all-terrain mobility. This type of vehicle originated in the first half of the 20th century when horses and other draft animals were replaced with mechanization. Light utility vehicles such as the Willys Jeep were frequently mounted with .50-calibre machineguns and other small weapons for hit-and-run tactics in World War II, especially by the British Special Air Service who used Jeeps to raid Axis airfields during the North Africa campaign. After the war, vehicles like the Toyota Mega Cruiser and Humvee filled this role. In the 21st century, improvised explosive devices continue to pose threat to mobile infantry resulting in light utility vehicles being made heavier and with more armour.
File:1942Jeep.jpg|Willys Jeep with a 37 mm gun M3 and M1917A1 machinegun of the US Army's 3rd Infantry in Newfoundland
File:USMC-04325 (cropped).jpg|American Humvee, the main US light utility vehicle since the 1980s
Improvised fighting vehicle
An improvised fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle resulting from modifications to a civilian or military non-combat vehicle in order to give it a fighting capability. Such modifications usually consist of the grafting of armour plating and weapon systems. Various militaries have procured such vehicles, ever since the introduction of the first automobiles into military service.
During the early days, the absence of a doctrine for the military use of automobiles or of an industry dedicated to producing them, lead to much improvisation in the creation of early armoured cars, and other such vehicles. Later, despite the advent of arms industries in many countries, several armies still resorted to using ad hoc contraptions, often in response to unexpected military situations, or as a result of the development of new tactics for which no available vehicle was suitable. The construction of improvised fighting vehicles may also reflect a lack of means for the force that uses them. This is especially true in underdeveloped countries and even in developing countries, where various armies and guerrilla forces have used them, as they are more affordable than military-grade combat vehicles.
Modern examples include military gun truck used by units of regular armies or other official government armed forces, based on a conventional military cargo truck, that is able to carry a large weight of weapons and armour. They have mainly been used by regular armies to escort military convoys in regions subject to ambush by guerrilla forces. "Narco tanks", used by Mexican drug cartels in the Mexican drug war, are built from such trucks, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities.
File:Na KhTZ-16.jpg|Soviet NI tank improvised fighting tractor of WWII.
File:Free Syrian Army technical in the eastern Qalamoun Mountains (cropped).jpg|Technical armed with a ZPU-2 heavy machine gun operated by the Free Syrian Army during clashes with ISIS in the eastern Qalamoun Mountains, southern Syria, 2017
File:Gun Truck.jpg|A gun truck of the type used in Iraq, based on an M939 five-ton truck
File:Narco-tank-1.jpg|"Monstruo 2010", a narco tank based on a Ford F-350 with a turret captured by Mexican Authorities in Jalisco
Troop carriers
Troop-carrying AFVs are divided into three main types – armoured personnel carriers (APCs), infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) and infantry mobility vehicles (IMV). The main difference between the three is their intended role – the APC is designed purely to transport troops and is armed for self-defence only – whereas the IFV is designed to provide close-quarters and anti-armour fire support to the infantry it carries. IMV is a wheeled armoured personnel carrier serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle.
Armoured personnel carrier
Armoured personnel carriers (APCs) are intended to carry infantry quickly and relatively safely to the point where they are deployed. In the Battle of Amiens, 8 August 1918, the British Mk V* tank (a lengthened Mark V) carried a small number of machine gunners as an experiment, but the men were debilitated by the conditions inside the vehicle. Later that year the first purpose-built APC, the British Mk IX tank (Mark Nine), appeared. In 1944, the Canadian general Guy Simonds ordered the conversion of redundant armoured vehicles to carry troops (generically named "Kangaroos"). This proved highly successful, even without training, and the concept was widely used in the 21st Army Group. Post-war, specialised designs were built, such as the Soviet BTR-60 and US M113.
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-801-0664-37, Berlin, Unter den Linden, Schützenpanzer.jpg|German WWII Sd.Kfz. 251 half-tracked APC
File:IM000656.jpg|Israeli Namer tracked APC
File:GTK_Boxer_Fuehrungsfahrzeug_front.jpg|The ARTEC Boxer armoured personnel carrier
Infantry fighting vehicle
An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), also known as a mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. The first example of an IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s.
IFVs are similar to armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry carrier vehicles (ICVs), designed to transport a section or squad of infantry (generally between five and ten men) and their equipment. They are differentiated from APCswhich are purely "troop-transport" vehicles armed only for self-defencebecause they are designed to give direct fire support to the dismounted infantry and so usually have significantly enhanced armament. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have firing ports (allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted).
They are typically armed with an autocannon of 20 to 57 mm calibre, 7.62mm machine guns, anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) and/or surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). IFVs are usually tracked, but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category. IFVs are generally less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks. They sometimes carry anti-tank missiles to protect and support infantry against armoured threats, such as the NATO TOW missile and Soviet Bastion, which offer a significant threat to tanks. Specially equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks.
File:Puma, first series.jpg|The German Puma infantry fighting vehicle
File:BMP-2M.jpg|Soviet BMP-2M amphibious IFV
File:Royal Tank Museum 157.jpg|South African Wheeled Ratel IFV
Infantry mobility vehicle
thumb|Polish AMZ Tur
An infantry mobility vehicle (IMV) or protected patrol vehicle (PPV) is a wheeled armoured personnel carrier (APC) serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle. Examples include the ATF Dingo, AMZ Dzik, AMZ Tur, Mungo ESK, and Bushmaster IMV. This term also applies to the vehicles currently being fielded as part of the MRAP program.
IMVs were developed in response to the threats of modern counterinsurgency warfare, with an emphasis on Ambush Protection and Mine-Resistance. Similar vehicles existed long before the term IMV was coined, such as the French VAB and South African Buffel. The term is coming more into use to differentiate light 4x4 wheeled APCs from the traditional 8x8 wheeled APCs. It is a neologism for what might have been classified in the past as an armoured scout car, such as the BRDM, but the IMV is distinguished by having a requirement to carry dismountable infantry. The up-armoured M1114 Humvee variant can be seen as an adaptation of the unarmoured Humvee to serve in the IMV role.
File:CV9035 assessment (cropped).jpg|A CV-9035 Swedish infantry fighting vehicle used by U.S. Army
File:M113IraqiFreedom.jpg|The M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the Iraq War
File:Dingo 2.jpg|An ATF Dingo of the German Army is a mine-resistant and ambush-protected infantry mobility vehicle used by several European armed forces
File:278th MP Company's new ASVs.jpg|A United States Army National Guard M1117 armoured security vehicle
File:Nexter Aravis, place Jeanne Helbling, Strasbourg 2010 (2).jpg|A French Nexter Aravis in Strasbourg
File:Norwegian Iveco LMV 02.jpg|Norwegian soldiers running operations in an Iveco LMV in Faryab province, Afghanistan. The Iveco LMV is widely used by European militaries.
File:Saxony State Police Survivor R (1).jpg|An RMMV Survivor R used by the Saxony State Police. In this configuration, it does not feature the .50 machine gun and grenade launcher remote weapon station used in the standard military configuration.
Amphibious vehicles
Many modern military vehicles, ranging from light wheeled command and reconnaissance, through armoured personnel carriers and tanks, are manufactured with amphibious capabilities. Contemporary wheeled armoured amphibians include the French Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé and Véhicule Blindé Léger. The latter is a small, lightly armoured 4×4 all-terrain vehicle that is fully amphibious and can swim at 5.4 km/h. The VAB (Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé – 'armoured vanguard vehicle') is a fully amphibious armoured personnel carrier powered in the water by two water jets, that entered service in 1976 and produced in numerous configurations, ranging from basic personnel carrier, anti-tank missile platform.
During the Cold War the Soviet bloc states developed a number of amphibious APCs, fighting vehicles and tanks, both wheeled and tracked. Most of the vehicles the Soviets designed were amphibious, or could ford deep water. Wheeled examples are the BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 4x4 armoured scout cars, as well as the BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80, BTR-94 and BTR-90 8x8 armoured personnel carriers.
thumb|Type 2 Ka-Mi tank with flotation sections attached
During the 1930s and 1940s, Japan produced a number of amphibious tank designs, including prototypes such as the Sumida amphibious armored car (AMP), SR I-Go, SR II Ro-Go, SR III Ha-Go, Type 1 Mi-Sha (a/k/a Type 1 Ka-Mi) and Type 5 To-Ku. Production amphibious tanks during World War II included the Type 2 Ka-Mi, and Type 3 Ka-Chi; production amphibious transports included the F B swamp vehicle and Type 4 Ka-Tsu APC. All production units were for use by the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces in campaigns in the Pacific with amphibious operations.
The United States started developing a long line of Landing Vehicle Tracked (LVT) designs from . The US Marine Corps currently uses the AAV7-A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, which was to be succeeded by the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle, which was capable of planing on water and can achieve water speeds of 37–46 km/h. The EFV project has been cancelled.
A significant number of tracked armoured vehicles that are primarily intended for land-use, have some amphibious capability, tactically useful inland, reducing dependence on bridges. They use their tracks, sometimes with added propeller or water jets for propulsion. As long as the banks have a shallow enough slopes to enter or leave the water they can cross rivers and water obstacles.
Some heavy tanks can operate amphibiously with a fabric skirt to add buoyancy. The Sherman DD tank used in the Normandy landings had this setup. When in water the waterproof float screen was raised and propellers deployed. Some modern vehicles use a similar skirt.
File:DD-Tank.jpg|M4 Sherman DD tank during WWII
File:BTR-80 coming ashore.jpg|BTR-80s coming ashore, engine snorkels and waterjet deployed
File:AAV-australia.jpg|Two U.S. Marine Corps Assault Amphibious Vehicles emerge from the surf onto the sand of Freshwater Beach, Australia
File:PKP trailer attached to the amphibian carrier PTS-2 in Military-historical Museum of Artillery, Engineer and Signal Corps in Saint-Petersburg, Russia.jpg|PKP trailer
File:PTS-M.jpg|Soviet PTS-M landing craft
Airborne vehicles
thumb|C-130 airdrops an M551 light tank
Lightweight armoured fighting vehicles designed or modified to be carried by aircraft and delivered by air drop, helicopter lift, glider, or air landing with infantry to provide heavier tactical firepower and mobility. The air-equivalent to amphibious vehicles, the main advantage of airborne forces is their ability to be deployed into combat zones without land passage, as long as the airspace is accessible. Airborne vehicles are limited only by the tonnage capacity of their transport aircraft. Airborne vehicles typically lack the armour and supplies necessary for prolonged combat, so they are utilized for establishing an airhead to bring in larger forces before carrying out other combat objectives. One modern example is the German Wiesel AWC. The USA also created the M22 Locust as a way to aid paratroopers/ being paradropped in as it was very lightly armoured and very small.
Armoured engineering vehicle
thumb|IDF Puma combat engineering vehicle
Modern engineering AFV's utilize chassis based on main battle tank platforms: these vehicles are as well armoured and protected as tanks, designed to keep up with tanks, breach obstacles to help tanks get to wherever it needs to be, perform utility functions necessary to expedite mission objectives of tanks, and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield. These vehicles go by different names depending upon the country of use or manufacture. In the United States the term "combat engineer vehicle (CEV)" is used, in the United Kingdom the term "Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE)" is used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term "armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)" is used. There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large calibre demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes, or lifting booms.
Although the term "armoured engineer vehicle" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank-based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank-based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces. Thus, "armoured engineer vehicle" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on. Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle.
alt=|thumb|A German army Rheinmetall Keiler. It uses a heavy-duty rotor-powered mine flail, which causes mines it comes in contact with to safely detonate.
Breaching vehicle
A breaching vehicle is especially designed to clear pathways for troops and other vehicles through minefields and along roadside bombs and other improvised explosive devices. These vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man-made obstacles. Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, and mine roller vehicles.
Armoured bulldozer
thumb|IDF Caterpillar D9 armoured bulldozer
The armoured bulldozer is a basic tool of combat engineering. These combat engineering vehicles combine the earth moving capabilities of the bulldozer with armour which protects the vehicle and its operator in or near combat. Most are civilian bulldozers modified by addition of vehicle armour/military equipment, but some are tanks stripped of armament and fitted with a dozer blade. Some tanks have bulldozer blades while retaining their armament, but this does not make them armoured bulldozers as such, because combat remains the primary role – earth moving is a secondary task.
Armoured recovery vehicle
An armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) is a type of vehicle recovery armoured fighting vehicle used to repair battle- or mine-damaged as well as broken-down armoured vehicles during combat, or to tow them out of the danger zone for more extensive repairs. To this end the term armoured repair and recovery vehicle (ARRV) is also used.
ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a main battle tank (MBT), but some are also constructed on the basis of other armoured fighting vehicles, mostly armoured personnel carriers (APCs). ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the same class as they are supposed to recover; a tank-based ARV is used to recover tanks, while an APC-based one recovers APCs, but does not have the power to tow a much heavier tank.
Armoured vehicle-launched bridge
An armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) is a combat support vehicle, sometimes regarded as a subtype of combat engineering vehicle, designed to assist militaries in rapidly deploying tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles across rivers. The AVLB is usually a tracked vehicle converted from a tank chassis to carry a folding metal bridge instead of weapons. The AVLB's job is to allow armoured or infantry units to cross water, when a river too deep for vehicles to wade through is reached, and no bridge is conveniently located (or sufficiently sturdy, a substantial concern when moving 60-ton tanks).
The bridge layer unfolds and launches its cargo, providing a ready-made bridge across the obstacle in only minutes. Once the span has been put in place, the AVLB vehicle detaches from the bridge, and moves aside to allow traffic to pass. Once all of the vehicles have crossed, it crosses the bridge itself and reattaches to the bridge on the other side. It then retracts the span ready to move off again. A similar procedure can be employed to allow crossings of small chasms or similar obstructions. AVLBs can carry bridges of or greater in length. By using a tank chassis, the bridge layer is able to cover the same terrain as main battle tanks, and the provision of armour allows them to operate even in the face of enemy fire. However, this is not a universal attribute: some exceptionally sturdy 6x6 or 8x8 truck chassis have lent themselves to bridge-layer applications.
Combat engineer section carriers
Combat engineer section carriers are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with bulldozers' blades and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection. They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes. Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant).
File:French_army_EFA_DSC00859.jpg#/media/File:French_army_EFA_DSC00859.jpg|French EFA Amphibious float bridge
File:M60-panther-mcgovern-base.jpg|A remotely controlled Panther armoured mine clearing vehicle leads a column down a road in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 16 May 1996.
File:M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle.jpg|Marines with 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion launch a M58 MICLIC from an M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicle
File:D9-IDF-2018-Zachi-Evenor-1.jpg|An armoured IDF Caterpillar D9 bulldozer, nicknamed "דובי" ('Teddy bear') in Israel. Its armour allows it to work under heavy fire.
File:Bergepanzer Bueffel.jpg|BPz3 "Büffel" armoured recovery vehicle, German Army
File:M60A1 Armored Vehicle Landing Bridge.jpg|An M60A1 armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB), deploying its scissors-type bridge
File:Stryker ESV front q.jpg|An M1132 engineer squad vehicle (ESV) issued to combat engineer squads in the US Army Stryker brigade combat teams
Air defence vehicles
An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability.
Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, anti-aircraft autocannons, larger anti-air guns, or surface-to-air-missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles (e.g. the Pantsir-S1). Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as armored personnel carriers and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment.
Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. In addition, most anti-aircraft guns can be used in a direct-fire role against surface targets to great effect. In the early 21st century, missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns, though guns have recently shown revived utility against slow, low-flying drones.
File:Brno, Řečkovice, transportér Praga V33 II.JPG|Czechoslovak self-propelled anti-aircraft gun M53/59 Praga developed in the late 1950s.
Image:Wirbelwind CFB Borden 2.jpg|German Wirbelwind - a 20 mm Flakvierling quadmount on a Panzer IV chassis.
File:Gepard 1a2 overview.jpg|Flakpanzer Gepard, Germany
File:JLTV 1.jpg|At AUSA 2017, a JLTV Utility variant mounting Boeing's SHORAD Launcher
File:2008 Moscow Victory Day Parade - 9K22 Tunguska.jpg|Typical of more modern designs, the Tunguska-M1 mounts both missiles and autocannons.
Self-propelled artillery
Self-propelled artillery vehicles give mobility to artillery. Within the term are covered self-propelled guns (or howitzers) and rocket artillery. They are highly mobile, usually based on tracked chassis carrying either a large howitzer or other field gun or alternatively a mortar or some form of rocket or missile launcher. They are usually used for long-range indirect bombardment support on the battlefield.
In the past, self-propelled artillery has included direct-fire "Gun Motor Carriage" vehicles, such as assault guns and tank destroyers (also known as self-propelled anti-tank guns). These have been heavily armoured vehicles, the former providing danger-close fire-support for infantry and the latter acting as specialized anti-tank vehicles.
Modern self-propelled artillery vehicles may superficially resemble tanks, but they are generally lightly armoured, too lightly to survive in direct-fire combat. However, they protect their crews against shrapnel and small arms and are therefore usually included as armoured fighting vehicles. Many are equipped with machine guns for defence against enemy infantry.
The key advantage of self-propelled over towed artillery is that it can be brought into action much faster. Before towed artillery can be used, it has to stop, unlimber and the guns set up. To move position, the guns must be limbered up again and brought – usually towed – to the new location. By comparison, self-propelled artillery in combination with modern communications, can stop at a chosen location and begin firing almost immediately, then quickly move on to a new position. This ability is very useful in a mobile conflict and particularly on the advance.
Conversely, towed artillery was and remains cheaper to build and maintain. It is also lighter and can be taken to places that self-propelled guns cannot reach, so despite the advantages of the self-propelled artillery, towed guns remain in the arsenals of many modern armies.
File:Destroyed german self-propelled gun carriage.jpg|A Wespe destroyed in Normandy, 1944.
File:G6 Howitzer2.JPG|G6 howitzer wheeled SPG
File:Slovak Ground Forces Zuzana 2 first time outside Slovakia (1) (cropped).jpg|Slovak Self-propelled 155mm Howitzer model 2000 Zuzana
File:April 9th rehearsal in Alabino of 2014 Victory Day Parade (558-34).jpg|A Russian 2S19 Msta-S in 2014
Assault gun
An assault gun is a gun or howitzer mounted on a motor vehicle or armoured chassis, designed for use in the direct fire role in support of infantry when attacking other infantry or fortified positions.
Historically, the custom-built fully armoured assault guns usually mounted the gun or howitzer in a fully enclosed casemate on a tank chassis. The use of a casemate instead of a gun turret limited these weapons' field of fire, but allowed a larger gun to be fitted relative to the chassis, more armour to be fitted for the same weight, and provided a cheaper construction. In most cases, these turretless vehicles also presented a lower profile as a target for the enemy.
File:ISU-152 at Victory Park in Moscow.jpg|ISU-152K, Victory Park, Moscow, Russia
File:Ikv 91 a.jpg|Infanterikanonvagn 91, Swedish turreted amphibious assault gun
Self-propelled siege gun
thumb|A Karl-Gerät firing in Warsaw,1944
Self-Propelled siege guns often carry cannons or mortars in excess of 400mm. The carrying platform could be multiple vehicles, built for use on train rails, or a purpose-built chassis.
Mortar carrier
A mortar carrier, or self-propelled mortar, is a self-propelled artillery vehicle carrying one or more mortar as its primary weapon. Mortar carriers cannot be fired while on the move and some must be dismounted to fire. In U.S. Army doctrine, mortar carriers provide close and immediate indirect fire support for maneuver units while allowing for rapid displacement and quick reaction to the tactical situation. The ability to relocate not only allows fire support to be provided where it is needed faster, but also allows these units to avoid counter-battery fire. Mortar carriers have traditionally avoided direct contact with the enemy. Many units report never using secondary weapons in combat.
Prior to the Iraq War, American 120 mm mortar platoons reorganized from six M1064 mortar carriers and two M577 fire direction centres (FDC) to four M1064 and one FDC. The urban environment of Iraq made it difficult to utilize mortars. New technologies such as mortar ballistic computers and communication equipment and are being integrated. Modern era combat is becoming more reliant on direct fire support from mortar carrier machine guns.
File:T5E1-motar-carrier-4.2inch-haugh.jpg|T5E1 4.2inch mortar carrier variant of the M3 Scout Car.
File:ParkPatriot2015part11-150.jpg|2S9 Nona-S 120 mm Soviet self-propelled mortar, 2016.
File:Stryker MCV-B.jpg|An American M1129 mortar carrier
Multiple rocket launcher
A multiple rocket launcher is a type of unguided rocket artillery system. Like other rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers are less accurate and have a much lower (sustained) rate of fire than batteries of traditional artillery guns. However, they have the capability of simultaneously dropping many hundreds of kilograms of explosive, with devastating effect.
The Korean Hwacha is an example of an early weapon system with a resemblance to the modern-day multiple rocket launcher. The first self-propelled multiple rocket launchers – and arguably the most famous – were the Soviet BM-13 Katyushas, first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern multiple rocket launchers. The first modern multiple rocket launcher was the German 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41 of the 1930s, a small towed artillery piece. Only later in World War II did the British deploy similar weapons in the form of the Land Mattress.The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create the T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to the Katyusha.
File:Panzerwerfer alias Maultier.jpg|German Panzerwerfer half-tracked MRLS.
File:BM-31-12 on ZIS-12 chassis at the Museum on Sapun Mountain Sevastopol 4.jpg|Katyusha rocket launcher at the Museum (Diorama) on Sapun Mountain, Sevastopol
File:9a52 smerch.jpg|BM-30 Smerch 300 mm rocket launcher in raised position
File:Army mlrs 1982 02.jpg|The M270 MLRS conducts a rocket launch.
Missile vehicle
Missile vehicles are trucks or tractor units designed to carry rockets or missiles. The missile vehicle may be a self-propelled unit, or the missile holder/launcher may be on a trailer towed by a prime mover. They are used in the military forces of a number of countries in the world. Long missiles are commonly transported parallel to the ground on these vehicles, but elevated into an inclined or vertical position for launching.
A Transporter erector launcher (TEL) is a missile vehicle with an integrated prime mover (tractor unit) that can carry, elevate to firing position and launch one or more missiles. Such vehicles exist for both surface-to-air missiles and surface-to-surface missiles.
File:19-03-2012-Parade-rehearsal - Topol-M.jpg|Missile truck MZKT 79221 under missile Topol-M
Image:sa-4.jpg|A Soviet 2K11 Krug TEL
File:MoscowParade2009 7.jpg|S-300 missile system.
Tank destroyer
Tank destroyers and tank hunters are armed with an anti-tank gun or anti-tank missile launcher, and are designed specifically to engage enemy armoured vehicles. Many have been based on a tracked tank chassis, while others are wheeled. Since World War II, main battle tanks have largely replaced gun-armed tank destroyers; although lightly armoured anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank engagements.
In post-Cold War conflict, the resurgence of expeditionary warfare has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called "protected gun systems", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low intensity operations such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These have the advantage of easier deployment, as only the largest air transports can carry a main battle tank, and their smaller size makes them more effective in urban combat.
Many forces' IFVs carry anti-tank missiles in every infantry platoon, and attack helicopters have also added anti-tank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated anti-tank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, or intended for airborne use. There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armoured car chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM scout car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Mardar IFVs.
File:M3 75mm gun motor carriage.jpg|American M3 GMC half-tracked tank destroyer
Image:SC198612.jpg|90 mm GMC M36 during the Battle of the Bulge in January, 1945
File:Jagdtiger 1 Bovington.jpg|British-captured German Jagdtiger in The Tank Museum, the UK
File:NM142 x 3.jpg|A Norwegian anti-tank platoon equipped with NM142 TOW missile launchers
File:Panzermuseum Munster 2010 0915.JPG|West German missile tank destroyer Raketenjagdpanzer 2.
Armoured train
An armoured train is a railway train protected with armour. They are usually equipped with rail cars armed with artillery, autocannons, machine guns, tank turrets and anti-aircraft guns. They were mostly used during the late 19th to mid-20th century, when they offered an innovative way to quickly move large amounts of firepower. Their use was discontinued in most countries when road vehicles became much more powerful and offered more flexibility, and because armoured trains were too vulnerable to track sabotage and attacks from the air. However, the Russian Federation used improvised armoured trains in the Second Chechen War in the late 1990s and 2000s. Armoured trains carrying ballistic missiles have also been used.
The rail cars on an armoured train were designed for many tasks, such as carrying artillery and machine guns, infantry units, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns. During World War II, the Germans would sometimes put a Fremdgerät (captured AFVs such as the French Somua S-35 or Czech PzKpfw 38(t)), or obsolescent Panzer II light tanks on a flatbed rail car, which could quickly be offloaded by means of a ramp and used away from the railway line to chase down enemy partisans.
Different types of armour were used to protect armoured trains from attack. In addition to various metal plates, concrete and sandbags were used in some cases on armoured trains.
Armoured trains were sometimes escorted by a kind of rail-tank called a draisine. One such example was the Italian 'Littorina' armoured trolley, which had a cab in the front and rear, each with a control set so it could be driven down the tracks in either direction. Littorina mounted two dual 7.92mm MG13 machine gun turrets from Panzer I light tanks.
File:MÁV armoured train.jpg|Hungarian MÁVAG armoured train in 1914
File:Pancierovy vlak-Zvolen.jpg|Replica of the "Hurban" armoured train located in Zvolen, Slovakia
File:Obrněná drezína Tatra T 18.gif|Polish armoured draisine Tatra T18.
A missile vehicle, also known as a missile carrier, missile truck, or (if capable of launching) missile launcher vehicle, is a military vehicle that is purpose-built and designed to carry missiles, either for safe transportation or for launching missiles in combat. Missile vehicles include transporter erector launchers (TEL) and multiple rocket launchers (MRL).
See also
References
Sources
External links
US Wheeled armoured fighting vehicles
Category:Military vehicles by type | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.135146 |
2151 | Anton Drexler | | successor1 = Adolf Hitler (as dictatorial Führer of the party)
|predecessor1 = Position established
|birth_date
|birth_place = Munich, German Empire
|death_date
|death_place = Munich, Germany
|party = Nazi Party (1920–1923, 1933–1942)
|otherparty = German Fatherland Party (1917–1918)<br />German Workers' Party (1919–1920)<br />Völkisch-Social Bloc (1924–1928)
|spouse |occupation Locksmith<br/>Tool and die maker
|awards = Blood Order<br />Golden Party Badge
}}
Anton Drexler (13 June 1884 – 24 February 1942) was a German far-right political agitator for the Völkisch movement in the 1920s. He founded the German Workers' Party (DAP), the pan-German and anti-Semitic antecedent of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Drexler mentored his successor in the NSDAP, Adolf Hitler, during his early years in politics.
Early life
Born in Munich, Drexler was a machine-fitter before becoming a railway toolmaker and locksmith in Berlin. He is believed to have been disappointed with his income, and to have played the zither in restaurants to supplement his earnings. Drexler did not serve in the armed forces during World War I because he was deemed physically unfit for service.PoliticsDuring World War I, Drexler joined the German Fatherland Party, a short-lived far-right party active during the last phase of the war, which played a significant role in the emergence of the stab-in-the-back myth and the defamation of certain politicians as the "November Criminals".
In March 1918, Drexler founded a branch of the Free Workers' Committee for a Good Peace (Der Freie Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden) league. Karl Harrer, a journalist and member of the Thule Society, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Political Workers' Circle (Politischer Arbeiter-Zirkel) in 1918. The members met periodically for discussions about nationalism and antisemitism.German Workers' PartyTogether with Harrer, Drexler founded the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich on 5 January 1919. At a DAP meeting in Munich on 12 September 1919, the main speaker was Gottfried Feder, who held a lecture on the subject of 'the breaking of interest slavery'. When Feder's lecture concluded, Adolf Hitler – who attended the meeting as part of his assignment from the German Army to watch political agitators – got involved in a heated political argument with a visitor, Professor Adalbert Baumann, who questioned the soundness of Feder's arguments and in turn spoke in favour of Bavarian separatism. In vehemently attacking the man's arguments, Hitler made an impression on the other party members with his oratorical abilities, and according to him, the professor left the hall defeated. Drexler approached Hitler and gave him a copy of his pamphlet My Political Awakening. Hitler later claimed the literature reflected the ideals he already held since his own "political awakening". Impressed with Hitler, Drexler encouraged him to join the DAP. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.
Once accepted, Hitler began to make the party more public by drawing people in with his speaking abilities, leading up to his organizing the party's biggest meeting yet, which attracted 2,000 people to the Hofbräuhaus in Munich on 24 February 1920. It was in this speech that Hitler, for the first time, enunciated the twenty-five points of the German Worker's Party's manifesto that he had authored with Drexler and Feder. Through these points, he gave the organisation a foreign policy, including the abrogation of the Treaty of Versailles, a Greater Germany, Eastern expansion, and exclusion of Jews from citizenship. On the same day the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP).
Following an intraparty dispute, Hitler angrily tendered his resignation on 11 July 1921. However, Drexler and the party's governing committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. So Dietrich Eckart was asked by the Party leadership to speak with Hitler and relay the conditions in which he would agree to return. Hitler announced he would rejoin the party on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, with dictatorial powers and the title of "Führer", and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed and he rejoined the party as member 3,680. Drexler was thereafter moved to the purely symbolic position of honorary president.
Drexler was also a member of a völkisch political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the Thule Society. His membership in the Nazi Party ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the Beer Hall Putsch, although Drexler had not taken part in the coup attempt. In 1924, he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for the Völkisch-Social Bloc party (VSB), in which he served as vice president until 1928. He played no role in the Nazi Party's re-founding in February 1925 and rejoined only after Hitler ascended to national power in 1933. In May 1925, he founded a group with other VSB deputies, the Nationalsozialer Volksbund (National Social People's League), but it was dissolved in 1927–1928. Drexler received the Nazi Party's Blood Order in 1934, and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never allowed any power within the party.
Death
Drexler died in Munich in February 1942 after a lengthy illness due to alcoholism.ReferencesBibliography*
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* Further reading* External links
*[https://archive.org/details/01Combine_201706 Mein politisches Erwachen; aus dem Tagebuch eines deutschen sozialistischen Arbeiters] München, Deutscher Volksverlag 4th ed.
Category:1884 births
Category:1942 deaths
Category:German anti-capitalists
Category:German anti-communists
Category:German Workers Party members
Category:German Fatherland Party politicians
Category:German nationalists
Category:Nazi Party officials
Category:Politicians from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Category:German political party founders
Category:Politicians from Munich
Category:Right-wing anti-capitalism
Category:Thule Society members
Category:Alcohol-related deaths in Germany | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Drexler | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.145137 |
2152 | All Quiet on the Western Front | | image = Remarque Im Westen nichts Neues 1929.jpg
| caption = First edition cover
| illustrator = Carl Laemmle
| cover_artist = Erich Maria Remarque
| series | set_in Western Front and Germany, 1916–18
| pub_date = 29 January 1929
| english_pub_date = Little, Brown and Company, 1929
| pages = 250
| followed_by = The Road Back
| dewey = 833.912
| congress = PT2635.E68
| orig_lang_code = de
| external_url = https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/erich-maria-remarque/all-quiet-on-the-western-front/a-w-wheen
| wikisource = All Quiet on the Western Front
}}
All Quiet on the Western Front () is a semi-autobiographical novel by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran of World War I. The book describes the German soldiers' extreme physical and mental trauma during the war as well as the detachment from civilian life felt by many upon returning home from the war. It is billed by some as "the greatest war novel of all time".
The novel was first published in November and December 1928 in the German newspaper and in book form in late January 1929. The book and its sequel, The Road Back (1931), were among the books banned and burned in Nazi Germany. All Quiet on the Western Front sold 2.5 million copies in 22 languages in its first 18 months in print.
Three film adaptations of the book have been made, each of which was lauded. The 1930 American adaptation, directed by Lewis Milestone, won two Academy Awards. The 1979 British-American adaptation, a television film by Delbert Mann, won a Golden Globe Award and an Emmy Award. The 2022 German adaptation, directed by Edward Berger, won four Academy Awards.
The original book and its first English translation entered the public domain in the United States in 2024 and 2025, respectively; the 1930 film adaptation is set to do so in 2026.
Title and translation
The 1929 English translation by Arthur Wesley Wheen gives the title as All Quiet on the Western Front. The literal translation of "" is "Nothing New in the West," with "West" being the Western Front; the phrase refers to the content of an official communiqué at the end of the novel.
Brian Murdoch's 1993 translation rendered the phrase as "there was nothing new to report on the Western Front" within the narrative. However, in the foreword, he explains his retention of the original book title:
<blockquote>
Although it does not match the German exactly, Wheen's title has justly become part of the English language and is retained here with gratitude.
</blockquote>
The phrase "" has become a colloquial expression meaning stagnation, or lack of visible change, in any context.
Murdoch also explains how, owing to the time it was published, Wheen's translation was obliged to Anglicise some lesser-known German references and lessen the impact of certain passages while omitting others entirely. Murdoch's translation is more accurate to the original text and completely unexpurgated.
Plot summary
The book centers on Paul Bäumer, a German soldier on the Western Front during World War I. Before the war, Paul lived with his parents and sister in a charming German village. He attended school, where the patriotic speeches of his teacher Kantorek led the whole class to volunteer for the Imperial German Army shortly after the start of the Great War. At the training camp, where they meet Himmelstoß, his class is scattered over the platoons amongst Frisian fishermen, peasants and labourers, with whom they soon become friends. Bäumer arrives at the Western Front with his friends and schoolmates (Albert, Kemmerich, Leer, Müller, and a number of other characters). There they meet Stanislaus Katczinsky, an older recalled reservist, nicknamed Kat, who becomes Paul's mentor.
While fighting at the front, Bäumer and his comrades engage in frequent battles and endure the treacherous and filthy conditions of trench warfare. The battles fought here have no names and only meager pieces of land are gained, which are often lost again later. Remarque often refers to the living soldiers as old and dead, emotionally drained and shaken.
Paul visits home, and the contrast with civilian life highlights the cost of the war on his psyche. The town has not changed since he went off to war, but he has: he finds that he does "not belong here any more, it is a foreign world". Paul recovers the books and writings he had left in his childhood room, but finds his passion for literature to have been completely erased by the trauma of war. He feels disconnected from most of the townspeople, who ask him "stupid and distressing" questions about his experiences or lecture him about strategy and advancing to Paris while insisting that Paul and his friends know only their "own little sector" but nothing of the big picture. Indeed, the only person he remains connected to is his dying mother, with whom he shares a tender yet restrained relationship. In the end, he concludes that he "ought never to have come [home] on leave".
Paul is glad to return and reunite with his comrades. Soon after, he volunteers to go on a patrol and kills a Frenchman in hand-to-hand combat for the first time. He watches the man die slowly in agony for hours. He is remorseful and devastated, asking for forgiveness from the man's corpse. He later confesses to Kat and Albert, who try to comfort him and reassure him that it is only part of the war. Paul and his company receive a temporary reprieve from the horrid rations and living conditions of the trenches when they are instead sent to a supply depot in an occupied French town. They enjoy food and luxuries taken from the depot or looted from the town but continue to lose men to Allied shelling, culminating in Paul and Albert being wounded while evacuating civilians and needing to be diverted to a Catholic hospital far behind the lines. Albert eventually has his leg amputated, whilst Paul is deemed fit for service and returned to the front.
By the closing months of the war, German morale is almost nonexistent as the men realize they are only fighting to delay an armistice. The Americans have recently joined the war as both they and the English begin outperforming the far more poorly equipped Germans. In despair Paul watches as his friends fall one by one. Kat's death is the last straw that finally causes Paul to lose his will to live. In the final chapter he comments that peace is coming soon but he does not see the future as bright and shining with hope. Paul feels that he has no aims left in life and that their generation will be different and misunderstood.
In October 1918 Paul is finally killed on a remarkably peaceful day. The situation report from the frontline states a simple phrase: "All quiet on the Western Front." Paul's corpse displays a calm expression on its face, "as though almost glad the end had come."
Themes
* Bildungsroman
* List of books with anti-war themes
References
External links
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* Schneider, Thomas: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/all_quiet_on_the_western_front_novel/ All Quiet on the Western Front (novel)] (2014) at [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914–1918-online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
Category:1929 German-language novels
Category:1929 German novels
Category:Anti-war novels
Category:Censored books
Category:German novels adapted into films
Category:German novels adapted into television shows
Category:Little, Brown and Company books
Category:Novels adapted into comics
Category:Novels adapted into radio programs
Category:Novels by Erich Maria Remarque
Category:Novels set during World War I
Category:Novels set in Europe
Category:Novels first published in serial form
Category:Works originally published in Vossische Zeitung | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Quiet_on_the_Western_Front | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.156976 |
2154 | African Americans | Baltimore Afro-American}}
41,104,200<br /> 12.40% of the total U.S. population<br /><br />In combination (mixed race):<br /> 5,832,533<br />Irreligion (18%)<br />Islam (2%)<br />See: Religion of Black Americans
}}
African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial or ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. African Americans constitute the second largest ethno-racial group in the US after White Americans. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of Africans enslaved in the United States. Most African Americans are of West African and coastal Central African ancestry, with varying amounts of Western European and Native American ancestry.
African-American history began in the 16th century, with Africans from West Africa and coastal Central Africa being sold to European slave traders and transported across the Atlantic to the Western Hemisphere. After arriving in the Americas, they were sold as slaves to European colonists and put to work on plantations, particularly in the southern colonies. A few were able to achieve freedom through manumission or escape, and founded independent communities before and during the American Revolution. After the United States was founded in 1783, most Black people continued to be enslaved, primarily concentrated in the American South, with four million enslaved people only liberated during and at the end of the Civil War in 1865. During Reconstruction, they gained citizenship and adult-males the right to vote; however, due to the widespread policy and ideology of White supremacy, they were largely treated as second-class citizens and found themselves soon disenfranchised in the South. These circumstances changed due to participation in the military conflicts of the United States, substantial migration out of the South, the elimination of legal racial segregation, and the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom. However, racism against African Americans and racial socioeconomic disparity remain a problem into the 21st century.
In the 20th and 21st centuries, immigration has played an increasingly significant role in the African-American community. As of 2022, 10% of Black Americans were immigrants, and 20% were either immigrants or the children of immigrants. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first, and so far only, African American to be elected president of the United States. Kamala Harris became the nation's first African-American vice president in 2020.
African-American culture has had a significant influence on worldwide culture, making numerous contributions to visual arts, literature, the English language, philosophy, politics, cuisine, sports, and music. The African-American contribution to popular music is so profound that most American music, including jazz, gospel, blues, rock and roll, funk, disco, house, techno, hip hop, R&B, trap, and soul, has its origins either partially or entirely in the African-American community.HistoryColonial era
The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported in the transatlantic slave trade were people from several Central and West African ethnic groups. They had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, or sold by other West Africans, or by half-European "merchant princes" to European slave traders, who brought them to the Americas.
The first African slaves in what is now the United States arrived in the early 16th century. Africans were Among Juan Ponce de León's 1513 voyage that landed in what would become Spanish Florida, and enslaved Africans arrived around the same time to Spanish Puerto Rico.
Africans also came via Santo Domingo in the Caribbean to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526. The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward, due to an epidemic and the colony was abandoned. The settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to the Island of Hispaniola, whence they had come.
The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free Black domestic servant from Seville, and Miguel Rodríguez, a White Segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in what is now the continental United States.
The first recorded Africans in English America (including most of the future United States) were "20 and odd negroes" who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia via Cape Comfort in August 1619 as indentured servants. As many Virginian settlers began to die from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers.
An indentured servant (who could be White or Black) would work for several years (usually four to seven) without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery. Servants could be bought, sold, or leased, and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or attempting to running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or if their freedom was purchased. Their children did not inherit their status, and on their release from contract they received "a year's provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary", and a small cash payment called "freedom dues". Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom. They raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or European settlers.
in 1655; illustration from 1895 by Howard Pyle]]
By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown, and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced John Punch, a Negro, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn, for running away.
In Spanish Florida, some Spanish married or had unions with Pensacola, Creek or African women, both enslaved and free, and their descendants created a mixed-race population of mestizos and mulattos. The Spanish encouraged slaves from the colony of Georgia to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism. King Charles II issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism. Most went to the area around St. Augustine, but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola. St. Augustine had mustered an all-Black militia unit defending Spanish Florida as early as 1683.
, in 1769]]
One of the Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would later own one of the first Black "slaves", John Casor, resulting from the court ruling of a civil case.
The popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 18th century. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven Black slaves into New Amsterdam (present-day New York City). All the colony's slaves, however, were freed upon its surrender to the English.
Massachusetts was the first English colony to legally recognize slavery in 1641. In 1662, Virginia passed a law that children of enslaved women would take the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as was the case under common law. This legal principle was called partus sequitur ventrum.
By an act of 1699, Virginia ordered the deportation of all free Blacks, effectively defining all people of African descent who remained in the colony as slaves. In 1670, the colonial assembly passed a law prohibiting free and baptized Blacks (and Native Americans) from purchasing Christians (in this act meaning White Europeans) but allowing them to buy people "of their owne nation".
in a New York newspaper, offering a $10 reward (). Slave owners, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, placed around 200,000 runaway slave adverts in newspapers across the US before slavery ended in 1865. Although some did not have the money to do so, government measures on slavery enabled the existence of many free Blacks. This caused problems to the Spaniards with the French creoles (French who had settled in New France) who had also populated Spanish Louisiana. The French creoles cited that measure as one of the system's worst elements.
First established in South Carolina in 1704, groups of armed White men—slave patrols—were formed to monitor enslaved Black people.
The earliest African American congregations and churches were organized before 1800 in both northern and southern cities following the Great Awakening. By 1775, Africans made up 20% of the population in the American colonies, which made them the second largest ethnic group after English Americans.
From the American Revolution to the Civil War
, the first "martyr" of the American Revolution. He was of Native American and African American descent.]]
During the 1770s, Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious American colonists secure their independence by defeating the British in the American Revolutionary War. Blacks played a role in both sides in the American Revolution. Activists in the Patriot cause included James Armistead, Prince Whipple, and Oliver Cromwell. Around 15,000 Black Loyalists left with the British after the war, most of them ending up as free Black people in England or its colonies, such as the Black Nova Scotians and the Sierra Leone Creole people.
In the Spanish Louisiana, Governor Bernardo de Gálvez organized Spanish free Black men into two militia companies to defend New Orleans during the American Revolution. They fought in the 1779 battle in which Spain captured Baton Rouge from the British. Gálvez also commanded them in campaigns against the British outposts in Mobile, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. He recruited slaves for the militia by pledging to free anyone who was seriously wounded and promised to secure a low price for coartación (buy their freedom and that of others) for those who received lesser wounds. During the 1790s, Governor Francisco Luis Héctor, baron of Carondelet reinforced local fortifications and recruit even more free Black men for the militia. Carondelet doubled the number of free Black men who served, creating two more militia companies—one made up of Black members and the other of pardo (mixed race). Serving in the militia brought free Black men one step closer to equality with Whites, allowing them, for example, the right to carry arms and boosting their earning power. However, actually these privileges distanced free Black men from enslaved Blacks and encouraged them to identify with Whites. Fugitive slave laws (derived from the Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution—Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3) were passed by Congress in both 1793 and 1850, guaranteeing the right of a slaveholder to recover an escaped slave anywhere within the US. Slave owners, who viewed enslaved people as property, ensured that it became a federal crime to aid or assist those who had fled slavery or to interfere with their capture. By 1860, the number of enslaved Black people in the US had grown to between 3.5 and 4.4 million, largely as a result of the Atlantic slave trade. In addition, 488,000–500,000 Black people lived free (with legislated limits) across the country. With legislated limits imposed upon them in addition to "unconquerable prejudice" from Whites according to Henry Clay. In response to these conditions, some free Black people chose to leave the US and emigrate to Liberia in West Africa. Similar building projects existed in the slave states.
broke up many families, and individuals lost their connection to families and clans.]]
By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a significant and major economic activity in the United States, continuing to flourish until the 1860s. Historians estimate that nearly one million individuals were subjected to this forced migration, which was often referred to as a new "Middle Passage". The historian Ira Berlin described this internal forced migration of enslaved people as the "central event" in the life of a slave during the period between the American Revolution and the Civil War. Berlin emphasized that whether enslaved individuals were directly uprooted or lived in constant fear that they or their families would be involuntarily relocated, "the massive deportation traumatized Black people" throughout the US. As a result of this large-scale forced movement, countless individuals lost their connection to families and clans, and many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa.
, Georgia, 1864 during the American Civil War with a Union corporal of the United States Colored Troops sitting by the door.]]
Emigration of free Blacks to their continent of origin had been proposed since the Revolutionary war. After Haiti became independent, it tried to recruit African Americans to migrate there after it re-established trade relations with the United States. The Haitian Union was a group formed to promote relations between the countries. After riots against Blacks in Cincinnati, its Black community sponsored founding of the Wilberforce Colony, an initially successful settlement of African American immigrants to Canada. The colony was one of the first such independent political entities. It lasted for a number of decades and provided a destination for about 200 Black families emigrating from a number of locations in the United States. Advancing Union troops enforced the proclamation, with Texas being the last state to be emancipated, in 1865.
, around 1869]]
Slavery in a few border states continued until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865. While the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited US citizenship to Whites only, the 14th Amendment (1868) gave Black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) gave Black men the right to vote.Reconstruction era and Jim Crow
African Americans quickly set up congregations for themselves, as well as schools and community/civic associations, to have space away from White control or oversight. While the post-war Reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, that period ended in 1876. By the late 1890s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Segregation was now imposed with Jim Crow laws, using signs used to show Blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. For those places that were racially mixed, non-Whites had to wait until all White customers were dealt with.
In the last decade of the 19th century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States, a period often referred to as the "nadir of American race relations". These discriminatory acts included racial segregation—upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896—which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, voter suppression or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities.
Great migration and civil rights movement
and had his body mutilated and burned during the Omaha race riot of 1919 in Omaha, Nebraska. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the US.]]
The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South sparked the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century which led to a growing African American community in Northern and Western United States. The rapid influx of Blacks disturbed the racial balance within Northern and Western cities, exacerbating hostility between both Blacks and Whites in the two regions. The Red Summer of 1919 was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the US as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919 and the Omaha race riot of 1919. Overall, Blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for Blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. At the 1900 Hampton Negro Conference, Reverend Matthew Anderson said: "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South." Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering". While many Whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, many other Whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as White flight.
being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on a bus to a White person]]
Despite discrimination, drawing cards for leaving the hopelessness in the South were the growth of African American institutions and communities in Northern cities. Institutions included Black oriented organizations (e.g., Urban League, NAACP), churches, businesses, and newspapers, as well as successes in the development in African American intellectual culture, music, and popular culture (e.g., Harlem Renaissance, Chicago Black Renaissance). The Cotton Club in Harlem was a Whites-only establishment, with Blacks (such as Duke Ellington) allowed to perform, but to a White audience. Black Americans also found a new ground for political power in Northern cities, without the enforced disabilities of Jim Crow.
By the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a White woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the Black community throughout the US. Vann Newkirk wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of White supremacy". One hundred days after Emmett Till's murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus in Alabama—indeed, Parks told Emmett's mother Mamie Till that "the photograph of Emmett's disfigured face in the casket was set in her mind when she refused to give up her seat on the Montgomery bus."
, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders]]
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson put his support behind passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which expanded federal authority over states to ensure Black political participation through protection of voter registration and elections. By 1966, the emergence of the Black Power movement, which lasted from 1966 to 1975, expanded upon the aims of the civil rights movement to include economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from White authority.
During the post-war period, many African Americans continued to be economically disadvantaged relative to other Americans. Average Black income stood at 54 percent of that of White workers in 1947, and 55 percent in 1962. In 1959, median family income for Whites was $5,600 (), compared with $2,900 () for non-White families. In 1965, 43 percent of all Black families fell into the poverty bracket, earning under $3,000 () a year. The 1960s saw improvements in the social and economic conditions of many Black Americans.
From 1965 to 1969, Black family income rose from 54 to 60 percent of White family income. In 1968, 23 percent of Black families earned under $3,000 () a year, compared with 41 percent in 1960. In 1965, 19 percent of Black Americans had incomes equal to the national median, a proportion that rose to 27 percent by 1967. In 1960, the median level of education for Blacks had been 10.8 years, and by the late 1960s, the figure rose to 12.2 years, half a year behind the median for Whites.
In 2005, the number of Africans immigrating to the United States, in a single year, surpassed the peak number who were involuntarily brought to the United States during the Atlantic slave trade. On November 4, 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama—the son of a White American mother and a Kenyan father—defeated Republican Senator John McCain to become the first African American to be elected president. At least 95 percent of African American voters voted for Obama. He also received overwhelming support from young and educated Whites, a majority of Asians, and Hispanics, Obama was reelected for a second and final term, by a similar margin on November 6, 2012. In 2021, Kamala Harris, the daughter of a Jamaican father and Indian mother, became the first woman, the first African American, and the first Asian American to serve as Vice President of the United States. In June 2021, Juneteenth, a day which commemorates the end of slavery in the US, became a federal holiday.Demographics
(alone or in combination) in each county of the fifty states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States census</div>]]
in the United States according to the 2020 census</div>]]
and 1940–1970, and the reverse trend post-1970. Nonetheless, the absolute majority of the African American population has always lived in the American South.]]
In 1790, when the first US census was taken, Africans (including slaves and free people) numbered about 760,000—about 19.3% of the population. In 1860, at the start of the Civil War, the African American population had increased to 4.4 million, but the percentage rate dropped to 14% of the overall population of the country. The vast majority were slaves, with only 488,000 counted as "freemen". By 1900, the Black population had doubled and reached 8.8 million.
In 1910, about 90% of African Americans lived in the South. Large numbers began migrating north looking for better job opportunities and living conditions, and to escape Jim Crow laws and racial violence. The Great Migration, as it was called, spanned the 1890s to the 1970s. From 1916 through the 1960s, more than 6 million Black people moved north. But in the 1970s and 1980s, that trend reversed, with more African Americans moving south to the Sun Belt than leaving it.
The African American population in the United States declined over time as a percentage of the total population until 1930, and has been rising since then:
{|class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:85%;"
|+ African Americans in the United States
! Year||Number||% of total<br />population||% Change<br />(10 yr)||Slaves||% in slavery
|-
|1790||757,208||19.3% (highest)|| –||697,681||92%
|-
|1800||1,002,037||18.9%||32.3%||893,602||89%
|-
|1810||1,377,808||19.0%||37.5%||1,191,362||86%
|-
|1820||1,771,656||18.4%||28.6%||1,538,022||87%
|-
|1830||2,328,642||18.1%||31.4%||2,009,043||86%
|-
|1840||2,873,648||16.8%||23.4%||2,487,355||87%
|-
|1850||3,638,808||15.7%||26.6%||3,204,287||88%
|-
|1860||4,441,830||14.1%||22.1%||3,953,731||89%
|-
|1870||4,880,009||12.7%||9.9%|| –|| –
|-
|1880||6,580,793||13.1%||34.9%|| –|| –
|-
|1890||7,488,788||11.9%||13.8%|| –|| –
|-
|1900||8,833,994||11.6%||18.0%|| –|| –
|-
|1910||9,827,763||10.7%||11.2%|| –|| –
|-
|1920||10.5 million||9.9%||6.8%|| –|| –
|-
|1930||11.9 million||9.7% (lowest)||13%|| –|| –
|-
|1940||12.9 million||9.8%||8.4%|| –|| –
|-
|1950||15.0 million||10.0%||16%|| –|| –
|-
|1960||18.9 million||10.5%||26%|| –|| –
|-
|1970||22.6 million||11.1%||20%|| –|| –
|-
|1980||26.5 million||11.7%||17%|| –|| –
|-
|1990||30.0 million||12.1%||13%|| –|| –
|-
|2000||34.6 million||12.3%||15%|| –|| –
|-
|2010||38.9 million||12.6%||12%|| –|| –
|-
|2020||41.1 million||12.4%||5.6%|| –|| –
|}
By 1990, the African American population reached about 30 million and represented 12% of the US population, roughly the same proportion as in 1900.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin:1em auto; text-align: right; font-size: 95%;"
|+ African American groups in the USA
! rowspan="2" |Years
!colspan=2|Non-Hispanic Blacks
!colspan=2|Black Hispanics
! rowspan="2" |Total
|-
! #
! %
! #
! %
|-
|2020
| 39,940,338
| 12.1%
| 1,163,862
| 0.3' %
| 41,104,200
|-
|}
At the time of the 2000 US census, 54.8% of African Americans lived in the South. In that year, 17.6% of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7% in the Midwest, while only 8.9% lived in the Western states. The west does have a sizable Black population in certain areas, however. California, the nation's most populous state, has the fifth largest African American population, only behind New York, Texas, Georgia, and Florida. According to the 2000 census, approximately 2.05% of African Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino in origin, many of whom may be of Brazilian, Puerto Rican, Dominican, Cuban, Haitian, or other Latin American descent. The only self-reported ancestral groups larger than African Americans are the Irish and Germans.
on 125th Street in Harlem, the historic epicenter of African American culture. New York City is home by a significant margin to the world's largest Black population of any city outside Africa, at over 2.2 million. African immigration to New York City is now driving the growth of the city's Black population.]]
According to the 2010 census, nearly 3% of people who self-identified as Black had recent ancestors who immigrated from another country. Self-reported non-Hispanic Black immigrants from the Caribbean, mostly from Jamaica and Haiti, represented 0.9% of the US population, at 2.6 million. Self-reported Black immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa also represented 0.9%, at about 2.8 million. Self-reported Black immigrants hailing from other countries in the Americas, such as Brazil and Canada, as well as several European countries, represented less than 0.1% of the population. Mixed-race Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans who identified as being part Black, represented 0.9% of the population. Of the 12.6% of United States residents who identified as Black, around 10.3% were "native Black American" or ethnic African Americans, who are direct descendants of West/Central Africans brought to the US as slaves. These individuals make up well over 80% of all Blacks in the country. When including people of mixed-race origin, about 13.5% of the US population self-identified as Black or "mixed with Black". However, according to the US Census Bureau, evidence from the 2000 census indicates that many African and Caribbean immigrant ethnic groups do not identify as "Black, African Am., or Negro". Instead, they wrote in their own respective ethnic groups in the "Some Other Race" write-in entry. As a result, the census bureau devised a new, separate "African American" ethnic group category in 2010 for ethnic African Americans. Nigerian Americans and Ethiopian Americans were the most reported sub-Saharan African groups in the United States.
In the 2020 census, the African American population was undercounted at an estimated rate of 3.3%, up from 2.1% in 2010.
Proportion in each county
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Texas has the largest African American population by state. Followed by Texas is Florida, with 3.8 million, and Georgia, with 3.6 million. Mississippi is the state with the highest African American share of the population at 39%. Followed by Mississippi is Louisiana at 34%, and Georgia at 32%.US cities
After 100 years of African Americans leaving the south in large numbers seeking better opportunities and treatment in the west and north, a movement known as the Great Migration, there is now a reverse trend, called the New Great Migration. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as Charlotte, Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, Huntsville, Raleigh, Tampa, San Antonio, New Orleans, Memphis, Nashville, Jacksonville, and so forth. A growing percentage of African Americans from the west and north are migrating to the southern region of the US for economic and cultural reasons. The New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas have the highest decline in African Americans, while Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston have the highest increase respectively. Raleigh and Greensboro, N.C.; and Orlando. Despite recent declines, as of 2020, the New York City metropolitan area still has the largest African American metropolitan population in the United States and the only to have over 3 million African Americans.
Among cities of 100,000 or more, South Fulton, Georgia had the highest percentage of Black residents of any large US city in 2020, with 93%. Other large cities with African American majorities include Jackson, Mississippi (80%), Detroit, Michigan (80%), Birmingham, Alabama (70%), Miami Gardens, Florida (67%), Memphis, Tennessee (63%), Montgomery, Alabama (62%), Baltimore, Maryland (60%), Augusta, Georgia (59%), Shreveport, Louisiana (58%), New Orleans, Louisiana (57%), Macon, Georgia (56%), Baton Rouge, Louisiana (55%), Hampton, Virginia (53%), Newark, New Jersey (53%), Mobile, Alabama (53%), Cleveland, Ohio (52%), Brockton, Massachusetts (51%), and Savannah, Georgia (51%).
Claiborne County, Mississippi is the Blackest county in the U.S. at 87% Black in 2020. Cook County, Illinois has the largest Black population in the U.S. with 1,185,601 Black residents in 2020.
The nation's most affluent community with an African American majority resides in View Park–Windsor Hills, California, with an annual median household income of $159,618. Other largely affluent and African American communities include Prince George's County (namely Mitchellville, Woodmore, Upper Marlboro) and Charles County in Maryland, Dekalb County (namely Stonecrest, Lithonia, Smoke Rise) and South Fulton in Georgia, Charles City County in Virginia, Baldwin Hills in California, Hillcrest and Uniondale in New York, and Cedar Hill, DeSoto, and Missouri City in Texas. Additionally, there is a significant affluent Black presence in the southern Chicago suburbs of Cook County, Illinois. A report from the National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) indicated that 5 of the top 10 municipalities nationwide (with at least 500 Black households) registering the highest Black homeownership rates were in this area - including Olympia Fields, South Holland, Flossmoor, Matteson, and Lynwood. Queens County, New York is the only county with a population of 65,000 or more where African Americans have a higher median household income than White Americans. It survives today with a vibrant and active civic community.Education
During slavery, anti-literacy laws were enacted in the US that prohibited education for Black people. Slave owners saw literacy as a threat to the institution of slavery. As a North Carolina statute stated, "Teaching slaves to read and write, tends to excite dissatisfaction in their minds, and to produce insurrection and rebellion."
When slavery was finally abolished in 1865, public educational systems were expanding across the country. By 1870, around seventy-four institutions in the south provided a form of advanced education for African American students. By 1900, over a hundred programs at these schools provided training for Black professionals, including teachers. Many of the students at Fisk University, including the young W. E. B. Du Bois, taught school during the summers to support their studies.
African Americans were very concerned to provide quality education for their children, but White supremacy limited their ability to participate in educational policymaking on the political level. State governments soon moved to undermine their citizenship by restricting their right to vote. By the late 1870s, Blacks were disenfranchised and segregated across the American South. White politicians in Mississippi and other states withheld financial resources and supplies from Black schools. Nevertheless, the presence of Black teachers, and their engagement with their communities both inside and outside the classroom, ensured that Black students had access to education despite these external constraints.
During World War II, demands for unity and racial tolerance on the home front provided an opening for the first Black history curriculum in the country. For example, during the early 1940s, Madeline Morgan, a Black teacher in the Chicago public schools, created a curriculum for students in grades one through eight highlighting the contributions of Black people to the history of the United States. At the close of the war, Chicago's Board of Education downgraded the curriculum's status from mandatory to optional.
Predominantly Black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the US before the 1970s. By 1972, however, desegregation efforts meant that only 25% of Black students were in schools with more than 90% non-White students. However, since then, a trend towards re-segregation affected communities across the country: by 2011, 2.9 million African American students were in such overwhelmingly minority schools, including 53% of Black students in school districts that were formerly under desegregation orders.
As late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, illiteracy as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans.
US census surveys showed that by 1998, 89 percent of African Americans aged 25 to 29 had completed a high-school education, less than Whites or Asians, but more than Hispanics. On many college and university entrance exams or on standardized tests and grades, African Americans have historically lagged behind Whites, but some studies suggest that the achievement gap has been closing. Many policy makers have proposed that this gap can and will be eliminated through policies such as affirmative action, desegregation, and multiculturalism.
is director of New York City's Hayden Planetarium]]
Between 1995 and 2009, freshmen college enrollment for African Americans increased by 73 percent and only 15 percent for Whites. Black women are enrolled in college more than any other race and gender group, leading all with 9.7% enrolled according to the 2011 US census.
The average high school graduation rate of Blacks in the United States has steadily increased to 71% in 2013. Separating this statistic into component parts shows it varies greatly depending upon the state and the school district examined. 38% of Black males graduated in the state of New York but in Maine 97% graduated and exceeded the White male graduation rate by 11 percentage points. In much of the southeastern United States and some parts of the southwestern United States the graduation rate of White males was in fact below 70% such as in Florida where 62% of White males graduated from high school. Examining specific school districts paints an even more complex picture. In the Detroit school district, the graduation rate of Black males was 20% but 7% for White males. In the New York City school district 28% of Black males graduate from high school compared to 57% of White males. In Newark County 76% of Black males graduated compared to 67% for White males. Further academic improvement has occurred in 2015. Roughly 23% of all Blacks have bachelor's degrees. In 1988, 21% of Whites had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 11% of Blacks. In 2015, 23% of Blacks had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 36% of Whites. Foreign born Blacks, 9% of the Black population, made even greater strides. They exceed native born Blacks by 10 percentage points. In 2020, College Board reshaped some curricula among history-based courses to further reflect the African diaspora. In 2021, College Board announced it would be piloting an AP African American Studies course between 2022 and 2024. The course officially launched in August 2024.Historically Black colleges and universities
Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were founded when segregated institutions of higher learning did not admit African Americans, continue to thrive and educate students of all races today. There are 101 HBCUs representing three percent of the nation's colleges and universities with the majority established in the Southeast. HBCUs have been largely responsible for establishing and expanding the African American middle-class by providing more career opportunities for African Americans.
Economic status
The economic disparity between the races in the US has marginally improved since the end of slavery. In 1863, two years prior to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent. Racial disparity in poverty rates has narrowed since the civil rights era, with the poverty rate among African Americans decreasing from 24.7% in 2004 to 18.8% in 2020, compared to 10.5% for all Americans. Poverty is associated with higher rates of marital stress and dissolution, physical and mental health problems, disability, cognitive deficits, low educational attainment, and crime.
African Americans have a long and diverse history of business ownership. Although the first African American business is unknown, slaves captured from West Africa are believed to have established commercial enterprises as peddlers and skilled craftspeople as far back as the 17th century. Around 1900, Booker T. Washington became the most famous proponent of African American businesses. His critic and rival W. E. B. DuBois also commended business as a vehicle for African American advancement.
by race: 1967 to 2011, in 2011 dollars.]]
African Americans had a combined buying power of over $1.6 trillion as of 2021, a 171% increase of their buying power in 2000 but lagging significantly in growth behind American Latinos and Asians in the same timer period (with 288% and 383%, respectively; for reference, US growth overall was 144% in the same period); however, African American net worth had shrunk 14% in the previous year despite strong growth in property prices and the S&P 500. In 2002, African American-owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the US's 23 million businesses. , African American-owned businesses account for approximately 2 million US businesses. Black-owned businesses experienced the largest growth in number of businesses among minorities from 2002 to 2011. In 2001, over half of African American households of married couples earned $50,000 or more. At the same time, among American men, income disparities were significant; the median income of African American men was approximately 76 cents for every dollar of their European American counterparts, although the gap narrowed somewhat with a rise in educational level.
Overall, the median earnings of African American men were 72 cents for every dollar earned of their Asian American counterparts, and $1.17 for every dollar earned by Hispanic men. On the other hand, by 2006, among American women with post-secondary education, African American women have made significant advances; the median income of African American women was more than those of their Asian-, European- and Hispanic American counterparts with at least some college education.
The US public sector is the single most important source of employment for African Americans. During 2008–2010, 21.2% of all Black workers were public employees, compared with 16.3% of non-Black workers. while the nationwide rate was 6.5%. In 2007, the average income for African Americans was approximately $34,000, compared to $55,000 for Whites. African Americans experience a higher rate of unemployment than the general population.
The income gap between Black and White families is also significant. In 2005, employed Blacks earned 65% of the wages of Whites, down from 82% in 1975. The New York Times reported in 2006 that in Queens, New York, the median income among African American families exceeded that of White families, which the newspaper attributed to the growth in the number of two-parent Black families. It noted that Queens was the only county with more than 65,000 residents where that was true. In 2011, it was reported that 72% of Black babies were born to unwed mothers. The poverty rate among single-parent Black families was 39.5% in 2005, according to Walter E. Williams, while it was 9.9% among married-couple Black families. Among White families, the respective rates were 26.4% and 6% in poverty.
Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004. African Americans also have the highest level of Congressional representation of any minority group in the US.
African American homeownership
according to race]]
Homeownership in the US is the strongest indicator of financial stability and the primary asset most Americans use to generate wealth. African Americans continue to lag behind other racial groups in homeownership. In the first quarter of 2021, 45.1% of African Americans owned their homes, compared to 65.3% of all Americans. The African American homeownership rate has remained relatively flat since the 1970s despite an increase in anti-discrimination housing laws and protections. The African American homeownership rate peaked in 2004 at 49.7%.
The average White high school drop-out still has a slightly better chance of owning a home than the average African American college graduate usually due to unfavorable debt-to-income ratios or credit scores among most African American college graduates. Since 2000, fast-growing housing costs in most cities have made it even more difficult for the US African American homeownership rate to significantly grow and reach over 50% for the first time in history. From 2000 to 2022, the median home price in the US grew 160%, outpacing average annual household income growth in that same period, which only grew about 30%. South Carolina is the state with the most African American homeownership, with about 55% of African Americans owning their own homes.
Black people, who make up 12 percent of the total U.S. population, make up 32 percent of all people experiencing homelessness, according to the data.
Politics
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"float:right; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
!Year
!Candidate of<br />the plurality
!Political <br /> party
!% of<br />Black<br />vote
!Result
|-
|1980 || Jimmy Carter || Democratic ||83%
|
|-
|1984 || Walter Mondale || Democratic || 91%
|
|-
|1988 || Michael Dukakis || Democratic || 89%
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|-
|1992 || Bill Clinton || Democratic || 83%
|
|-
|1996 || Bill Clinton || Democratic ||84%
|
|-
|2000 || Al Gore || Democratic || 90%
|
|-
|2004 || John Kerry || Democratic || 88%
|
|-
|2008 || Barack Obama || Democratic || 95%
|
|-
|2012 || Barack Obama || Democratic || 93%
|
|-
|2016 || Hillary Clinton || Democratic || 88%
|
|-
|2020 || Joe Biden || Democratic || 87%
|
|-
|2024 || Kamala Harris || Democratic || 85%
|
|}
Since the mid 20th century, a large majority of African Americans support the Democratic Party. In the 2024 Presidential election, 86% of African American voters supported Democrat Kamala Harris, while 13% supported Republican Donald Trump. Although there is an African American lobby in foreign policy, it has not had the impact that African American organizations have had in domestic policy.
Many African Americans were excluded from electoral politics in the decades following the end of Reconstruction. For those that could participate, until the New Deal, African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who helped in granting freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the sectional interests of the North and South, respectively, rather than any specific ideology, and both conservative and liberal were represented equally in both parties.
The African American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program provided economic relief to African Americans. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s. In 1960, nearly a third of African Americans voted for Republican Richard Nixon.
Conservatism has been steadily growing among African Americans, particularly since the 2020 Presidential election. In the 2024 election, Trump secured a larger share of the African American vote compared to his 2020 performance. Notably, Black men and younger Black voters have increasingly aligned with the Republican Party, adopting more conservative stances, such as supporting stricter crime policies and advocating for an end to illegal immigration, which marks a shift from the views of previous generations.Black national anthem
" being sung by the family of Barack Obama, Smokey Robinson and others in the White House in 2014]]
"Lift Every Voice and Sing" is often referred to as the Black national anthem in the United States. In 1919, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had dubbed it the "Negro national anthem" for its power in voicing a cry for liberation and affirmation for African-American people.
Sexuality
According to a Gallup survey, 4.6% of Black or African Americans self-identified as LGBT in 2016, African Americans are more likely to identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender than any other racial or ethnic group in the United States.
Health
General health
The life expectancy for Black men in 2008 was 70.8 years. Life expectancy for Black women was 77.5 years in 2008. Black men have shorter lifespans than any other group in the US besides Native American men.
Black people have higher rates of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension than the US average. For adult Black women, the rate of obesity was 41.2% in 2010. In 2013, among men, Black men had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by White, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) men. Among women, White women had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native women. African Americans also have higher prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer's disease compared to the overall average.
African-Americans are more likely than White Americans to die due to health-related problems developed by alcoholism. Alcohol abuse is the main contributor to the top 3 causes of death among African Americans.
In December 2020, African Americans were less likely to be vaccinated against COVID-19 due to mistrust in the US medical system. From 2021 to 2022, there was an increase in African Americans who became vaccinated. Still, in 2022, COVID-19 complications became the third leading cause of death for African Americans.
Violence is a major problem within the African American community. A report from the US Department of Justice states "In 2005, homicide victimization rates for Blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for whites". The report also found that "94% of Black victims were killed by Blacks." In 2024, all of the top 5 most dangerous US cities have a significant Black population and disturbing Black-on-Black violent crime rate. Black males age 15–44 are the only race/sex category for which homicide is a top 5 cause of death.
Sexual health
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, African Americans have higher rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) compared to Whites, with 5 times the rates of syphilis and chlamydia, and 7.5 times the rate of gonorrhea.
The disproportionately high incidence of HIV/AIDS among African Americans has been attributed to homophobic influences and lack of proper healthcare. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Black men is seven times higher than the prevalence for White men, and Black men are more than nine times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White men.
Mental health
African Americans have several barriers for accessing mental health services. Counseling has been frowned upon and distant in utility and proximity to many people in the African American community. In 2004, a qualitative research study explored the disconnect with African Americans and mental health. The study was conducted as a semi-structured discussion which allowed the focus group to express their opinions and life experiences. The results revealed a couple key variables that create barriers for many African American communities to seek mental health services such as the stigma, lack of four important necessities; trust, affordability, cultural understanding and impersonal services.
Historically, many African American communities did not seek counseling because religion was a part of the family values. African American who have a faith background are more likely to seek prayer as a coping mechanism for mental issues rather than seeking professional mental health services.
In the United States, counseling approaches are based on the experience of White Americans and do not fit within the African American culture. African American families tend to resolve concerns within the family, and it is viewed by the family as a strength. On the other hand, when African Americans seek counseling, they face a social backlash and are criticized. They may be labeled "crazy", viewed as weak, and their pride is diminished. Counselors are encouraged to be aware of such barriers for the well-being of African American clients. Without cultural competency training in health care, many African Americans go unheard and misunderstood. As of 2024, suicide is the second leading cause of death among African-Americans between the ages of 15 and 24, with Black men being four times more likely to kill themselves than Black women.Genetics Genome-wide studies Recent studies of African Americans using genetic testing have found ancestry to vary by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–82.1% Sub-Saharan African, 16.7–24% European, and 0.8–1.2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals. Commercial testing services have reported similar variation, with ranges from 0.6 to 2 percent Native American, 19 to 29 percent European, and 65 to 80 percent Sub-Saharan African ancestry.
According to a genome-wide study by Bryc et al. (2009), the mixed ancestry of African Americans in varying ratios came about as the result of sexual contact between West/Central Africans (more frequently females) and Europeans (more frequently males). This can be understood as being the result of enslaved African American females being raped by White males. Historians estimate that 58% of enslaved women in the US aged 15–30 years were sexually assaulted by their slave owners and other White men. Consequently, the 365 African Americans in their sample have a genome-wide average of 78.1% West African ancestry and 18.5% European ancestry, with large variation among individuals (ranging from 99% to 1% West African ancestry). The West African ancestral component in African Americans is most similar to that in present-day speakers from the non-Bantu branches of the Niger-Congo family.
Correspondingly, Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces comes from a population similar to the Niger-Congo-speaking Yoruba of southern Nigeria and southern Benin, reflecting the centrality of this West African region in the Atlantic slave trade. The next most frequent ancestral component found among African Americans was derived from Great Britain, in keeping with historical records. It constitutes a little over 10% of their overall ancestry and is most similar to the Northwest European ancestral component also carried by Barbadians. Zakharia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba-like ancestry in their African American samples, with a minority also drawn from Mandenka and Bantu populations. Additionally, the researchers observed an average European ancestry of 21.9%, again with significant variation between individuals. Bryc et al. (2009) note that populations from other parts of the continent may also constitute adequate proxies for the ancestors of some African American individuals; namely, ancestral populations from Guinea Bissau, Senegal and Sierra Leone in West Africa and Angola in Southern Africa.
Altogether, genetic studies suggest that African Americans are a genetically diverse people. According to DNA analysis led in 2006 by Penn State geneticist Mark D. Shriver, around 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5% European ancestry (equivalent to one European great-grandparent and their forebears), 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25% European ancestry (equivalent to one European grandparent and their forebears), and 1 percent of African Americans have at least 50% European ancestry (equivalent to one European parent and their forebears). According to Shriver, around 5 percent of African Americans also have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one Native American great-grandparent and their forebears). Research suggests that Native American ancestry among people who identify as African American is a result of relationships that occurred soon after slave ships arrived in the American colonies, and European ancestry is of more recent origin, often from the decades before the Civil War.
Y-DNA
Africans bearing the E-V38 (E1b1a) likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west, approximately 19,000 years ago. E-M2 (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa. According to a Y-DNA study by Sims et al. (2007), the majority (≈60%) of African Americans belong to various subclades of the E-M2 (E1b1a1, formerly E3a) paternal haplogroup. This is the most common genetic paternal lineage found today among West/Central African males and is also a signature of the historical Bantu migrations. The next most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup observed among African Americans is the R1b clade, which around 15% of African Americans carry. This lineage is most common today among Northwestern European males. The remaining African Americans mainly belong to the paternal haplogroup I (≈7%), which is also frequent in Northwestern Europe.
mtDNA
According to an mtDNA study by Salas et al. (2005), the maternal lineages of African Americans are most similar to haplogroups that are today especially common in West Africa (>55%), followed closely by West-Central Africa and Southwestern Africa (<41%). The characteristic West African haplogroups L1b, L2b,c,d, and L3b,d and West-Central African haplogroups L1c and L3e in particular occur at high frequencies among African Americans. As with the paternal DNA of African Americans, contributions from other parts of the continent to their maternal gene pool are insignificant.
Racism and social status
Formal political, economic and social discrimination against minorities has been present throughout American history. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the University of Southern California, writes, "Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion." Despite this, African Americans have increased employment rates and gained representation in the highest levels of American government in the post–civil rights era. However, widespread racism remains an issue that continues to undermine the development of social status.
Economically, of all the racially Black ethnic groups on the globe, African Americans are the wealthiest and most successful, with one in every fifty African American families being millionaires. This equates in 2023 to approximately 1.79 million African American millionaires in the United States, which is more than the total amount of millionaires in any racially Black country, and many other countries, around the world.Policing and criminal justice
In the US, which has the largest per-capita prison population in the world, African Americans are overrepresented as the second largest population of prison inmates (38%) in 2023, coming second to Whites who made up 57% of the prison population. According to the National Registry of Exonerations, Blacks are roughly 7.5 times more likely to be wrongfully convicted of murder in the US than Whites. In 2012, the New York City Police Department detained people more than 500,000 times under the city's stop-and-frisk law. Of the total detained, 55% were African-Americans, while Black people made up 20% of the city's population.
led the Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks protest on August 28, 2020.]]
African American males are more likely to be killed by police when compared to other races. This is one of the factors that led to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013. A historical issue in the US where women have weaponized their White privilege in the country by reporting on Black people, often instigating racial violence, difficult White women—who have been given a different name over the centuries by African Americans—calling the police on Black people became widely publicized in 2020. According to The Guardian, "The specter of Karen persisted as Black Lives Matter protests and civil unrest spread around the country following Floyd’s murder and reckonings with racism began to roil institutions, toppling careers as well as statues".
Although there is not enough evidence that suggest Black people consume cannabis with greater regularity than Whites do, they have disproportionately higher arrest rates than Whites: in 2010, for example, Blacks were 3.73 times as likely to get arrested for using cannabis than Whites, despite not significantly more frequently being users. Even since the legalization of cannabis, there are still more arrests made for Black users than White, wasting taxpayer money, due to many of those cases being abandoned or dropped, with no charges being filed after the trivial, racially-biased arrests.Social issuesAfter over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed. These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity Black marriage rates began to fall behind Whites. In 2021, statistics show that over 80 percent marriages in the African American ethnic group marry within their ethnic group.
ended in California in 1948, entertainer Sammy Davis Jr. faced a backlash for his involvement with a White woman in 1957 ]]
The first ever anti-miscegenation law was passed by the Maryland General Assembly in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage. By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes. In 1958, officers in Virginia entered the home of Mildred and Richard Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"—or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years. In 1967 the law was ruled unconstitutional (via the 14th Amendment adopted in 1868) by the US Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia. On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama, the first Black president, became the first US president to support same-sex marriage. Since Obama's endorsement there has been a rapid growth in support for same-sex marriage among African Americans. As of 2012, 59% of African Americans support same-sex marriage, which is higher than support among the national average (53%) and White Americans (50%).
Polls in North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Maryland, Ohio, Florida, and Nevada have also shown an increase in support for same sex marriage among African Americans. On November 6, 2012, Maryland, Maine, and Washington all voted for approve of same-sex marriage, along with Minnesota rejecting a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. Exit polls in Maryland show about 50% of African Americans voted for same-sex marriage, showing a vast evolution among African Americans on the issue and was crucial in helping pass same-sex marriage in Maryland.
Black Americans hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole. On financial issues, however, African Americans are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more progressive tax structure to provide more government spending on social services.
Political legacy
remains the most prominent political leader in the American civil rights movement and perhaps the most influential African American political figure in general.]]
African Americans have fought in every war in the history of the United States.
The gains made by African Americans in the civil rights movement and in the Black Power movement not only obtained certain rights for African Americans but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or Jim Crow laws. They were often the victims of extreme cruelty and violence, sometimes resulting in deaths: by the post World War II era, African Americans became increasingly discontented with their long-standing inequality. In the words of Martin Luther King Jr., African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to "rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal..."
The civil rights movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, nonviolent demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties.
Over time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which Blacks and Whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, de jure racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the Free Speech Movement, the disabled, the women's movement, and migrant workers. It also inspired the Native American rights movement, and in King's 1964 book ''Why We Can't Wait'' he wrote the US "was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race."
Media and coverage
with former US President George W. Bush]]
Some activists and academics contend that American news media coverage of African American news, concerns, or dilemmas is inadequate, or that the news media present distorted images of African Americans.
To combat this, Robert L. Johnson founded Black Entertainment Television (BET), a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Over the years, the network has aired such programming as rap and R&B music videos, urban-oriented movies and television series, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET would broadcast Christian programming; the network would also broadcast non-affiliated Christian programs during the early morning hours daily. According to Viacom, BET is now a global network that reaches households in the United States, Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The network has gone on to spawn several spin-off channels, including BET Her (originally launched as BET on Jazz).
Another network targeting African Americans is TV One. TV One is owned by Urban One, founded and controlled by Catherine Hughes. Urban One is one of the nation's largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African American-owned radio broadcasting company in the United States.
In June 2009, NBC News launched a new website named TheGrio. It is the first African American video news site that focuses on underrepresented stories in existing national news.Black-owned and oriented media outlets
* The Africa Channel – Dedicated to programming about African culture.
* aspireTV – a digital cable and satellite channel owned by businessman and former basketball player Magic Johnson.
* ATTV – an independent public affairs and educational channel.
* BET Media Group – The most prominent multimedia outlet targeting Afro-Americans.
** BET
** BET Her
** VH1 – Originally a MTV spin-off focused on light genres of music, the network's programming became slanted towards African American culture during the 2010s.
* Bounce TV – a digital multicast network owned by the E. W. Scripps Company.
* Fox Soul – a digital television and streaming network primarily airing original talk shows and syndicated programming
* Oprah Winfrey Network – a cable and satellite network founded by Oprah Winfrey and jointly owned by Warner Bros. Discovery and Harpo Studios. While not exclusively targeting African Americans, much of its original programming is geared towards a similar demographic.
* Revolt – a music channel and media company founded by Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs.
* Soul of the South Network – a regional broadcast network.
* TheGrio – a digital multicast network focused on news and opinion-based programming.
* TV One – a general entertainment network targeting adults.
** Cleo TV – a sister network targeting millennial and Generation X women
* We TV – Owned by AMC Networks, became slanted towards Black women during the 2010s
Culture
dinner consisting of fried chicken with macaroni and cheese, collard greens, breaded fried okra, and cornbread]]
From their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have significantly contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, cuisine, clothing styles, music, language, and social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to West African and African American influences. Notable examples include George Washington Carver, who created nearly 500 products from peanuts, sweet potatoes, and pecans. Soul food is a variety of cuisine popular among African Americans. It is closely related to the cuisine of the Southern United States. The descriptive terminology may have originated in the mid-1960s, when soul was a common definer used to describe African American culture (for example, soul music). African Americans were the first peoples in the United States to make fried chicken, along with Scottish immigrants to the South. Although the Scottish had been frying chicken before they emigrated, they lacked the spices and flavor that African Americans had used when preparing the meal. The Scottish American settlers therefore adopted the African American method of seasoning chicken. However, fried chicken was generally a rare meal in the African American community and was usually reserved for special events or celebrations.
Language
African-American English is a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of American English, commonly spoken by urban working-class and largely bi-dialectal middle-class African Americans.
African American English evolved during the antebellum period through interaction between speakers of 16th- and 17th-century English of Great Britain and Ireland and various West African languages. As a result, the variety shares parts of its grammar and phonology with the Southern American English dialect. African American English differs from Standard American English (SAE) in certain pronunciation characteristics, tense usage, and grammatical structures, which were derived from West African languages (particularly those belonging to the Niger–Congo family).
Virtually all habitual speakers of African American English can understand and communicate in Standard American English. As with all linguistic forms, AAVE's usage is influenced by various factors, including geographical, educational and socioeconomic background, as well as formality of setting.
Other languages are spoken by specific sub-communities. The Gullah language is an English-based creole language spoken mostly in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia by the Gullah; an off-shoot of this is Afro-Seminole Creole spoken by Black Seminoles mostly now in Mexico and Brackettville, Texas. Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole and spoken mostly in Louisiana.
Traditional names
African-American names are part of the cultural traditions of African Americans, most of these cultural names having no connection to Africa but strictly an African American cultural practice that developed in the United States during enslavement. This new evidence became apparent by census records which show African Americans and White Americans, though they spoke the same language, chose to use different names even during times of enslavement, which is where and when the development of African American cultural names began. Babies of that era were generally given a few common names, with children using nicknames to distinguish the various people with the same name. With the rise of 1960s civil rights movement, there was a dramatic increase in names of various origins.
By the 1970s, and 1980s, it had become common among African Americans to invent new names for themselves, although many of these invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re and Ja/Je, and suffixes like -ique/iqua, -isha and -aun/-awn are common, as are inventive spellings for common names. The book Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names places the origins of "La" names in African-American culture in New Orleans.
Even with the rise of inventive names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical, historical, or traditional European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were thus among the most frequent names for African-American boys in 2013.
The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin but has elements that were drawn from both French and West/Central African roots. Names such as LaTanisha, JaMarcus, DeAndre, and Shaniqua were created in the same way. Punctuation marks are seen more often within African American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.
| label1=Black Protestant
| value1=59
| color1=DodgerBlue
| label2=Evangelical Protestant
| value2=15
| color2=Blue
| label3=Mainline Protestant
| value3=4
| color3=DeepSkyBlue
| label4=Roman Catholic
| value4=5
| color4=Indigo
| label5=Jehovah's Witness
| value5=1
| color5=DarkBlue
| label6=Other Christian
| value6=1
| color6=LightBlue
| label7=Muslim
| value7=1
| color7=Green
| label8=Other religion
| value81|color8Black
| label9Unaffiliated| value911|color9=Honeydew
| label10Atheist or agnostic| value102|color10=gray
}}
is the oldest African American congregation in Washington, D.C.]]
in Harlem, New York City]]
The majority of African Americans are Protestant, many of whom follow the historically Black churches. The term Black church refers to churches which minister to predominantly African American congregations. Black congregations were first established by freed slaves at the end of the 17th century, and later when slavery was abolished more African Americans were allowed to create a unique form of Christianity that was culturally influenced by African spiritual traditions. One of these early African American Christian cultural traditions in the Black Church is the Watchnight service, also called Freedom's Eve, where African American congregations all over the nation come together on New Year's Eve through New Years morning in remembrance of the eve and New Year of their emancipation, sharing testimonies, being baptized and partaking in praise and worship.
According to a 2007 survey, more than half of the African American population are part of the historically Black churches. distributed mainly in four denominations, the largest being the National Baptist Convention, USA and the National Baptist Convention of America. the largest denominations are the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.
Pentecostals are distributed among several different religious bodies, with the Church of God in Christ as the largest among them by far. There are also large numbers of Catholics, constituting 5% of the African American population. Of the total number of Jehovah's Witnesses, 22% are Black. During the twentieth century, some African Americans converted to Islam, mainly through the influence of Black nationalist groups that preached with distinctive Islamic practices; including the Moorish Science Temple of America, and the largest organization, the Nation of Islam, founded in the 1930s, which attracted at least 20,000 people by 1963. Prominent members included activist Malcolm X and boxer Muhammad Ali.
converted to Islam in 1964]]
Malcolm X is considered the first person to start the movement among African Americans towards mainstream Islam, after he left the Nation and made the pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed, the son of Elijah Muhammad took control of the Nation after his father's death and guided the majority of its members to orthodox Islam.
African American Muslims constitute 20% of the total US Muslim population, the majority are Sunni or orthodox Muslims, some of these identify under the community of W. Deen Mohammed. The Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan has a membership ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 members.
There is also a small but growing group of African American Jews, making up less than 0.5% of African Americans or about 2% of the Jewish population in the United States. The majority of African-American Jews are Ashkenazi, while smaller numbers identify as Sephardi, Mizrahi, or other. Many African-American Jews are affiliated with denominations such as the Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Orthodox branches of Judaism, but the majority identify as "Jews of no religion", commonly known as secular Jews. A significant number of people who identify themselves as "Black Jews" are affiliated with syncretic religious groups, largely the Black Hebrew Israelites, whose beliefs include the claim that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Israelites. Jews of all races typically do not accept Black Hebrew Israelites as Jews, in part because they are usually not Jewish according to Jewish law, and in part because these groups are sometimes associated with antisemitism. African-American Jews have criticized the Black Hebrew Israelites, regarding the movement as primarily composed of Black non-Jews who have appropriated Black-Jewish identity.
Confirmed atheists are less than one half of one percent, similar to numbers for Hispanics.
Music
African American music is one of the most pervasive African American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. Hip hop, R&B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues, and other contemporary American musical forms originated in Black communities and evolved from other Black forms of music, including blues, doo-wop, barbershop, ragtime, bluegrass, jazz, and gospel music.
African American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other popular music genre in the world, including country and techno. African American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions.
Dance
African Americans have also had an important role in American dance. Bill T. Jones, a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African American themes in his work, particularly in the piece "Last Supper at Uncle Tom's Cabin/The Promised Land". Likewise, Alvin Ailey's artistic work, including his "Revelations" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, stepping, is an African American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally Black fraternities and sororities at universities.
Literature and academics
, recipient of the Nobel Prize for literature]]
Many African American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. African American literature is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include Langston Hughes, James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison, and Maya Angelou.
African American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international innovation. Norbert Rillieux created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left Louisiana in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone. Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the Confederate President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy.
By 1913, over 1,000 inventions were patented by Black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes, and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines. Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate. Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.
Lewis Howard Latimer invented an improvement for the incandescent light bulb. More recent inventors include Frederick McKinley Jones, who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains. Lloyd Quarterman worked with six other Black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the Manhattan Project.) Quarterman also helped develop the first nuclear reactor, which was used in the atomically powered submarine called the Nautilus.
As part of the preservation of their culture, African Americans have continuously launched their own publications and publishing houses, such as Robert Sengstacke Abbott, founder of the Chicago Defender newspaper, and Carter G. Woodson, the founder of Black History Month who spent over thirty years documenting and publishing African American history in journals and books. The Johnson Publishing Company, founded by John H. Johnson in 1942, is a National Historic Landmark.
Terminology
General
The term African American was popularized by Jesse Jackson in the 1980s, although there are recorded uses from the 18th and 19th centuries, for example, in post-emancipation holidays and conferences. Earlier terms also used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry. Other terms (such as colored, person of color, or negro) were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of White supremacy and oppression.
was the First Lady of the United States; she and her husband, President Barack Obama, are the first African Americans to hold these positions.]]
A 16-page pamphlet entitled "A Sermon on the Capture of Lord Cornwallis" is notable for the attribution of its authorship to "An African American". Published in 1782, the book's use of this phrase predates any other yet identified by more than 50 years.
In the 1980s, the term African American was advanced on the model of, for example, German American or Irish American, to give descendants of American slaves, and other American Blacks who lived through the slavery era, a heritage and a cultural base. although they had a slight preference for the latter in personal settings and the former in more formal settings. By 2021, according to polling from Gallup, 58% of Black Americans expressed no preference for what their group should be called, with 17% each preferring Black and African-American. Among those with no preference, Gallup found a slight majority favored Black "if [they] had to choose."
In 2020, the Associated Press updated its AP Stylebook to direct its writers to capitalize the first letter of Black when it is used "in a racial, ethnic or cultural sense, conveying an essential and shared sense of history, identity and community among people who identify as Black, including those in the African diaspora and within Africa." The New York Times and other outlets made similar changes at the same time, to put "Black" on the same footing as other racial and ethnic terms, such as Latino, Asian, and African-American.
In 2023, the government released a new more detailed breakdown due to the rise in racially Black immigration into the US, listing African American as a compound termed ethnicity, distinguished from other racially Black ethnicities such as Nigerian, Jamaican etc.
The term African American embraces pan-Africanism as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and George Padmore. The term Afro-Usonian, and variations of such, are more rarely used.
Official identity
Negro section of keypunch operators at the US Census Bureau]]
Since 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the United States government has officially classified Black people (revised to Black or African American in 1997) as "having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa." Other federal offices, such as the US Census Bureau, adhere to the Office of Management and Budget standards on race in their data collection and tabulation efforts. In preparation for the 2010 US census, a marketing and outreach plan called 2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as Black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of Black people in the United States.
The ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity. The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire Black population of the US as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The Federal Bureau of Investigation of the US Department of Justice categorizes Black or African American people as "[a] person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, US Department of Commerce, derived from the 1977 Office of Management and Budget classification.Admixture
Historically, "race mixing" between Black and White people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring Blacks and Whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691, and endured in many Southern states until the Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional in Loving v. Virginia (1967). The taboo among American Whites surrounding White-Black relations is a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African Americans. Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the "lower-class white males" but Davis concludes that "there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took Black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families." A famous example was Thomas Jefferson's mistress, Sally Hemings. Although publicly opposed to race mixing, Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1785, wrote: "The improvement of the Blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".
Harvard University historian Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in 2009 that "African Americans...are a racially mixed or mulatto people—deeply and overwhelmingly so" (see genetics). After the Emancipation Proclamation, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. African slaves and their descendants have also had a history of cultural exchange and intermarriage with Native Americans, although they did not necessarily retain social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples. There are also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics of any race, especially between Puerto Ricans and African Americans (American-born Blacks). According to author M. M. Drymon, many African Americans identify as having Scots-Irish ancestry.
Racially mixed marriages have become increasingly accepted in the United States since the civil rights movement and up to the present day. Approval in national opinion polls has risen from 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007. A Gallup poll conducted in 2013 found that 84% of Whites and 96% of Blacks approved of interracial marriage, and 87% overall. Black men are more than twice as likely to date and marry interracially than Black women.
At the end of World War II, some African American military men stationed in Japan and Germany impregnated local non-Black women, resulting in the birth of thousands of mixed-race children. Many of these families later immigrated to the United States.<span id"The">Terminology dispute</span>
In her book The End of Blackness, as well as in an essay for Salon, author Debra Dickerson has argued that the term Black should refer strictly to the descendants of Africans who were brought to America as slaves, and not to the sons and daughters of Black immigrants who lack that ancestry. Thus, under her definition, President Barack Obama, who is the son of a Kenyan, is not Black. She makes the argument that grouping all people of African descent together regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances would inevitably deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American community of slave descendants, in addition to denying Black immigrants recognition of their own unique ancestral backgrounds. "Lumping us all together", Dickerson wrote, "erases the significance of slavery and continuing racism while giving the appearance of progress." and African American columnist David Ehrenstein of the Los Angeles Times, who accused White liberals of flocking to Blacks who were Magic Negros, a term that refers to a Black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream White (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda. Ehrenstein went on to say "He's there to assuage white 'guilt' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history." Their terminology has gained popularity in some circles, but others have criticized the movement for a perceived bias against (especially poor and Black) immigrants, and for its often inflammatory rhetoric. Politicians such as Obama and Harris have received especially pointed criticism from the movement, as neither are ADOS and have spoken out at times against policies specific to them.
Many Pan-African movements and organizations that are ideologically Black nationalist, anti-imperialist, anti-Zionist, and Scientific socialist like The All-African People's Revolutionary Party (A-APRP), have argued that African (relating to the diaspora) or New Afrikan should be used instead of African American. Most notably, Malcolm X and Kwame Ture expressed similar views that African Americans are Africans who "happen to be in America", and should not claim or identify as being American if they are fighting for Black (New Afrikan) liberation. Historically, this is due to the enslavement of Africans during the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, ongoing anti-Black violence, and structural racism in countries like the United States.Terms no longer in common useBefore the independence of the Thirteen Colonies until the abolition of slavery in 1865, an African American slave was commonly known as a negro. Free negro was the legal status in the territory of an African American person who was not enslaved. In response to the project of the American Colonization Society to transport free Blacks to the future Liberia, a project most Blacks strongly rejected, the Blacks at the time said they were no more African than White Americans were European, and referred to themselves with what they considered a more acceptable term, "colored Americans". The term was used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when it was considered outmoded and generally gave way again to the exclusive use of negro. By the 1940s, the term was commonly capitalized (Negro); but by the mid-1960s, it was considered disparaging. By the end of the 20th century, negro had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative. The term is rarely used by younger Black people, but remained in use by many older African Americans who had grown up with the term, particularly in the Southern US. The term remains in use in some contexts, such as the United Negro College Fund, an American philanthropic organization that funds scholarships for Black students and general scholarship funds for 39 private historically Black colleges and universities.
There are many other deliberately insulting terms, many of which were in common use (e.g., nigger), but had become unacceptable in normal discourse before the end of the 20th century. One exception is the use, among the Black community, of the slur nigger rendered as nigga, representing the pronunciation of the word in African American English. This usage has been popularized by American rap and hip-hop music cultures and is used as part of an in-group lexicon and speech. It is not necessarily derogatory and, when used among Black people, the word is often used to mean "homie" or "friend".
Acceptance of intra-group usage of the word nigga is still debated, although it has established a foothold among younger generations. The NAACP denounces the use of both nigga and nigger. Mixed-race usage of nigga is still considered taboo, particularly if the speaker is White. However, trends indicate that usage of the term in intragroup settings is increasing even among White youth due to the popularity of rap and hip hop culture.
See also
* African-American art
* African American cinema
* African-American middle class
* African-American neighborhood
* African-American upper class
* African diaspora in the Americas
* Afrophobia
* AP African American Studies
* Black Belt in the American South
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black mecca
* Black Ozarkers
* Black Southerners
*Brown Babies
* Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
* Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
* Juneteenth
* National Museum of African American History and Culture
* North Africans in the United States
* Society and Black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas
* South African Americans
* Stereotypes of African Americans
* Timeline of the civil rights movement
* African immigration to the United States
* West Indian Americans
* African American–Jewish relations
* African American–Korean American relations
Diaspora
* African Americans in Africa
** African Americans in Ghana
** Americo-Liberian people
** Sierra Leone Creole people
* African Americans in Canada
* African Americans in France
* African Americans in Israel
* Black Nova Scotians
* Samaná Americans
* Haitian emigration
* Merikins
Lists
* Index of articles related to African Americans
* List of African-American neighborhoods
* List of majority-Black counties in the United States
* List of African-American newspapers and media outlets
* List of historically black colleges and universities
* List of African-American astronauts
* List of African-American inventors and scientists
* List of African-American LGBT people
* List of African American poets
* List of African-American visual artists
* List of monuments to African Americans
* List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations
* List of topics related to the African diaspora
* List of African-American holidays
* Lists of African Americans
Notes
References
Further reading
*
* Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass (3 vol Oxford University Press, 2006).
** Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century (5 vol. Oxford University Press, US, 2009).
* John Hope Franklin, Alfred Moss, From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans, McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947.
* Gates, Henry L. and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham (eds), African American Lives, Oxford University Press, 2004 – more than 600 biographies.
* Hine, Darlene Clark, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, Elsa Barkley Brown (eds), Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia, (Indiana University Press 2005).
*
* Horton, James Oliver, and Lois E. Horton. Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America, African Roots Through the Civil War. Vol. 1 (Rutgers University Press, 2002); Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America: Volume 2: From the Civil War to the Millennium (2002). [https://archive.org/details/hardroadtofreedo0000hort online]
* Kranz, Rachel. African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs (Infobase Publishing, 2004).
* Salzman, Jack, ed. Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history, New York City: Macmillan Library Reference US, 1996.
*
*
External links
* Richard Thompson Ford [https://www.slate.com/id/2106753/ Name Games], Slate, September 16, 2004. Article discussing the problems of defining African American
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071015191820/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanIDsa004&articleID000C97BA-94E0-146C-944583414B7FFE9F Scientific American Magazine (June 2006) Trace Elements] Reconnecting African Americans to an ancestral past
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110815220254/http://go.footnote.com/blackhistory/ Black History related original documents and photos]
* Frank Newport, [https://www.gallup.com/poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx "Black or African American?"] , Gallup, September 28, 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110901161306/http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/45800,news-comment,news-politics,in-pictures-the-long-journey-of-black-americans "The Long Journey of Black Americans"] – slideshow by The First Post
Category:Ethnic groups in the United States
Category:History of civil rights in the United States
Category:Ethnonyms of African Americans | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.314044 |
2161 | Artistic License | The Artistic License is an open-source license used for certain free and open-source software packages, most notably the standard implementation of the Perl programming language and most CPAN modules, which are dual-licensed under the Artistic License and the GNU General Public License (GPL).
History
Artistic License 1.0
The original Artistic License was written by Larry Wall. The name of the license is a reference to the concept of artistic license.
Whether or not the original Artistic License is a free software license is largely unsettled. The Free Software Foundation explicitly called the original Artistic License a non-free license, criticizing it as being "too vague; some passages are too clever for their own good, and their meaning is not clear". The FSF recommended that the license not be used on its own, but approved the common AL/GPL dual-licensing approach for Perl projects.
In response to this, Bradley Kuhn, who later worked for the Free Software Foundation, made a minimal redraft to clarify the ambiguous passages. This was released as the Clarified Artistic License and was approved by the FSF. It is used by the Paros Proxy, the JavaFBP toolkit and NcFTP.
The terms of the Artistic License 1.0 were at issue in Jacobsen v. Katzer in the initial 2009 ruling by the United States District Court for the Northern District of California declared that FOSS-like licenses could only be enforced through contract law rather than through copyright law, in contexts where contract damages would be difficult to establish. On appeal, a federal appellate court "determined that the terms of the Artistic License are enforceable copyright conditions". The case was remanded to the District Court, which did not apply the superior court's criteria on the grounds that, in the interim, the governing Supreme Court precedent applicable to the case had changed. However, this left undisturbed the finding that a free and open-source license nonetheless has economic value. Jacobsen ultimately prevailed in 2010, and the Case established a new standard making terms and conditions under Artistic License 1.0 enforceable through copyright statutes and relevant precedents. Artistic License 2.0 In response to the Request for Comments (RFC) process for improving the licensing position for Raku, Kuhn's draft was extensively rewritten by Roberta Cairney and Allison Randal for readability and legal clarity, with input from the Perl community. This resulted in the Artistic License 2.0, which has been approved as both a free software and open source license.
The Artistic license 2.0 is also notable for its excellent license compatibility with other FOSS licenses due to a relicensing clause, a property other licenses like the GPL lack.
It has been adopted by some of the Raku implementations, the Mojolicious framework and the NPM. It is also used by the SNEeSe emulator, which was formerly licensed under the Clarified Artistic License.
The OSI recommends that all developers and projects licensing their products with the Artistic License adopt Artistic License 2.0.
See also
*Software using the Artistic license (category)
References
External links
* Version 1.0
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20121016115951/http://www.perlfoundation.org/artistic_license_1_0 The Artistic License]The original Artistic License 1.0, the one which is still used by Perl and CPAN; They use a disjunction of the Artistic License 1.0 and the GNU GPL for Perl 5 and above.
** [http://www.ncftp.com/ncftp/doc/LICENSE.txt The Clarified Artistic License]
* Version 2.0
** [http://www.perlfoundation.org/artistic_license_2_0 The Artistic License 2.0]It's e.g. used by Parrot.
** [http://dev.perl.org/rfc/346.html 2.0 revision RFC process]
* Prominent uses
** [http://crepuscule.sourceforge.net/ Dusk]The first online Novel and Blog written under Artistic License 2.0.
** Is about R.E.M.'s choice of the Artistic License 2.0 for videos from one of their albums.
Category:Free and open-source software licenses | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_License | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.322495 |
2162 | Afrikaans | Africans}}
| region = Southern Africa
| states =
| speakers = 7.2 million (2016)<br />10.3 million L2 speakers in South Africa
| date = 2011
| ref = e19
| ethnicity = Afrikaners<br>Coloureds
| speakers2 | familycolor Indo-European
| fam2 = Germanic
| fam3 = West Germanic
| fam4 = Weser–Rhine Germanic
| fam5 = Low Franconian
| fam6 = Dutch
| fam7 = Central Dutch
| fam8 = Hollandic
| ancestor = Frankish
| ancestor2 = Old Dutch
| ancestor3 = Middle Dutch
| ancestor4 = Modern Dutch
| script = Latin script (Afrikaans alphabet), Arabic script
| sign = Signed Afrikaans
| nation = South Africa
| agency = Die Taalkommissie
| minority = Namibia
| iso1 = af
| iso2 = afr
| iso3 = afr
| glotto = afri1274
| glottorefname = Afrikaans
| lingua = 52-ACB-ba
| map = Idioma afrikáans.png
| mapcaption =
| notice = IPA
| dia1 = Kaaps
| dia2 = Boeraans
| dia3 = Eastern Cape
| dia4 = Northern Cape
| dia5 = Patagonian
| dia6 = Namibian
}}
Afrikaans , |group"n"}} is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and to a lesser extent Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the predominantly Dutch settlers and enslaved population of the Dutch Cape Colony, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the 17th and 18th centuries.
near Paarl]]
Although Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages including German, Malay and Khoisan languages, an estimated 90 to 95% of the vocabulary of Afrikaans is of Dutch origin., .Ninety to ninety-five percent of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin; see , , , , .|group"n"}} Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and different spellings., . For grammar and spelling; see .|group"n"}} There is a large degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, especially in written form.|group"n"}} meaning 'African'. It was previously referred to as 'Cape Dutch' ( or ), a term also used to refer to the early Cape settlers collectively, or the derogatory 'kitchen Dutch' () from its use by slaves of colonial settlers "in the kitchen".HistoryOriginThe Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, during the course of the 18th century. As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the early-20th century, pre-standardized Afrikaans was still viewed by the many in Southern Africa as 'kitchen Dutch' (), lacking the prestige accorded an officially recognised language like Dutch and English, at that time. In the 19th century Boer republics, proto-Afrikaans was not yet widely seen by the Afrikaner population itself, nor by its leaders, as a separate language to standard Dutch. Dutch was expressly the sole and only legally recognised language at that time. Other early epithets, in Southern Africa, setting apart ('Cape Dutch', i.e. Proto-Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch language standards included , and ('mutilated, broken, or uncivilised Dutch'), as well as ('incorrect Dutch').
| region | era
| familycolor = pidgin
| family = Dutch-based pidgin
| iso3 = none
| glotto2 = hott1234
| glottorefname2 = Hottentot Dutch
| isoexception = historical
}}
Historical linguist Hans den Besten theorises that modern Standard Afrikaans derives from two sources:
* Cape Dutch, a direct transplantation of European Dutch to Southern Africa, and
* 'Hottentot Dutch', a pidgin that descended from 'Foreigner Talk' and ultimately from the Dutch pidgin spoken by slaves, via hypothetical Dutch-based creole languages.
So Afrikaans, in his view, is neither a creole nor a direct descendant of Dutch, but a fusion of two transmission pathways.
Development
used in a 1916 South African newspaper before Afrikaans replaced it for use in media]]
Most of the first settlers whose descendants today are the Afrikaners were from the United Provinces (now Netherlands), with up to one-sixth of the community of French Huguenot origin, and a seventh from Germany.
African and Asian workers, Cape Coloured children of European settlers and Khoikhoi women, and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population was made up of people from East Africa, West Africa, Mughal India, Madagascar, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). A number were also indigenous Khoisan people, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married or cohabited with the male Dutch settlers. M. F. Valkhoff argued that 75% of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father. Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language."
Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet: see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin script, started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850 (alongside the already established Dutch). Before the Boer wars, "and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as 'a kitchen language' or 'a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants."
Recognition
}}]]
In 1925 Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a distinct language, rather than simply a vernacular of Dutch. The Constitution of 1961 reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages, and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. The Constitution of 1983 removed any mention of Dutch altogether.
The Afrikaans Language Monument is on a hill overlooking Paarl in the Western Cape Province. Officially opened on 10 October 1975, it was erected on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Society of Real Afrikaners, and the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch.
In may 2022, Afrikaans was recognized as an indigenous language of South Africa.Standardisation
in Arcadia, Pretoria, with its name written in Afrikaans, Xhosa and Southern Ndebele.]]
The earliest Afrikaans texts were some doggerel verses from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Afrikaans used the Latin alphabet around this time, although the Cape Muslim community used the Arabic script. In 1861, L.H. Meurant published his (Conversation between Nicholas Truthsayer and John Doubter), which is considered to be the first book published in Afrikaans.
The first grammar book was published in 1876; a bilingual dictionary was later published in 1902. The main modern Afrikaans dictionary in use is the (HAT). A new authoritative dictionary, called (WAT), was under development The official orthography of Afrikaans is the , compiled by . A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in the textual criticism of the Bible, especially the Greek New Testament, the 1933 translation followed the Textus Receptus and was closely akin to the . Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch . This had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.
C. P. Hoogehout, , and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of the (Gospel of Mark, lit. 'Gospel according to Mark'); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.
The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as , that is "a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially among the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a Bible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.
In 1983 a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. This translation was influenced by Eugene Nida's theory of dynamic equivalence which focused on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic wanted to convey.
A new translation, was released in November 2020. It is the first truly ecumenical translation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, were involved. Classification
* Indo-European languages
** Germanic
*** West Germanic
**** Low Franconian
***** Dutch
****** Afrikaans
Afrikaans descended from Dutch dialects in the 17th century. It belongs to a West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages. Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English, the Frisian languages, Yiddish, and the unstandardised language Low German.Geographic distributionStatisticsthumb|upright1.2|The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks Afrikaans at home.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country !! Speakers !! Percentage of speakers !! Year !! Reference
|-
||| 6,855,082 || 94.71% || 2011 ||
|-
||| 219,760 || 3.04% || 2011 ||
|-
||| 49,375 || 0.68% || 2021 ||
|-
||| 36,966 || 0.51% || 2018 ||
|-
||| 29,670 || 0.41% || 2021 ||
|-
|
|28,406
|0.39%
|2016
|
|-
||| 8,082 || 0.11% || 2011 ||
|-
||| 7,489 || 0.10% || 2021 ||
|-
||| 2,228 || 0.03% || 2016 ||
|-
|
|650
|0.01%
|2019
|
|-
||| 150 || 0.002% || 2023 ||
|-
||| 36 || 0.0005% || 2011 ||
|-
!Total
!7,237,894
!
!
!
|}
Sociolinguistics
thumb|upright=1.2|The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: density of Afrikaans home-language speakers.
Besides South-Africa, Afrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in Bophuthatswana, an Apartheid-era Bantustan. Eldoret in Kenya was founded by Afrikaners.
There are also around 30,000 South-Africans in the Netherlands, of which the majority are of Afrikaans-speaking Afrikaner and Coloured South-African descent. A much smaller and unknown number of Afrikaans speakers also reside in the Dutch Caribbean.
Contrary to popular belief, the majority of Afrikaans speakers today are not Afrikaners or Boers, but Coloureds.
In 1976, secondary-school pupils in Soweto began a rebellion in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although English is the mother tongue of only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of a majority of South Africans. Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto. The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction. Afrikaans-medium schools were also accused of using language policy to deter Black African parents. Some of these parents, in part supported by provincial departments of education, initiated litigation which enabled enrolment with English as language of instruction. By 2006 there were 300 single-medium Afrikaans schools, compared to 2,500 in 1994, after most converted to dual-medium education.
Under South Africa's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's diplomatic missions overseas now display the name of the country only in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. Meanwhile, the constitution of the Western Cape, which went into effect in 1998, declares Afrikaans to be an official language of the province alongside English and Xhosa.
The Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazine has the largest readership of any magazine in the country.
When the British design magazine Wallpaper<!--"Wallpaper" per WP:MOSTM--> described Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about the monument, South African billionaire Johann Rupert (chairman of the Richemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as Cartier, Van Cleef & Arpels, Montblanc and Alfred Dunhill from the magazine. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an English-speaking South African.
Mutual intelligibility with Dutch
An estimated 90 to 95 percent of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin, and there are few lexical differences between the two languages. Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form.
Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as Malay, Khoisan languages, Portuguese, German and Bantu languages. Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by South African English, especially in the Western Cape. Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.
In general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is far better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The South African poet writer Breyten Breytenbach, attempting to visualise the language distance for Anglophones once remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between the Received Pronunciation and Southern American English.
Current status
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"float: left;"
|+Use of Afrikaans as a first language by province
|-
! Province || 1996 || 2001 || 13.3% || 13.5% || 10.6% – than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually. South African census figures suggest a decreasing number of first language Afrikaans speakers in South Africa from 13.5% in 2011 to 10.6% in 2022. The South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) projects that a growing majority of Afrikaans speakers will be Coloured. Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though half a million were unemployed.
Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular in DSTV pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking emigrant communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.
Afrikaans-language cinema showed signs of new vigour in the early 21st century. The 2007 film , the first full-length Afrikaans movie since in 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such as Poena Is Koning and (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language film , which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at the Cannes Film Festival. The film was also released in 2011. The Afrikaans film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, like Charlize Theron (Monster) and Sharlto Copley (District 9) promoting their mother tongue.
SABC 3 announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans-language market and [their] need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the current South African television market". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes. There is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are in Hardap (41.0%), ǁKaras (36.1%), Erongo (20.5%), Khomas (18.5%), Omaheke (10.0%), Otjozondjupa (9.4%), Kunene (4.2%), and Oshikoto (2.3%).
Some native speakers of Bantu languages and English also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is widely taught in South African schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students.Grammar
In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have'.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ffdead;"
! infinitive form
! present indicative form
! Dutch
! English
|-
| || || or || be
|-
| || || || have
|}
In addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ffdead;"
! Afrikaans || Dutch || English
|-
| || || I am
|-
| || || you are (sing.)
|-
| || || he/she/it is
|-
| || || we are
|-
| || || you are (plur.)
|-
| || || they are
|}
Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have a preterite, namely the auxiliary ('to be'), the modal verbs, and the verb ('to think'). The preterite of ('may') is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ffdead;"
! colspan=2 | Afrikaans
! colspan=2 | Dutch
! colspan=2 | English
|-
! present
! past
! present
! past
! present
! past
|-
| || || || || I am || I was
|-
| || || || || I can || I could
|-
| || || || || I must || (I had to)
|-
| || || || || I want to || I wanted to
|-
| || || || || I shall|| I should
|-
| || || || || I may || I might
|-
| || || || || I think || I thought
|}
All other verbs use the perfect tense, het + past participle (ge-), for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans between I drank and I have drunk. (In colloquial German, the past tense is also often replaced with the perfect.)
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ffdead;"
! Afrikaans || Dutch || English
|-
| rowspan="2" | || || I drank
|-
<!--| --> || || I have drunk
|}
When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, or historical present tense instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).
A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the double negative; it is classified in Afrikaans as and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example:
:
:
: English: He can not speak Afrikaans. / He '''''can't' speak Afrikaans.
Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in Low Franconian dialects in West Flanders and in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such as Garderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:
: <sup>*</sup> (lit. I want not this do not.)
:
: English: I do not want to do this.
<sup>*</sup> Compare with , which changes the meaning to 'I want not to do this'. Whereas emphasizes a lack of desire to act, emphasizes the act itself.
The was the Middle Dutch way to negate but it has been suggested that since became highly non-voiced, or was needed to complement the . With time the disappeared in most Dutch dialects.
The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Afrikaans
! Dutch (literally translated)
! More correct Dutch
! Literal English
! Idiomatic English
|-
|
|
|
| I did (not) know that he would (not) come.
| I did (not) know that he was (not) going to come.
|-
| would be best used in this case because means cannot and since he is sick he is unable to come, whereas is 'will' in English and is thus not the best word choice.|group="n"}}
|
|
| He will not come, as he is sick.
| He is sick and is not going to come.
|-
|
| colspan"2" align"center" |
| colspan"2" align"center" | It is not so difficult to learn Afrikaans.
|}
A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English present participle. In this case there is only a single negation.
:
:
: English: He is in [the] hospital, though he doesn't eat.
Certain words in Afrikaans would be contracted. For example, , which literally means 'must not', usually becomes ; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to in the same way as do not is contracted to ''don't'' in English.
The Dutch word ('it' in English) does not correspond to in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaans are , , and .
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Afrikaans
! Dutch
! English
|-
|
|
| have, has
|-
|
|
| the
|-
|
|
| it
|}
Phonology
}} ('The Voice of South Africa'), the former national anthem, read in poetic form]]
Vowels
{| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center
|+ Monophthong phonemes
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Front
! colspan="4" | Central
! colspan"2" rowspan"2" | Back
|- style="font-size: smaller;"
! colspan="2" | unrounded
! colspan="2" | rounded
! colspan="2" | unrounded
! colspan="2" |rounded
|- style="font-size: smaller;"
! short
! long
! short
! long
! short
! long
! short
! long
! short
! long
|-
! Close
|
| ()
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
| ()
|-
! Mid
|
|
|
|
|
| ()
|
| ()
|
| ()
|-
! Near-open
| ()
| ()
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|-
! Open
|
|
|
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|
|
|}
* As phonemes, and occur only in the words 'mirror' and 'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences and , respectively. In other cases, and occur as allophones of, respectively, and before .
* is phonetically long before .
* is always stressed and occurs only in the word 'wedges'.
* The closest unrounded counterparts of are central , rather than front .
* occur only in a few words.
* occurs as an allophone of before , though this occurs primarily dialectally, most commonly in the former Transvaal and Free State provinces.Diphthongs{|class"wikitable"
|+ Diphthong phonemes
! rowspan"2" colspan"2" | Starting point
! colspan="3" | Ending point
|-
! Front
! Central
! Back
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2" | Mid
!
|
|
|
|- align="center"
!
|
|
|
|- align="center"
! Open
!
| , ɑːi
|
|
|}
* occur mainly in loanwords. Consonants {| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|+ Consonant phonemes
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Post-<br />alveolar
! Dorsal
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
!
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!
|
|
| ()
|()
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
!
|
|
| ()
|
|
|-
!
| rowspan="2" |
| ()
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Rhotic
|
| colspan="2" | ~ ~ ~
|
|
|}
* All obstruents at the ends of words are devoiced, so that e.g. a final is realized as .
* occur only in loanwords. is also an allophone of in some environments.
* is most often uvular ~ ]}}. Velar occurs only in some speakers.
Patagonian Afrikaans
Patagonian Afrikaans is a distinct dialect of Afrikaans is spoken by the 650-member South African community of Argentina, in the region of Patagonia. Namibian Afrikaans
Namibian Afrikaans is a variety of Afrikaans spoken in Namibia. The country was governed by South Africa until 1990, which had favoured Afrikaans. Before that, Dutch had been introduced when the Dutch occupied Walvis Bay and the surrounding area.
Influences on Afrikaans from other languages
Malay
Due to the early settlement of a Cape Malay community in Cape Town, who are now known as Coloureds, numerous Classical Malay words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from what is now known as Indonesia as part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:
* , which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (from ) is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalent or .
* , Afrikaans for jacket (from , ultimately from Persian), used where Dutch would use or . The word in Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.
* , a traditional Cape-Malay dish, made from spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping.
* , which means banana. This is different from the common Dutch word . The Indonesian word is also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.
* , which means saucer (from , also from Persian).
* , a dish similar to shish kebab.
Portuguese
Some words originally came from Portuguese such as ('umbrella') from the Portuguese , ('pen/cattle enclosure') from the Portuguese and ('corn', from ). Some of these words also exist in Dutch, like 'parasol', though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.
Khoisan languages
* , meaning cannabis
Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning: for example means 'South-African tribal javelin' and means 'South-African tribal blanket of animal hides'.
Bantu languages
Loanwords from Bantu languages in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such as and , and indigenous plants, such as and .
* , from the Zulu word meaning 'scholar' or 'student"', but used to mean someone who is a student of/expert on a certain subject, i.e. He is a language .
* , meaning bride price, from (and referring to) lobolo of the Nguni languages
* , the grey crowned crane, known in Latin as Balearica regulorum
* , medium-sized dioecious tree known in Latin as Sclerocarya birrea
* , species of thatching grass known as Hyparrhenia
* , deciduous tree also known by its Latin name, Spirostachys africana
* / , an adaption of the word , meaning "to go home" or "to knock off (from work)".
French
The revoking of the Edict of Nantes on 22 October 1685 was a milestone in the history of South Africa, for it marked the beginning of the great Huguenot exodus from France. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 300,000 Protestants left France between 1685 and 1700; out of these, according to Louvois, 100,000 had received military training. A measure of the calibre of these immigrants and of their acceptance by host countries (in particular South Africa) is given by H. V. Morton in his book: In Search of South Africa (London, 1948). The Huguenots were responsible for a great linguistic contribution to Afrikaans, particularly in terms of military terminology as many of them fought on the battlefields during the wars of the Great Trek.
Most of the words in this list are descendants from Dutch borrowings from French, Old French or Latin, and are not direct influences from French on Afrikaans.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Afrikaans
! Dutch
! French
! English
|-
|
|
|
| advice
|-
|
|
|
| alarm
|-
|
|
|
| ammunition
|-
|
|
|
| funny
|-
|
|
|
| artillery
|-
|
|
|
| studio
|-
|
|
|
| luggage
|-
|
|
|
| bastion
|-
|
|
|
| battalion
|-
|
|
|
| battery
|-
|
|
|
| library
|-
|
|
|
| invoice
|-
|
|
|
| fort
|-
|
|
|
| meatball
|-
|
|
|
| garrison
|-
|
|
|
| general
|-
|
|
|
| grenade
|-
|
|
|
| infantry
|-
|
|
|
| interesting
|-
|
|
|
| calibre
|-
|
|
|
| cannon
|-
|
|
|
| gunner
|-
|
|
|
| cartridge
|-
|
|
|
| captain
|-
|
|
|
| colonel
|-
|
|
|
| commander
|-
|
|
|
| quarter
|-
|
|
|
| lieutenant
|-
|
|
|
| magazine
|-
|
|
|
| way
|-
|
|
|
| (to) march
|-
|
|
|
| furniture
|-
|
|
|
| militarily
|-
|
|
|
| piece
|-
|
|
|
| mortar
|-
|
|
|
| (to) mutiny
|-
|
|
|
| musket
|-
|
|
|
| wall
|-
|
|
|
| mine
|-
|
|
|
| officer
|-
|
|
|
| order
|-
|
|
|
| paper
|-
|
|
|
| pioneer
|-
|
|
|
| ceiling
|-
|
|
|
| flat
|-
|
|
|
| ferry
|-
|
|
|
| chief
|-
|
|
|
| round
|-
|
|
|
| salvo
|-
|
|
|
| soldier
|-
|
|
|
| aunt
|-
|
|
|
| carpet
|-
|
|
|
| bunch
|}
Orthography
The Afrikaans writing system is based on Dutch, using the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet, plus 16 additional vowels with diacritics. The hyphen (e.g. in a compound like 'sea duck'), apostrophe (e.g. 'mothers'), and a whitespace character (e.g. in multi-word units like 'Dead Sea') is part of the orthography of words, while the indefinite article is a ligature. All the alphabet letters, including those with diacritics, have capital letters as allographs; the does not have a capital letter allograph. This means that Afrikaans has 88 graphemes with allographs in total.
{| style="table-layout: fixed; width: 50em; text-align: center;"
! colspan"43" style"background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" |Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
|-
|A
|Á
|Ä
|B
|C
|D
|E
|É
|È
|Ê
|Ë
|F
|G
|H
|I
|Í
|Î
|Ï
|J
|K
|L
|M
|N
|
|O
|Ó
|Ô
|Ö
|P
|Q
|R
|S
|T
|U
|Ú
|Û
|Ü
|V
|W
|X
|Y
|Ý
|Z
|-
! colspan"43" style"background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;" |Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
|-
|a
|á
|ä
|b
|c
|d
|e
|é
|è
|ê
|ë
|f
|g
|h
|i
|í
|î
|ï
|j
|k
|l
|m
|n
|ʼn
|o
|ó
|ô
|ö
|p
|q
|r
|s
|t
|u
|ú
|û
|ü
|v
|w
|x
|y
|ý
|z
|}
In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example, ('only') in Dutch becomes in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between and , having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south" is written in Dutch, it is spelled in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraph , normally pronounced as , corresponds to Afrikaans , except where it replaces the Dutch suffix which is pronounced as , as in > .
Another difference is the indefinite article, in Afrikaans and in Dutch. "A book" is in Afrikaans, whereas it is either or in Dutch. This is usually pronounced as just a weak vowel, , just like English "a".
The diminutive suffix in Afrikaans is , or , whereas in Dutch it is or , hence a "bit" is ʼn in Afrikaans and in Dutch.
The letters c, q, x, and z occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek and Latin. This is usually because words that had c and ch in the original Dutch are spelled with k and g, respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly original qu and x are most often spelt kw and ks, respectively. For example, instead of equatoriaal, and instead of excuus.
The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: á, ä, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ó, ô, ö, ú, û, ü, ý. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example, ("ate") instead of the 3 e's alongside each other: *, which can never occur in Afrikaans, or , which translates to "say", whereas is a possessive form. The acute's (á, é, í, ó, ú, ý) primary function is to place emphasis on a word (i.e. for emphatic reasons), by adding it to the emphasised syllable of the word. For example, sál ("will" (verb)), néé ('no'), móét ("must"), hý ("he"), gewéét ("knew"). The acute is only placed on the i if it is the only vowel in the emphasised word: wil ('want' (verb)) becomes wíl, but lui ('lazy') becomes lúi. Only a few non-loan words are spelled with acutes, e.g. dié ('this'), ná ('after'), óf ... óf ('either ... or'), nóg ... nóg ('neither ... nor'), etc. Only four non-loan words are spelled with the grave: ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'), ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'), hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), and appèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).
Initial apostrophes
A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are . The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words ( and , respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.
Here are a few examples:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Apostrophed version
! Usual version
! Translation
! Notes
|-
|
|
| I said it
| Uncommon, more common: ''
|-
|
|
| Did you eat it?
| Extremely uncommon
|-
|
|
| A man walks there
| Standard Afrikaans pronounces as a schwa vowel.
|}
The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, .
Table of characters
For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, see Help:IPA/Afrikaans.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Afrikaans letters and pronunciation
|-
! Grapheme !! IPA !! Examples and Notes
|-
| a || ,
| '' ('apple'; ), ('languages'; ). Represents in closed syllables and in stressed open syllables
|-
|á
|/a/, /ɑ:/
|ná (after)
|-
|ä
|/a/, /ɑ:/
|sebraägtig ('zebra-like'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable.
|-
| aa || || ('monkey', 'ape'). Only occurs in closed syllables.
|-
| aai || || ('turn')
|-
| ae || || ('questions'); the vowels belong to two separate syllables
|-
| ai || || ('many', 'much' or 'very'), (expression of frustration or resignation)
|-
| b || , /p/ || ('tree')
|-
| c || ,
| Found only in borrowed words or proper nouns; the former pronunciation occurs before 'e', 'i', or 'y'; featured in the Latinate plural ending (singular form )
|-
| ch || , ,
| ('surgeon'; ; typically is used instead), ('chemistry'; ), ('chitin'; ). Found only in recent loanwords and in proper nouns
|-
| d || , || ('day'), ('part', 'divide', 'share')
|-
| dj || , || ('teak'), ('sandwich'). Used to transcribe foreign words for the former pronunciation, and in the diminutive suffix for the latter in words ending with d
|-
| e || , , , ,
| (), ('person', /eː/) (lengthened before ) ('meal', and respectively), ('I', /æ/), berg ('mountain', /æː/) (lengthened before ). is the unstressed allophone of
|-
|é
|, ,
|dié ('this'), mét ('with', emphasised), ék ('I; me', emphasised), wéét ('know', emphasised)
|-
| è || || Found in loanwords (like crèche) and proper nouns (like Eugène) where the spelling was maintained, and in four non-loanwords: ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'), ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'), hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), and appèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).
|-
| ê || , || ('to say'), ('world'), ('file') (Allophonically before )
|-
| ë || –
| Diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus , and are pronounced like 'e', 'ee' and 'ei', respectively
|-
| ee || || ('to know'), ('one')
|-
| eeu || || leeu ('lion'), eeu ('century', 'age')
|-
| ei || || ('to lead')
|-
| eu || || ('son' or 'lad')
|-
| f || || ('bicycle')
|-
| g || , || exists as the allophone of if at the end of a root word preceded by a stressed single vowel + and suffixed with a schwa, e.g. ('mountain') is pronounced as , and is pronounced as
|-
| gh ||
| ('golf'). Used for when it is not an allophone of ; found only in borrowed words. If the h instead begins the next syllable, the two letters are pronounced separately.
|-
| h || || ('hail'), ('dog')
|-
| i || ,
| ('child'; ), ('ink'; ), ('crisis'; and respectively), ('electricity'; for all three; third 'i' is part of diphthong 'ei')
|-
|í
|/i/, /ə/
| ('crisis', emphasised), ('that', emphasised)
|-
| î || || (plural of ; 'wedges' or 'quoins')
|-
| ï || /i/, /ə/
| Found in words such as ('to influence'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable.
|-
| || || ('something'), ('four')
|-
| j || || (plural 'you')
|-
| k || || ('cat'), ('can' (verb) or 'jug')
|-
| l || || ('laugh')
|-
| m || || ('man')
|-
| n || || ('nail')
|-
|ʼn
|/ə/
|indefinite article ʼn ('a'), styled as a ligature (Unicode character U+0149)
|-
| ng || || ('to sing')
|-
| o || , , || ('up(on)'; ), ('size'; ), ('police'; )
|-
|ó
|,
|óp ('done, finished', emphasised), gróót ('huge', emphasised)
|-
| ô || || ('tomorrow')
|-
| ö || ,
| Found in words such as ('co-operation'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus is pronounced the same as 'o' based on the following remainder of the word.
|-
| oe || || ('book'), ('course', 'direction')
|-
| oei || || ('cow')
|-
<!-- | oi || || 'toilet'
|- -->
| oo || || ('uncle' or 'sir')
|-
| ooi || || ('pretty', 'beautiful'), ('invite')
|-
| ou || || ('the guy'), ('the old shoe'). Sometimes spelled in loanwords and surnames, for example .
|-
| p || || ('pot'), ('purple' — or 'press' indicating the news media; the latter is often spelled with an <ê>)
|-
| q ||
| Found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained; typically is used instead
|-
| r || || ('red')
|-
| s || , , , || ('six'), ('voice' or 'vote'), ('position', for first 's', for second 's'), ('rational', (nonstandard; formally /s/ is used instead) ('visual', (nonstandard; /z/ is more formal)
|-
| sj || || ('shawl'), ('chocolate')
|-
| t || || ('table')
|-
| tj || , || ('whine like a dog' or 'to cry incessantly'). The latter pronunciation occurs in the common diminutive suffix
|-
| u || , || ('piece'), ('union'), ('wall')
|-
|ú
|/œ/, /y(:)/
|búk ('bend over', emphasised), ú ('you', formal, emphasised)
|-
| û || || ('bridges')
|-
| ü || –
| Found in words such as ('reunion'). The diaeresis indicates the start of a new syllable, thus is pronounced the same as , except when found in proper nouns and surnames from German, like .
|-
| ui || || ('out')
|-
| uu || || ('hour')
|-
| v || , /v/ || ('fish'), visuëel ('visual')
|-
| w || , || ('water'; ); allophonically after obstruents within a root; an example: ('brush'; )
|-
| x || , || ('xiphoid'; ), ('x-ray'; ).
|-
| y || || ('bite')
|-
|ý
|/əi/
|hý ('he', emphasised)
|-
| z || || ('Zulu'). Found only in onomatopoeia and loanwords
|}
Sample text
Psalm 23 1953 translation:
<poem style"margin-left: 1em; font-style: italic;" lang"af">
Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie.
Hy laat my rus in groen weivelde. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is.
Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam.
Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.
</poem>
Lord's Prayer (Afrikaans New Living Version translation):
<poem style"margin-left: 1em; font-style: italic;" lang"af">
Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word.
Laat u koninkryk kom.
Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel.
Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het.
En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het.
Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; maar bevry ons van die greep van die bose.
Want aan U behoort die koningskap,
en die krag,
en die heerlikheid,
vir altyd.
Amen.
</poem>
Lord's Prayer (Original translation):
<poem style"margin-left: 1em; font-style: italic;" lang"af">
Onse Vader wat in die hemel is,
laat U Naam geheilig word;
laat U koninkryk kom;
laat U wil geskied op die aarde,
net soos in die hemel.
Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood;
en vergeef ons ons skulde
soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe
en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie
maar verlos ons van die bose
Want aan U behoort die koninkryk
en die krag
en die heerlikheid
tot in ewigheid.
Amen
</poem>
See also
* Arts Festival
* Afrikaans literature
* Afrikaans speaking population in South Africa
* Arabic Afrikaans
* (Afrikaans Dictionary)
* Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch
* IPA/Afrikaans
* (Arts Festival)
* Languages of South Africa
*
* List of Afrikaans language poets
* List of Afrikaans singers
* List of English words of Afrikaans origin
* South African Translators' Institute
*
Notes
References Citations Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* -elision and intersonorantic in Afrikaans |editor-lastvan der Wouden |editor-firstTon |year2012 |titleRoots of Afrikaans: Selected Writings of Hans Den Besten |publisherJohn Benjamins Publishing Company |pages79–93 |isbn978-90-272-5267-8}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Grieshaber, Nicky. 2011. Diacs and Quirks in a Nutshell – Afrikaans spelling explained. Pietermaritzburg. ; e-.
*
*
External links
* [https://afrikaans.com afrikaans.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120604085505/http://hablaa.com/afrikaans-english/ Afrikaans English Online Dictionary at Hablaa] (archived 4 June 2012)
* [http://www.majstro.com/dictionaries/Afrikaans-English/ Afrikaans-English Online Dictionary at majstro.com]
* [https://www.afrikaans.us/Afrikaans/ Learn Afrikaans Online] (Open Learning Environment)
* [http://www.fak.org.za/ Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK)] – Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Associations
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4326 Dutch Writers from South Africa: A Cultural-Historical Study, Part I] from the World Digital Library
* [http://www.ascleiden.nl/?qcontent/webdossiers/afrikaans-literature-and-language Afrikaans Literature and Language Web dossier African Studies Centre, Leiden (2011)]
Category:Analytic languages
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Languages of Botswana
Category:Languages of Namibia
Category:Languages of South Africa
Category:Languages of Eswatini
Category:Low Franconian languages
Category:Stress-timed languages
Category:Subject–object–verb languages
Category:Verb-second languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.474877 |
2163 | Aeolus | In Greek mythology, Aeolus or Aiolos (; , }}) is a name shared by three mythical characters. These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear that he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.
* The first Aeolus was a son of Hellen and the eponymous founder of the Aeolian race.
* The second Aeolus was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
* The third Aeolus was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in the Odyssey and the Aeneid as the ruler of the winds.
All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.
Aeolus was also the name of the following minor characters:
* Aeolus, a defender of Thebes in the war of the Seven against Thebes. He was killed by Parthenopaeus.
* Aeolus, a Trojan companion of Aeneas in Italy, where he was killed by Turnus, King of the Rutulians. Aeolus was the father of Clytius and Misenus.
See also
*Aeolia (mythical island), island kingdom of Aeolus, ruler of the winds
Notes
References
* Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . [http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/206 Online version at ToposText].
* Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Kerényi, Karl, The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. [https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].
* Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. .
* Rose, H. J., s.v. Aeolus (2) in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. .
* Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0104 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume II, Thebaid, Books V–XII, Achilleid, Loeb Classical Library No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. . [https://archive.org/stream/statiuswithengli02statuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Internet Archive].
* Thomas, Richard. F., "The Isolation of Turnus, Aeneid, book 12", in ''Vergil's Aeneid: Augustan Epic and Political Context, Hans-Peter Stahl (ed.), Classical Press of Wales, pp. 271–303. .
* Virgil, Aeneid, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* de Weever, Jaqueline, Chaucer Name Dictionary'', Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1988, 1996.
Category:Trojans
Category:Characters in the Aeneid
Category:Characters in Seven against Thebes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolus | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.482367 |
2166 | ABC | ABC are the first three letters of the Latin script.
ABC or abc may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
Broadcasting
Aliw Broadcasting Corporation, Philippine broadcast company
American Broadcasting Company, a commercial U.S. TV broadcaster
Disney–ABC Television Group, the former name of the parent organization of ABC
Australian Broadcasting Corporation, one of the national publicly funded broadcasters of Australia
ABC Television (Australian TV network), the national television network of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation
ABC TV (Australian TV channel), the flagship TV station of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation
ABC Canberra (TV station), Canberra, and other ABC TV local stations in state capitals
ABC Australia (Southeast Asian TV channel), an international pay TV channel
ABC Radio (disambiguation), several radio stations
Associated Broadcasting Corporation, the former name of TV5 Network, Inc., a Philippine media company
ABC-5, the former name of TV5, a Philippine free-to-air television network
ABC (Swedish TV programme), a former Swedish regional news programme
ABC Weekend TV, a former British television company
Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, a Japanese commercial television and radio station
Associated Broadcasting Company, a former name of Associated Television, a British television company
African Barter Company, a pan-African barter broadcast syndication company
Music
Albums
ABC (Jin album), a 2007 album by rapper MC Jin
ABC (Kreidler album), a 2014 album by Kreidler
ABC (The Jackson 5 album), a 1970 album by The Jackson 5
Groups
A.B.C., the former name of Japanese boy band A.B.C-Z
ABC (band), an English pop band
Acid Black Cherry, a Japanese rock band
Alien Beat Club, a Danish pop and R&B band
Another Bad Creation, an American hip hop and new jack swing group
Labels
ABC Classics, an Australian record label
ABC Records, an American record label
Other music
ABC song (disambiguation), several songs
ABC notation, a musical notation language
O2 ABC Glasgow, a music venue
Periodicals
ABC (magazine), an Italian magazine published between 1960 and 1977
ABC (newspaper), a Spanish daily newspaper founded in 1903
ABC (Monterrey newspaper), a Mexican newspaper founded in 1985
ABC Color, a Paraguayan newspaper founded in 1967
Other arts, entertainment and media
ABC Cinemas, a UK cinema chain
Alphabet book, a type of children's book depicting the alphabet
America's Best Comics, an imprint of DC Comics
Aviation
ABC Motors, an English manufacturer of aircraft, aero engines and cars
Advance Booking Charter, a type of air travel
Aircraft Builders Council, a provider of aviation products liability insurance
IATA airport code for Albacete Airport in Community of Castilla–La Mancha, Spain
Companies
Financial
Agricultural Bank of China, a bank in the People's Republic of China
Arab Banking Corporation, an international bank headquartered in Bahrain
Food and beverage
ABC (food), an Indonesian-based food division of the H. J. Heinz Company
Aerated Bread Company, a British bakery and tea-room chain
Alcoholic Beverage Control (disambiguation), or Alcoholic Beverage Commission, U.S. states' regulation over alcohol sales
Appalachian Brewing Company, an American brewery
Transport
ABC Rail Guide, British railway guide published between 1853 and 2007
ABC motorcycles, a British motorcycle manufacturer
Other companies
ABC Learning, a former Australian childcare business
ABC (Lebanon), a chain of department stores and shopping centers, and operator of fashion boutiques in Lebanon
ABC Stores, a chain of convenience stores in Hawaii
Anglo Belgian Corporation, a diesel engine manufacturer
Audit Bureau of Circulations (disambiguation), publication circulation auditing companies
Audit Bureau of Circulations (India), a non-profit circulation-auditing organisation
Audit Bureau of Circulations, former name for the North American non-profit industry organization Alliance for Audited Media
Audit Bureau of Circulations (UK), a non-profit organisation
Economics and law
ABC analysis, an inventory categorization technique
Activity-based costing, an accounting method
Assignment for the benefit of creditors, a concept in bankruptcy law
Organizations
Politics and unions
Abantu Batho Congress, a South African political party
ABC (Cuba), Cuban political organization 1931–1952, named after the system for labeling its clandestine cells
ABC Vancouver, a municipal political party in Vancouver, Canada
A Better Calgary Party, a municipal political party in Calgary, Canada
All Basotho Convention, a political party in Lesotho
Alliance for Barangay Concerns, a political party in the Philippines
American Bakery and Confectionery Workers' International Union, a predecessor of the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union
Americans Battling Communism, an anti-communist organization founded in 1947
Anarchist Black Cross, an anarchist support organization
Anything But Conservative, a 2008 Canadian political campaign
Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council, a local government council in Northern Ireland
Association of Barangay Captains or Association of Barangay Councils, former names of the Philippine organization League of Barangays
Association of British Counties, a non-party-political society
Religious
American Baptist Convention, former name of American Baptist Churches USA
Association of Baptist Churches in Ireland, in Ireland and the United Kingdom
Sports
ABC Futebol Clube, a football (soccer) club based in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
American Bowling Congress, which merged in 2005 with other bowling organizations to form the United States Bowling Congress
Association of Boxing Commissions, a North American not-for-profit professional boxing and mixed martial arts organization
Indianapolis ABCs, a 1900s Negro league baseball team
Other organizations
Academia Británica Cuscatleca, a school in Santa Tecla, El Salvador
Accessible Books Consortium, a subunit of the World Intellectual Property Organization
Afrikan Black Coalition, a University of California student organization
American Bird Conservancy, a non-profit membership organization
Andres Bonifacio College, in Dipolog City, Philippines
Association of Black Cardiologists, a North American non-profit
Australian Bird Count, a project of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union
Places
ABC countries, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile
ABC Islands (Alaska), Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, and Chichagof Island
ABC islands (Leeward Antilles), Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao
ABC Region, an industrial area outside of São Paulo, Brazil
Altnabreac railway station, Scotland, by National Rail code
Appa Balwant Chowk, area of Pune, India, noted for its bookshops
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
Abacavir, an antiretroviral drug used to treat HIV/AIDS
ABC (medicine), a mnemonic for "Airway, Breathing, Circulation"
ABC model of flower development, a genetic model
Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis, a posited connection between breast cancer and abortion
Alien big cat, a large feline outside its indigenous range
Aneurysmal bone cyst, a kind of lesion
ATP-binding cassette transporter, a transmembrane protein
Computing
Hardware
ABC, a line of computers by Dataindustrier AB
Acorn Business Computer, a series of microcomputers announced at the end of 1983 by the British company Acorn Computers
Atanasoff–Berry computer, an early electronic digital computer
Software
ABC (computer virus), a memory-resident, file-infecting computer virus
ABC (programming language), a programming language and environment
ABC (stream cipher), a stream cipher algorithm
Abstract base class, a programming language concept
Artificial bee colony algorithm, a search algorithm
.abc, several file formats
Mathematics
ABC formula
Approximate Bayesian computation, a family of statistical techniques
abc conjecture, a concept in number theory
Other science and technology
ABC dry chemical, a fire extinguishing agent
ABC weapon (atomic, biological, and chemical), a weapon of mass destruction
Accelerated bridge construction, a technique for building bridges
Aerial bundled cable, for power lines
Airborne Cigar, a British military electronic countermeasure system used during World War II
Atomic, biological, and chemical defense; now CBRN defense (chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear)
Psychology
ABC data collection, a descriptive functional behavior assessment method in applied behavior analysis
Affective-behavioral-cognitive model, an attitude component model
Transportation
Active Body Control, a type of automobile suspension technology
Automatic Buffer Couplers, a type of railway couplers
Cars
ABC (1906 automobile), an American car by Albert Bledsoe Cole
ABC (1920 automobile), an English car by ABC Motors
ABC (1922 automobile), a planned American car
Other uses
ABC strategy, for "abstinence, be faithful, use a condom", a sex-education strategy
ABC trial of Crispin Aubrey, John Berry and Duncan Campbell in 1978 in the United Kingdom
Abecedarium, an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet
Air batu campur, also known as ais kacang, a Malaysian dessert
American-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in the United States
Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope (1883–1963), nicknamed ABC, British WWII admiral
Architectural, building and construction, an industry; for example, see Industry Foundation Classes
Australian-born Chinese, people of Chinese ethnicity born in Australia
See also
ABCC (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.497102 |
2167 | Alford plea | In United States law, an Alford plea, also called a Kennedy plea in West Virginia, an Alford guilty plea, and the Alford doctrine, is a guilty plea in criminal court, This plea is allowed even if the evidence to be presented by the prosecution would be likely to persuade a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. This can be caused by circumstantial evidence and testimony favoring the prosecution, and difficulty finding evidence and witnesses that would aid the defense.
Alford pleas are legally permissible in nearly all U.S. federal and state courts, except in the state courts of Indiana, Michigan, and New Jersey, or in the United States military courts.
Origin
The Alford guilty plea is named after the United States Supreme Court case of North Carolina v. Alford (1970). Alford was sentenced to 30 years in prison after the trial judge accepted the plea bargain and ruled that the defendant had been adequately advised by his lawyer. The Court held that for the plea to be accepted, the defendant must have been advised by a competent lawyer who could inform him that his best option was to enter a guilty plea. The Court ruled that the defendant can enter such a plea "when he concludes that his interests require a guilty plea and the record strongly indicates guilt."
Definition
The Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms defines the term "Alford plea" as: "A plea under which a defendant may choose to plead guilty, not because of an admission to the crime, but because the prosecutor has sufficient evidence to place a charge and to obtain conviction in court. The plea is commonly used in local and state courts in the United States." The defendant pleads guilty, but does not have to specifically admit to the guilt itself. The defendant maintains a claim of innocence, but agrees to the entry of a conviction in the charged crime. Upon receiving an Alford guilty plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose sentence as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea. Defendants usually enter an Alford guilty plea if they want to avoid a possibly worse sentence were they to lose the case against them at trial.
Court and government use
This form of guilty plea has been frequently used in local and state courts in the United States, This form of plea is not allowed in courts of the United States military. In 2000, the United States Department of Justice noted: "In an Alford plea the defendant agrees to plead guilty because he or she realizes that there is little chance to win acquittal because of the strong evidence of guilt. About 17% of State inmates and 5% of Federal inmates submitted either an Alford plea or a no contest plea, regardless of the type of attorney. This difference reflects the relative readiness of State courts, compared to Federal courts, to accept an alternative plea."
In the 1995 case State of Idaho v. Howry before the Idaho Court of Appeals, the Court commented on the impact of the Alford guilty plea on later sentencing. In the 1999 South Carolina Supreme Court case State v. Gaines, that court held that Alford guilty pleas would be considered valid even in the absence of a specific on-the-record ruling that the pleas were voluntary, provided that the sentencing judge acted appropriately in accordance with the rules for acceptance of a plea made voluntarily by the defendant. The Court held that a ruling that the plea was entered into voluntarily is implied by the act of sentencing. In October 2008, the United States Department of Justice defined an Alford plea as follows: "the defendant maintains his or her innocence with respect to the charge to which he or she offers to plead guilty".
In March 2009, the Minnesota House of Representatives characterized the Alford plea as "a form of a guilty plea in which the defendant asserts innocence but acknowledges on the record that the prosecutor could present enough evidence to prove guilt." The Minnesota Judicial Branch similarly states: "Alford Plea: A plea of guilty that may be accepted by a court even where the defendant does not admit guilt. In an Alford plea, defendant has to admit that he has reviewed the state's evidence, a reasonable jury could find him guilty, and he wants to take advantage of a plea offer that has been made. Court has discretion as to whether to accept this type of plea."
The U.S. Attorneys' Manual states that in the federal system, Alford pleas "should be avoided except in the most unusual circumstances, even if no plea agreement is involved and the plea would cover all pending charges." U.S. Attorneys are required to obtain the approval of an Assistant Attorney General with supervisory responsibility over the subject matter before accepting such a plea.
Use in post-conviction proceedings
The Alford plea has received public attention for its use in resolving high-profile post-conviction proceedings for individuals who claim they were wrongfully convicted for crimes they did not commit. In 2011, the West Memphis Three—three men who had been convicted as teenagers of the 1993 murders of three children and sentenced to life in prison or, for one defendant, the death penalty—entered Alford pleas decades following their initial convictions. New evidence had come to light that might exonerate them, so the Arkansas Supreme Court ordered an evidentiary hearing to consider whether a new trial would be required. Instead of holding the hearing, the defendants and state prosecutors agreed that the court would vacate the prior convictions to permit the defendants to enter Alford pleas, be re-sentenced to "time served," and obtain immediate release from prison. Casper comments on the impact of the Supreme Court's decision to require evidence of guilt in such a plea: "By requiring that there be some evidence of guilt in such a situation, the decision attempts to protect the 'really' innocent from the temptations to which plea-bargaining and defense attorneys may subject them."
Common criticisms of Alford pleas include harm to victims who are denied justice, harm to society from lack of respect for the criminal justice system, the incentive for coercion, violating the right against self-incrimination, hindering rehabilitation by avoiding treatment, and the arbitrary nature in which they are utilized, allowing a person to say one thing when they mean another.
See also
Alternative pleading
Deferred adjudication
Insanity defense
List of people who entered an Alford plea
List of U.S. states by Alford plea usage
Malum in se
Malum prohibitum
Nolo contendere
Peremptory plea
Michael Peterson
West Memphis Three
References
Further reading
External links
Alford Doctrine – State of Connecticut, Judicial Branch
USAM 9-16.000 Pleas—Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 11, United States Department of Justice
Issue: Effect of Alford Plea of Guilty, Issues In NY Criminal Law, Volume 4, Issue 11.
Transcript Of Plea Form, North Carolina, with question about term
Court cases
North Carolina v. Alford, Supreme Court of the United States
US v. Szucko, Definition of term by United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
US v. Bierd, Definition of term by United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit
Category:Pleas | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alford_plea | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.528973 |
2170 | ABCD | ABCD may refer to:
Entertainment
Film
ABCD (film), a 2005 Indian Tamil-language romance
ABCD: American Born Confused Desi (disambiguation)
ABCD: Any Body Can Dance, a 2013 Indian Hindi-language dance-drama
ABCD 2, the 2015 sequel
Music
ABCD (song), a 2024 South Korean song by Nayeon of Twice
Science and technology
Medicine
ABCD, a variation of ABC (medicine), a medical mnemonic
ABCD guideline, used in diagnosis of melanoma
ABCD rating, a staging system for prostate cancer
ABCD syndrome, a genetic disorder
Amphotericin B colloidal dispersion, an antifungal preparation
Other uses in science and technology
ABCD Schema, a data exchange and access model in biology
ABCD matrix analysis, or ray transfer matrix analysis
ABCD-parameters, in a two-port network
ABCd, an American TV streaming service
ABCD (add, browse, change, delete) a variation of create, read, update and delete in computer programming
Other uses
ABCD line, embargoes placed against the Japanese Empire by the Americans, British, Chinese and Dutch
ABCD Region, an industrial district outside of São Paulo, Brazil
ABCD ships (Atlanta, Boston, Chicago and Dolphin) of Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works
Action for Boston Community Development, an American organization
American-born confused desi, informal term for South Asian Americans
Asset-based community development, a methodology for the sustainable development of communities
Association of Better Computer Dealers, now CompTIA
"ABCD" companies that dominate world agricultural commodity trading: Archer-Daniels-Midland, Bunge, Cargill, Louis Dreyfus
See also
ABC (disambiguation)
ABCD1, a protein
ABCD2 score, a score for determining the risk of stroke after a transient ischemic attack
English alphabet | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABCD | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.532228 |
2171 | Anti-realism | In analytic philosophy, anti-realism is the position that the truth of a statement rests on its demonstrability through internal logic mechanisms, such as the context principle or intuitionistic logic, in direct opposition to the realist notion that the truth of a statement rests on its correspondence to an external, independent reality. In anti-realism, this external reality is hypothetical and is not assumed.
There are many varieties of anti-realism, such as metaphysical, mathematical, semantic, scientific, moral and epistemic. The term was first articulated by British philosopher Michael Dummett in an argument against a form of realism Dummett saw as 'colorless reductionism'.
Anti-realism in its most general sense can be understood as being in contrast to a generic realism, which holds that distinctive objects of a subject-matter exist and have properties independent of one's beliefs and conceptual schemes. The ways in which anti-realism rejects these type of claims can vary dramatically. Because this encompasses statements containing abstract ideal objects (i.e. mathematical objects), anti-realism may apply to a wide range of philosophical topics, from material objects to the theoretical entities of science, mathematical statements, mental states, events and processes, the past and the future.
Varieties
Metaphysical anti-realism
One kind of metaphysical anti-realism maintains a skepticism about the physical world, arguing either: 1) that nothing exists outside the mind, or 2) that we would have no access to a mind-independent reality, even if it exists. The latter case often takes the form of a denial of the idea that we can have 'unconceptualised' experiences (see Myth of the Given). Conversely, most realists (specifically, indirect realists) hold that perceptions or sense data are caused by mind-independent objects. But this introduces the possibility of another kind of skepticism: since our understanding of causality is that the same effect can be produced by multiple causes, there is a lack of determinacy about what one is really perceiving, as in the brain in a vat scenario. The main alternative to this sort of metaphysical anti-realism is metaphysical realism.
On a more abstract level, model-theoretic anti-realist arguments hold that a given set of symbols in a theory can be mapped onto any number of sets of real-world objects—each set being a "model" of the theory—provided the relationship between the objects is the same (compare with symbol grounding.)
In ancient Greek philosophy, nominalist (anti-realist) doctrines about universals were proposed by the Stoics, especially Chrysippus. In early modern philosophy, conceptualist anti-realist doctrines about universals were proposed by thinkers like René Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, George Berkeley, and David Hume. In late modern philosophy, anti-realist doctrines about knowledge were proposed by the German idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Hegel was a proponent of what is now called inferentialism: he believed that the ground for the axioms and the foundation for the validity of the inferences are the right consequences and that the axioms do not explain the consequence. Kant and Hegel held conceptualist views about universals. In contemporary philosophy, anti-realism was revived in the form of empirio-criticism, logical positivism, semantic anti-realism and scientific instrumentalism (see below).
Mathematical anti-realism
In the philosophy of mathematics, realism is the claim that mathematical entities such as 'number' have an observer-independent existence. Empiricism, which associates numbers with concrete physical objects, and Platonism, in which numbers are abstract, non-physical entities, are the preeminent forms of mathematical realism.
The "epistemic argument" against Platonism has been made by Paul Benacerraf and Hartry Field. Platonism posits that mathematical objects are abstract entities. By general agreement, abstract entities cannot interact causally with physical entities ("the truth-values of our mathematical assertions depend on facts involving platonic entities that reside in a realm outside of space-time"). Whilst our knowledge of physical objects is based on our ability to perceive them, and therefore to causally interact with them, there is no parallel account of how mathematicians come to have knowledge of abstract objects.
Field developed his views into fictionalism. Benacerraf also developed the philosophy of mathematical structuralism, according to which there are no mathematical objects. Nonetheless, some versions of structuralism are compatible with some versions of realism.
Counterarguments
Anti-realist arguments hinge on the idea that a satisfactory, naturalistic account of thought processes can be given for mathematical reasoning. One line of defense is to maintain that this is false, so that mathematical reasoning uses some special intuition that involves contact with the Platonic realm, as in the argument given by Sir Roger Penrose.
Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non causal, and not analogous to perception. This argument is developed by Jerrold Katz in his 2000 book Realistic Rationalism. In this book, he put forward a position called realistic rationalism, which combines metaphysical realism and rationalism.
A more radical defense is to deny the separation of physical world and the platonic world, i.e. the mathematical universe hypothesis (a variety of mathematicism). In that case, a mathematician's knowledge of mathematics is one mathematical object making contact with another.
Semantic anti-realism
The term "anti-realism" was introduced by Michael Dummett in his 1963 paper "Realism" in order to re-examine a number of classical philosophical disputes, involving such doctrines as nominalism, Platonic realism, idealism and phenomenalism. The novelty of Dummett's approach consisted in portraying these disputes as analogous to the dispute between intuitionism and Platonism in the philosophy of mathematics.
According to intuitionists (anti-realists with respect to mathematical objects), the truth of a mathematical statement consists in our ability to prove it. According to Platonic realists, the truth of a statement is proven in its correspondence to objective reality. Thus, intuitionists are ready to accept a statement of the form "P or Q" as true only if we can prove P or if we can prove Q. In particular, we cannot in general claim that "P or not P" is true (the law of excluded middle), since in some cases we may not be able to prove the statement "P" nor prove the statement "not P". Similarly, intuitionists object to the existence property for classical logic, where one can prove \exists x.\phi(x), without being able to produce any term t of which \phi holds.
Dummett argues that this notion of truth lies at the bottom of various classical forms of anti-realism, and uses it to re-interpret phenomenalism, claiming that it need not take the form of reductionism.
Dummett's writings on anti-realism draw heavily on the later writings of Ludwig Wittgenstein, concerning meaning and rule following, and can be seen as an attempt to integrate central ideas from the Philosophical Investigations into the constructive tradition of analytic philosophy deriving from Gottlob Frege.
Scientific anti-realism
In philosophy of science, anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of "unobservable" entities such as electrons or genes, which are not detectable with human senses.
One prominent variety of scientific anti-realism is instrumentalism, which takes a purely agnostic view towards the existence of unobservable entities, in which the unobservable entity X serves as an instrument to aid in the success of theory Y and does not require proof for the existence or non-existence of X.
Anti-representationalism
Anti-representationalism rejects the idea that thought and language function by mirroring or representing an independent reality. Instead, it adopts a deflationary view of truth and reference, treating them as pragmatic tools within discourse rather than robust semantic relations. Anti-representationalists like Richard Rorty and Huw Price argue that all ontological commitments are framework-dependent, denying any privileged "external" perspective to judge which claims (including scientific ones) correspond to reality.
The Semantic Thesis: Moral statements have meaning, they express propositions, or are the kind of things that can be true or false.
The Alethic Thesis: Some moral propositions are true.
The Metaphysical Thesis: The metaphysical status of moral facts is robust and ordinary, not importantly different from other facts about the world.
Different version of moral anti-realism deny different statements: specifically, non-cognitivism denies the first claim, arguing that moral statements have no meaning or truth content, error theory denies the second claim, arguing that all moral statements are false, and ethical subjectivism denies the third claim, arguing that the truth of moral statements is mind dependent.
Examples of anti-realist moral theories might be:
Ethical subjectivism
Non-cognitivism
Emotivism
Prescriptivism
Quasi-realism
Projectivism
Moral fictionalism
Moral nihilism
Moral skepticism
There is a debate as to whether moral relativism is actually an anti-realist position. While many versions deny the metaphysical thesis, some do not, as one could imagine a system of morality which requires you to obey the written laws in your country. Such a system would be a version of moral relativism, as different individuals would be required to follow different laws, but the moral facts are physical facts about the world, not mental facts, so they are metaphysically ordinary. Thus, different versions of moral relativism might be considered anti-realist or realist.
Epistemic anti-realism
Just as moral anti-realism asserts the nonexistence of normative facts, epistemic anti-realism asserts the nonexistence of facts in the domain of epistemology. Thus, the two are now sometimes grouped together as "metanormative anti-realism". Prominent defenders of epistemic anti-realism include Hartry Field, Simon Blackburn, Matthew Chrisman, and Allan Gibbard, among others.
See also
Arend Heyting
Constructivist epistemology
Crispin Wright
Critical realism (philosophy of perception)
Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer
Metaepistemology
Michael Dummett
Münchhausen trilemma
Neil Tennant (philosopher)
Philosophical realism
Quasi-realism
References
Bibliography
. reprinted, pp. 1–24.
. reprinted, pp. 145–165.
. reprinted, pp. 202–214.
Lee Braver (2007). A Thing of This World: a History of Continental Anti-Realism, Northwestern University Press: 2007.
Ian Hacking (1999). The Social Construction of What?. Harvard University Press: 2001.
Samir Okasha (2002). Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
External links
Semantic challenges to realism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Category:Philosophical realism
Category:Idealism
Category:Metaphysics of science
Category:Metatheory of science
Category:Epistemology of science | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.555336 |
2174 | Arsenal F.C. | , as Dial Square
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<!--PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING: this section is the introduction. Please do not add too much detail here. Instead add it in the relevant section below or in the relevant daughter article. This especially applies to details of recent events.-->
The Arsenal Football Club, commonly known as simply Arsenal, is a professional football club based in Islington, North London, England. They compete in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. In domestic football, Arsenal have won 13 league titles (including one unbeaten title), a record 14 FA Cups, 2 League Cups, 17 FA Community Shields, and a Football League Centenary Trophy. In European football, they have one European Cup Winners' Cup and one Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. In terms of trophies won, it is the third-most successful club in English football.
Arsenal was the first club from southern England to join the Football League in 1893, and it reached the First Division in 1904. Relegated only once, in 1913, it continues the longest streak in the top division, and has won the second-most top-flight matches in English football history. In the 1930s, Arsenal won five League Championships and two FA Cups, and another FA Cup and two Championships after the war. In 1970–71, it won its first League and FA Cup double. Between 1989 and 2005, they won five league titles and five FA Cups, including two more doubles. They completed the 20th century with the highest average league position. Between 1998 and 2017, Arsenal qualified for the UEFA Champions League for an English football record nineteen consecutive seasons.
In 1886, munitions workers at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich founded the club as Dial Square. In 1913, the club crossed the city to Arsenal Stadium in Highbury, becoming close neighbours of Tottenham Hotspur, and creating the North London derby. Herbert Chapman won the club its first silverware, and his legacy enabled a trophy-laden period in the 1930s. He helped introduce the WM formation, floodlights, and shirt numbers; he also added the white sleeves and brighter red to the club's jersey. Arsène Wenger is the club's longest-serving manager and has won the most trophies. He won a record seven FA Cups, and his third and final title-winning team set an English record for the longest top-flight unbeaten league run at 49 games between 2003 and 2004, receiving the nickname The Invincibles.
In 2006, the club moved to the nearby Emirates Stadium. With an annual revenue of £367.1m in the 2021–22 season, Arsenal was estimated to be worth US$2.26 billion by Forbes, making it the world's tenth-most valuable football club, while it is one of the most followed on social media. The motto of the club is Victoria Concordia Crescit, Latin for "Victory Through Harmony".
History
<!-- PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING: This section aims to provide an elegant overview of Arsenal's history. While brevity is important, it is crucial to maintain accuracy and capture the essence of the club's journey in a fashion that is discernible for a lay reader. For more in-depth exploration of Arsenal's rich history, editors are encouraged to explore dedicated articles that delve into specific eras & milestones, however these should not detract from the central article. -->
1886–1912: Dial Square to Royal Arsenal
sits on the right of the bench.]]
In October 1886, Scotsman David Danskin and fifteen fellow munitions workers in Woolwich formed Dial Square Football Club, named after a workshop at the heart of the Royal Arsenal complex. Each member contributed sixpence, and Danskin also added three shillings to help form the club. Danskin was made official captain the next month. and its first home was Plumstead Common, In 1891, Royal Arsenal became the first London club to turn professional.
Royal Arsenal was renamed for the second time upon becoming a limited liability company in 1893. They registered their new name, Woolwich Arsenal, with the Football League when the club ascended later that year. Woolwich Arsenal was the first southern member of the Football League, starting out in the Second Division and reaching the First Division in 1904. Falling attendances, due to financial difficulties among the munitions workers and the arrival of more accessible football clubs elsewhere in the city, led the club close to bankruptcy by 1910. In 1919, the Football League controversially voted to promote The Arsenal, instead of relegated local rivals Tottenham Hotspur, into the newly enlarged First Division, despite only finishing fifth in the Second Division's last pre-war season of 1914–15. Later that year, The Arsenal started dropping "The" in official documents, gradually shifting its name for the final time towards Arsenal, as it is generally known today. stands inside the Emirates Stadium.]]
With a new home and First Division football, attendances were more than double those at the Manor Ground, and Arsenal's budget grew rapidly. With record-breaking spending and gate receipts, Arsenal quickly became known as the Bank of England club.
1925–1934: Herbert Chapman's legendary Gunners
Arsenal's location and record-breaking salary offer lured star Huddersfield Town manager Herbert Chapman in 1925. Over the next five years, Chapman built a revolutionary new Arsenal. Firstly, he appointed an enduring new trainer, Tom Whittaker who would one day rise to become a fabled Arsenal manager himself. With the help of player Charlie Buchan, implemented the nascent WM formation which would serve as a stable bedrock to his outfit. He also captured generational young talents such as Cliff Bastin and Eddie Hapgood, whilst also lavishing Highbury's high income on stars such as David Jack and Alex James.
Transformed, Chapman's Arsenal claimed their first national trophy, the FA Cup in 1930, and League Championships followed in 1930–31 and 1932–33. Chapman also presided over off-pitch changes: white sleeves and shirt numbers were added to the kit; Newspaper accounts of the addition of white sleeves are provided by Mark Andrews. The contemporary discussion around the first use of shirt numbers, and its initial trial by Chelsea F.C., is provided by Neil Glackin.}} a Tube station was named after the club; and the first of two opulent Art Deco stands was completed, with some of the first floodlights in English football.
1934–1947: Shaw, Allison and the Second World War
Chapman's death meant work was left to his colleagues Joe Shaw and George Allison, with both proving to be shrewd and consummate custodians of Chapman's excellent Arsenal team, seeing out a hat-trick of league wins with the 1933–34, 1934–35, and 1937–38 titles, and then furthermore winning the 1936 FA Cup.
World War II meant the Football League was suspended for seven years. While Arsenal were paraded by the nation as a symbol of solidarity with war efforts, the war took a huge toll on the team as the club had had more players killed than any top flight club. Furthermore, debt from reconstructing an ambitious North Bank Stand redevelopment greatly bled Arsenal's resources. He gathered a successful and highly skilled Arsenal side in spite of greatly limited resources, with a fiery and expansive style that drove great fanfare at the time.
1962–1984: Billy Wright, Bertie Mee and Terry Neill's cohorts
(left) and Bertie Mee (who led Arsenal to their first double in 1971), pictured in 1972]]
Arsenal were not to win the League or the FA Cup for another 18 years. The '53 Champions squad had aged, and the club failed to attract strong enough replacements. Although Arsenal were competitive during these years, their fortunes had waned; the club spent most of the 1950s and 1960s in mid-table mediocrity. Even former England captain Billy Wright could not bring the club any success as manager, in a stint between 1962 and 1966.
Arsenal tentatively appointed club physiotherapist Bertie Mee as acting manager in 1966. With new assistant Don Howe and new players such as Bob McNab and George Graham, Mee led Arsenal to their first League Cup finals, in 1967–68 and 1968–69. Next season saw a breakthrough, with Arsenal's first competitive European trophy, the 1969–70 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. The season after, Arsenal achieved an even greater triumph with their first League and FA Cup double, and a new champions of England record. This marked a premature high point of the decade; the Double-winning side was soon broken up and the rest of the decade was characterised by a series of near misses, with Arsenal finishing as FA Cup runners up in 1972, and First Division runners-up in 1972–73. With new signings like Malcolm Macdonald and Pat Jennings, and a crop of talent in the side like Liam Brady and Frank Stapleton, the club reached a trio of FA Cup finals (1978 FA Cup, 1979 FA Cup and 1980 FA Cup), and lost the 1980 European Cup Winners' Cup Final on penalties. The club's only trophy during this time was the 1979 FA Cup, achieved with a last-minute 3–2 victory over Manchester United, in a final is widely regarded as a classic.
1984–1996: George Graham's Arsenal
statue outside the Emirates Stadium]]
One of Mee's double winners, George Graham, returned as manager in 1986, with Arsenal winning their first League Cup in 1987, Graham's first season in charge. New signings Nigel Winterburn, Lee Dixon and Steve Bould had joined the club by 1988 to complete the "famous Back Four", led by homegrown player Tony Adams. Graham's credo of prioritising defensive excellence seemingly clashed with the club's traditionally expansive motifs and many had skepticism whether it would work with the young squad at the club in that time period; however, his methods quickly gained a cult following after initial successes.
The side immediately won the 1988 Football League Centenary Trophy, and followed it with the 1988–89 Football League title, snatched with a last-minute goal in the final game of the season against fellow title challengers Liverpool. Graham's Arsenal won another title in 1990–91, losing only one match, won the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1993, and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1994. Graham's reputation was tarnished when he was found to have taken kickbacks from agent Rune Hauge for signing certain players, and he was dismissed in 1995. His replacement, Bruce Rioch, lasted for only one season, leaving the club after a dispute with the board of directors.1996–2018: Arsene Wenger yearsseason, a unique gold trophy was commissioned to Arsenal.|alt]]
The club metamorphosed during the tenure of French manager Arsène Wenger, who was appointed in 1996. Attacking football, an overhaul of dietary and fitness practices, and skepticism. For context of the broader use of science in English football, see Soccer Science.}} and elite scouting defined his reign. Accumulating key players from Wenger's homeland, such as Patrick Vieira and Thierry Henry, Arsenal won a second League and Cup double in 1997–98 and a third in 2001–02. In addition, the club reached the final of the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, were victorious in the 2003 and 2005 FA Cup finals, and won the Premier League in 2003–04 without losing a single match, an achievement which earned the side the nickname "The Invincibles". This feat came within a run of 49 league matches unbeaten from 7 May 2003 to 24 October 2004, a national record.
Arsenal finished in either first or second place in the league in eight of Wenger's first nine seasons at the club, although they never won the title in two consecutive seasons.
The club had never progressed beyond the quarter-finals of the Champions League until 2005–06; in that season, they became the first club from London to reach the final in the competition's fifty-year history, but were beaten 2–1 by Barcelona.
Arsenal reached the finals of the 2007 and 2011 League Cups, losing 2–1 to Chelsea and Birmingham City respectively. The club had not gained a trophy since the 2005 FA Cup until, spearheaded by club record acquisition Mesut Özil, Arsenal beat Hull City in the 2014 FA Cup Final, coming back from a 2–0 deficit to win the match 3–2. A year later, Arsenal completed another victorious FA Cup campaign, and became the most successful club in the tournament's history by winning their 13th FA Cup in 2016–17. However, in that same season Arsenal finished fifth in the league, the first time they had finished outside the top four since before Wenger arrived in 1996. In his 21st and final season, Arsenal under Arsene Wenger finished sixth and won the FA Community Shield. Wenger departed Arsenal following the end of the season on 13 May 2018.
2018–2020: post-Wenger revolution
After conducting an overhaul in the club's operating model to coincide with Wenger's departure, Spaniard Unai Emery was named as the club's new head coach on 23 May 2018. He became the club's first ever 'head coach' and second manager from outside the United Kingdom. In Emery's first season, Arsenal finished fifth in the Premier League and as runner-up in the Europa League. On 29 November 2019, Emery was dismissed as manager and former player and assistant first team coach Freddie Ljungberg was appointed as interim head coach. 2020–: Mikel Arteta era On 20 December 2019, Arsenal appointed former club captain Mikel Arteta as the new head coach. Arsenal finished the 2019–20 season in eighth, their lowest finish since 1994–95, but beat Chelsea 2–1 to earn a record-extending 14th FA Cup win. After the season, Arteta's title was changed from head coach to manager. On 18 April 2021, Arsenal were announced as a founding club of the breakaway European competition The Super League; they withdrew from the competition two days later amid near-universal condemnation. Arsenal finished the 2020–21 season in eighth place once again, not qualifying for a European competition for the first time in 26 years. The season after (2021–22), Arteta had assembled the youngest outfit in the Premier League with an average starting age of 24 years and 308 days – more than a whole year younger than the next team. They finished in fifth in the Premier League that year, and qualified for next season's UEFA Europa League.
By the 2022–23 season, Arsenal returned to the Champions League by coming second to Manchester City, setting a record for most time spent on top of the table without actually winning the league, ending on 84 points. In the 2023–24 season, Arsenal beat Manchester City to claim their 17th FA Community Shield, they finished second in the Premier League to Manchester City with an improved 89 points from their previous campaign.Crest
{| class="center toccolours"
|+ Crests of Arsenal F.C. prior to current crest
|<gallery mode"packed" heights"120" style="line-height:100%">
File:Arsenal crest 1888.png|Royal Arsenal's first crest, adopted in 1888, two years after the formation of the club
File:Arsenal Crest 1930.svg|'Monogram' badge used in the 1930 FA Cup Final
File:Arsenal Crest Art Deco.svg|'Art Deco Crest'
File:Arsenal Crest 1952.svg|Version of the 'Art Deco Crest' worn in the 1952 FA Cup final
File:Arsenal Crest 1978-1989.svg|Cannon featured on shirt from 1960s to 1990s
File:Arsenal F.C. crest (1949–1990).png|VCC crest: used between 1949 and 2002
</gallery>
|}
–1993
| alt1 = 1990–1993 Arsenal crest
| image2 = Arsenal Crest 1994-1995.svg
| caption2 = –1995
| alt2 = 1996–2001 Arsenal crest
| image3 = Arsenal Crest 1996-2001.svg
| caption3 = –2001
| image4 = Arsenal FC logo (2001-2002).svg
| caption4 = 2001–02 season
| alt4 = 2001–2002 Arsenal crest
}}
Unveiled in 1888, Royal Arsenal's first crest featured three cannons viewed from above, pointing northwards, similar to the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich (nowadays transferred to the coat of arms of the Royal Borough of Greenwich). These can sometimes be mistaken for chimneys, but the presence of a carved lion's head and a cascabel on each are clear indicators that they are cannons. This was dropped after the move to Highbury in 1913, only to be reinstated in 1922, when the club adopted a crest featuring a single cannon, pointing eastwards, with the club's nickname, The Gunners, inscribed alongside it; this crest only lasted until 1925, when the cannon was reversed to point westward and its barrel slimmed down. For the first time, the crest was rendered in colour, which varied slightly over the crest's lifespan, finally becoming red, gold and green. Because of the numerous revisions of the crest, Arsenal were unable to copyright it. Although the club had managed to register the crest as a trademark, and had fought (and eventually won) a long legal battle with a local street trader who sold "unofficial" Arsenal merchandise, Arsenal eventually sought a more comprehensive legal protection. Therefore, in 2002 they introduced a new crest featuring more modern curved lines and a simplified style, which was copyrightable.
The cannon once again faces east, and the club's name is written in a sans-serif typeface above the cannon. Green was replaced by dark blue. The new crest was criticised by some supporters; the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association claimed that the club had ignored much of Arsenal's history and tradition with such a radical modern design, and that fans had not been properly consulted on the issue.
Until the 1960s, a badge was worn on the playing shirt only for high-profile matches such as FA Cup finals, usually in the form of a monogram of the club's initials in red on a white background.
The monogram theme was developed into an Art Deco-style badge on which the letters A and C framed a football rather than the letter F, the whole set within a hexagonal border. This early example of a corporate logo, introduced as part of Herbert Chapman's rebranding of the club in the 1930s, was used not only on Cup Final shirts but as a design feature throughout Highbury Stadium, including above the main entrance and inlaid in the floors.
From 1967, a white cannon was regularly worn on the shirts, until replaced by the club crest, sometimes with the addition of the nickname "The Gunners", in the 1990s.
Starting in the 2021–22 season, Adidas reintroduced the cannon-only crest on that season's away kit. It was the first time it had been seen on an Arsenal shirt since 1991. It would remain in use on the away kit in 2022–23 and in 2023–24 would be added to the third kit as well, before being used on all three kits in 2024–25 - marking the first time the crest would not be seen on an Arsenal kit since its introduction in 2002.
Colours
For much of Arsenal's history, their home colours have been bright red shirts with white sleeves and white shorts, though this has not always been the case. The choice of red is in recognition of a charitable donation from Nottingham Forest, soon after Arsenal's foundation in 1886. Two of Dial Square's founding members, Fred Beardsley and Morris Bates, were former Forest players who had moved to Woolwich for work. As they put together the first team in the area, no kit could be found, so Beardsley and Bates wrote home for help and received a set of kit and a ball. The shirt was redcurrant, a dark shade of red, and was worn with white shorts and socks with blue and white hoops.
In 1933, Herbert Chapman, wanting his players to be more distinctly dressed, updated the kit, adding white sleeves and changing the shade to a brighter pillar box red. Two possibilities have been suggested for the origin of the white sleeves. One story reports that Chapman noticed a supporter in the stands wearing a red sleeveless sweater over a white shirt; another was that he was inspired by a similar outfit worn by the cartoonist Tom Webster, with whom Chapman played golf. Regardless of which story is true, the red-and-white shirts have come to define Arsenal, and the team have worn that combination ever since that time, aside from two seasons. The first was 1966–67, when Arsenal wore all-red shirts; In 1941, Luis Robledo, an England-schooled founder of Santa Fe and a fan of Arsenal, selected the main colours for his newly created team. In 1920, Sporting Clube de Braga's manager returned from a game at Highbury and changed his team's green kit to a duplicate of Arsenal's red-with-white-sleeves-and-shorts, giving rise to the team's nickname of Os Arsenalistas. These teams still wear those designs to this day.
For many years Arsenal's away colours were white or navy blue. However, in 1968 the FA banned navy shirts (they looked too similar to referees' black kit), so in the 1969–70 season Arsenal introduced an away kit of yellow shirts with blue shorts. This kit was worn in the 1971 FA Cup Final when Arsenal beat Liverpool to secure the double for the first time in their history. The yellow and blue strip became almost as famous as their iconic red-and-white home kit. Arsenal reached the FA Cup final again the following year wearing the red-and-white home strip and were beaten by Leeds United. Arsenal then competed in three consecutive FA Cup finals between 1978 and 1980 wearing their "lucky" yellow and blue strip,
Until 2014, the away kit was changed every season, and the outgoing away kit became the third-choice kit if a new home kit was being introduced in the same year.
After Puma began manufacturing Arsenal's kits in 2014, new home, away and third kits were released every season. In the 2017–18 season, Puma released a new colour scheme for the away and third kits. The away kit was a light blue, which faded to a darker blue near the bottom, while the third kit was black with red highlight. Puma returned to the original colour scheme for the 2018–19 season. From the 2019–20 season Arsenal's kits are manufactured by Adidas.
Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
{| style="width:480px; float:Left; padding-right: 1em; text-align:center"
|-
|valigntop width90%|
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|+ Arsenal kits
|-
! Period
! Kit manufacturer
! Shirt sponsor (chest)
! Shirt sponsor (sleeve)
|-
| 1886–1930
|| Unidentified
| rowspan="3" | None
| rowspan="10" | None
|-
| 1930–1970
|| Bukta
|-
| 1971–1981
| rowspan="2" | Umbro
|-
| 1981–1986
| rowspan="3" | JVC
|-
| 1986–1994
|| Adidas
|-
| 1994–1999
| rowspan="4" | Nike
|-
| 1999–2002
|| Dreamcast<br /> Sega
|-
| 2002–2006
|| O2
|-
| 2006–2014
| rowspan"4" | Emirates
|-
| 2014–2018
| rowspan="2" | Puma
|-
| 2018–2019
| rowspan"2" | Visit Rwanda
|-
| 2019–present
|| Adidas
|}
|}
Stadiums
, Woolwich Arsenal vs. Everton]]
Before joining the Football League, Arsenal played briefly on Plumstead Common, then at the Manor Ground in Plumstead, then spent three years between 1890 and 1893 at the nearby Invicta Ground. Upon joining the Football League in 1893, the club returned to the Manor Ground and installed stands and terracing, upgrading it from just a field. Arsenal continued to play their home games there for the next twenty years (with two exceptions in the 1894–95 season), until the move to north London in 1913.
Widely referred to as Highbury, Arsenal Stadium was the club's home from September 1913 until May 2006. The original stadium was designed by the renowned football architect Archibald Leitch, and had a design common to many football grounds in the UK at the time, with a single covered stand and three open-air banks of terracing. This capacity had to be reduced further during Champions League matches to accommodate additional advertising boards, so much so that for two seasons, from 1998 to 2000, Arsenal played Champions League home matches at Wembley, which could house more than 70,000 spectators.
, Highbury|alt=A grandstand at a sports stadium. The seats are predominantly red.]]
Expansion of Highbury was restricted because the East Stand had been designated as a Grade II listed building and the other three stands were close to residential properties. After considering various options, in 2000 Arsenal proposed building a new 60,361-capacity stadium at Ashburton Grove, since named the Emirates Stadium, about 500 metres south-west of Highbury. The project was initially delayed by red tape and rising costs, and construction was completed in July 2006, in time for the start of the 2006–07 season. The stadium was named after its sponsors, the airline company Emirates, with whom the club signed the largest sponsorship deal in English football history, worth around £100 million. Some fans referred to the ground as Ashburton Grove, or the Grove, as they did not agree with corporate sponsorship of stadium names. The stadium will be officially known as Emirates Stadium until at least 2028, and the airline will be the club's shirt sponsor until at least 2024. From the start of the 2010–11 season on, the stands of the stadium have been officially known as North Bank, East Stand, West Stand and Clock end. The capacity of the Emirates now stands at 60,704.
Arsenal's players train at the Shenley Training Centre in Hertfordshire, a purpose-built facility which opened in 1999.
Before that the club used facilities on a nearby site owned by the University College of London Students' Union. Until 1961 they had trained at Highbury.
Arsenal's Academy under-18 teams play their home matches at Shenley, while the reserves play their games at Meadow Park, which is also the home of Boreham Wood. Both the Academy under-18 team and the reserves occasionally play their big games at the Emirates in front of a crowd reduced to only the lower west stand.
Supporters and rivalries
Arsenal's fanbase are referred to as "Gooners" – the name derived from the club's nickname "The Gunners". Virtually all home matches sell out; in 2007–08 Arsenal had the second-highest average League attendance for an English club (60,070, which was 99.5% of available capacity), and, as of 2015, the third-highest all-time average attendance. Arsenal have the seventh highest average attendance of European football clubs only behind Borussia Dortmund, Barcelona, Manchester United, Real Madrid, Bayern Munich and Schalke 04. The club's location, adjoining wealthy areas such as Canonbury and Barnsbury, mixed areas such as Islington, Holloway, Highbury, and the adjacent London Borough of Camden, and largely working-class areas such as Finsbury Park and Stoke Newington, has meant that Arsenal's supporters have come from a variety of social classes. Much of the Afro-Caribbean support comes from the neighbouring London Borough of Hackney and a large portion of the South Asian Arsenal supporters commute to the stadium from Wembley Park, North West of the capital. There was also traditionally a large Irish community that followed Arsenal, with the surrounding Islington and particularly the nearby Archway area having a large community of residents with Irish heritage. But Irish migration to North London is recently much lower than in the 1960s or 1970s.
Like all major English football clubs, Arsenal have a number of domestic supporters' clubs, including the Arsenal Football Supporters' Club, which works closely with the club, and the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association, which maintains a more independent line. The Arsenal Supporters' Trust promotes greater participation in ownership of the club by fans. The club's supporters also publish fanzines such as The Gooner, Gunflash and the satirical Up The Arse!
There have always been Arsenal supporters outside London, and since the advent of satellite television, a supporter's attachment to a football club has become less dependent on geography. Consequently, Arsenal have a significant number of fans from beyond London and all over the world; in 2007, 24 UK, 37 Irish and 49 other overseas supporters' clubs were affiliated with the club. A 2011 report by SPORT+MARKT estimated Arsenal's global fanbase at 113 million. The club's social media activity was the fifth highest in world football during the 2014–15 season.
Chants
The team's anthem is "The Angel (North London Forever)" by Louis Dunford. The song is typically played at Arsenal home games before a match.
In addition to the usual English football chants, Arsenal's supporters sing "One-Nil to the Arsenal" (to the tune of "Go West") and also regularly sing "Who's that team they call the Arsenal", "Good Old Arsenal" (to the tune of "Rule, Britannia!") and "We're the North Bank/Clock End Highbury". The fans also chant "Boring, Boring Arsenal" in self-deprecating reference to Arsenal's reputation during the 1970s and 1980s as an overly defensive, cautious team.
Rivalries
, in November 2010]]
Arsenal's longest-running and deepest rivalry is with their nearest major neighbour, Tottenham Hotspur; matches between the two are referred to as the North London derby. There also exists a rivalry between Arsenal and Chelsea. In addition, Arsenal and Manchester United developed a strong on-pitch rivalry in the late 1980s, which intensified in the early 2000s when both clubs were competing for the Premier League title.MascotThe club mascot is Gunnersaurus Rex, a smiling, seven-foot-tall green dinosaur, who first appeared at a home match against Manchester City in August 1994 (or 1993). He is based on a drawing by then-11-year-old Peter Lovell, whose design and another similar idea won a Junior Gunners contest; his official backstory is that he hatched from an egg found during renovations at Highbury.
The same performer, Jerry Quy, has been inside the suit from the start; in early October 2020, as part of cost-cutting brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, the club made him redundant from that and his other part-time job in supporter liaison, together with 55 full-time employees, although they later said Gunnersaurus could return after spectators were allowed back in stadiums. An online fundraiser was begun for Quy, In November 2020, in advance of COVID-19 regulations being relaxed to allow supporters to attend home games from 3 December, Arsenal announced that Gunnersaurus would return, to be played by a roster of people that could include Quy if he wished.Ownership and finances
The largest shareholder on the Arsenal board is American sports tycoon Stan Kroenke. Kroenke first launched a bid for the club in April 2007, and faced competition for shares from Red and White Securities, which acquired its first shares from David Dein in August 2007. Red & White Securities was co-owned by Russian billionaire Alisher Usmanov and London-based Iranian financier Farhad Moshiri, though Usmanov bought Moshiri's stake in 2016. Kroenke came close to the 30% takeover threshold in November 2009, when he increased his holding to 18,594 shares (29.9%). In April 2011, Kroenke achieved a full takeover by purchasing the shareholdings of Nina Bracewell-Smith and Danny Fiszman, taking his shareholding to 62.89%. In May 2017, Kroenke owned 41,721 shares (67.05%) and Red & White Securities owned 18,695 shares (30.04%). In August 2018, Kroenke bought out Usmanov for £550m. Now owning more than 90% of the shares, he had the required stake to complete the buyout of the remaining shares and become the sole owner. There has been criticism of Arsenal's poor performance since Kroenke took over, which has been attributed to his ownership. Ivan Gazidis was the club's Chief executive from 2009 to 2018.
Arsenal's parent company, Arsenal Holdings plc, operates as an unlisted public limited company, whose ownership is considerably different from that of other football clubs. Only 62,219 shares in Arsenal have been issued, Most football clubs are not listed on an exchange, which makes direct comparisons of their values difficult. Consultants Brand Finance valued the club's brand and intangible assets at $703m in 2015, and consider Arsenal an AAA global brand. Business magazine Forbes valued Arsenal as a whole at $2.238 billion (£1.69 billion) in 2018, ranked third in English football. Research by the Henley Business School ranked Arsenal second in English football, modelling the club's value at £1.118 billion in 2015.
Arsenal's financial results for the 2019–20 season showed an after tax loss of £47.8m, due in part to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The Deloitte Football Money League is a publication that homogenises and compares clubs' annual revenue. Deloitte put Arsenal's footballing revenue in 2019 at £392.7m (€445.6m), ranking Arsenal eleventh among world football clubs. A decade later, on 16 September 1937, an exhibition match between Arsenal's first team and the reserves was the first football match in the world to be televised live. Arsenal also featured in the first edition of the BBC's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of their match against Liverpool at Anfield on 22 August 1964. Sky's coverage of Arsenal's January 2010 match against Manchester United was the first live public broadcast of a sports event on 3D television.
As one of the most successful teams in the country, Arsenal have often featured when football is depicted in the arts in Britain. They formed the backdrop to one of the earliest football-related novels, The Arsenal Stadium Mystery (1939), which was made into a film in the same year. The story centres on a friendly match between Arsenal and an amateur side, one of whose players is poisoned while playing. Many Arsenal players appeared as themselves in the film and manager George Allison was given a speaking part. The book was twice adapted for the cinema – the 1997 British film focuses on Arsenal's 1988–89 title win, and a 2005 American version features a fan of baseball's Boston Red Sox.
Arsenal have often been stereotyped as a defensive and "boring" side, especially during the 1970s and 1980s. In the 1997 film The Full Monty the principal characters move forward in a line and raise their hands, deliberately mimicking the Arsenal defence's offside trap, in an attempt to co-ordinate their striptease routine.
Fifteen years later, an almost identical scene was included in the 2012 Disney science-fiction film John Carter (director and co-writer Andrew Stanton, a notable overseas supporter of the club), along with other visual cues and oblique dialogue hints and references to the club throughout the film.
Another film reference to the club's defence comes in the film Plunkett & Macleane, in which two characters are named Dixon and Winterburn after Arsenal's long-serving full backs – the right-sided Lee Dixon and the left-sided Nigel Winterburn. It documented the club by spending time with the coaching staff and players behind the scenes both on and off the field throughout their 2021–22 season, in which they were the youngest team in the Premier League with an average starting age of 24 years and 308 days – more than a whole year younger than the next team.
In the community
In 1985, Arsenal founded a community scheme, "Arsenal in the Community", which offered sporting, social inclusion, educational and charitable projects. The club support a number of charitable causes directly and in 1992 established The Arsenal Charitable Trust, which by 2006 had raised more than £2 million for local causes. An ex-professional and celebrity football team associated with the club also raised money by playing charity matches. The club launched the Arsenal for Everyone initiative in 2008 as an annual celebration of the diversity of the Arsenal family. In the 2009–10 season Arsenal announced that they had raised a record breaking £818,897 for the Great Ormond Street Hospital Children's Charity. The original target was £500,000. In 2022, Arsenal and Adidas partnered up to launch the "No More Red" campaign to support the long-standing work being done by Arsenal in the Community to help keep young people safe from knife crime and youth violence. To promote the event, the club launched an exclusive all white kit that was not commercially available and only awarded to individuals who are making a positive difference in the community.
Save the Children has been Arsenal global charity partner since 2011 and have worked together in numerous projects to improve safety and well-being for vulnerable children in London and abroad. On 3 September 2016 The Arsenal Foundation has donated £1m to build football pitches for children in London, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan and Somalia thanks to The Arsenal Foundation Legends Match against Milan Glorie at the Emirates Stadium. On 3 June 2018, Arsenal played Real Madrid in the Corazon Classic Match 2018 at the Bernabeu, where the proceeds went to Realtoo Real Madrid Foundation projects that are aimed at the most vulnerable children. In addition there will be a return meeting on 8 September 2018 at the Emirates stadium where proceeds will go towards the Arsenal foundation.
During 2007 in Pleiku, Vietnam, Arsenal partnered with the JMG Academy and the Hoang Anh Gia Lai Corporation to found a youth academy for the V.League 1 side Hoàng Anh Lai Lai, which saw a selection of Vietnam-based players train with Arsenal; the club ended their partnership with the club in 2017. Additionally, the club formally partnered with a variety of clubs overseas including Virginia based Richmond Strikers and Cairo based Wadi Degla.Players
First-team squad
Out on loan
Academy
: Players with at least one first-team appearance for Arsenal.<!-- Only include current Arsenal Academy players who have made a senior appearance for Arsenal -->
Out on loan
Management and staff
Current staff
managed Arsenal from 1996 to 2018, he is the club's longest serving manager.]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Management and staff as of 5 November 2024
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| Manager
|Mikel Arteta
|-
| rowspan="4" |Assistant coaches
|Albert Stuivenberg
|-
| Carlos Cuesta
|-
| Nicolas Jover
|-
| Miguel Molina
|-
| Goalkeeping coach
| Iñaki Caña
|-
| Academy manager
|Per Mertesacker
|-
| Head of sports medicine and performance
| Zafar Iqbal
|-
| Managing director
|Richard Garlick
|-
| Chief commercial officer
|Juliet Slot
|-
| Chief financial officer
|Stuart Wisely
|-
| Director of football operations
|James King
|}
Arsenal board
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Arsenal board as of 16 December 2023
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| Co-chair
|Stan Kroenke
|-
| Co-chair
|Josh Kroenke
|-
| Executive Vice-chair
|Tim Lewis
|-
| Director
|Lord Harris of Peckham
|}
Statistics and records
is Arsenal's record goalscorer, with 228 goals in all competitions.
and they were the first club to reach a seventh and an eighth League Championship. As of June 2020, they are one of seven teams, the others being Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Manchester City, Leicester City and Liverpool, to have won the Premier League since its formation in 1992.
They hold the highest number of FA Cup trophies, with 14. The club is one of only six clubs to have won the FA Cup twice in succession, in 2002 and 2003, and 2014 and 2015.
Arsenal have achieved three League and FA Cup "Doubles" (in 1971, 1998 and 2002), a feat only previously achieved by Manchester United (in 1994, 1996 and 1999).
They were the first side in English football to complete the FA Cup and League Cup double, in 1993.
Arsenal were also the first London club to reach the final of the UEFA Champions League, in 2006, losing the final 2–1 to Barcelona.
Arsenal have one of the best top-flight records in history, having finished below fourteenth only seven times. They have won the second most top flight league matches in English football, and have also accumulated the second most points, They have been in the top flight for the most consecutive seasons (98 as of 2023–24). Arsenal also have the highest average league finishing position for the 20th century, with an average league placement of 8.5. They also hold the record for the longest top flight win streak. Arsenal set a Champions League record during the 2005–06 season by going ten matches without conceding a goal, beating the previous best of seven set by AC Milan. They went a record total stretch of 995 minutes without letting an opponent score; the streak ended in the final, when Samuel Eto'o scored a 76th-minute equaliser for Barcelona.
David O'Leary holds the record for Arsenal appearances, having played 722 first-team matches between 1975 and 1993. Fellow centre half and former captain Tony Adams comes second, having played 669 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by David Seaman, with 564 appearances. Thierry Henry is the club's top goalscorer with 228 goals in all competitions between 1999 and 2012; he surpassed Ian Wright's total of 185 in October 2005. Wright's record had stood since September 1997, when he overtook the longstanding total of 178 goals set by winger Cliff Bastin in 1939. Henry also holds the club record for goals scored in the League, with 175, Declan Rice holds the Arsenal record signing price after a deal with West Ham United was completed in July 2023, for an initial £100 million. This easily surpassed the former record of £72 million for Nicolas Pepe.
Arsenal's record home attendance is 73,707, for a UEFA Champions League match against Lens on 25 November 1998 at Wembley, where the club formerly played home European matches because of the limits on Highbury's capacity. The record attendance for an Arsenal match at Highbury is 73,295, for a 0–0 draw against Sunderland on 9 March 1935,
Honours
Arsenal's first ever silverware was won as the Royal Arsenal in 1890. The Kent Junior Cup, won by Royal Arsenal's reserves, was the club's first trophy, while the first team's first trophy came three weeks later when they won the Kent Senior Cup. Their first national senior honour came in 1930, when they won the FA Cup. The club enjoyed further success in the 1930s, winning another FA Cup and five Football League First Division titles. Arsenal won their first league and cup double in the 1970–71 season and twice repeated the feat, in 1997–98 and 2001–02, as well as winning a cup double of the FA Cup and League Cup in 1992–93. The 2003–04 season was the only 38-match league season unbeaten in English football history. A special gold version of the Premier League trophy was commissioned and presented to the club the following season.
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
|+ Arsenal F.C. honours
! style="width: 1%;" |Type
! style="width: 5%;" |Competition
! style="width: 1%;" |Titles
! style="width: 21%;" |Seasons
|-
| scope"rowgroup" rowspan"5" |Domestic
! scope"row" |First Division/Premier League
| 13
| align="left" |1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1952–53, 1970–71, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04
|-
! scope="row" |FA Cup
|style="background-color:gold"| 14
| align="left" |1929–30, 1935–36, 1949–50, 1970–71, 1978–79, 1992–93, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2016–17, 2019–20
|-
! scope"row" |EFL Cup
| 2
| align="left" |1986–87, 1992–93
|-
! scope"row" |FA Community Shield
| 17
| align"left" |1930, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1991, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2020, 2023
|-
! scope="row" |Football League Centenary Trophy
|style="background-color:gold"| 1
| align="left" |1988
|-
| scope"rowgroup" rowspan"2" |Continental
! scope="row" |Inter-Cities Fairs Cup
| 1
| align="left" |1969–70
|-
! scope="row" |UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
| 1
| align="left" |1993–94
|}
*
* shared record
Other
When the FA Cup was the only national football association competition available to Arsenal, the other football association competitions were County Cups, and they made up many of the matches the club played during a season. Due to the club's original location within the borders of both the London and Kent Football Associations, Arsenal competed in and won trophies organised by each. During the wars, previous competitions were widely suspended and the club had to participate in wartime competitions. During WWII, Arsenal won several of these.
Notes
ReferencesCitationsSources*
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* |author1-linkTom Whittaker (footballer)|asinB0018JTU5I}}
Further reading
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* External links
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Independent websites
* [https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/teams/arsenal Arsenal F.C.] at BBC Sport
* [https://www.skysports.com/arsenal Arsenal F.C.] at Sky Sports
* [https://www.premierleague.com/clubs/1/Arsenal/overview Arsenal F.C.] at Premier League
* [https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/52280--arsenal/ Arsenal F.C.] at Union of European Football Associations
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Category:1886 establishments in England
Category:Association football clubs established in 1886
Category:Companies formerly listed on the Alternative Investment Market
Category:Sport in the London Borough of Islington
Category:EFL Cup winners
Category:FA Cup winners
Category:Football clubs in England
Category:Football clubs in London
Category:English Football League clubs
Category:G-14 clubs
Category:Kroenke Sports & Entertainment
Category:Premier League clubs
Category:UEFA Cup Winners' Cup winning clubs
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2175 | American cuisine | American cuisine consists of the cooking style and traditional dishes prepared in the United States. It has been significantly influenced by Europeans, Indigenous Americans, Africans, Latin Americans, Asians, Pacific Islanders, and many other cultures and traditions. Principal influences on American cuisine are European, Native American, soul food, regional heritages including Cajun, Louisiana Creole, Pennsylvania Dutch, Mormon foodways, Texan, Tex-Mex, New Mexican, and Tlingit, and the cuisines of immigrant groups such as <!-- Following is a list of cuisine articles, or cuisine sections within "x Americans" articles, only -->Chinese American, German American, Italian American, Greek American, British American, Jewish American, and Mexican American. The large size of America and its long history of immigration have created an especially diverse cuisine that varies by region.
American cooking dates back to the traditions of the Native Americans, whose diet included a mix of farmed and hunted food, and varied widely across the continent. The Colonial period created a mix of new world and Old World cookery, and brought with it new crops and livestock. During the early 19th century, cooking was based mostly on what the agrarian population could grow, hunt, or raise on their land. With an increasing influx of immigrants, and a move to city life, American food further diversified in the later part of the 19th century. The 20th century saw a revolution in cooking as new technologies, the World Wars, a scientific understanding of food, and continued immigration combined to create a wide range of new foods. This has allowed for the current rich diversity in food dishes throughout the country. This was driven in part by the many chefs and television personalities who contributed to the rise of the culinary arts in the US.
American cuisine includes milkshakes, barbecue, and a wide range of fried foods. Many quintessential American dishes are unique takes on food originally from other culinary traditions, including pizza, hot dogs, and Tex-Mex. Regional cooking includes a range of fish dishes in the coastal states, gumbo, and cheesesteak. American cuisine has specific foods that are eaten on holidays, such as a turkey at Thanksgiving dinner or Christmas dinner. Modern American cuisine includes a focus on fast food, as well as take-out food, which is often ethnic. There is also a vibrant culinary scene in the country surrounding televised celebrity chefs.
History
Native Americans origins: American cuisine before 1600
planting the "Three Sister" crops; squash, maize and climbing beans]]
Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American cuisine that have been blended with the methods of early Europeans to form the basis of what is now American cuisine. Nearly all regions and subregions of the present-day cuisine have roots in the foodways of Native Americans, who lived in tribes numbering in the thousands. Prior to 1600, native peoples lived off the land in very diverse bioregions and had done so for thousands of years, often living a nomadic life where their diet changed with the season.
Many practiced a form of agriculture revolving around the Three Sisters, the rotation of beans, maize, and squash as staples of their diet. In the East, this was documented as early as the 1620s in Of Plimoth Plantation, evidenced by the pages William Bradford wrote regarding Squanto, who showed them the traditional regional method of burying a fish or eel in a mound with seeds for maize to improve the soil; this itself is also part of the widely practiced phenomenon of companion planting.
Wild game was equally a staple of nearly every tribe: generally, deer, elk, and bison were staples, as were rabbits and hare. The Cherokee of the Southern Appalachians used blowguns made of an indigenous type of bamboo to hunt squirrels.
Northern tribes like the Ojibwe of what is now the state of Michigan and the peoples of the Wabanaki of what is now the state of Maine would stalk and hunt moose, whereas their Southern counterparts, like the Choctaw or Catawba, hunted snapping turtles and other testudines, possums, and young alligators in the subtropical swamps of Louisiana and South Carolina.
Many tribes would preserve their meat in the form of pemmican, needed on long journeys or to survive harsh winters.
Fish and crustaceans
was used on the eastern and southern coast of what is now the U.S. mainland.]]
As with the hunted game, the biome in which one lived often dictated what was available to catch. For example, the Apache and Navajo peoples of the Southwest, whose territories each would have included swathes of New Mexico and Arizona, generally do not eat fish because in both cultures it is taboo, as well as often inconvenient. The Navajo believe that fish have a part in the story of creation, the Apache were in general afraid of water since they associated it with thunder, and the arid desert climate made fish a rarity.
However, in the culture of the Lenape, the tribe that originally lived in New Jersey, on the Delaware River, and the area that now comprises New York City, fish and shellfish were a staple in their diet and it was such a revered part of the culture that there is a documented and still-practiced harvest dance called the Fish Dance. Originally it would have been done to celebrate bringing in fish from places like the Delaware or Raritan River or the estuary around Manhattan Island and the completion of smoking them as a source of food for the winter ahead.
Eastern tribes would have eaten cod, particularly groups that spoke the Algonquian languages of New England as far south as present day Connecticut, winter flounder and other flatfish, species of herring like the alewife, shad, Atlantic herring, and Atlantic menhaden, They also would have consumed the Atlantic sturgeon and drum.
In the West, Pacific several species of sturgeon, like the white sturgeon and green sturgeon, olachen and several autochthonal fish of the Oncorhynchus family including the rainbow trout, cutthroat trout, coho salmon, kokanee salmon, and chinook salmon. The last makes an appearance in the accounts of Lewis and Clark as being fished for in the Columbia River Basin, and this species is named for a family of tribes of the Pacific Northwest, indicating its important role in that food culture.
Pacific gray whales and humpbacks were hunted by American Indians off the Northwest coast, especially by the Makah, and used for their meat and oil. Catfish was also popular among native people throughout the land, over many types of terrain.
Crustaceans included shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and dungeness crabs in the Northwest and shrimp, lobster and blue crabs in the East. Other shellfish include abalone and geoduck on the West Coast, while on the East Coast the surf clam, quahog, and the soft-shell clam. Oysters were eaten on both shores, as were mussels and periwinkles.Cooking methods
Early American natives used a number of cooking methods that have been blended with early European cooking methods to form the basis of American cuisine. Grilling meats was common. Spit roasting over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially root vegetables, were often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire.
As early Native Americans lacked pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique many anthropologists call "stone boiling". They heated rocks in a fire, then added the rocks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil to cook the meat or vegetables. In what is now the Southwestern United States, they also created adobe ovens, dubbed hornos by the Spanish, to bake products such as cornmeal bread. Other parts of America dug pit ovens, which were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers. One technique performed extensively by New England tribes was adding seaweed or corn husks on top of the layers of stones to steam fish and shellfish as well as vegetables. A later addition was potatoes, a garden plant that came to New England by the 18th century, added while still in skin with corn in husk, later to be referred to as a clambake by colonists.
Colonial period
, cranberry sauce, mashed potatoes, green beans, sweet and sour cod, steamed rice, achara (pickled green papaya relish), leche flan, pig in a blanket and apple crisp]]
in 1775]]
The European settlement of the Americas introduced a number of ingredients, spices, herbs, and cooking styles to the continent.
When European colonists came to Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and any of the other English colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat. Through hardships and the eventual establishment of trade with England, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to derive a cuisine similar to what they had previously consumed in Britain and Ireland, while also introducing local animals and plants to their diet. American colonists followed along the line of British cookery up until the Revolution, when a desire to distinguish themselves from Britain led Americans to create "American" styles of cookery.
In 1796, the first American cookbook was published, and others followed. There was a general disdain for French cuisine/French cookery, even with French Huguenot settlers in South Carolina and French-Canadian emigrants in America. One of the cookbooks that proliferated in the colonies was The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (1747) by Hannah Glasse, who referred to "the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby, than give encouragement to a good English cook!" Of the French recipes given in the text, she speaks out flagrantly against the dishes as she "... think[s] it an odd jumble of trash."
With the introduction of slavery, Africans were brought into the colonies. With them, came foods and ingredients such as bananas, peanuts, sweet potato, yams, and coffee, and cooking styles reminiscent of West African cuisines are still found in many dishes, especially in Southern cuisine.
The expulsion of the Acadians from Acadia led many of them to Louisiana, where they left a French influence in the diet of those settled in Louisiana, and among the Acadian Francophones who settled eastern Maine and parts of what is now northern Vermont at the same time they colonized New Brunswick.
Some of the Jews who fled from the Inquisition with other Sephardic Jews in the 15th century had previously settled in Recife, Brazil and the West Indies, where their cuisine was influenced by new local ingredients like molasses, rum, sugar, vanilla, chocolate, peppers, corn, tomatoes, kidney beans, string beans and turkey. In 1654, twenty three Sephardic Jews arrived in New Amsterdam bringing this cuisine with them to the early colonial United States. Early American Jewish cuisine was heavily influenced by this branch of Sephardic cuisine. Many of the recipes were bound up in observance of traditional holidays and remained true to their origins. These included dishes such as stew and fish fried in olive oil, beef and bean stews, almond puddings, and egg custards. The first kosher cookbook in America was the Jewish Cookery Book by Esther Levy, published in 1871 in Philadelphia and includes many of the traditional recipes.
Common ingredients
consists of various steamed shellfish.]]
The American colonial diet varied depending on the settled region in which someone lived. Local cuisine patterns had been established by the mid-18th century. The New England colonies were extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought from England. As many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was useful when they immigrated to the New World. Many of the northern colonists depended upon their ability to hunt, or upon others from whom they could purchase game. Hunting was the preferred method of protein acquisition, as opposed to animal husbandry, which required much more work to defend the kept animals against raids.
A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions was seasonality. While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year-round, in the northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, northern colonists' close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet.
Wheat, the grain used to bake bread back in England, was almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive. Substitutes in cases such as this included cornmeal. The Johnnycake was a poor substitute to some for wheaten bread, but acceptance by both the northern and southern colonies seems evident.Livestock and gameCommonly hunted game included deer, bear, buffalo, and wild turkey. The larger muscles of the animals were roasted and served with currant sauce, while the other smaller portions went into soups, stews, sausages, pies, and pastries. In addition to the game, colonists' protein intake was supplemented by mutton.
The Spanish in Florida originally introduced sheep to the New World, but this development never quite reached the North, and there they were introduced by the Dutch and English. The keeping of sheep was a result of the English non-practice of animal husbandry. The animals provided wool when young and mutton upon maturity after wool production was no longer desirable. The forage-based diet for sheep that prevailed in the Colonies produced a characteristically strong, gamy flavor and a tougher consistency, which required aging and slow cooking to tenderize.Fats and oils
, a traditional dish of the Delaware Valley region made of pork and cornmeal, still eaten today]]
Fats and oils made from animals served to cook many colonial foods. Many homes had a sack made of deerskin filled with bear oil for cooking, while solidified bear fat resembled shortening.
Rendered pork fat made the most popular cooking medium, especially from the cooking of bacon. Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the South. The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well, but it was rare prior to the American Revolution, as cattle were not yet plentiful.Alcoholic drinks
Prior to the Revolution, New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer, as maritime trade provided them relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items. Rum was the distilled spirit of choice, as the main ingredient, molasses, was readily available from trade with the West Indies.
Further into the interior, however, one would often find colonists consuming whiskey, as they did not have similar access to sugar cane. They did have ready access to corn and rye, which they used to produce their whiskey.
Until the Revolution, many considered whiskey to be a coarse alcohol unfit for human consumption, as many believed that it caused the poor to become raucous and unkempt drunkards. In addition to these alcohol-based products produced in America, imports were seen on merchant shelves, including wine and brandy.
Southern variations
In comparison to the northern colonies, the southern colonies were quite diverse in their agricultural diet. The uplands of Piedmont and the coastal lowlands made up the two main parts of the southern colonies.
The diet of the uplands often included wild game, cabbage, string beans, corn, squashes and white potatoes. People had biscuits as part of their breakfast, along with healthy portions of pork. The lowlands of Louisiana included a varied diet heavily influenced by the French, Spanish, Acadians, Germans, Native Americans, Africans and Caribbeans. Rice played a large part of the diet in Louisiana. In addition, unlike the uplands, the lowlands subsistence of protein came mostly from coastal seafood. Much of the diet involved the use of peppers, as it still does to this day.Post-colonial cuisineDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. Some, such as Rocky Mountain oysters, stayed regional; some spread throughout the nation but with little international appeal, such as peanut butter (a core ingredient of the peanut butter and jelly sandwich); and some spread throughout the world, such as popcorn, cola, fried chicken, cornbread, unleavened muffins such as the poppyseed muffin, and brownies. 19th-century American farmhouse During the 1800s, American farms were mostly self-sufficient, but certain staples like salt, coffee, sugar, and baking soda would be purchased at the town general store. If the family did not grow wheat, then flour would also be purchased. Another luxury was canned salmon, which was sometimes eaten for Sunday dinner. Items purchased at the general store would be paid for with eggs, butter or some other food from the farm. Women were responsible for much of the processing of food like straining fresh milk, churning butter, making molasses from sorghum, grinding corn into cornmeal or cleaning whole chickens. Fresh picked apples were pressed into cider, which could be fermented to make apple cider vinegar. Fruits and vegetables were preserved by various means like canning, drying or pickling.
One contemporary writer from Michigan described October as cider season, when apple butter would be made. Her writings mention johnnycakes, and, as winter fare, buckwheat cakes.
Typical farmhouse fare included fried chicken, simmered green beans, boiled corn, chicken and dumplings, fried ham, boiled beans and beets, stewed tomatoes, potatoes, and coleslaw made of shredded cabbage. Pon haus, similar to the scrapple of the Pennsylvania Dutch, was a typical breakfast dish among the Germans who had settled Indiana in the 19th century.
Pork scraps and corn meal were cooked into a thick porridge and molded in loaf pans. Once solidified, the mixture would be cut and fried. During the fall months, pork might be replaced with fried apples or potatoes. It was served with buttered biscuits, jam, jelly, milk gravy or sorghum syrup. Fruit butter might be made from apples, plums or peaches to accompany the meal.
During World War I the Progressives' moral advice about food conservation was emphasized in large-scale state and federal programs designed to educate housewives. Large-scale foreign aid during and after the war brought American standards to Europe.
From 1912 to the end of the 1930s researchers discovered and popularized the role of various vitamins and minerals in human health. Starting with iodized salt in 1924, commercially distributed food began to be fortified with vitamins and minerals. In 1932, milk began to be fortified with viosterol, a purified vitamin D2 product. Synthetic thiamin (vitamin B1) first became available after 1936 and bakers began voluntarily enriching bread with high-vitamin yeast or synthetic vitamins in the late 1930s.
The cookware of the period was made of cast iron and these were thoroughly seasoned with pork fat. Fried salt pork with gravy was an indulgent fat-laden dish often served with a side of boiled potatoes. In the Appalachian region a dish called "killed lettuce" was made with pokeweed, dandelion and assorted wild greens that were drizzled with hot bacon grease until wilted or "killed". Milk became a staple food item and an increasingly important ingredient in American cuisine. Examples include the root beer float and the milkshake.
Pork was a staple of the rural diet through the Southern and Midwestern United States. Lard was used for baking, frying and even as a seasoning.
, sprinkles, and a maraschino cherry]]
Major railroads featured upscale cuisine in their dining cars. Restaurant chains emerged with standardized decor and menus, including the Fred Harvey restaurants along the route of the Santa Fe Railroad in the Southwest.
World War II and later
The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Science established the first set of "Recommended Dietary Allowances" in 1941. In 1943, the US War Foods Administration issued the War Food Order No. 1, which made enriched bread the temporary law of the land.
In 1945, George Stigler published an article on "The cost of subsistence" which described the so-called Stigler diet, his solution to the problem of providing a diet that met the RDA at a minimum cost.
The logistical requirements of the US military during WW2 and the Korean War spurred the development and growth of the processed foods industry in the US. These wars encouraged the production of shelf-stable ingredients processed on a vast industrial scale. Examples include powdered milk, powdered eggs, potato flakes, and frozen concentrated orange juice.
After the war, low-cost, highly processed foods became one of the foundational elements of an era of mass prosperity. Many companies in the American food industry developed new products requiring minimal preparation, such as frozen entrees. One such example is the TV dinner in which a multi-course meal was assembled in aluminum packaging in a food factory and flash frozen, then reheated at home in a thermal oven to be served while watching TV. Convenience foods of the era were designed to simplify home preparation.
One example is macaroni and cheese created using a powdered artificial cheese product that is reconstituted at home with fresh milk. Newspapers and magazines ran recipe columns, aided by research from corporate kitchens, which were major food manufacturers like General Mills, Campbell's, and Kraft Foods. For example, General Mills ''Betty Crocker's Cookbook'', first published in 1950, was a popular book in American homes.
Highly processed foods of the mid-20th century included novelty elements like multi-colored Jell-O using various chemical food colorings, prepared breakfast cereals marketed to children with large amounts of sugar and artificial colors (e.g. Froot Loops). Fruit-flavored punches made with artificial fruit flavorings (e.g. Tang, Hi-C). Mid-20th-century foods also added novelty packaging elements like spray cheese in an aerosol can, pimento-stuffed olives, and drink pouches.
The development of the microwave oven resulted in the creation of industrial food products and packaging intended to take advantage of the opportunities and overcome the unique challenges of that technology. Microwave popcorn is an example of such a product.
Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the US commercial food system has become increasingly dependent on subsidized maize (corn) production to provide feed for livestock and ingredients for human foods such as high-fructose corn syrup. It is estimated that the typical American gets 70 percent of their carbon intake from maize (corn) sources.
The last half of the 20th century saw the development of controversial technological innovations intended to lower the cost of or increase the safety of commercial food, including food irradiation, genetically modified organisms, livestock treated with antibiotics/hormones, and concentrated animal feeding operations. Activists have raised concerns about the wholesomeness, safety, or humaneness of these innovations and recommend alternatives such as organic produce, veganism/vegetarianism, and locavore diets.
Fast-food restaurants with standardized product and franchised service models began to appear and spread with the development of the highway system. White Castle (1916) was one of the first examples. Franchising was introduced in 1921 by A&W Root Beer. The McDonald brothers created their "Speedee Service System" in 1948. Other examples include Burger King, Wendy's, Pizza Hut, Domino's Pizza, Subway, Arby's, KFC, Popeyes and Taco Bell.
Ethnic influences
served with fries and coleslaw]]
One signature characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. For example, spaghetti is Italian, while hot dogs are German; a popular meal, especially among young children, is spaghetti containing slices of hot dogs. Since the 1960s, Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine.
, an American breakfast dish made with poached eggs and hollandaise sauce, served in this variation with smoked salmon]]
Some dishes that are typically considered American have their origins in other countries. American cooks and chefs have substantially altered these dishes over the years, to the degree that the dishes now enjoyed around the world are considered to be American. Hot dogs and hamburgers are both based on traditional German dishes, but in their modern popular form they can be reasonably considered American dishes.
Pizza is based on the traditional Italian dish, brought by Italian immigrants to the United States, but varies highly in style based on the region of development since its arrival. For example, Chicago style has focus on a thicker, taller crust, whereas a "New York Slice" is known to have a much thinner crust which can be folded. These different types of pizza can be advertised throughout the country and are generally recognizable and well-known, with some restaurants going so far as to import New York tap water from a thousand or more miles away to recreate the signature style in other regions.
Some dishes that Americans think of as being of "foreign" in origin and/or associated with a particular immigrant group were in fact invented in America and customized to American tastes. For example, General Tso's chicken was invented by Chinese or Taiwanese chefs working in New York in the early 1970s. The dish is unknown in China, except for a distant resemblance to a much spicier dish from Hong Kong said to have influenced the American version. The fortune cookie was likewise invented in California in the early 1900s and is known in Asia only as an American style food.
es, and grilled vegetables prepared with modern fusion ingredients]]
A wave of celebrity chefs began with Julia Child and Graham Kerr in the 1970s, with many more following after the rise of cable channels like Food Network. Probably the best-known television chef was Child, who taught French cuisine in her weekly show, The French Chef.
New American
During the 1980s, upscale restaurants introduced a mixing of cuisines that contain Americanized styles of cooking with foreign elements commonly referred to as New American cuisine, a type of fusion cuisine combining flavors from the melting pot of traditional American cooking techniques with those from other cultures, sometimes adding molecular gastronomy components. 21st century By the beginning of the 21st century, regional variations in consumption of meat began to reduce, as more meat was consumed overall. Vegan and vegetarian meals have increased in popularity, with more restaurants catering to vegans and vegetarians.Regional cuisines
In the present day, the modern cuisine of the United States is very regional in nature. Excluding Alaska and Hawaii, the terrain spans from east to west and more than from north to south.
Northeast
New England
]]
New England cuisine traces its roots to English cuisine and the Native American cuisine of the Abenaki, Narragansett, Niantic, Wabanaki, Wampanoag, and other native peoples. It also includes influences from French, Italian, and Portuguese cuisine, among others. It is characterized by the extensive use of potatoes, beans, dairy products and seafood. Corn, historically the main crop grown by Native American tribes in New England, continues to be grown in all New England states. It is traditionally used in hasty pudding, cornbread and corn chowder. Three prominent foodstuffs native to New England are maple syrup, cranberries and blueberries. Maine is the only state with a commercial wild blueberry industry, with 105 million pounds harvested in 2021.
Initial European colonists came from East Anglia in England. East Anglian cookery included dishes like suet puddings, soda breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, and would have been quite simple in contrast to the dishes prepared in contemporary London. Most of this cuisine was one-pot cookery, which developed into such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others.
The most popular starches in New England cuisine include potatoes and cornmeal, and a few native breads like Anadama bread, johnnycakes, bulkie rolls, Parker House rolls, popovers, ployes, and New England brown bread. Because of the influence of New Englander health reformers, the most well known of whom is Sylvester Graham, this region is fairly conservative with its spices, but typical spices include nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, and allspice, especially in desserts, and for savory foods, thyme, black pepper, sea salt, and sage. Typical condiments include maple syrup, grown from the native sugar maple, molasses, and cranberry sauce.
The fruits of the region include the Vitis labrusca grapes used in grape juice made by companies such as Welch's, along with jelly, Kosher wine by companies like Mogen David and Manischewitz along with other wineries that make higher quality wines. Though not anywhere near as productive a region as the top three apple-producing regions, apples have been a staple of New England foodways since at least the 1640s, and it is here that a very high amount of heirloom varieties are found, many of them gaining renewed interest as part of locavore movements and the re-emergence of cider as a beverage of choice. Apples from New England would include varieties imported from their earliest in Europe and a few natives, like Baldwin, Lady, Mother, Pomme Grise, Porter, Roxbury Russet, Rhode Island Greening, Sops of Wine, Hightop Sweet, Peck's Pleasant, Titus Pippin, Westfield-Seek-No-Further, and Duchess of Oldenburg. Beach plums a small native species with fruits the size of a pinball, are sought after in summer to make into a jam. Cranberries are another fruit indigenous to the region, often collected in autumn in huge flooded bogs. Thereafter they are juiced so they can be drunk fresh for breakfast, or dried and incorporated into salads and quickbreads.
Winter squashes like pumpkin and butternut squashes have been a staple for generations owing to their ability to keep for long periods over icy New England winters and being an excellent source of beta carotene; in summer, they are replaced with pattypan and zucchini, the latter brought to the region by immigrants from Southern Italy a century ago. Blueberries are a very common summertime treat owing to them being an important crop, and find their way into muffins, pies and pancakes.
Historically New England and the other original 13 colonies were major producers of hard cider and the only reason why this changed were that immigrants from Western and Central Europe preferred beer, especially lagers, to apple based alcohol. In more recent years cider has made a roaring comeback nationwide, with New England being the first to break out of the box and with many pomologists scouring the woods for abandoned apple trees and heirloom varieties to add to the cider press. Angry Orchard is a local commercial brand that began in New Hampshire but has since skyrocketed in sales, with other large marques following suit around the land.
Typical favorite desserts are quite diverse, and encompass hasty pudding, blueberry pie, whoopie pies, Boston cream pie, pumpkin pie, Joe Frogger cookies, hand-crafted ice cream, Hermit cookies, and the chocolate chip cookie, invented in Massachusetts in the 1930s.
New England is noted for having a heavy emphasis on seafood, a legacy inherited from coastal tribes like the Wampanoag and Narragansett, who equally used the rich fishing banks offshore for sustenance. Favorite fish include cod, salmon, winter flounder, haddock, striped bass, pollock, hake, bluefish, and, in southern New England, tautog. All of these are prepared numerous ways, such as frying cod for fish fingers, grilling bluefish over hot coals for summertime, smoking salmon or serving a whole poached one chilled for feasts with a dill sauce, or, on cold winter nights, serving haddock baked in casserole dish with a creamy sauce and crumbled breadcrumbs as a top so it forms a crust. Clam cakes, a savory fritter based on chopped clams, are a specialty of Rhode Island. Also, a hard shell clam is unique to Rhode Island called the Quahoag which is used in clear chowders. Farther inland, brook trout, largemouth bass, and herring are sought after, especially in the rivers and icy finger lakes in upper New England where New Englanders will fly fish for them in summertime.
Meat is present though not as prominent, and typically is either stewed in dishes like Yankee pot roast and New England boiled dinner or braised, as in a picnic ham; these dishes suit the weather better as summers are humid and hot but winters are raw and cold, getting below 0 °C for most of the winter and only just above it by March. The roasting of whole turkeys began here as a centerpiece for large American banquets, and like all other East Coast tribes, the Native American tribes of New England prized wild turkeys as a source of sustenance and later Anglophone settlers were enamored of cooking them using methods they knew from Europe: often that meant trussing the bird and spinning it on a string or spit roasting. Today turkey meat is a key ingredient in soups, and also a favorite in several sandwiches like the Pilgrim. For lunch, hot roast beef is sometimes chopped finely into small pieces and put on a roll with salami and American or provolone cheese to make a steak bomb. Bacon is often maple cured, and often bacon or salt pork drippings are an ingredient in corn chowder, a cousin of clam chowder. Veal consumption was prevalent in the North Atlantic States prior to World War II.
A variety of linguiça is favored as a breakfast food, introduced by Portuguese fishermen and Brazilian immigrants. Dairy farming and its resultant products figure strongly on the ingredient list, and homemade ice cream is a summertime staple of the region: it was a small seasonal roadside stand in Vermont that eventually became the internationally famous Ben and Jerry's ice cream. Vermont is known for producing farmhouse style cheeses, especially a type of cheddar. The recipe goes all the way back to colonial times when English settlers brought the recipe with them from England and found the rocky landscape eminently suitable to making the cheese. Today Vermont has more artisanal cheese makers per capita than any other state, and diversity is such that interest in goat's milk cheeses has become prominent.
Crustaceans and mollusks are also an essential ingredient in the regional cookery. Maine and Massachusetts, in more recent years, have taken to harvesting peekytoe crab and Jonah crab and making crab bisques, based on cream with 35% milkfat, and crabcakes out of them: often these were overlooked as bycatch of lobster pots by fishermen of the region, but in the past 30 years their popularity has firmly established them as a staple. They even appear on the menu as far south as to be out of the region in New York, where they are sold to four star restaurants in the form of cocktail claws. Whelks are eaten in salad, and lobster, which is indigenous to the coastal waters of the region and are a feature of many dishes, baked, boiled, roasted, and steamed, or simply eaten as a sandwich, chilled with mayonnaise and chopped celery in Maine and Massachusetts, or slathered with melted butter on Long Island and in Connecticut. Shellfish of all sorts are part of the diet, and shellfish of the coastal regions include little neck clams, sea scallops, blue mussels, oysters, soft shell clams, and razor shell clams. Much of this shellfish contributes to New England tradition, the clambake. The clambake as known today is a colonial interpretation of an American Indian tradition.
In summer, oysters and clams are dipped in batter and fried, often served in a basket with french fries, or commonly on a wheaten bun as a clam roll. Oysters are otherwise eaten chilled on a bed of crushed ice on the half shell with mignonette sauce, and are often branded on where they were harvested. Large quahogs are stuffed with breadcrumbs and seasoning and baked in their shells, and smaller ones often find their way into clam chowder. Other preparations include clams casino, clams on the half shell served stuffed with herbs like oregano and streaky bacon.
Southern New England, particularly along the coast, shares many specialties with the Mid-Atlantic, including especially dishes from Jewish and Italian-American cuisine. There is a so-called pizza belt which stretches from New Haven, Connecticut southward through New York, New Jersey, and into Maryland. Coastal Connecticut is known for distinctive kinds of pizza, locally called apizza (pronounced locally as abeetz), which differ in their thin and slightly blackened texture and in their toppings (such as clams) from those of the regions of the pizza belt further south.
Delaware Valley and Mid-Atlantic
topped with mushrooms and onions]]
The mid-Atlantic states comprise the states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Northern Maryland. The oldest major settlement in this area of the country is found in the most populous city in the nation, New York, founded in 1625 by the Dutch. Today, it is a major cultural capital of the United States.
The influences on cuisine in this region are extremely eclectic, as it has been, and continues to be, a gateway for international culture as well as a gateway for new immigrants. Going back to colonial times, each new group has left their mark on homegrown cuisine and in turn the cities in this region disperse trends to the wider United States. In addition, cities like New York and Philadelphia have had the past influence of Dutch, Italian, German, Irish, British, and Jewish cuisines, and that continues to this day. Baltimore has become the crossroads between North and South, a distinction it has held since the end of the Civil War.
A global power city, New York is well known for its diverse and cosmopolitan dining scene. Its restaurants compete fiercely for good reviews in the Food and Dining section of The New York Times, online guides, and Zagat's, the last of which is widely considered the premier American dining guide, published yearly and headquartered in New York.
Many of the more complicated dishes with rich ingredients like Lobster Newberg, waldorf salad, vichyssoise, eggs benedict, and the New York strip steak were born out of a need to entertain and impress the well-to-do in expensive bygone restaurants like Delmonico's and still standing establishments like the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. Modern commercial American cream cheese was developed in 1872.
Since the first reference to an alcoholic mixed drink called a cocktail comes from New York State in 1803, it is not a surprise that there have been many cocktails invented in New York and the surrounding environs. Even today New York bars are noted for being highly influential in making national trends. Cosmopolitans, Long Island iced teas, Manhattans, Rob Roys, Tom Collins, Aviations, and Greyhounds were all invented in New York bars, and the gin martini was popularized in New York in speakeasies during the 1920s, as evidenced by its appearance in the works of New Yorker and American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald. Like its neighbor Philadelphia, many rare and unusual liquors and liqueurs often find their way into a mixologist's cupboard or restaurant wine list.
New York State is the third most productive area in the country for wine grapes, just behind California and Washington. It has AVA's near the Finger Lakes, the Catskills, and Long Island, and in the Hudson Valley has the second-most productive area in the country for growing apples, making it a center for hard cider production, just like New England. Pennsylvania has been growing rye since Germans began to emigrate to the area at the end of the 17th century and required a grain they knew from Germany. Therefore, overall it is not unusual to find New York grown Gewürtztraminer and Riesling, Pennsylvania rye whiskey, or marques of locally produced ciders like Original Sin on the same menu.
with Cheez Whiz]]
Since their formative years, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore have welcomed immigrants of every kind to their shores, and all three have been an important gateway through which new citizens to the general United States arrive. Traditionally natives have eaten cheek to jowl with newcomers for centuries as the newcomers would open new restaurants and small businesses and all the different groups would interact.
Even in colonial days this region was a very diverse mosaic of peoples, as settlers from Switzerland, Wales, England, Ulster, Wallonia, Holland, Gelderland, the British Channel Islands, and Sweden sought their fortune in this region. This is very evident in many signature dishes and local foods, all of which have evolved to become American dishes in their own right.
The original Dutch settlers of New York brought recipes they knew and understood from the Netherlands and their mark on local cuisine is still apparent today: in many quarters of New York their version of apple pie with a streusel top is still baked. In the colony of New Amsterdam, their predilection for waffles in time evolved into the American national recipe and forms part of a New York brunch. They also made coleslaw, originally a Dutch salad, but today accented with the later 18th-century introduction of mayonnaise.
The doughnut began its life originally as a New York pastry that arrived in the 18th century as the Dutch olykoek, with later additions from other nations of Europe like the Italian zeppole, the Jewish/Polish pączki, and the German Berliner arriving in the 19th century to complete the variety found in modern doughnuts today.
, popular in Maryland, Delaware and New Jersey, is often served on a roll.]]
Crab cakes were once a kind of English croquette, but over time as spices have been added they and the Maryland crab feast became two of Baltimore's signature dishes. Fishing for blue crab is a favorite summer pastime in the waters off Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware where they may grace the table at summer picnics.
Other mainstays of the region have been present since the early years of American history, like oysters from Cape May, the Chesapeake Bay, and Long Island, and lobster and tuna from the coastal waters found in New York and New Jersey. Philadelphia Pepper Pot, a tripe stew, was originally a British dish but today is a classic of home cooking in Pennsylvania alongside bookbinder soup, a type of turtle soup.
In the winter, New York pushcarts sell roasted chestnuts, a delicacy dating back to English Christmas traditions, and it was in New York and Pennsylvania that the earliest Christmas cookies were introduced: Germans introduced crunchy molasses-based gingerbread and sugar cookies in Pennsylvania, and the Dutch introduced cinnamon-based cookies, all of which have become part of the traditional Christmas meal.
Scrapple was originally a type of savory pudding that early Pennsylvania Germans made to preserve the offal of a pig slaughter. The Philadelphia soft pretzel was originally brought to Eastern Pennsylvania in the early 18th century, and later, 19th-century immigrants sold them to the masses from pushcarts to make them the city's best-known bread product, having evolved into its own unique recipe.
is the pizza eaten in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.]]
After the 1820s, new groups began to arrive and the character of the region began to change. There had been some Irish from Ulster prior to 1820, however largely they had been Protestants with somewhat different culture and (often) a different language than the explosion of emigrants that came to Castle Garden and Locust Point in Baltimore in their masses starting in the 1840s.
The Irish arrived in America in a rather woeful state, as Ireland at the time was often plagued by some of the worst poverty in Europe and often heavy disenfranchisement among the masses. Many of them arrived barely alive having ridden coffin ships to the New World, very sick with typhus and gaunt from prolonged starvation.
In addition, they were the first to face challenges other groups did not have: they were the first large wave of Catholics. They faced prejudice for their faith and the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore were not always set up for their needs.
For example, Catholic bishops in the U.S. mandated until the 1960s that all Catholics were forbidden from eating red meat on Fridays and during Lent, and attending Mass sometimes conflicted with work as produce and meat markets would be open on high holy days; this was difficult for Irishmen supporting families since many worked as laborers.
Unsurprisingly, many Irishmen also found their fortunes working as longshoremen, which would have given their families access to fish and shellfish whenever a fisherman made berth, which was frequent on the busy docks of Baltimore and New York.
Though there had been some activity in Baltimore in founding a see earlier by the Carrolls, the Irish were the first major wave of Catholic worship in this region, and that meant bishops and cardinals sending away to Europe for wine. Wine, with water, is consecrated as part of the Catholic Mass.
Taverns had existed prior to their emigration to America in the region, though the Irish brought their particular brand of pub culture and founded some of the first saloons and bars that served Dublin style stout and red ale; they brought with them the knowledge of single-malt style whiskey and sold it.
The Irish were the first immigrant group to arrive in this region in massive millions, and these immigrants also founded some of the earliest saloons and bars in this region, of which McSorley's is a still operating example.
It was also in this region that the Irish introduced something that today is a very important festival in American culture that involves a large amount of food, drink, and merry making: Halloween. In England and Wales, where prior immigrants had come from, the feast of All Hallows Eve had died out in the Reformation, dismissed as superstition and excess having nothing to do with the Bible and often replaced with the festival of Guy Fawkes Night. Other immigrant groups like the Germans preferred to celebrate October 31 as Reformation Day, and after the American Revolution all of the above were less and less eager to celebrate the legacy of an English festival given they had fought against Great Britain for their independence.
The Catholicism of the Irish demanded attendance at church on November 1 and charity and deeds, not just faith, as a cornerstone of dogma, and many of their older traditions survived the Reformation and traveled with them. Naturally, they went door-to-door to collect victuals for masked parties as well as gave them out, like nuts to roast on the fire, whiskey, beer, or cider, and barmbracks; they also bobbed for apples and made dumb cakes. Later in the century they were joined by Scots going guising, children going door-to-door to ask for sweets and treats in costume.
From the Mid-Atlantic this trend spread to be nationwide and evolved into American children trick-or-treating on October 31 wearing costumes and their older counterparts having wild costume parties with various foods and drinks such as caramel apples, candy apples, dirt cakes, punch, cocktails, cider (both alcoholic and non,) pumpkin pie, candy corn, chocolate turtles, peanut brittle, taffy, tipsy cake, and copious buckets full of candy; children carving jack-o-lanterns and eating squash derived foods derive from Halloween's heritage as a harvest festival and from Irish and Scottish traditions of carving turnips and eating root vegetables at this time of year.
Bobbing for apples has survived to the present day as a Halloween party classic game, as has a variation on the parlor game of trying to grab an apple hanging from the ceiling blindfolded: it has evolved into trying to catch a donut in one's teeth.
Immigrants from Southern Europe, namely Sicily, Campania, Lazio, and Calabria, appeared between 1880 and 1960 in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Eastern Maryland hoping to escape the extreme poverty and corruption endemic to Italy.
Typically none of them spoke English, but rather dialects of Italian and had a culture that was more closely tied to the village they were born in than the high culture only accessible to those who could afford it at this time; many could not read or write in any language.
They were employed in manual labor or factory work but it is because of them that dishes like spaghetti with meatballs, New York–style pizza, calzones, and baked ziti exist, and Americans of today are very familiar with semolina based pasta noodles.
Their native cuisine had less of an emphasis on meat, as evidenced by dishes they introduced like pasta e fagioli and minestrone, but the dishes they created in America often piled it on as a sign of wealth and newfound prosperity since for the first time even cheap cuts of it were affordable. The American recipe for lasagna is proof of this, as mostly it is derived from the Neapolitan version of the dish with large amounts of meat and cheese.
s, in New York circa 1906. The price is listed as "3 cents each or 2 for 5 cents".]]
New York–style hot dogs came about with German-speaking emigrants from Austria and Germany, particularly with the frankfurter sausage and the smaller wiener sausage; Jews would also contribute here by introducing the kosher version of these sausages, made of beef rather than pork. Today, the New York–style hot dog with sauerkraut, mustard, and the optional cucumber pickle relish is such a part of the local fabric, that it is one of the favorite comestibles of New York and both the pork and the beef versions are beloved. Hot dogs are a typical street food sold year round in all but the most inclement weather from thousands of pushcarts.
As with all other stadiums in Major League Baseball they are an essential for New York Yankees and the New York Mets games though it is the local style of preparation that predominates without exception.
Hot dogs are also the focus of a televised eating contest on the Fourth of July in Coney Island, at Nathan's Famous, one of the earliest hot dog stands opened in the United States in 1916 by Nathan Handwerker. Handwerker was a Jewish man who emigrated from what is now Ukraine in 1912 and whose influence is felt today around the world.
Coney Island is most famous for being a traditional boardwalk amusement park and the site of the world's first rollercoaster, a precursor of modern theme parks. Hot dogs are a staple of amusement parks 100 years later.
A summertime treat, Italian ice, began its life as a sweeter adaptation of the Sicilian granita that was strictly lemon-flavored and brought to New York and Philadelphia. Its Hispanic counterpart, piragua, is a common shaved-ice treat brought to New York by Puerto Ricans in the 1930s. Unlike the original dish which included flavors like tamarind, mango, coconut, piragua is evolving to include flavors like grape and cherry, fruits which are impossible to grow in the tropical Puerto Rican climate and get exported back to the island from New York.
Taylor Ham, a meat delicacy of New Jersey, first appeared around the time of the Civil War and today is often served for breakfast with eggs and cheese on a kaiser roll, a variant of a roll brought to the area by Austrians in the second half of the 19th century, now commonly used for sandwiches at lunchtime, often topped with poppyseeds. This breakfast meat is generally known as pork roll in southern New Jersey and Philadelphia, and Taylor Ham in northern New Jersey.
'', a painting of a diner, one type of eatery still common in the Mid-Atlantic. Each state of the region has its own signatures, and the range extends from the Canadian border in the North to Delaware Bay in the South.]]
Other dishes came about during the early 20th century and have much to do with delicatessen fare, set up largely by Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe who came to America incredibly poor, often illiterate in any other language but Yiddish, and often banished from mainstream society in their place of origin for centuries. Most often they were completely unable to partake in the outdoor food markets that the general population utilized as most of the food for sale was not kosher.
The influence of European Jewry before their destruction in the Holocaust on modern mid-Atlantic cooking remains strong and reinforced by their many descendants in the region. These currently form the largest concentration of Jews outside Tel Aviv and are very integrated into the local mainstream of New York in particular.
American-style pickles, now a common addition to hamburgers and sandwiches, were brought by Polish Jews, and Austro-Hungarian Jews brought a recipe for almond horns that now is a common regional cookie, diverting from the original recipe in dipping the ends in dark chocolate.
New York–style cheesecake has copious amounts of cream and eggs because animal rennet is not kosher and so could not be sold to a large number of the deli's clientele.
New York inherited its bagels and bialys from Jews, as well as Challah bread. Pastrami first entered the country via Romanian Jews, and is a feature of many sandwiches, often eaten on marble rye, a bread that was born in the mid-Atlantic.
Whitefish salad, lox, and matzoh ball soup are now standard fare made to order at local diners and delicatessens, but started their life as foods that made up a strict dietary code. Rugelach cookies and hamentashen are sweet staples still sold to the general public, but came to New York over a century ago with Ashkenazi Jews along with Jewish rye.
s with blue cheese dressing, served with lager beer]]
Many of their dishes passed into the mainstream enough that they became standard fare in diners by the end of the 20th century, a type of restaurant that is now the most common in the region, and the subject matter of the artist Edward Hopper.
In the past this sort of establishment was the haven of the short-order cook grilling or frying simple foods for the working man. Today typical service includes staples from this large region like beef on weck, Manhattan clam chowder, the club sandwich, Buffalo wings, Philadelphia cheesesteak, the black and white cookie, shoofly pie, snapper soup, Smith Island cake, blackout cake, grape pie, milkshakes, and the egg cream, a vanilla or chocolate fountain drink with a frothy top and fizzy taste.
As in Hopper's painting from 1942, many of these businesses are open 24 hours a day.
Midwest
This region today comprises the states near the Great Lakes and also the Great Plains; much of it is prairie with very flat terrain. Winters are bitterly cold, windy, and wet.
Midwestern cuisine today is a very eclectic and odd mix and match of foodways, covering everything from Kansas City–style barbecue to the Chicago-style hot dog, though many of its classics are very simple, hearty fare.
This region was mostly untouched by European and American settlers until after the American Revolutionary War, and excepting Missouri and the heavily forested states near the Great Lakes, was mainly populated by nomadic tribes like the Sioux, Osage, Arapaho, and Cheyenne. As with most other American Indian tribes, these tribes consumed the Three Sisters of beans, maize, and squash, but also for thousands of years followed the herds of bison, hunting them on foot and later on horseback, typically using bow and arrow. There are buffalo jumps dating back nearly 10,000 years and several photographs and written accounts of trappers and homesteaders attesting to their dependence on the buffalo and to a lesser degree elk.
After nearly wiping out elk and bison, this region has taken to raising bison alongside cattle for their meat and at an enormous profit, making them into burgers and steaks.
Often that means harsh blizzards especially near the Great Lakes where Arctic winds blow off of Canada, where ice on rivers and lakes freezes thick enough for ice hockey, and for ice fishing for pike, walleye and panfish to be ubiquitous. In Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, they often become part of the local fish fry.
The primary meats here are beef and poultry, since the Midwest has been raising turkeys, chickens, and geese for over 150 years. Chickens have been common for so long that the Midwest has several native breeds that are prized for both backyard farming and for farmer's markets, such as the Buckeye and Wyandotte. One, Billina, appears as a character in the second book of the Oz series by L. Frank Baum.
Favorite fruits of the region include some native plants inherited from Native American tribes like the pawpaw, and American persimmons are also highly favored.
As in the American South, pawpaws are the region's largest native fruit, about the size of a mango, often found growing wild come September; they are made into preserves and cakes and command quite a price at farmer's markets in Chicago.
The American persimmon is often smaller than its Japanese cousin, about the size of a small plum, but in the Midwest and parts of the East it is the main ingredient in the steamed persimmon pudding, topped with crème anglaise.
Other crops inherited from the Native Americans include wild rice, which grows on the banks of lakes and is a local favorite for fancy meals and today often used in stuffing for Thanksgiving.
Typical fruits of the region are cold-weather crops. Once it was thought that its winters were too harsh for apples, but a breeder in Minnesota produced the Wealthy apple and it became the third-most productive region for apple growing in the country, with local varieties comprising Wolf River, Enterprise, Melrose, Paula Red, Rome Beauty, Honeycrisp, and the Red Delicious.
Cherries are important to Michigan and Wisconsin grows many cranberries, a legacy of early-19th-century emigration of New England farmers. Crabapple jelly is a favorite condiment of the region.
The influence of German, Scandinavian, and Slavic peoples on the northern portion of the region is very strong; many emigrated to Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Illinois in the 19th century to take advantage of jobs in the meatpacking business as well as being homesteaders and tradesmen.
Bratwurst is a very common sausage eaten at tailgate parties for the Green Bay Packers, Chicago Bears, or Detroit Lions, often served boiled in lager beer with sauerkraut, different from many of the recipes currently found in Germany.
Polish sausage, in particular a locally invented type of kielbasa, is essential for sporting events in Chicago: Chicago today has approximately 200,000 Polish speakers and has had a similar population for over 100 years.
When Poles came to Chicago and surrounding cities from Europe, they brought with them long ropes of kielbasa, cabbage rolls, and pierogi. Poles that left Poland after the fall of the Berlin Wall and descendants of earlier immigrants still make them, and they remain common in local diners and delis.
Today alongside the pierogi, the sausage is served on a long roll with mustard like a hot dog or as a Maxwell Street Polish, a sandwich with caramelized onions. In Cleveland, the same sausage is served in the form of the Polish boy, a sandwich made of french fries, spicy barbecue sauce, and coleslaw.
Unlike cities in the East where the hot dog alone is traditional, fans of the Cleveland Guardians, Detroit Tigers, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, and Milwaukee Brewers favor two or three different kinds of sausage sold in the pushcarts outside the stadium.
The hot dogs themselves tend to follow the Chicago style, with mustard and pickled vegetables.
In Cincinnati, where the Cincinnati Reds play, there is a competitor in Cincinnati chili. Invented by Macedonian immigrants, it includes spaghetti as its base, chili with a Mediterranean-inspired spice mix, and cheddar cheese; the chili itself is often a topping for local hot dogs at games.
In the Midwest and especially Minnesota, the tradition of the church potluck is a gathering where local foods reign, and has been since the era of the frontier; pioneers often needed to pool resources to have a celebration in the 19th century and that simply never changed.
Nowhere is this more clear than with the hotdish, a type of casserole believed to have derived from a Norwegian recipe, it is usually topped with potatoes or tater tots. Next to the hotdish at potlucks usually glorified rice is found, a kind of rice pudding mixed with crushed pineapple and maraschino cherries. Next to that is the booyah, a thick soup made of meat, vegetables, and seasonings that is meant to simmer on the stove for up to two days.
Lefse, traditionally a Scandinavian flatbread, has been handed down to descendants for over a hundred years and is common on the table. Behind that is venison, a popular meat around the Great Lakes and often eaten as steaks, sandwiches, and crown roasts for special events. Within Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas, tiger meat, a dish similar to steak tartare, is common.
Last on the table are the dessert bars and brownies, created originally in 1898 in Chicago, now a global food and international favorite.
, a popular chunky stew of the Midwest that is often served to large numbers of people]]
Further south, barbecue has its own style in places in Kansas City and St. Louis different from the South and American West. Kansas City and St. Louis were and are important hubs for the railroad that connected the plains with the Great Lakes and cities farther east, like Philadelphia.
At the turn of the 19th century, the St. Louis area, Omaha, and Kansas City had huge stockyards, waystations for cattle and pigs on their way east to the cities of the coast and north to the Great Lakes. They all had large growing immigrant and migrant populations from Europe and the South respectively, so the region has developed unique styles of barbecue.
St. Louis–style barbecue favors a heavy emphasis on a sticky sweet barbecue sauce. Its standbys include the pork steak, a cut taken from the shoulder of the pig, grilled then slowly stewed in a pan over charcoal; crispy snoots, a cut from the cheek and nose of the pig that is fried up like cracklins and eaten dipped in sauce; pork spare ribs; and a mix of either beer-boiled bratwurst or grilled Italian sausage, flavored with fennel.
Dessert is usually something like gooey butter cake, invented in the city in the 1930s.
Kansas City–style barbecue uses several different kinds of meat, more than most styles of American barbecue—turkey, mutton, pork, and beef to name a few—but is distinct from St. Louis in that the barbecue sauce adds molasses in with the tomato-based recipe and typically has a more tart taste.
Traditionally, Kansas City uses a low-and-slow method of smoking the meat in addition to just stewing it in the sauce. It also favors using hickory wood for smoking and continual watering or layering of the sauce while cooking to form a glaze; with burnt ends this step is necessary to create the "bark" or charred outer layer of the brisket.
Southern United States
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with potato salad]]
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When referring to the American South as a region, typically it should indicate Southern Maryland and the states that were once part of the Old Confederacy, with the dividing line between the East and West jackknifing about 100 miles west of Dallas, Texas, and mostly south of the old Mason–Dixon line. Cities found in this area include New Orleans, Atlanta, Washington, D.C., Memphis, Charleston, and Charlotte with Houston, Texas being the largest. The Florida Panhandle is usually considered part of the South, but the Florida peninsula (especially its lower half) is not.
These states are much more closely tied to each other and have been part of U.S. territory for much longer than states much farther west than East Texas, and in the case of food, the influences and cooking styles are strictly separated as the terrain begins to change to prairie and desert from bayou and hardwood forest.
is a popular Southern dessert.]]
This section of the country has some of the oldest known U.S. foodways, with some recipes almost 400 years old.
Native American influences are still quite visible in the use of cornmeal as an essential staple and found in the Southern predilection for hunting wild game, in particular wild turkey, deer, woodcock, and various kinds of waterfowl; for example, coastal North Carolina is a place where hunters will seek tundra swan as a part of Christmas dinner; the original English and Scottish settlers would have rejoiced at this revelation since such was banned among the commoner class in what is now the United Kingdom, and naturally, their descendants have not forgotten.
Native Americans also consumed turtles and catfish, specifically the snapping turtle, the alligator snapping turtle, and blue catfish. Catfish are often caught with one's bare hands, gutted, breaded, and fried to make a Southern variation on English fish and chips and turtles are turned into stews and soups.
Native American tribes of the region such as the Cherokee or Choctaw often cultivated or gathered local plants like pawpaw, maypop and several sorts of squashes and corn as food. They also used spicebush and sassafras as spices, and the aforementioned fruits are still cultivated as food in the South.
Maize is to this day found in dishes for breakfast, lunch and dinner in the form of grits, hoecakes, baked cornbread, and spoonbread, and nuts like the hickory, black walnut and pecan are commonly included in desserts and pastries as varied as mince pies, pecan pie, pecan rolls and honey buns (both are types of sticky bun), and quick breads, which were themselves invented in the South during the American Civil War.
Peaches have been grown in this region since the 17th century and are a staple crop as well as a favorite fruit, with peach cobbler being a signature dessert.
Early history
European influence began soon after the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and the earliest recipes emerged by the end of the 17th century. Specific influences from Europe were quite varied, and they remain traditional and essential to the modern cookery overall.
German speakers often settled in the Piedmont on small farms from the coast, and invented an American delicacy that is now nationally beloved, apple butter, based on their recipe for apfelkraut, and later they introduced red cabbage and rye.
From the British Isles, an enormous amount of influence was bestowed upon the South, specifically foodways from 17th- and 18th-century Ulster, the borderlands between England and Scotland, the Scottish Highlands, portions of Wales, the West Midlands, the West Country, Black Country and Southern England. Settlers bound for America fled the tumult of the Civil War, Ulster and the Highland Clearances.
Often ships' manifests show their belongings nearly always included cookpots or bakestones and seed stock for plants like peaches, plums, and apples to grow orchards which they planted in their hundreds. Each group brought foods and ideas from their respective regions.
Settlers from Ireland and Scotland were well known for creating peatreak and poitín, strong hard liquor based on fermenting potatoes or barley. In time they came up with a method for distilling a corn mash with added sugar and aging in charred barrels made of select hardwoods, which created a whiskey with a high proof. This gave birth to American whiskey and Kentucky bourbon, and its cousins moonshine and Everclear.
Closer to the coast, 18th-century recipes for English trifle turned into tipsy cakes, replacing the sherry with whiskey and their recipe for pound cake, brought to the South around the same time, still works with American baking units: one pound sugar, one pound eggs, one pound butter, one pound flour.
Common features
Pork is the popular choice in 80% of Southern style barbecue and features in other preparations like sausages and sandwiches. For most Southerners in the antebellum period, corn and pork were staples of the diet.
Accompanying many meals is the southern style fluffy biscuit, where the leavening agent is baking powder and often includes buttermilk, and for breakfast they often accompany country ham, grits, and scrambled eggs.
Desserts
]]
Desserts in the South tend to be quite rich and very much a legacy of entertaining to impress guests, since a Southern housewife was (and to a degree still is) expected to show her hospitality by laying out as impressive a banquet as she is able to manage.
Desserts are vast and encompass Lane cake, sweet potato pie, peach cobbler, pecan pie, hummingbird cake, Jefferson Davis pie, peanut brittle, coconut cake, apple fritters, peanut cookies, Moravian spice cookies, chess pie, doberge cake, Lady Baltimore cake, bourbon balls, and caramel cake.
American-style sponge cakes tend to be the rule rather than the exception as is American buttercream, a place where Southern baking intersects with the rest of the United States. Nuts like pecan and hickory tend to be revered as garnishes for these desserts, and they make their way into local bakeries as fillings for chocolates.
Cajun and Creole cuisine of Louisiana
is a popular Cajun and Creole dish.]]
In Louisiana, cooking methods have more in common with rustic French cuisines of the 17th and 18th century than anything ever found at the French court in Versailles or the bistros of 19th- and 20th-century Paris; this is especially true of Cajun cuisine.
Cajun French is more closely related to dialects spoken in Northern Maine, New Brunswick, and to a lesser degree Haiti than anything spoken in modern France, and likewise their terminology, methodology, and culture concerning food is much more closely related to the styles of these former French colonies even today.
Unlike other areas of the South, Cajuns were and still are largely Catholics and thus much of what they eat is seasonal; for example pork is an important component of the Cajun boucherie (a large community event where the hog is butchered, prepared with a fiery spice mix, and eaten snout to tail) but it is never consumed in the five weeks of Lent, when such would be forbidden.
Cajun cuisine tends to focus on what is locally available, historically because Cajuns were often poor, illiterate, independent farmers and not plantation owners but today it is because such is deeply imbedded in local culture.
Boudin is a type of sausage found only in this area of the country, and it is often by far more spicy than anything found in France or Belgium. Chaudin is unique to the area, and the method of cooking is comparable to the Scottish dish haggis: the stuffing includes onions, rice, bell peppers, spices, and pork sewn up in the stomach of a pig, and served in slices piping hot.
Crawfish are a staple of the Cajun grandmother's cookpot, as they are abundant in the bayous of Southern Louisiana and a main source of livelihood, as are blue crabs, shrimp, corn on the cob, and red potatoes, since these are the basic ingredients of the Louisiana crawfish boil.
]]
New Orleans has been the capital of Creole culture since before Louisiana was a state. This culture is that of the colonial French and Spanish that evolved in the city of New Orleans, which was and still is quite distinct from the rural culture of Cajuns and dovetails with what would have been eaten in antebellum Louisiana plantation culture long ago.
Cooking to impress and show one's wealth was a staple of Creole culture, which often mixed French, Spanish, Italian, German, African, Caribbean and Native American cooking methods, producing rich dishes like oysters bienville, pompano en papillote, and even the muffaletta sandwich.
However, Louisiana Creole cuisine tends to diverge from the original ideas brought to the region in ingredients: profiteroles, for example, use a near identical choux pastry to that which is found in modern Paris but often use vanilla or chocolate ice cream rather than custard as the filling, pralines nearly always use pecan and not almonds, and bananas foster came about when New Orleans was a key port for the import of bananas from the Caribbean Sea.
Gumbos tend to be thickened with okra, or the leaves of the sassafrass tree. Andouille is often used, but not the andouille currently known in France, since French andouille uses tripe whereas Louisiana andouille is made from a Boston butt, usually inflected with pepper flakes, and smoked for hours over pecan wood.
Other ingredients that are native to Louisiana and not found in the cuisine of modern France would include rice, which has been a staple of both Creole and Cajun cooking for generations, and sugarcane, which has been grown in Louisiana since the early 1800s.
Ground cayenne pepper is a key spice of the region, as is the meat of the American alligator, something settlers learned from the Choctaws and Houma. The maypop plant has been a favorite of Southerners for 350 years; it gives its name to the Ocoee River in Tennessee, a legacy of the Cherokees, and in Southern Louisiana it is known as liane de grenade, indicating its consumption by Cajuns. It is a close relative of the commercial passionfruit, similar in size, and is a common plant growing in gardens all over the South as a source of fresh summertime fruit.
African American influences
West African influences came with enslaved peoples from Ghana, Benin, Mali, Congo, Angola, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and other portions of the Gold Coast, and the mark Africans and their descendants, the African Americans, have made on Southern food is strong today and an essential addition to the Southern table.
Crops like okra, sorghum, sesame seeds, eggplant, and many different kinds of melons were brought with them from West Africa along with the incredibly important introduction of rice to the Carolinas and later to Texas and Louisiana, whence it became a staple grain of that region and still remains a staple in those areas today, found in dishes like Hoppin John, purloo, and Charleston red rice.
Like the poorer indentured servants that came to the South, slaves often got the leftovers of what was slaughtered for the consumption of the master of the plantation and so many recipes had to be adapted for offal, like pig's ears and fatback though other methods encouraged low and slow methods of cooking to tenderize the tougher cuts of meat, like braising, smoking, and pit roasting, the last of which was a method known to West Africans in the preparation of roasting goat.
Peanut soup is one of the oldest known recipes brought to Virginia by Africans and over time, through their descendants, it has become creamier and milder tasting than the original.
Florida cuisine
Certain portions of the South often have their own distinct subtypes of cuisine owing to local history and landscape. Floridian cuisine, for example, has a distinct way of cooking that includes different ingredients, especially south of Tampa and Orlando.
Spain had control of the state until the early 19th century and used the southern tip as an outpost to guard the Spanish Main beginning in the 1500s, but Florida kept and still maintains ties with the Caribbean Sea, including the Bahamas, Haiti, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica.
South of Tampa, there are and have been for a long time many speakers of Caribbean Spanish, Haitian French, Jamaican Patois, and Haitian Creole and each Caribbean culture has a strong hold on cooking methods and spices in Florida. In turn, each mixes and matches with the foodways of the Seminole tribe and Anglophone settlers. Thus, for almost 200 years, Floridian cooking has had a more tropical flavor than any other Southern state.
Allspice, a spice originally from Jamaica, is an ingredient found in spice mixes in summer barbecues along with ginger, garlic, scotch bonnet peppers, sea salt, and nutmeg; in Floridian cooking this is often a variant of Jamaican jerk spice. Coconuts are grown in the areas surrounding Miami and are shipped in daily through its port for consumption of the milk, meat, and water of the coconut.
Bananas are not just the yellow Cavendish variety found in supermarkets across America: in Florida they are available as bananitos, colorados, plátanos, and maduros. The first of these is a tiny miniature banana only about 4–5 inches (10–13 cm) in length and it is sweet. The second has a red peel and an apple-like aftertaste, and the third and fourth are used as a starch on nearly every Caribbean island as a side dish, baked or fried: all of the above are a staple of Florida outdoor markets when in season and all have been grown in the Caribbean for almost 400 years.
Mangoes are grown as a backyard plant in Southern Florida and otherwise are a favorite treat coming in many different shapes in sizes from Nam Doc Mai, brought to Florida after the Vietnam War, to Madame Francis, a mango from Haiti. Sweetsop and soursop are popular around Miami, but nearly unheard of in other areas of the South.
Citrus is a major crop of Florida, and features at many breakfast tables and many markets, with the height of the season near the first week of January. Hamlin oranges are the main cultivar planted, and from this crop the rest of the United States and to a lesser extent Europe gets orange juice. Other plantings include grapefruits, tangerines, clementines, limes, and even a few more rare ones, like Cara Cara navel oranges, tangelos, and the Jamaican Ugli fruit. Tomatoes, bell peppers, habanero peppers, and figs, especially taken from the Florida strangler fig, complete the produce menu.
Blue crab, conch, Florida stone crab, red drum, dorado, and marlins tend to be local favorite ingredients. Dairy is available in this region, but it is less emphasized due to the year round warmth.
Traditional key lime pie, a dessert from the islands off the coast of Miami, is made with condensed milk to form the custard with the eye wateringly tart limes native to the Florida Keys in part because milk would spoil in an age before refrigeration.
Pork in this region tends to be roasted in methods similar to those found in Puerto Rico and Cuba, owing to mass emigration from those countries in the 20th century, especially in the counties surrounding Miami.
Orange blossom honey is a specialty of the state, and is widely available in farmer's markets. Caribbean lobster is a favorite special meal eagerly sought after by Floridians as it is found as far north as Fort Myers: spear diving and collecting them from reefs in the Florida Keys and near rocky shoals is a common practice of local scuba divers.Other small gamePtarmigan, grouse, crow, blackbirds, dove, duck and other game fowl are consumed in the United States. In the American state of Arkansas, beaver tail stew is consumed in Cotton town. Squirrel, raccoon, possum, bear, muskrat, chipmunk, skunk, groundhog, pheasant, armadillo and rabbit are also consumed in the United States.
Cuisine in the West
Cooking in the American West gets its influence from Native American and Hispanophone cultures, as well as later settlers that came in the 19th century: Texas, for example, has some influence from Germany in its choice of barbecue by using sausages.
Another instance can be found in the Northwestern region, which encompasses Oregon, Washington, and Northern California. All of the aforementioned rely on local seafood and a few classics of their own.
In New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, West Texas, and Southern California, Mexican flavors and influences are extremely common, especially from the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Baja California, and Sonora.Northwest
The Pacific Northwest as a region includes Alaska and the state of Washington near the Canada-US border and terminates near Sacramento, California and the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California, and for culinary purposes includes the historic influence of the Monterey Bay area. Here, the terrain is mostly temperate rainforest on the coast mixed with pine forest as one approaches the Canada-US border inland.
One of the core favorite foodstuffs is Pacific salmon, native to many of the larger rivers of the area and often smoked or grilled on cedar planks. In Alaska, wild game like ptarmigan and moose meat feature extensively since much of the state is wilderness.
Fresh fish like steelhead trout, Pacific cod, Pacific halibut, and pollock are fished for extensively and feature on the menu of many restaurants, as do a plethora of fresh berries and vegetables, like Cameo apples from Washington state, the headquarters of the U.S. apple industry, cherries from Oregon, blackberries, and marionberries, a feature of many pies. Hazelnuts are grown extensively in this region and are a feature of baking, such as in chocolate hazelnut pie, an Oregon favorite, and Almond Roca is a local candy.
Like its counterpart on the opposite coast to the East, there is a grand variety of shellfish in this region. Geoducks are a native species of giant clam that have incredibly long necks; they are eaten by the bucketful and shipped to Asia for millions of dollars as they are believed to be an aphrodisiac. Gaper clams are a favorite food, often grilled or steamed in a sauce.
Native California abalone is protected as a food source, and a traditional foodway predating settlement by whites, today featuring heavily in the cooking of fine restaurants as well as in home cooking, in mirin-flavored soups (the influence of Japanese cooking is strong in the region) noodle dishes and on the barbecue.
Native Olympia oysters are served on the half shell as well as the Kumamoto oyster, introduced by Japanese immigrants and a staple at dinner as an appetizer.
California mussels are a delicacy of the region, and have been a feature of the cooking for generations. There is evidence that Native American tribes consumed them up and down the California coast for centuries.
Crabs are a delicacy, and included in this are Alaskan king crab, red crab, yellow crab, and Dungeness crab. Californian and Oregonian sportsmen pursue the last three extensively using hoop nets, and prepare them in a multitude of ways.
Alaskan king crab, able to grow as large as 10 kg, is often served steamed for a whole table with lemon-butter sauce or put in chunks of salad with avocado, and native crabs are the base of dishes like the California roll, cioppino, a tomato-based fisherman's stew, and Crab Louie, another kind of salad native to San Francisco.
Favorite grains are mainly wheat, and the region is known for sourdough bread. Cheeses of the region include Humboldt Fog, Monterey Jack, Cougar Gold and Teleme.
Southwest and Southern California
'' ingredients, served on a hot iron skillet]]
The states of the Four Corners (Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) plus Nevada, Southern California, and West Texas make up a large chunk of the United States.
There is a distinct Hispanic accent to the cookery here, with each having cultural capitals in Albuquerque, Denver, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Santa Fe, San Diego, and Tucson.
For centuries, prior to California's statehood in the 1850s, it was part of the Spanish Empire, namely Alta California (modern California), Santa Fe de Nuevo México (modern New Mexico), and Tejas (modern Texas). Today it is home of a large population of Native Americans, Hispanos, descendants of the American frontier, Asian Americans, and immigrants from Mexico and Latin America.
California, New Mexico, and Texas continue to hold their unique identities which is reflected in their distinct regional cuisines, the multiple cuisines of California, New Mexican cuisine, Texan cuisine, and Tex-Mex. Spanish is a commonly spoken secondary language here; the state of New Mexico has its own distinct dialect.
With the exception of Southern California, the signature meat is beef, since this is one of the two regions in which cowboys lived and modern cattle ranchers still eke out their living today. High-quality beefstock is a feature that has been present in the region for more than 200 years and the many cuts of beef are unique to the United States. These cuts of meat are different from the related Mexican cuisine over the border in that certain kind of offal, like lengua (tongue), cabeza (head), and tripas (tripe) are considered less desirable and are thus less emphasized. Typical cuts would include the ribs, brisket, sirloin, flank steak, skirt steak, and t-bone.
, a typical Tex-Mex dish with garnishes and tortilla chips]]
Historically, Spanish settlers that came to the region found it completely unsuitable to the mining operations that much older settlements in Mexico had to offer as their technology was not advanced enough to extract the silver that would later be found. They had no knowledge of the gold in California, which would not be found until 1848, and knew even less about the silver in Nevada, undiscovered until after the Civil War.
Instead, in order to make the pueblos prosper, they adapted the old rancho system of places like Andalusia in Spain and brought the earliest beefstock, among these were breeds that would go feral and become the Texas longhorn, and Navajo-Churro sheep, still used as breeding stock because they are easy to keep and well adapted to the extremely arid and hot climate, where temperatures easily exceed 38 °C.
Later, cowboys learned from their management practices, many of which still stand today, like the practical management of stock on horseback using the Western saddle.
, the state cookie of New Mexico]]
Likewise, settlers learned the cooking methods of those who came before and local tribes as well, for example, portions of Arizona and New Mexico still use the aforementioned beehive shaped clay contraption called an horno, an outdoor wood-fired oven both Native American tribes like the Navajo and Spaniards used for roasting meat, maize, and baking bread.
Meats that see frequent use are elk meat, a favorite in crown roasts and burgers, and nearer the Mexican border rattlesnake, often skinned and stewed.
The taste for alcohol tends toward light and clean flavors found in tequila, a staple of this region since the days of the Wild West and a staple in the bartender's arsenal for cocktails, especially in Las Vegas. In Utah, a state heavily populated by Mormons, alcohol is frowned upon by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints but still available in area bars in Salt Lake City, mainly consumed by the populations of Catholics and other Protestant denominations living there.
Introduction of agriculture was limited prior to the 20th century and the development of better irrigation techniques, but included the addition of peaches, a crop still celebrated by Native American tribes like the Havasupai, and oranges. Today in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico the favored orange today is the Moro blood orange, which often finds its way into the local cuisine, like cakes and marmalade.
Pine nuts are a particular regional specialty and feature often in fine dining and cookies; in Nevada the Native American tribes that live there are by treaty given rights to exclusive harvest, and in New Mexico they reserve usage of the term piñon for certain species of indigenous pine nuts.
From Native Americans, Westerners learned the practice of eating cactus fruit from the myriad species of opuntia that occupy the Chihuahuan, Sonoran, and Mojave desert lands. In California, Spanish missionaries brought with them the mission fig, and today this fruit is a delicacy.
is a staple of New Mexican cuisine.]]
Cuisine in this region tends to have certain key ingredients: tomatoes, onions, black beans, pinto beans, rice, bell peppers, chile peppers, and cheese, in particular Monterey Jack, invented to the north in the Central Coast area of California in the 19th century and itself often further altered into pepper Jack where spicy jalapeño peppers are incorporated into the cheese to create a smoky taste.
Chili peppers play an important role in the cuisine, with a few native to the region. This is especially true with the region's distinct New Mexico chile pepper, still grown by Hispanos of New Mexico and Puebloans the most sought after of which come from the Hatch valley, Albuquerque's Central Rio Grande, Chimayo, and Pueblos.
In New Mexico, chile is eaten on a variety of foods, such as the green chile cheeseburger, made popular by fast food chains such as Blake's Lotaburger. Indeed, even national fast food chains operating in the state, such as McDonald's, offer locally grown chile on many of their menu items.
In the 20th century a few more recent additions have arrived like the poblano pepper, rocoto pepper, ghost pepper, thai chili pepper, and Korean pepper, the last three especially when discussing Southern California and its large population from East and South Asia.
Cornbread is consumed, however the recipe differs from ones in the East in that the batter is cooked in a cast-iron skillet.
Outdoor cooking is popular and still utilizes an old method settlers brought from the East with them, in which a cast-iron Dutch oven is covered with the coals of the fire and stacked or hung from a tripod: this is different from the earthenware pots of Mexico.
Tortillas are still made the traditional way here and form an important component of the spicy breakfast burrito, which contains ham, eggs, and salsa or pico de gallo. They are also used for regular burritos, which contains any combination of marinated meats, vegetables, and piquant chilis; smothered burritos, often both containing and topped with New Mexico chile sauces; quesadillas, a much loved grilled dish where cheese and other ingredients are stuffed between two tortillas and served by the slice; and steak fajitas, where sliced skirt steak sizzles in a skillet with caramelized onions.
with cheese]]
Unlike Mexico, tortillas of this region also may incorporate vegetables like spinach into the flatbread dough to make wraps, which were invented in Southern California. Food here tends to use pungent spices and condiments, typically chili verde sauce, various kinds of hot sauce, sriracha sauce, chili powder, cayenne pepper, white pepper, cumin, paprika, onion powder, thyme and black pepper. Nowhere is this fiery mix of spice more evident than in the dishes chili con carne, a meaty stew, and cowboy beans, both of which are a feature of regional cookoffs.
Southern California has several additions like five spice powder, rosemary, curry powder, kimchi, and lemongrass, with many of these brought by recent immigration to the region and often a feature of Southern California's fusion cuisine, popular in fine dining.
In Texas, the local barbecue is often entirely made up of beef brisket or large rib racks, where the meat is seasoned with a spice rub and cooked over coals of mesquite. In other portions of the state they smoke the meat and peppery sausages over high heat using pecan, apple, and oak wood and serve it with a side of pickled vegetables, a legacy of German and Czech settlers of the late 1800s.
California is home to Santa Maria–style barbecue, where the spices involved generally are black pepper, paprika, and garlic salt, and grill over the coals of coast live oak.
]]
Native American additions may include Navajo frybread and corn on the cob, often roasted on the grill in its husk. A typical accompaniment or appetizer of all these states is the tortilla chip, which sometimes includes cornmeal from cultivars of corn that are blue or red in addition to the standard yellow of sweetcorn, and is served with salsa of varying hotness.
Tortilla chips also are an ingredient in the Tex Mex dish nachos, where these chips are loaded with any combination of ground beef, melted Monterey Jack, cheddar, or Colby cheese, guacamole, sour cream, and salsa, and Texas usually prefers a version of potato salad as a side dish.
For alcohol, a key ingredient is tequila: this spirit has been made on both sides of the US-Mexican border for generations, and in modern cuisine it is a must-have in a bartender's arsenal as well as an addition to dishes for sauteeing.
Southern California is focused more towards the coast and has had more contact with immigration from the West Pacific and Baja California, in addition to having the international city of Los Angeles as its capital. Here, the prime mode of transportation is by car.
Drive through fast food was invented in this area, but so was the concept of the gourmet burger movement, giving birth to chains like In-N-Out Burger, with many variations of burgers including chili, multiple patties, avocado, special sauces, and Angus or wagyu beef. Common accompaniments include thick milkshakes in various flavors like mint, chocolate, peanut butter, vanilla, strawberry, and mango.
Smoothies are a common breakfast item made with fresh fruit juice, yogurt, and crushed ice. Agua fresca, a drink originated by Mexican immigrants, is a common hot-weather beverage sold in many supermarkets and at mom and pop stands, available in citrus, watermelon, and strawberry flavors; the California version usually served chilled without grain in it.
'' with pork, eggs, and potatoes wrapped in a tortilla, served with salsa]]
The weather in Southern California is such that the temperature rarely drops below in winter, thus, sun-loving crops like pistachios, kiwifruit, avocadoes, strawberries, and tomatoes are staple crops of the region, the last often dried in the sun and a feature of salads and sandwiches.
Olive oil is a staple cooking oil of the region and has been since the days of Junípero Serra; today the mission olive is a common tree growing in a Southern Californian's back garden. As a crop olives are increasingly a signature of the region along with Valencia oranges and Meyer lemons.
Soybeans, bok choy, Japanese persimmon, thai basil, Napa cabbage, nori, mandarin oranges, water chestnuts, and mung beans are other crops brought to the region from East Asia and are common additions to salads as the emphasis on fresh produce in both Southern and Northern California is strong.
Other vegetables and herbs have a distinct Mediterranean flavor which would include oregano, basil, summer squash, eggplant, and broccoli, with all of the above extensively available at farmers' markets all around Southern California.
Naturally, salads native to Southern California tend to be hearty affairs, like Cobb salad and Chinese chicken salad, and dressings like green goddess and ranch are a staple.
California-style pizza tends to have disparate ingredients with an emphasis on vegetables, with any combination of chili oil, prawns, eggs, chicken, shiitake mushrooms, olives, bell pepper, goat cheese, and feta cheese. Peanut noodles tend to include a sweet dressing with lo mein noodles and chopped peanuts.
Fresh fish and shellfish in Southern California tends to be expensive in restaurants, but every year since the end of WWII, the Pismo clam festival has taken place where the local population takes a large species of clam and bakes, stuffs, and roasts it as it is a regional delicacy.
Fishing for pacific species of octopus and the Humboldt squid are common, and both are a feature of East Asian and other L.A. fish markets. Lingcod is a coveted regional fish that is often caught in the autumn off the coast of San Diego and in the Channel Islands and often served baked. California sheephead are often grilled and are much sought after by spear fishermen and the immigrant Chinese population, in which case it is basket steamed.
Most revered of all in recent years is the California spiny lobster, a beast that can grow to 44 lb, and is a delicacy that now rivals the fishery for Dungeness crab in its importance.
Pacific and Hawaiian cuisine
salmon]]
Hawaii is often considered to be one of the most culturally diverse U.S. states, as well as being the only state with an Asian-majority population and one of the few places where United States territory extends into the tropics. As a result, Hawaiian cuisine borrows elements of a variety of cuisines, particularly those of Asian and Pacific-rim cultures, as well as traditional native Hawaiian and a few additions from the American mainland.
American influence in the last 150 years has brought cattle, goats, and sheep to the islands, introducing cheese, butter, and yogurt products, as well as crops like red cabbage.
Major Asian and Polynesian influences on modern Hawaiian cuisine are from Japan, Korea, Vietnam, China (especially near the Pearl River delta,) Samoa, and the Philippines. From Japan, the concept of serving raw fish as a meal with rice was introduced, as was soft tofu, setting the stage for the popular dish called poke.
From Korea, immigrants to Hawaii brought a love of spicy garlic marinades for meat and kimchi. From China, their version of char siu baau became modern manapua, a type of steamed pork bun with a spicy filling.
Filipinos brought vinegar, bagoong, and lumpia, and during the 20th century immigrants from American Samoa brought the open pit fire umu and the Vietnamese introduced lemongrass and fish sauce.
Each East Asian culture brought several different kinds of noodles, including udon, ramen, mei fun, and pho, and today these are common lunchtime meals.
Much of this cuisine mixes and melts into traditions like the ''lu'au, whose traditional elaborate fare was once the prerogative of kings and queens but is today the subject of parties for both tourists and also private parties for the ‘ohana (meaning family and close friends.)
Traditionally, women and men ate separately under the Hawaiian kapu system, a system of religious beliefs that honored the Hawaiian gods similar to the Maori tapu'' system, though in this case had some specific prohibitions towards females eating things like coconut, pork, turtle meat, and bananas as these were considered parts of the male gods. Punishment for violation could be severe, as a woman might endanger a man's mana, or soul, by eating with him or otherwise by eating the forbidden food because doing so dishonored the male gods.
As the system broke down after 1810, introductions of foods from laborers on plantations began to be included at feasts and much cross pollination occurred, where Asian foodstuffs mixed with Polynesian foodstuffs like breadfruit, kukui nuts, and purple sweet potatoes.
Some notable Hawaiian fare includes seared ahi tuna, opakapaka (snapper) with passionfruit, Hawaiian island-raised lamb, beef and meat products, Hawaiian plate lunch, and Molokai shrimp. Seafood traditionally is caught fresh in Hawaiian waters, and particular delicacies are ula poni, papaikualoa, ‘opihi, and ‘opihi malihini, better known as Hawaiian spiny lobster, Kona crab, Hawaiian limpet, and abalone, the last brought over with Japanese immigrants.
Some cuisine also incorporates a broad variety of produce and locally grown agricultural products, including tomatoes, sweet Maui onions, taro, and macadamia nuts. Tropical fruits also play an important role in the cuisine as a flavoring in cocktails and in desserts, including local cultivars of bananas, sweetsop, mangoes, lychee, coconuts, papayas, and lilikoi (passionfruit). Pineapples have been an island staple since the 19th century and figure into many marinades and drinks.
Common dishes found on a regional level
<gallery class"center" widths"200" heights="170">
File:BBQ Food.jpg|Chicken, pork and corn cooking in a barbecue smoker
File:New York-Style Pizza.png|New York–style pizza served at a pizzeria in New York
File:Giordanos stuffed pizza.jpg|Chicago-style deep-dish pizza from the original Giordano's location
File:Whiz wit' Pat.gif|A Philly cheesesteak from Pat's King of Steaks in Philadelphia
File:Keylimepiecut.jpg|Key lime pie is from Key West, Florida.
File:Ribs in a barbecue "pit".jpg|Memphis-style barbecue
File:Chez Panisse pizza.jpg|California-style pizza
File:Carnegie Deli Strawberry Cheesecake.jpg|New York–style cheesecake
File:Chicago-style hot dog 2.jpg|Chicago-style hot dog
File:Bostoncreampie.jpg|Boston cream pie
File:Cheese ball.jpg|Cheese ball
</gallery>
Ethnicity-specific and immigrant influence
and french fries in San Diego, California]]
The influence of ethnicity-specific cuisines like Italian cuisine and Mexican cuisine was present in the United States by World War I. There are recipes for Chilean meat pies, chicken chop suey, chow mein, Mexican pork pastries and Italian meatballs going back to at least the 1930s, but many of the recipes were Anglicized and they appeared relatively infrequently compared to Northern European recipes.
19th-century cookbooks bear evidence of diverse influences with some including recipes like Indian pickle, Italian pork and various curries. 19th-century literature shows knowledge of Jewish, Russian, Italian, Chinese and Greek-American cuisines, and foreign cookbooks continued to grow more detailed through World War I including recipes like Peruvian chicken, Mexican enchiladas, Chilean corn pudding and Hindustan chicken curry.
Louise Rice, author of Dainty Dishes from Foreign Lands describes the recipes in her book as "not wholly vegetarian" though noting at the time of publication in 1911 that most of the recipes would likely be new to average American cooks and likely contain higher proportions of vegetables to meat. She includes Italian pasta recipes like macaroni in milk, soups and polentas and German recipes like liver dumplings called Leberknödel and a variation of Sauerbraten.
The demand for ethnic foods in the United States reflects the nation's changing diversity as well as its development over time. According to the National Restaurant Association, <blockquote>
Restaurant industry sales are expected to reach a record high of $476 billion in 2005, an increase of 4.9 percent over 2004... Driven by consumer demand, the ethnic food market reached record sales in 2002, and has emerged as the fastest growing category in the food and beverage product sector, according to USBX Advisory Services. Minorities in the U.S. spend a combined $142 billion on food and by 2010, America's ethnic population is expected to grow by 40 percent.
</blockquote>
from the "Seoul on Wheels" truck in San Francisco]]
A movement began during the 1980s among popular leading chefs to reclaim America's ethnic foods within its regional traditions, where these trends originated. One of the earliest was Paul Prudhomme, who in 1984 began the introduction of his influential cookbook, ''Paul Prodhomme's Louisiana Kitchen'', by describing the over 200-year history of Creole and Cajun cooking; he aims to "preserve and expand the Louisiana tradition." Prodhomme's success quickly inspired other chefs. Norman Van Aken embraced a Floridian type cuisine fused with many ethnic and globalized elements in his Feast of Sunlight cookbook in 1988. California became swept up in the movement, then seemingly started to lead the trend itself, in, for example, the popular restaurant Chez Panisse in Berkeley.
Examples of the Chez Panisse phenomenon, chefs who embraced a new globalized cuisine, were celebrity chefs like Jeremiah Tower and Wolfgang Puck, both former colleagues at the restaurant. Puck went on to describe his belief in contemporary, new style American cuisine in the introduction to The Wolfgang Puck Cookbook:
<blockquote>
Another major breakthrough, whose originators were once thought to be crazy, is the mixing of ethnic cuisines. It is not at all uncommon to find raw fish listed next to tortillas on the same menu. Ethnic crossovers also occur when distinct elements meet in a single recipe. This country is, after all, a huge melting pot. Why should its cooking not illustrate the American transformation of diversity into unity?
</blockquote>
Puck's former colleague, Jeremiah Tower became synonymous with California Cuisine and the overall American culinary revolution. Meanwhile, the restaurant that inspired both Puck and Tower became a distinguished establishment, popularizing its so called "mantra" in its book by Paul Bertolli and owner Alice Waters, Chez Panisse Cooking, in 1988. Published well after the restaurants' founding in 1971, this new cookbook from the restaurant seemed to perfect the idea and philosophy that had developed over the years. The book embraced America's natural bounty, specifically that of California, while containing recipes that reflected Bertoli and Waters' appreciation of both northern Italian and French style foods.
Early ethnic influences
tailored for the mainstream American market usually is different from Mexican food typically served in Mexico.]]
While the earliest cuisine of the United States was influenced by Native Americans, the thirteen colonies, or the antebellum South, the overall culture of the nation, its gastronomy and the growing culinary arts became ever more influenced by its changing ethnic mix and immigrant patterns from the 18th and 19th centuries unto the present. Some of the ethnic groups that continued to influence the cuisine were here in prior years; others arrived more numerously during "The Great Transatlantic Migration" (of 1870–1914) or other mass migrations.
Some of the ethnic influences could be found across the nation after the American Civil War and into the continental expansion for most of the 19th century. Ethnic influences already in the nation at that time would include the following groups and their respective cuisines:
* Select nationalities of Europe and the respective developments from early modern European cuisine of the colonial age:
** British-Americans and on-going developments in New England cuisine, the national traditions founded in the cuisine of the original thirteen colonies, The Cuisine of the Southern United States, and many aspects of other regional cuisine.
** Spanish Americans and early modern Spanish cuisine, as well as Basque-Americans and Basque cuisine.
** Early German-American or Pennsylvania Dutch and Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine
** French Americans and their New World regional identities such as:
*** Acadian
*** Cajun and Cajun cuisine
** Louisiana Creole and Louisiana Creole cuisine. Louisiana Creole (also called French Créole) refers to native-born people of the New Orleans area who are descended from the Colonial French and Spanish settlers of Colonial French Louisiana, before it became part of the United States in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase.
* The various ethnicities originating from the early gastronomy and cuisines of the New World, Latin American cuisine, and North American cuisine:
** Native Americans in the United States and Native American cuisine
** African Americans and Soul food.
** Puerto Rican cuisine
** Mexican Americans and Mexican-American cuisine; as well as related regional cuisines:
*** Tex-Mex (regional Texas and Mexican fusion)
*** Some aspects of "Southwestern cuisine".
** New Mexican cuisine from New Mexico and the historical region of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, and now ethnically tied to the Pueblos and Hispanos of New Mexico.
Later ethnic and immigrant influence
Mass migrations of immigrants to the United States came over time. Historians identify several waves of migration to the United States: one from 1815 to 1860, in which some five million English, Irish, German, Scandinavian, and others from northwestern Europe came to the United States; one from 1865 to 1890, in which some 10 million immigrants, also mainly from northwestern Europe, settled; and a third from 1890 to 1914, in which 15 million immigrants, mainly from central, eastern, and southern Europe (many Austrian, Hungarian, Turkish, Lithuanian, Russian, Jewish, Greek, Italian, and Romanian) settled in the United States.
Together with earlier arrivals to the United States (including the indigenous Native Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, particularly in the West, Southwest, and Texas; African Americans who came to the United States in the Atlantic slave trade; and early colonial migrants from Europe), these new waves of immigrants had a profound impact on national or regional cuisine. Some of these more prominent groups include the following:
* Albanian Americans—Albanian cuisine
* Arab Americans, particularly Lebanese Americans (the largest ethnic Arab group in the United States)—Arab cuisine, Lebanese cuisine
* Argentine Americans—Argentine cuisine
* Armenian Americans—Armenian cuisine
* Brazilian Americans—Brazilian cuisine
* Cambodian Americans—Cambodian cuisine
* Chinese Americans—American Chinese cuisine, Chinese cuisine
* Colombian Americans—Colombian cuisine
* Cuban Americans—Cuban cuisine
* Dominican Americans—Dominican Republic cuisine
* Dutch Americans—Dutch cuisine
* Ethiopian Americans—Eritrean Americans: Ethiopian cuisine, Eritrean cuisine in Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Denver, New York
* Filipino Americans—Filipino cuisine, Filipino-American cuisine
* French Americans—French cuisine
* German Americans—German cuisine (the Pennsylvania Dutch, although descended from Germans, arrived earlier than the bulk of German migrants and have distinct culinary traditions)
* Greek Americans—Greek-American cuisine, Greek cuisine, Mediterranean cuisine
* Guatemalan Americans—Guatemalan cuisine
* Haitian Americans—Haitian cuisine
* Honduran Americans—Honduran cuisine
* Hungarian Americans—Hungarian cuisine
* Indian Americans—Indian cuisine
* Irish Americans—Irish cuisine
* Italian Americans—Italian-American cuisine, Italian cuisine
* Japanese Americans—Japanese cuisine, with influences on the Hawaiian cuisine
* Jewish Americans—Jewish cuisine, with particular influence on New York City cuisine
* Korean Americans—Korean cuisine
* Lithuanian Americans—Lithuanian cuisine, Midwest
* Nicaraguan American—Nicaraguan cuisine
* Nigerian Americans—Nigerian cuisine
* Pakistani Americans—Pakistani cuisine
* Peruvian Americans—Peruvian cuisine
* Polish Americans—Polish cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest
* Polynesian Americans—Hawaiian cuisine
* Portuguese Americans—Portuguese cuisine
* Romanian Americans—Romanian cuisine
* Russian Americans—Russian cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest
* Salvadoran Americans—Salvadoran cuisine
* Scottish Americans—Scottish cuisine
* Spanish Americans—Spanish cuisine
* Thai Americans—Thai cuisine
* Turkish Americans—Turkish cuisine, Balkan cuisine
* Venezuelan Americans—Venezuelan cuisine
* Vietnamese Americans—Vietnamese cuisine
* West Indian Americans—Caribbean cuisine, Jamaican cuisine, Trinidad and Tobago cuisine, Barbadian cuisine, Bahamian cuisine
<blockquote>Italian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) cuisines have indeed joined the mainstream. These three cuisines have become so ingrained in the American culture that they are no longer foreign to the American palate. According to the study, more than nine out of 10 consumers are familiar with and have tried these foods, and about half report eating them frequently. The research also indicates that Italian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) have become so adapted to such an extent that "authenticity" is no longer a concern to customers.
</blockquote>
Contributions from these ethnic foods have become as common as traditional "American" fares such as hot dogs, hamburgers, beef steak, which are derived from German cuisine, (chicken-fried steak, for example, is a variation on German schnitzel), cherry pie, Coca-Cola, milkshakes, fried chicken (Fried chicken is of English, Scottish, and African influence), Pepsi, Dr Pepper and so on. Nowadays, Americans also have a ubiquitous consumption of foods like pizza and pasta, tacos and burritos to "General Tso's chicken" and fortune cookies. Fascination with these and other ethnic foods may also vary with region.
Other popular foods
Fast food
The United States has a large fast food industry. Major American fast food chains include McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's, Domino's, Pizza Hut, KFC, Popeyes, Subway, Taco Bell, Arby's, Starbucks, Dunkin' Donuts, White Castle, In-N-Out Burger, Sonic Drive-In, Chick-fil-A, Church's Chicken, and Raising Cane's, among numerous other multinational, national, regional, and local chains. Traditional American fast food items are hamburgers, french fries, breaded chicken, and pizza, though several chains also offer items from different cuisines modified for American palates, such as tacos, pasta, and stir-fry. Many American fast food chains have expanded abroad to other countries, typically offering standard American fare alongside items adapted to appeal to regional tastes within their markets.Desserts
]]
A classic American dessert is apple pie. Some other famous American desserts are banana split, Boston cream pie, key lime pie, and bananas foster. Other famous American desserts are chocolate chip cookies, pecan pie, carrot cake, banana pudding, S'more, black and white cookies, pumpkin pie, coconut cake, funnel cake, brownies and red velvet cake.
Influential figures and American cuisine on television
American chefs have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. Some important 19th-century American chefs include Charles Ranhofer of Delmonico's Restaurant in New York, and Bob Payton, who is credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK. Later, chefs Charles Scotto, Louis Pacquet, John Massironi were founded the American Culinary Federation in 1930, taking after similar organizations across Europe. In the 1940s, Chef James Beard hosted the first nationally televised cooking show I Love to Eat. His name is also carried by the foundation and prestigious cooking award recognizing excellence in the American cooking community. Since Beard, many chefs and cooking personalities have taken to television, and the success of the Cooking Channel and Food Network have contributed to the popularity of American cuisine. In 1946, the Culinary Institute of America was founded by Katharine Angel and Frances Roth. This would become the United States' most prestigious culinary school, where many of the most talented American chefs would study prior to successful careers. The American Culinary community has grown due to both restaurants and media, through the work of many talented chefs. Influential figures at The French Laundry]]
Notable American restaurant chefs include Samin Nosrat (Salt, Fat, Acid, Heat), Thomas Keller (The French Laundry), Charlie Trotter (Trotter's), Grant Achatz (Alinea), Alfred Portale (Portale), Paul Prudhomme (K-Paul's), Paul Bertolli (Oliveto), Jonathan Waxman (Barbuto), Mark Peel (Campanile), Frank Stitt (Bottega), Alice Waters (Chez Panisse), Wolfgang Puck (Spago), Patrick O'Connell (The Inn), Eric Ripert (Le Bernardin), Todd English (Olives) and Anthony Bourdain (Les Halles). Many of these chefs have received much critical acclaim, as Keller, Achatz, Ripert and O'Connell have all received three Michelin stars, the highest distinction which a restaurant can be given. Keller was given this award for The French Laundry, Achatz for Alinea, Ripert for Le Bernardin and O'Connell for The Inn at Little Washington.
Celebrity chefs have also helped to expand the culinary arts into popular culture, with chefs such as David Chang (Chef's Table), Alton Brown (Iron Chef America), Emeril Lagasse (Emeril Live), Cat Cora (Iron Chef America), Erik Davidson (Phat Erik's), Michael Symon (The Chew), Bobby Flay (Beat Bobby Flay), Ina Garten (Barefoot Contessa) and Guy Fieri (Diners, Drive-ins and Dives). Many of these celebrity chefs, such as David Chang, Emeril Lagasse and Bobby Flay began their careers in restaurants before branching out into television. The shows have a wide variety of formats, including cooking competitions, such as Iron Chef, documentaries, such as Anthony Bourdain's Parts Unknown, shows that take a look into restaurants, as Chef's Table does, and shows that teach cooking. The success of food television specifically in the United States has helped American Cuisine grow around the world. Regional cuisine chefs Regional chefs are emerging as localized celebrity chefs with growing broader appeal, such as Peter Merriman (Hawaii Regional Cuisine), Roy Choi (Korean American Cuisine), Jerry Traunfeld, Alan Wong (Pacific Rim cuisine), Rick Bayless and Daniela Soto-Innes (traditional Mexican cuisine with modern interpretations), Norman Van Aken (New World Cuisine – fusion Latin, Caribbean, Asian, African and American), and Mark Miller (American Southwest cuisine).See also
* Cuisine of the Americas
** Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
* Soul food
Types
* American wine
Regional
* Cuisine of California
* Cuisine of Minnesota
* Cuisine of New England
* Cuisine of New York City
* Cuisine of the Southern United States
** Cuisine of Atlanta
** Cuisine of Houston
** Cuisine of Kentucky
* Tex-Mex cuisine
Ethnic
* American Chinese cuisine
* Mexican-American cuisine
* Italian-American cuisine
* Greek-American cuisine
* Puerto Rican cuisine
Other
* High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America
* Cuisine of Antebellum America
* List of American desserts
* List of American breads
** Bread in American cuisine
* List of American foods
* List of American regional and fusion cuisines
* List of American breakfast foods
* Tlingit cuisine
* Cuisine of the Americas
* Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch
* Cuisine of the Southern United States
*
* American tea culture
References
Works cited
* .
*
}}.
* .
* .
* Fried, Stephen. Appetite for America: How Visionary Businessman Fred Harvey Built a Railroad Hospitality Empire That Civilized the Wild West (Bantam; 2010)
* .
* .
* .
* .
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* Veit, Helen Zoe. Modern Food, Moral Food: Self-Control, Science, and the Rise of Modern American Eating in the Early Twentieth Century (2013)
Further reading
*
External links
*
*
Category:Cultural history of the United States
Category:North American cuisine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_cuisine | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.790272 |
2176 | Ahmad Shah Massoud | | image | image_size
| caption = Massoud during his time in Jamiat-e Islami
| office = Minister of Defense of Afghanistan
| term_start = April 28, 1992
| term_end = September 9, 2001
| president = Burhanuddin Rabbani
| predecessor = Mohammad Aslam Watanjar
| successor = Mohammed Fahim
| birth_date
| death_date
| birth_place = Bazarak, Kingdom of Afghanistan
| death_place Takhar Province, Afghanistan
| death_cause = Assassination
| party = Jamiat-e Islami
| spouse = Sediqa Massoud
| children = 6, including Ahmad
| nickname = "Lion of Panjshir" ()
| branch = Jamiat-e Islami / Shura-e Nazar<br /> Afghan Armed Forces<br /> United Islamic Front
| serviceyears = 1975–2001
| rank = General
| unit | commands Mujahideen commander during the Soviet–Afghan War<br />Commander of the United Islamic Front
| battles =
* 1975 Panjshir Valley uprising
* Soviet–Afghan War
** Panjshir offensives
*** Panjshir Front
** First Panjshir Offensive
** Second Panjshir Offensive
** Operation Arrow
** Marmoul offensives
** Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan
**
*First Afghan Civil War
* Second Afghan Civil War
** Afshar Operation
* Third Afghan Civil War
| awards = National Hero of Afghanistan<br /> Order of Ismoili Somoni
| relations | laterwork
}}
Ahmad Shah Massoud (Dari: }}, ; September 2, 1953September 9, 2001) was an Afghan military leader and politician. He was a guerrilla commander during the resistance against the Soviet occupation during the Soviet–Afghan War from 1979 to 1989. In the 1990s, he led the government's military wing against rival militia, and actively fought against the Taliban, from the time the regime rose to power in 1996, and until his assassination in 2001.
Massoud came from an ethnic Tajik of Sunni Muslim background in the Panjshir Valley in Northern Afghanistan. He began studying engineering at Polytechnical University of Kabul in the 1970s, where he became involved with religious anti-communist movements around Burhanuddin Rabbani, a leading Islamist. He participated in a failed uprising against Mohammed Daoud Khan's government. He later joined Rabbani's Jamiat-e Islami party. During the Soviet–Afghan War, his role as an insurgent leader of the Afghan mujahideen earned him the nickname "Lion of Panjshir" () among his followers. Supported by Britain's MI6 and to a lesser extent by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), he successfully resisted the Soviets from taking the Panjshir Valley. In 1992, he signed the Peshawar Accord, a peace and power-sharing agreement, in the post-communist Islamic State of Afghanistan. He was appointed the Minister of Defense as well as the government's main military commander. His militia fought to defend Kabul against militias led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and other warlords who were bombing the city, as well as later against the Taliban, who laid siege to the capital in January 1995 after the city had seen fierce fighting with at least 60,000 civilians killed.
Following the rise of the Taliban in 1996, Massoud, who rejected the Taliban's fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, returned to armed opposition until he was forced to flee to Kulob, Tajikistan, strategically destroying the Salang Tunnel on his way north. He became the military and political leader of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan or Northern Alliance, which by 2000 controlled only between 5 and 10 percent of the country. In 2001 he visited Europe and urged European Parliament leaders to pressure Pakistan on its support for the Taliban. He also asked for humanitarian aid to combat the Afghan people's gruesome conditions under the Taliban. On September 9, 2001, Massoud was injured in a suicide bombing by two al-Qaeda assassins, ordered personally by the al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden himself; he lost his life while en route to a hospital across the border in Tajikistan. Massoud was posthumously named "National Hero" by the order of President Hamid Karzai after the Taliban were ousted from power. The date of Massoud's death, September 9, was observed as a national holiday known as "Massoud Day" until the Taliban takeover in August 2021. His followers call him Amer Sāhib-e Shahīd (), which translates to "(our) martyred commander". A street in New Delhi was named after him in 2007. He has been posthumously honored by a plaque in France in 2021, Massoud's name at birth was 'Ahmad Shah' after King Ahamad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern, unified state of Afghanistan, later taking the name 'Massoud' as a nom de guerre in 1974 when he joined the resistance movement against the forces of Daoud Khan. Massoud's father, Dost Mohammad, was a colonel in the Royal Afghan Army; his mother, Bibi Khorshid has been described as a "modern-minded" woman who taught herself to read and write determined to educate her daughters no less than her sons.
1975 rebellion in Panjshir
In 1973, former Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud Khan was brought to power in a coup d'état backed by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, and the Republic of Afghanistan was established. These developments gave rise to an Islamist movement opposed to the increasing communist and Soviet influence over Afghanistan. During that time, while studying at Kabul University, Massoud became involved with the Muslim Youth (Sazman-i Jawanan-i Musulman), the student branch of the Jamiat-e Islami (Islamic Society), whose chairman then was the professor Burhanuddin Rabbani. Kabul University was a center for political debate and activism during that time.
Infuriated by the arrogance of his communist peers and Russian professors, a physical altercation between Massoud and his Russian professor led Massoud to walk out of the university, and shortly after, Kabul. Two days later, Massoud and a number of fellow militant students traveled to Pakistan where, goaded by another trainee of the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), Gulbaddin Hekmatyar, Massoud agreed to take part in a coup against Daoud with his forces rising up in the Panjshir and Hekmatyar's elsewhere. While the uprising in the Panjshir saw initial success, even taking the military garrison in Rokha, the promised support from Kabul never came and the rebellion was suppressed by Daoud Khan's forces sending Massoud back into Pakistan (after a day hiding in Jangalak) where he would attend a secret, paramilitary ISI training center in Cherat. On April 27, 1978, the PDPA and military units loyal to it killed Daoud Khan, his immediate family, and bodyguards in a violent coup, and seized control of the capital Kabul declaring the new Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). The new communist government, led by a revolutionary council, did not enjoy the support of the masses. It implemented a doctrine hostile to political dissent, whether inside or outside the party. Due to the repression, large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, organized into open revolt against the PDPA government. By spring 1979, unrest had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan provinces, including major urban areas. Over half of the Afghan army either deserted or joined the insurrection.
With religious elders declaring a jihad against the government, in May 1979 Massoud prepared in Peshawar to oppose the new communist government in Panjshir. Along with twenty-four of his friends, Massoud took a bus to Bajaur and, with arms-smuggling Pashtun tribesmen, marched on foot into the Panjshir Valley. Massoud's group seized control over a number of government outposts in the Valley, entered the Shomali Plain to capture Gulbahar, and cut off the Salang Highway, the main supply route between Kabul and the Soviet border raising alarm in both Kabul and Moscow which brought upon Massoud and his group a government counterattack. He subsequently took full control of Panjshir, pushing out Afghan communist troops.
Resistance against the Soviet Union (1979–1989)
. Shura-e Nazar (Massoud's alliance) comprised many Jamiat positions but also those of other groups.]]
Following the 1979 Soviet invasion and occupation of Afghanistan, Massoud devised a strategic plan for expelling the invaders and overthrowing the communist regime. The first task was to establish a popularly based resistance force that had the loyalty of the people. The second phase was "active defense" of the Panjshir stronghold, while carrying out asymmetric warfare. In the third phase, the "strategic offensive", Massoud's forces would gain control of large parts of Northern Afghanistan. The fourth phase was the "general application" of Massoud's principles to the whole country, and the defeat of the Afghan communist government.
Massoud's mujahideen attacked the occupying Soviet forces, ambushing Soviet and Afghan communist convoys travelling through the Salang Pass, and causing fuel shortages in Kabul. The Soviets mounted a series of offensives against the Panjshir. Between 1980 and 1985, these offensives were conducted twice a year. Despite engaging more men and hardware on each occasion, the Soviets were unable to defeat Massoud's forces. In 1982, the Soviets began deploying major combat units in the Panjshir, numbering up to 30,000 men. Massoud pulled his troops back into subsidiary valleys, where they occupied fortified positions. When the Soviet columns advanced onto these positions, they fell into ambushes. When the Soviets withdrew, Afghan army garrisons took over their positions. Massoud and his mujahideen forces attacked and recaptured them one by one.
In 1983, the Soviets offered Massoud a temporary truce, which he accepted in order to rebuild his own forces and give the civilian population a break from Soviet attacks. He put the respite to good use. In this time he created the Shura-e Nazar (Supervisory Council), which subsequently united 130 commanders from 12 Afghan provinces in their fight against the Soviet army. This council existed outside the Peshawar parties, which were prone to internecine rivalry and bickering, and served to smooth out differences between resistance groups, due to political and ethnic divisions. It was the predecessor of what could have become a unified Islamic Afghan army.
Relations with the party headquarters in Peshawar were often strained, as Rabbani insisted on giving Massoud no more weapons and supplies than to other Jamiat commanders, even those who did little fighting. To compensate for this deficiency, Massoud relied on revenues drawn from exports of emeralds and lapis lazuli, that are traditionally exploited in Northern Afghanistan.
Regarding infighting among different mujahideen factions, following a Soviet truce, Massoud said in an interview:
Britain's MI6 having activated long-established networks of contacts in Pakistan were able to support Massoud, and soon became their key ally. MI6 sent an annual mission of two of their officers as well as military instructors to Massoud and his fighters. They also gave supplies to Massoud which included sniper rifles with silencers and mortars. As well as training Massoud's junior commanders, MI6 team's most important contribution was help with organisation and communication via radio equipment which was highly useful for Massoud to coordinate his forces and be warned of any impending Soviet attacks. The United States provided him with comparatively less support than other factions. Thousands of foreign Islamic volunteers entered Afghanistan to fight with the mujahideen against the Soviet troops.
To organize support for the mujahideen, Massoud established an administrative system that enforced law and order (nazm) in areas under his control. The Panjshir was divided into 22 bases (qarargah) governed by a military commander and a civilian administrator, and each had a judge, a prosecutor and a public defender. Massoud's policies were implemented by different committees: an economic committee was charged with funding the war effort. The health committee provided health services, assisted by volunteers from foreign humanitarian non-governmental organizations, such as Aide médicale internationale. An education committee was charged with the training of the military and administrative cadre. A culture committee and a judiciary committee were also created.
This expansion prompted Babrak Karmal to demand that the Red Army resume their offensives, in order to crush the Panjshir groups. Massoud received warning of the attack through Britain's GCHQ intelligence and he evacuated all 130,000 inhabitants from the valley into the Hindukush mountains, leaving the Soviet bombings to fall on empty ground and the Soviet battalions to face the mountains.
With the defeat of the Soviet-Afghan attacks, Massoud carried out the next phase of his strategic plan, expanding the resistance movement and liberating the northern provinces of Afghanistan. In August 1986, he captured Farkhar in Takhar Province. In November 1986, his forces overran the headquarters of the government's 20th division at Nahrin in Baghlan Province, scoring an important victory for the resistance. This expansion was also carried out through diplomatic means, as more mujahideen commanders were persuaded to adopt the Panjshir military system.
Despite almost constant attacks by the Red Army and the Afghan army, Massoud increased his military strength. Starting in 1980 with a force of less than 1,000 ill-equipped guerrillas, the Panjshir valley mujahideen grew to a 5,000-strong force by 1984. The junior commanders were trained by Britain's SAS as well as private military contractors, some being sent as far as Oman and even SAS training grounds in the Scottish Highlands. These forces were divided into different types of units: the locals (mahalli) were tasked with static defense of villages and fortified positions. The best of the mahalli were formed into units called grup-i zarbati (shock troops), semi-mobile groups that acted as reserve forces for the defense of several strongholds. A different type of unit was the mobile group (grup-i-mutaharek), a lightly equipped commando-like formation numbering 33 men, whose mission was to carry out hit-and-run attacks outside the Panjshir, sometimes as far as 100 km from their base. These men were professional soldiers, well-paid and trained, and, from 1983 on, they provided an effective strike force against government outposts. Uniquely among the mujahideen, these groups wore uniforms, and their use of the pakul made this headwear emblematic of the Afghan resistance.
Massoud's military organization was an effective compromise between the traditional Afghan method of warfare and the modern principles of guerrilla warfare which he had learned from the works of Mao Zedong and Che Guevara. His forces were considered the most effective of all the various Afghan resistance movements.
The Soviet army and the Afghan communist army were mainly defeated by Massoud and his mujahideen in numerous small engagements between 1984 and 1988. After describing the Soviet Union's military engagement in Afghanistan as "a bleeding wound" in 1986, Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev began a withdrawal of Soviet troops from the nation in May 1988. On February 15, 1989, in what was depicted as an improbable victory for the mujahideen, the last Soviet soldier left the nation.
Fall of the Afghan communist regime (1992)
After the departure of Soviet troops in 1989, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan regime, then headed by Mohammad Najibullah, held its own against the mujahideen. Backed by a massive influx of weapons from the Soviet Union, the Afghan armed forces reached a level of performance they had never reached under direct Soviet tutelage. They maintained control over all of Afghanistan's major cities. During late 1990, helped by hundreds of mujahideen forces, Massoud targeted the Tajik Supreme Soviet, trying to oust communism from the neighboring Tajikistan to further destabilize the dying Soviet Union, which would also impact the Afghan government. At that time, as per Asad Durrani, the director-general of the ISI during this period, Massoud's base camp was in Garam Chashma, in Pakistan. By 1992, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Afghan regime eventually began to crumble. Food and fuel shortages undermined the capacities of the government's army, and a resurgence of factionalism split the regime between Khalq and Parcham supporters.
A few days after Najibullah had lost control of the nation, his army commanders and governors arranged to turn over authority to resistance commanders and local warlords throughout the country. Joint councils (shuras) were immediately established for local government, in which civil and military officials of the former government were usually included. In many cases, prior arrangements for transferring regional and local authority had been made between foes. The Kabul interim authority invited Massoud to enter Kabul as the new Head of State, but he held back. Massoud ordered his forces, positioned to the north of Kabul, not to enter the capital until a political solution was in place. He called on all the senior Afghan party leaders, many then based in exile in Peshawar, to work out a political settlement acceptable to all sides and parties.War in Afghanistan (1992–2001)War in Kabul and other parts of the country (1992–1996)Peace and power-sharing agreement (1992)With United Nations support, most Afghan political parties decided to appoint a legitimate national government to succeed communist rule, through an elite settlement. While the external Afghan party leaders were residing in Peshawar, the military situation around Kabul involving the internal commanders was tense. A 1991 UN peace process brought about some negotiations, but the attempted elite settlement did not develop.
Massoud wrote:
<blockquote>All the parties had participated in the war, in jihad in Afghanistan, so they had to have their share in the government, and in the formation of the government. Afghanistan is made up of different nationalities. We were worried about a national conflict between different tribes and different nationalities. In order to give everybody their own rights and also to avoid bloodshed in Kabul, we left the word to the parties so they should decide about the country as a whole. We talked about it for a temporary stage and then after that the ground should be prepared for a general election.</blockquote>
A recorded radio communication between the two leaders showed the divide as Massoud asked Hekmatyar:
<blockquote>The Kabul regime is ready to surrender, so instead of the fighting we should gather. ... The leaders are meeting in Peshawar. ... The troops should not enter Kabul, they should enter later on as part of the government.</blockquote>
Hekmatyar's response:
<blockquote>We will march into Kabul with our naked sword. No one can stop us. ... Why should we meet the leaders?"
</blockquote>
Massoud answered:
<blockquote>"It seems to me that you don't want to join the leaders in Peshawar nor stop your threat, and you are planning to enter Kabul ... in that case I must defend the people.</blockquote>
At that point Osama bin Laden, trying to mediate, urged Hekmatyar to "go back with your brothers" and to accept a compromise. Bin Laden reportedly "hated Ahmad Shah Massoud". Bin Laden was involved in ideological and personal disputes with Massoud and had sided with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar against Massoud in the inner-Afghan conflict since the late 1980s. But Hekmatyar refused to accept a compromise, confident that he would be able to gain sole power in Afghanistan.
On April 24, 1992, the leaders in Peshawar agreed on and signed the Peshawar Accord, establishing the post-communist Islamic State of Afghanistan – which was a stillborn 'state' with a paralyzed 'government' right from its inception, until its final succumbing in September 1996. The creation of the Islamic State was welcomed though by the General Assembly of the United Nations and the Islamic State of Afghanistan was recognized as the legitimate entity representing Afghanistan until June 2002, when its successor, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, was established under the interim government of Hamid Karzai. Under the 1992 Peshawar Accord, the Defense Ministry was given to Massoud while the Prime Ministership was given to Hekmatyar. Hekmatyar refused to sign. With the exception of Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the other Peshawar resistance parties were unified under this peace and power-sharing accord in April 1992.Escalating war over Kabul (1992)Although repeatedly offered the position of prime minister, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar refused to recognize the peace and power-sharing agreement. His Hezb-e Islami militia initiated a massive bombardment campaign against the Islamic State and the capital city Kabul. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from neighboring Pakistan.
According to Human Rights Watch, Iran was strongly supporting the Hezb-i Wahdat forces, with Iranian intelligence officials providing direct orders, while Saudi Arabia supported Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction to maximize Wahhabi influence. Massoud's Jamiat commanders, the interim government, and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) repeatedly tried to negotiate ceasefires, which broke down in only a few days. Afshar operation (February 1993) "The major criticism of Massoud's human rights record" is the escalation of the Afshar military operation in 1993. Roy Gutman has argued that the witness reports about Afshar cited in the AJP report implicated only the Ittihad forces, and that these had not been under Massoud's direct command.
Anthony Davis, who studied and observed Massoud's forces from 1981 to 2001, reported that during the observed period, there was "no pattern of repeated killings of enemy civilians or military prisoners" by Massoud's forces. According to the Islamabad Accord, Burhanuddin Rabbani, belonging to the same party as Massoud, remained president, while Gulbuddin Hekmatyar took the long-offered position of prime minister. Two days after the Islamabad Accord went into effect, his allies in Hezb-e Wahdat renewed rocket attacks in Kabul.</blockquote>
Hekmatyar, who was generally opposed to coalition government and struggled for undisputed power, had conflicts with other parties over the selection of cabinet members. His forces started major attacks against Kabul for one month. By the end of 1993, Hekmatyar and the former communist general and militia leader, Abdul Rashid Dostum, were involved in secret negotiations encouraged by Pakistan's secret Inter-Services Intelligence, Iran's intelligence service, and Uzbekistan's Karimov administration. They planned a coup to oust the Rabbani administration and to attack Massoud in his northern areas.</blockquote>
By mid-1994, Hekmatyar and Dostum were on the defensive in Kabul against Islamic State forces led by Massoud. <br />Southern Afghanistan had been neither under the control of foreign-backed militias nor of the government in Kabul, but was ruled by local Pashtun leaders, such as Gul Agha Sherzai, and their militias. In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor. When the Taliban took control of Kandahar in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders who had presided over a situation of complete lawlessness and atrocities.
By early 1995, Massoud initiated a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections.
Neighboring Pakistan exerted strong influence over the Taliban. A publication with the George Washington University describes: "Initially, the Pakistanis supported ... Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ... When Hekmatyar failed to deliver for Pakistan, the administration began to support a new movement of religious students known as the Taliban." Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests. Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:
(green), Taliban (yellow)]]
United Front against the Taliban
Ahmad Shah Massoud created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban advance. The United Front included forces and leaders from different political backgrounds as well as from all ethnicities of Afghanistan. From the Taliban conquest in 1996 until November 2001, the United Front controlled territory in which roughly 30% of Afghanistan's population was living, in provinces such as Badakhshan, Kapisa, Takhar and parts of Parwan, Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan, Kunduz, Ghōr and Bamyan.
Meanwhile, the Taliban imposed their repressive regime in the parts of Afghanistan under their control. Hundreds of thousands of people fled to Northern Alliance territory, Pakistan and Iran. Massoud's soldiers held some 1,200 Taliban prisoners in the Panjshir Valley, 122 of them foreign Muslims who had come to Afghanistan to fight a jihad. In 1998, after the defeat of Abdul Rashid Dostum's faction in Mazar-i-Sharif, Ahmad Shah Massoud remained the only main leader of the United Front in Afghanistan and the only leader who was able to defend vast parts of his area against the Taliban. Most major leaders including the Islamic State's President Burhanuddin Rabbani, Abdul Rashid Dostum, and others, were living in exile. During this time, commentators remarked that "The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Massoud."
Massoud stated that the Taliban repeatedly offered him a position of power to make him stop his resistance. He declined, declaring the differences between their ideology and his own pro-democratic outlook on society to be insurmountable. He also predicted that without assistance from Pakistan and external extremist groups, the Taliban would lose their hold on power.
In early 2001, the United Front employed a new strategy of local military pressure and global political appeals. Resentment was increasingly gathering against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society including the Pashtun areas.
Cross-factional negotiations
(left) in November 2000]]
From 1999 onward, a renewed process was set into motion by the Tajik Ahmad Shah Massoud and the Pashtun Abdul Haq to unite all the ethnicities of Afghanistan. Massoud united the Tajiks, Hazara and Uzbeks as well as several Pashtun commanders under his United Front. Besides meeting with Pashtun tribal leaders and acting as a point of reference, Abdul Haq received increasing numbers of Pashtun Taliban themselves who were secretly approaching him. Some commanders who had worked for the Taliban military apparatus agreed to the plan to topple the Taliban regime as the Taliban lost support even among the Pashtuns. Senior diplomat and Afghanistan expert Peter Tomsen wrote that ''"[t]he 'Lion of Kabul' [Abdul Haq] and the 'Lion of Panjshir' [Ahmad Shah Massoud] would make a formidable anti-Taliban team if they combined forces. Haq, Massoud, and Karzai, Afghanistan's three leading moderates, could transcend the Pashtun – non-Pashtun, north-south divide."'' Steve Coll referred to this plan as a "grand Pashtun-Tajik alliance". The senior Hazara and Uzbek leaders took part in the process just like later Afghan president Hamid Karzai. They agreed to work under the banner of the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah in Rome.
In November 2000, leaders from all ethnic groups were brought together in Massoud's headquarters in northern Afghanistan, travelling from other parts of Afghanistan, Europe, the United States, Pakistan and India to discuss a Loya Jirga for a settlement of Afghanistan's problems and to discuss the establishment of a post-Taliban government. In September 2001, an international official who met with representatives of the alliance remarked, ''"It's crazy that you have this today ... Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazara ... They were all ready to buy in to the process".''
In early 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud with leaders from all ethnicities of Afghanistan addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian aid to the people of Afghanistan. He stated that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and Bin Laden the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.
The areas of Massoud
Life in the areas under direct control of Massoud was different from the life in the areas under Taliban or Dostum's control. In contrast to the time of chaos in which all structures had collapsed in Kabul, Massoud was able to control most of the troops under his direct command well during the period starting in late 1996. Massoud always controlled the Panjshir, Takhar, parts of Parwan and Badakhshan during the war. Some other provinces (notably Kunduz, Baghlan, Nuristan and the north of Kabul) were captured by his forces from the Taliban and lost again from time to time as the frontlines varied.
Massoud created democratic institutions which were structured into several committees: political, health, education and economic.
In 1998, a U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency analyst, Julie Sirrs, visited Massoud's territories privately, having previously been denied official permission to do so by her agency. She reported that Massoud had conveyed warnings about strengthened ties between the Taliban and foreign Islamist terrorists. Returning home, she was sacked from her agency for insubordination, because at that time the U.S. administration had no trust in Massoud. The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.
A change of policy, lobbied for by CIA officers on the ground who had visited the area of Massoud, regarding support to Massoud, was underway in the course of 2001. According to Steve Coll's book Ghost Wars The assistance provided by India was extensive, including uniforms, ordnance, mortars, small armaments, refurbished Kalashnikovs, combat and winter clothes, as well as funds. India was particularly concerned about Pakistan's Taliban strategy and the Islamic militancy in its neighborhood; it provided U.S.$70 million in aid including two Mi-17 helicopters, three additional helicopters in 2000 and US$8 million worth of high-altitude equipment in 2001. Also In the 1990s, India had run a field hospital at Farkor on the Tajik-Afghan border to treat wounded fighters from the then Northern Alliance that was battling the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
It was at the very same hospital that the Northern Alliance leader Ahmed Shah Masood was pronounced dead after being assassinated just two days before the 9/11 terror strikes in 2001. Furthermore, the alliance supposedly also received minor aid from Tajikistan, Russia and Iran because of their opposition to the Taliban and the Pakistani control over the Taliban's Emirate. Their support remained limited to the most needed things. Meanwhile, Pakistan engaged up to 28,000 Pakistani nationals and regular Pakistani army troops to fight alongside the Taliban and Al Qaeda forces against Massoud.
In April 2001, the president of the European Parliament, Nicole Fontaine (who called Massoud the "pole of liberty in Afghanistan"), invited Massoud with the support of French and Belgian politicians to address the European Parliament in Brussels, Belgium. In his speech, he asked for humanitarian aid for the people of Afghanistan. Massoud further went on to warn that his intelligence agents had gained limited knowledge about a large-scale terrorist attack on U.S. soil being imminent.
Assassination
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honouring Massoud's resistance at his tomb and memorial in September 2010]]
Massoud, then aged 48, was the target of an assassination plot in Khwājah Bahā ud Dīn (Khvājeh Bahāuḏḏīn), Takhar Province in northeastern Afghanistan on September 9, 2001. The attackers' names were alternately given as Dahmane Abd al-Sattar, husband of Malika El Aroud, and Bouraoui el-Ouaer; or 34-year-old Karim Touzani and 26-year-old Kacem Bakkali.
The attackers claimed to be Belgians originally from Morocco. According to Le Monde they transited through the municipality of Molenbeek. Their passports turned out to be stolen and their nationality was later determined to be Tunisian. Waiting for almost three weeks (during which they also interviewed Burhanuddin Rabbani and Abdul Rasul Sayyaf) for an interview opportunity, on September 8, 2001, an aide to Massoud recalls the would-be suicide attackers "were so worried" and threatened to leave if the interview did not happen in the next 24 hours (until September 10, 2001). They were finally granted an interview. During the interview, they set off a bomb composed of explosives hidden in the camera and in a battery-pack belt. Massoud died in a helicopter that was taking him to an Indian military field hospital at Farkhor in nearby Tajikistan. The funeral, although in a remote rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of people.
Massoud had survived assassination attempts over a period of 26 years, including attempts made by al-Qaeda, the Taliban, the Pakistani ISI and before them the Soviet KGB, the Afghan communist KHAD and Hekmatyar. The first attempt on Massoud's life was carried out by Hekmatyar and two Pakistani ISI agents in 1975 when Massoud was 22 years old.
In late 2001, a computer was seized that was stolen from an office used by al-Qaeda immediately after the fall of Kabul in November. This computer was mainly used by Aiman al-Zawahri and contained the letter with the interview request for Massoud. The two assassins had completed military training in training camps in Afghanistan at the end of 2000 and were selected for the suicide mission in the spring or early summer of the following year. The Afghan publicist Waheed Muzhda, who worked for the Taliban in the Foreign Ministry, confirmed the two assassins met with al-Qaeda officials in Kandahar and bin Laden and al-Zawahri saw them off when they left. Following the assassination, bin Laden had an emissary deliver Dahmane Abd al-Sattar's widow a letter with $500 in an envelope to settle a debt. An al-Qaeda magazine in Saudi Arabia later published a biography of Youssef al-Aayyiri, who headed al-Qaeda's operations in Saudi Arabia from 2002, which described al-Qaeda's involvement in Massoud's assassination. Osama bin Laden commissioned the assassination attempt to appease the Taliban because of the imminent terrorist attacks in the US, which would cause serious problems for the Taliban.
The Taliban denied any involvement in Massoud's assassination, and it is very unlikely that they were privy to the assassination plans. There were a few minor attacks by the Taliban after the attack, but no major offensive.Investigative commissionIn April 2003, the Karzai administration created a commission to investigate the assassination of Massoud. In 2003, French investigators and the FBI were able to trace the provenance of the camera used in the assassination, which had been stolen in France some time earlier.
Legacy
National Hero of Afghanistan
Massoud was the only chief Afghan leader who never left Afghanistan in the fight against the Soviet Union and later in the fight against the Taliban Emirate. In the areas under his direct control, such as Panjshir, some parts of Parwan and Takhar, Massoud established democratic institutions. One refugee who cramped his family of 27 into an old jeep to flee from the Taliban to the area of Massoud described Massoud's territory in 1997 as "the last tolerant corner of Afghanistan".
* In 2001, the Afghan interim government under president Hamid Karzai officially awarded Massoud the title of "Hero of the Afghan Nation". One analyst in 2004 said:
<blockquote>One man holds a greater political punch than all 18 living [Afghan] presidential candidates combined. Though already dead for three years.... Since his death on September 9, 2001 at the hands of two al Qaeda-linked Islamic radicals, Massoud has been transformed from mujahedin to national heroif not saint. Pictures of Massoud, the Afghan mujahedin who battled the Soviets, other warlords, and the Taliban for more than 20 years, vastly outnumber those of any other Afghan including those of Karzai.</blockquote>
* The Massoud Foundation was established in 2003 to provide humanitarian assistance to Afghans through economic and social programs that include business development, reconstruction and infrastructure improvements, and education programs. It promotes justice, gender equality, fair government, and human rights.
* A major road in Kabul was named Great Massoud Road.
* A monument to Massoud was installed outside the US Embassy.
* A street in New Delhi, India, is named after Ahmad Shah Massoud. It is the first time that such an honour has been extended to a leader from that country as part of close ties between Afghanistan and India.
* Magpul Massoud was a 7.62 NATO rifle produced by Magpul which was named after himself.
The road near the Afghanistan Embassy is a "symbol of ties" that binds the two nations that have always "enjoyed excellent relations".
His friend Abdullah Abdullah said that Massoud was different from the other guerilla leaders. "He is a hero who led a clear struggle for the values of the people".
In a 2001 mourning ceremony at Moscow to honour the memory of Ahmad Shah Massoud, one-time foe Colonel Abdul Qadir stated: "Though Massoud and I used to be enemies, I am sure he deserves great respect as an outstanding military leader and, first of all, as a patriot of his country".
Lion of Panjshir
Massoud's byname, "Lion of Panjshir" (, "Shir-e-Panjshir"), earned for his role during the Soviet occupation, is a rhyming play on words in Persian, as the name of the valley means "five lions".
The Wall Street Journal referred to Massoud as "The Afghan Who Won the Cold War", referring to the global significance of the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan for the subsequent collapse of the Eastern Bloc.
Honors outside Afghanistan
In 2007, the government of India decided to name a road in New Delhi's Chanakyapuri district after Massoud.
In February 2021, the Council of Paris in France honored Massoud by installing a plaque in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The decision reflected Massoud's unique connections with France. In March 2021, the Mayor of Paris named a pathway in the Champs-Élysées gardens after Massoud. The ceremony was attended by Massoud's son and former president Hamid Karzai.
;Civilian orders
* Tajikistan: Order of Ismoili Somoni – posthumously awarded on September 2, 2021.
Views on Pakistan and potential al-Qaeda attacks
(center,) standing by Massoud's Tomb, commemorating his memory (2009)]]
Although Pakistan were supporting the mujahideen groups during the Soviet-Afghan War, Ahmad Shah Massoud increasingly distrusted the Pakistanis and eventually kept his distance from them. In a 1999 interview, Massoud says "They [Pakistan] are trying to turn us into a colony. Without them there would be no war".
In the spring 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, saying that Pakistan was behind the situation in Afghanistan. He also said that he believed that, without the support of Pakistan, Osama bin Laden, and Saudi Arabia, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year. He said the Afghan population was ready to rise against them.
Declassified Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) documents from November 2001 show that Massoud had gained "limited knowledge... regarding the intentions of al-Qaeda to perform a terrorist act against the U.S. on a scale larger than the 1998 bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania." They noted that he warned about such attacks. Following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul, Massoud allied with self-proclaimed acting president Amrullah Saleh and established the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan to the Taliban in the Panjshir Valley. Massoud called for West's support to resist the Taliban.Personal lifeMassoud was married to Sediqa Massoud. They had one son, Ahmad Massoud (born in 1989) and five daughters (Fatima born in 1992, Mariam born in 1993, Ayesha born in 1995, Zohra born in 1996 and Nasrine born in 1998). In 2005 Sediqa Massoud published a personal account on her life with Massoud (co-authored by two women's rights activists and friends of Sediqa Massoud, Chékéba Hachemi and ) called ''"Pour l'amour de Massoud"'' (For the love of Massoud), in which she describes a decent and loving husband.
Massoud liked reading and had a library of 3,000 books at his home in Panjshir. and he was also a fan of classical Persian poetry, including the works of Bidel and Hafez.
Massoud's reputation for fearlessness is illustrated by a story about him told in Afghanistan, which cannot be confirmed. Once, while inspecting the front lines with a deputy, Massoud's driver had become lost and driven into the middle of a Taliban encampment. In tremendous peril, since he was recognized immediately, Massoud demanded to see the Taliban commander, making polite conversation for just long enough to bluff that he had arrived intentionally and not accidentally. The confused Taliban allowed him to leave.
Massoud's family since his death have had a great deal of prestige in the politics of Afghanistan. One of his six brothers, Ahmad Zia Massoud, was the Vice President of Afghanistan from 2004 until 2009 under the first democratically elected government of Afghanistan. Unsuccessful attempts have been made on the life of Ahmad Zia Massoud in 2004 and late 2009. The Associated Press reported that eight Afghans died in the attempt on Ahmad Zia Massoud's life. Ahmad Zia Massoud leads the National Front of Afghanistan (a United Front group). Another brother, Ahmad Wali Massoud, was Afghanistan's Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 2002 to 2006. He was a member of Abdullah Abdullah's National Coalition of Afghanistan (another United Front group).
In literature
Essay* Sebastian Junger, one of the last Western journalists to interview Massoud in depth, featured him in an essay in his 2002 collection, Fire.Fiction
* Massoud is the subject of Ken Follett's 1986 novel Lie Down With Lions, about the Soviet-Afghan War.
* He also is featured as a historical figure in James McGee's 1989 thriller, ''Crow's War''.
* Massoud is the subject of Olivier Weber's novel ''Massoud's Confession, about the Islam of Enlightenment and the need to reform religious practices.
* Massoud is played by Mido Hamada in the 2006 miniseries The Path to 9/11.
Notes
References
Further reading
* Sandy Gall (2021): Afghan Napoleon: The Life of Ahmad Shah Massoud. London: Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-913368-22-7.
* Marcela Grad (2009): Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader; Webster University Press, 310pp
* Sediqa Massoud with Chékéba Hachemi and Marie-Francoise Colombani (2005): Pour l'amour de Massoud; Document XO Editions, 265pp (in French)
* Amin Saikal (2006): Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival; I. B. Tauris, 352pp ("One of the "Five Best" Books on Afghanistan" – The Wall Street Journal)
* Roy Gutman (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan; United States Institute of Peace Press, 304pp
* Coll, Steve (2004): Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 9, 2001; Penguin Press, 695pp, . (won the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction)
* Stephen Tanner: Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban
* Christophe de Ponfilly (2001): Massoud l'Afghan; Gallimard, 437pp (in French)
* Gary W. Bowersox (2004): The Gem Hunter-True Adventures of an American in Afghanistan; Geovision, Inc. (January 22, 2004), .
* Olivier Weber (2001): Le Faucon afghan; Robert Laffont
* Olivier Weber (2001, with Reza): Afghan eternities; Le Chene/ UNESCO
* Gary C. Schroen (2005): 'First In' An Insiders Account of How The CIA Spearheaded the War on Terror in Afghanistan; New York: Presidio Press/Ballantine Books, .
* Peter Bergen: Holy War, Inc.
* Ahmed Rashid: TALIBAN – The Story of the Afghan Warlords; .
* A. R. Rowan: On The Trail Of A Lion: Ahmed Shah Massoud, Oil Politics and Terror
* MaryAnn T. Beverly (2007): From That Flame; Kallisti Publishing
* Roger Plunk: The Wandering Peacemaker
* References to Massoud appear in the book "A Thousand Splendid Suns" by Khaled Hosseini.
* References to Massoud appear in the book "Sulla rotta dei ribelli" by Emilio Lonardo; .
* Kara Kush, London: William Collins Sons and Co., Ltd., 1986. The novel Kara Kush by Idries Shah is rumored to be loosely based on the exploits of Massoud during the Afghan-Soviet War
* Olivier Weber (2013): Massoud's Confession; Flammarion.
External links
Interviews
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060925043421/http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/balcerowicz/texts/Ahmad_Shah_Masood_en.htm The Last Interview with Ahmad Shah Massoud] Piotr Balcerowicz, early August 2001
Obituaries and articles
*
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/opinion/10iht-edsaikal_ed3_.html Remembering Massoud, a fighter for peace], The New York Times, September 10, 2002
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061206022344/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2006/heroes/nb_massoud.html 60 Years of Asian Heroes: Ahmad Shah Massoud] Time'', 2006
* [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/09/bc868dd6-f1e9-413b-a013-2a2f590eedc5.html Profile: Afghanistan's 'Lion Of Panjshir'] Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, September 5, 2006
* [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-sep-22-la-fg-afghanistan-massoud-20100922-story.html Afghan Commander Massoud, Killed on Eve of 9/11 Attacks, is a National Hero] by The LA Times, September 22, 2010
Documentaries/Panegyrics
* An 18-minute [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vzzPcMB9SQz0&featuresearch video, 'Starving to Death', about Massoud defending Kabul against the Taliban siege in March 1996.] With horrifying pictures of civilian war victims. By Journeyman Pictures/Journeyman.tv. Retrieved on YouTube, June 27, 2018.
* Reza and Olivier Weber on Massoud, [https://vimeo.com/138748304 National Geographic]
* [http://www.snagfilms.com/films/title/afghanistan_revealed 'Afghanistan Revealed' (2000) | SnagFilms] . A portrait of Massoud by National Geographic photographer Reza Deghati, cinematographer Stephen Cocklin, and writer Sebastian Junger
* <small>[Dead link, on National Geographic:]</small> [https://web.archive.org/web/20011109045349/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/events/01/world/index.html A Film Screening and Panel Discussion Focusing on the Middle East and Afghanistan]
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Category:Tajik military personnel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.844342 |
2178 | Atlantis | 's map of Atlantis, placing it in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, from Mundus Subterraneus 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is oriented with south at the top.]]
Atlantis (|island of Atlas}}) is a fictional island mentioned in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias as part of an allegory on the hubris of nations. In the story, Atlantis is described as a naval empire that ruled all Western parts of the known world, making it the literary counter-image of the Achaemenid Empire. After an ill-fated attempt to conquer "Ancient Athens," Atlantis falls out of favor with the deities and submerges into the Atlantic Ocean. Since Plato describes Athens as resembling his ideal state in the Republic, the Atlantis story is meant to bear witness to the superiority of his concept of a state.
Despite its minor importance in Plato's work, the Atlantis story has had a considerable impact on literature. The allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, such as Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and Thomas More's Utopia. On the other hand, nineteenth-century amateur scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative as historical tradition, most famously Ignatius L. Donnelly in his Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. Plato's vague indications of the time of the events (more than 9,000 years before his time) and the alleged location of Atlantis ("beyond the Pillars of Hercules") gave rise to much pseudoscientific speculation. As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, from comic books to films.
While present-day philologists and classicists agree on the story's fictional nature, there is still debate on what served as its inspiration. Plato is known to have freely borrowed some of his allegories and metaphors from older traditions, as he did with the story of Gyges. This led a number of scholars to suggest possible inspiration of Atlantis from Egyptian records of the Thera eruption, the Sea Peoples invasion, or the Trojan War. Others have rejected this chain of tradition as implausible and insist that Plato created an entirely fictional account, drawing loose inspiration from contemporary events such as the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction of Helike in 373 BC.
Plato's dialogues
Timaeus
The only primary sources for Atlantis are Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias; all other mentions of the island are based on them. The dialogues claim to quote Solon, who visited Egypt between 590 and 580 BC; they state that he translated Egyptian records of Atlantis. Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus, written in 360 BC:
The four people appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic method in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition.
The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's Republic (), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions a tale he considered to be historical, that would make the perfect example, and he then follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the "perfect society" and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic.
Critias
According to Critias, the Hellenic deities of old divided the land so that each deity might have their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined, but it was later sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. Plato asserted that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting mostly of mountains in the northern portions and along the shore and encompassing a great plain in an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides ... broke it off all round about ... the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].
In Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island toward the pillars of Hercules. The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes—were also given "rule over many men, and a large territory."
Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each ring of the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, and black rock, quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin, and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively.
According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules, as far as Egypt, and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and had subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands.
The logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote an earlier work entitled Atlantis, of which only a few fragments survive. Hellanicus' work appears to have been a genealogical one concerning the daughters of Atlas (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means "of Atlas"), but some authors have suggested a possible connection with Plato's island. John V. Luce notes that when Plato writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, he writes in the same style as Hellanicus, suggesting a similarity between a fragment of Hellanicus's work and an account in the Critias.
Castleden has pointed out that Plato wrote of Atlantis in 359 BC, when he returned to Athens from Sicily. He notes a number of parallels between the physical organisation and fortifications of Syracuse and Plato's description of Atlantis. Gunnar Rudberg was the first who elaborated upon the idea that Plato's attempt to realize his political ideas in the city of Syracuse could have heavily inspired the Atlantis account.
Interpretations
(inhabited world), an ancient map based on Herodotus' description of the world, circa 450 BC]]
Ancient
Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fictional or metaphorical myth; others believed it to be real. Aristotle believed that Plato, his teacher, had invented the island to teach philosophy. The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is cited often as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Timaeus, is lost, but Proclus, a Neoplatonist of the fifth century AD, reports on it. The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story, or, as claiming that he learned about them from other visitors to Egypt. Proclus wrote:
The next sentence is often translated "Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars which are still preserved." But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the ambiguous He; whether this referred to Crantor or to Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a metaphorical myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the pronoun refers to Crantor.
Alan Cameron argues that the pronoun should be interpreted as referring to Plato, and that, when Proclus writes that "we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth", he is treating "Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes".
Cameron also points out that whether he refers to Plato or to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such as Otto Muck's "Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis" or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims.|source}}
Marcellus remains unidentified.
Other ancient historians and philosophers who believed in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius. Some have theorized that, before the sixth century BC, the "Pillars of Hercules" may have applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia, and also may have been part of the pillar cult of the Aegean. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and it opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in the Mediterranean, lending credence to many details in Plato's discussion.
The fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the first century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus, in fact, says that "the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands, or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. Instead, the Celts who dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods, (Dioscori), who appeared to them coming from that ocean.
Jewish and Christian
During the early first century, the Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo wrote about the destruction of Atlantis in his On the Eternity of the World, xxvi. 141, in a longer passage allegedly citing Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:
"] which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timaeus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies.}}
The theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p. 84) noted on this passage: "Clement may possibly be referring to some known, but hardly accessible land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more probably he contemplated some unknown land in the far west beyond the ocean, like the fabled Atlantis of Plato ..."
Other early Christian writers wrote about Atlantis, although they had mixed views on whether it once existed or was an untrustworthy myth of pagan origin. Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote that in the Atlantic Ocean once existed "[the isle] that was equal in size to Libya or Asia" referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. The early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed, but blamed its destruction on pagans.
Cosmas Indicopleustes in the sixth century wrote of Atlantis in his Christian Topography in an attempt to prove his theory that the world was flat and surrounded by water:
's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882]]Modern
Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations regarding Atlantis are an amalgamation of diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century, when scholars began to identify Atlantis with the New World. Francisco Lopez de Gomara was the first to state that Plato was referring to America, as did Francis Bacon and Alexander von Humboldt; Janus Joannes Bircherod said in 1663 orbe novo non-novo ("the New World is not new"). Athanasius Kircher accepted Plato's account as literally true, describing Atlantis as a small continent in the Atlantic Ocean.
Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share roots with Mayanism, which can be traced to the beginning of the Modern Age, when European imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the indigenous peoples of the Americas. From this era sprang apocalyptic and utopian visions that would inspire many subsequent generations of theorists.
Early influential literature
The term "utopia" (from "no place") was coined by Sir Thomas More in his sixteenth-century work of fiction Utopia. Inspired by Plato's Atlantis and travelers' accounts of the Americas, More described an imaginary land set in the New World. His idealistic vision established a connection between the Americas and utopian societies, a theme that Bacon discussed in The New Atlantis (). His work combined with the skillful, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded to Egypt and other aspects of the Old World, created an authoritative fantasy that excited much interest in the connections between worlds.
Inspired by Brasseur de Bourbourg's diffusion theories, the pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled to Mesoamerica and performed some of the first excavations of many famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as the kingdom of Mu saga, which romantically drew connections to him, his wife Alice, and Egyptian deities Osiris and Isis, as well as to Heinrich Schliemann, who had just discovered the ancient city of Troy from Homer's epic poetry (that had been described as merely mythical). He also believed that he had found connections between the Greek and Mayan languages, which produced a narrative of the destruction of Atlantis.Ignatius Donnelly
The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. He was greatly inspired by early works in Mayanism, and like them, attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which he saw as a technologically sophisticated, more advanced culture. Donnelly drew parallels between creation stories in the Old and New Worlds, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed the Biblical Garden of Eden existed. As implied by the title of his book, he also believed that Atlantis was destroyed by the Great Flood mentioned in the Bible.
Donnelly is credited as the "father of the nineteenth century Atlantis revival" and is the reason the myth endures today. He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of inquiry to history and science, and the idea that myths contain hidden information that opens them to "ingenious" interpretation by people who believe they have new or special insight.Madame Blavatsky and the Theosophists
(The Story of Atlantis, Russian edition, 1910)}}]]
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, the founder of the Theosophists, took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote The Secret Doctrine (1888), which she claimed was originally dictated in Atlantis. She maintained that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as a military threat). She believed in a form of racial evolution (as opposed to primate evolution). In her process of evolution the Atlanteans were the fourth "root race", which were succeeded by the fifth, the "Aryan race", which she identified with the modern human race.
Drawing on the ideas of Rudolf Steiner and Hanns Hörbiger, Egon Friedell started his book , and thus his historical analysis of antiquity, with the ancient culture of Atlantis. The book was published in 1940.
Nazism and occultism
Blavatsky was also inspired by the work of the 18th-century astronomer Jean-Sylvain Bailly, who had "Orientalized" the Atlantis myth in his mythical continent of Hyperborea, a reference to Greek myths featuring a Northern European region of the same name, home to a giant, godlike race. Dan Edelstein claims that her reshaping of this theory in The Secret Doctrine provided the Nazis with a mythological precedent and a pretext for their ideological platform and their subsequent genocide.
The idea that the Atlanteans were Hyperborean, Nordic supermen who originated in the Northern Atlantic or even in the far North, was popular in the German ariosophic movement around 1900, propagated by Guido von List and others. It gave its name to the Thule Gesellschaft, an antisemite Münich lodge, which preceded the German Nazi Party (see Thule). The scholars (1920) and Herman Wirth (1928) were the first to speak of a "Nordic-Atlantean" or "Aryan-Nordic" master race that spread from Atlantis over the Northern Hemisphere and beyond. The Hyperboreans were contrasted with the Jewish people. Party ideologist Alfred Rosenberg (in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930) and SS-leader Heinrich Himmler made it part of the official doctrine. The idea was followed up by the adherents of Esoteric Nazism such as Julius Evola (1934) and, more recently, Miguel Serrano (1978).
The idea of Atlantis as the homeland of the Caucasian race would contradict the beliefs of older Esoteric and Theosophic groups, which taught that the Atlanteans were non-Caucasian brown-skinned peoples. Modern Esoteric groups, including the Theosophic Society, do not consider Atlantean society to have been superior or Utopian—they rather consider it a lower stage of evolution.
Edgar Cayce
The clairvoyant Edgar Cayce spoke frequently of Atlantis. During his "life readings", he claimed that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people who had lived there. By tapping into their collective consciousness, the "Akashic Records" (a term borrowed from Theosophy), Cayce declared that he was able to give detailed descriptions of the lost continent. He also asserted that Atlantis would "rise" again in the 1960s (sparking much popularity of the myth in that decade) and that there is a "Hall of Records" beneath the Egyptian Sphinx which holds the historical texts of Atlantis.Recent timesAs continental drift became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.
Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter:
One of the proposed explanations for the historical context of the Atlantis story is that it serves as Plato's warning to his fellow citizens against their striving for naval power.}}
Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy."
Location hypotheses
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Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or other pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.) Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.
on 24 June 2022, taken from the International Space Station. From the Minoan eruption event, and the 1964 discovery of Akrotiri on the island, this location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis.]]
In or near the Mediterranean Sea
Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy, Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the province of Manisa, Turkey); Israel-Sinai or Canaan; and northwestern Africa, including the Richat Structure in Mauritania.
The Thera eruption, dated to the seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).
Others have noted that, before the sixth century BC, the mountains on either side of the Laconian Gulf were called the "Pillars of Hercules", west of the Straits of Gibraltar, but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Detailed studies of their geomorphology and geology have demonstrated, however, that they have been steadily uplifted, without any significant periods of subsidence, over the last four million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitational unloading, lithospheric flexure induced by adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating.
Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores. The area is known for its volcanism however, which is associated with rifting along the Azores triple junction. The spread of the crust along the existing faults and fractures has produced many volcanic and seismic events.
The area is supported by a buoyant upwelling in the deeper mantle, which some associate with an Azores hotspot. Most of the volcanic activity has occurred primarily along the Terceira Rift. From the beginning of the islands' settlement, around the 15th century, there have been about 30 volcanic eruptions (terrestrial and submarine) as well as numerous, powerful earthquakes. The island of São Miguel in the Azores is the site of the Sete Cidades volcano and caldera, which are the byproducts of historical volcanic activity in the Azores.
The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested. In 2004, Swedish physiographist Ulf Erlingsson proposed that the legend of Atlantis was based on Stone Age Ireland. He later stated that he does not believe that Atlantis ever existed but maintained that his hypothesis that its description matches Ireland's geography has a 99.8% probability. The director of the National Museum of Ireland commented that there was no archaeology supporting this.
In 2011, a team, working on a documentary for the National Geographic Channel, led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found possible evidence of Atlantis in southwestern Andalusia. The team identified its possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Park, in the area that once was the Lacus Ligustinus, between the Huelva, Cádiz, and Seville provinces, and they speculated that Atlantis had been destroyed by a tsunami, extrapolating results from a previous study by Spanish researchers, published four years earlier.
Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said, "Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the first millennium BC", and described Freund's claims as "fanciful".
A similar theory had previously been put forward by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, that is based only on satellite imagery and places Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of the city of Cádiz. Before that, the historian Adolf Schulten had stated in the 1920s that Plato had used Tartessos as the basis for his Atlantis myth.
Other locations
Several writers, such as Flavio Barbiero as early as 1974, have speculated that Antarctica is the site of Atlantis. A number of claims involve the Caribbean, such as an alleged underwater formation off the Guanahacabibes Peninsula in Cuba. The adjacent Bahamas or the folkloric Bermuda Triangle have been proposed as well. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed, including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland). The stories of a lost continent off the coast of India, named "Kumari Kandam", have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis.Literary interpretationsAncient versions
]]
In order to give his account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Plato mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Egypt, and transmitted orally over several generations through the family of Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in Timaeus and Critias. Solon had supposedly tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a poem (that if published, was to be greater than the works of Hesiod and Homer). While it was never completed, Solon passed on the story to Dropides. Modern classicists deny the existence of Solon's Atlantis poem and the story as an oral tradition.
Instead, Plato is thought to be the sole inventor or fabricator.
Hellanicus of Lesbos used the word "Atlantis" as the title for a poem published before Plato, a fragment of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359. This work only describes the Atlantides, the daughters of Atlas, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account.
In the new era, the third century AD Neoplatonist Zoticus wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis. Plato's work may already have inspired parodic imitation, however. Writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his Philippica, which contains a dialogue between Silenus and King Midas. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis: Eusebes (, "Pious-town") and Machimos (, "Fighting-town").
He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, by parody, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.
The title of The New Atalantis by Delarivier Manley (1709), distinguished from the two others by the single letter, is an equally dystopian work but set this time on a fictional Mediterranean island. In it sexual violence and exploitation is made a metaphor for the hypocritical behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public. In Manley's case, the target of satire was the Whig Party, while in David Maclean Parry's The Scarlet Empire (1906) it is Socialism as practised in foundered Atlantis. It was followed in Russia by Velimir Khlebnikov's poem The Fall of Atlantis (''Gibel' Atlantidy, 1912), which is set in a future rationalist dystopia that has discovered the secret of immortality and is so dedicated to progress that it has lost touch with the past. When the high priest of this ideology is tempted by a slave girl into an act of irrationality, he murders her and precipitates a second flood, above which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars.
A slightly later work, The Ancient of Atlantis'' (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to redeem the earth. Its three parts consist of a verse narrative of the life and training of an Atlantean wise one, followed by his Utopian moral teachings and then a psychic drama set in modern times in which a reincarnated child embodying the lost wisdom is reborn on earth.
In Hispanic eyes, Atlantis had a more intimate interpretation. The land had been a colonial power which, although it had brought civilization to ancient Europe, had also enslaved its peoples. Its tyrannical fall from grace had contributed to the fate that had overtaken it, but now its disappearance had unbalanced the world. This was the point of view of Jacint Verdaguer's vast mythological epic ''L'Atlantida (1877). After the sinking of the former continent, Hercules travels east across the Atlantic to found the city of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the Hesperides. The story is told by a hermit to a shipwrecked mariner, who is inspired to follow in his tracks and so "call the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old". This mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus.
Verdaguer's poem was written in Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and Hispano-America. One response was the similarly entitled Argentinian Atlantida of Olegario Víctor Andrade (1881), which sees in "Enchanted Atlantis that Plato foresaw, a golden promise to the fruitful race" of Latins. The bad example of the colonising world remains, however. José Juan Tablada characterises its threat in his "De Atlántida" (1894) through the beguiling picture of the lost world populated by the underwater creatures of Classical myth, among whom is the Siren of its final stanza with
There is a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus' six-stanza "Atlantis" (1917), where a celebration of the Faroese linguistic revival grants it an ancient pedigree by linking Greek to Norse legend. In the poem a female figure rising from the sea against a background of Classical palaces is recognised as a priestess of Atlantis. The poet recalls "that the Faroes lie there in the north Atlantic Ocean/ where before lay the poet-dreamt lands," but also that in Norse belief, such a figure only appears to those about to drown.A land lost in the distance
's poem "Atlantis" ]]
The fact that Atlantis is a lost land has made of it a metaphor for something no longer attainable. For the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes, "The Lost Atlantis" stands for idealisation of the past; the present moment can only be treasured once that is realised. Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of "The Lost Land" (1910) in one's carefree youthful past. Similarly, for the Irish poet Eavan Boland in "Atlantis, a lost sonnet" (2007), the idea was defined when "the old fable-makers searched hard for a word/ to convey that what is gone is gone forever".
For some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley in his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from dissatisfaction with one's condition,
in a dream of Atlantis. Similarly for the Australian Gary Catalano in a 1982 prose poem, it is "a vision that sank under the weight of its own perfection". W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of such frustration through the metaphor of journeying toward Atlantis in his poem of 1941. While travelling, he advises the one setting out, you will meet with many definitions of the goal in view, only realising at the end that the way has all the time led inward.
Epic verse narratives
A few late-19th century verse narratives complement the genre fiction that was beginning to be written at the same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related by long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson's Atlantis (1888), an ancient Greek mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island which is all that remains of the former kingdom. He learns of its end and views the shattered remnant of its former glory, from which a few had escaped to set up the Mediterranean civilisations. In the second, Mona, Queen of Lost Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment of Long Forgotten History (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840–1925), the story is told in a series of visions. A Seer is taken to Mona's burial chamber in the ruins of Atlantis, where she revives and describes the catastrophe. There follows a survey of the lost civilisations of Hyperborea and Lemuria as well as Atlantis, accompanied by much spiritualist lore.
William Walton Hoskins (1856–1919) admits to the readers of his Atlantis and other poems (Cleveland OH, 1881), that he is only 24. Its melodramatic plot concerns the poisoning of the descendant of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed in the waves. Asian gods people the landscape of The Lost Island (Ottawa 1889) by Edward Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An angel foresees impending catastrophe and that the people will be allowed to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves. A final example, Edward N. Beecher's The Lost Atlantis or The Great Deluge of All (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just a doggerel vehicle for its author's opinions: that the continent was the location of the Garden of Eden; that Darwin's theory of evolution is correct, as are Donnelly's views.
Atlantis was to become a theme in Russia following the 1890s, taken up in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, as well as in a drama by the schoolgirl Larissa Reisner. One other long narrative poem was published in New York by George V. Golokhvastoff. His 250-page The Fall of Atlantis (1938) records how a high priest, distressed by the prevailing degeneracy of the ruling classes, seeks to create an androgynous being from royal twins as a means to overcome this polarity. When he is unable to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, the continent is destroyed.
Artistic representations
Music
The Spanish composer Manuel de Falla worked on a dramatic cantata based on Verdaguer's ''L'Atlántida, during the last 20 years of his life. The name has been affixed to symphonies by Jānis Ivanovs (Symphony 4, 1941), Richard Nanes, and Vaclav Buzek (2009). There was also the symphonic celebration of Alan Hovhaness: "Fanfare for the New Atlantis" (Op. 281, 1975).
The Bohemian-American composer and arranger Vincent Frank Safranek wrote Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite in Four Parts; I. Nocturne and Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. "I Love Thee" (The Prince and Aana), IV. The Destruction of Atlantis, for military (concert) band in 1913.
The opera Der Kaiser von Atlantis (The Emperor of Atlantis'') was written in 1943 by Viktor Ullmann with a libretto by Petr Kien, while they were both inmates at the Nazi concentration camp of Theresienstadt. The Nazis did not allow it to be performed, assuming the opera's reference to an Emperor of Atlantis to be a satire on Hitler. Though Ullmann and Kiel were murdered in Auschwitz, the manuscript survived and was performed for the first time in 1975 in Amsterdam.
's The Fall of Atlantis]]
's vision of cosmic catastrophe]]
Painting and sculpture
Paintings of the submersion of Atlantis are comparatively rare. In the seventeenth century there was François de Nomé's The Fall of Atlantis, which shows a tidal wave surging toward a Baroque city frontage. The style of architecture apart, it is not very different from Nicholas Roerich's The Last of Atlantis of 1928.
The most dramatic depiction of the catastrophe was Léon Bakst's Ancient Terror (Terror Antiquus, 1908), although it does not name Atlantis directly. It is a mountain-top view of a rocky bay breached by the sea, which is washing inland about the tall structures of an ancient city. A streak of lightning crosses the upper half of the painting, while below it rises the impassive figure of an enigmatic goddess who holds a blue dove between her breasts. Vyacheslav Ivanov identified the subject as Atlantis in a public lecture on the painting given in 1909, the year it was first exhibited, and he has been followed by other commentators in the years since.
Sculptures referencing Atlantis have often been stylized single figures. One of the earliest was Einar Jónsson's The King of Atlantis (1919–1922), now in the garden of his museum in Reykjavík. It represents a single figure, clad in a belted skirt and wearing a large triangular helmet, who sits on an ornate throne supported between two young bulls. The walking female entitled Atlantis (1946) by Ivan Meštrović was from a series inspired by ancient Greek figures with the symbolical meaning of unjustified suffering.
In the case of the Brussels fountain feature known as The Man of Atlantis (2003) by the Belgian sculptor , the 4-metre tall figure wearing a diving suit steps from a plinth into the spray. It looks light-hearted but the artist's comment on it makes a serious point: "Because habitable land will be scarce, it is no longer improbable that we will return to the water in the long term. As a result, a portion of the population will mutate into fish-like creatures. Global warming and rising water levels are practical problems for the world in general and here in the Netherlands in particular".
Robert Smithson's Hypothetical Continent – Map of Broken Clear Glass: Atlantis was first created as a photographical project in Loveladies, New Jersey, in 1969, and then recreated as a gallery installation of broken glass. On this he commented that he liked "landscapes that suggest prehistory", and this is borne out by the original conceptual drawing of the work that includes an inset map of the continent sited off the coast of Africa and at the straits into the Mediterranean.
See also
Mythology:
*Antillia
*Avalon
*Brasil (mythical island)
*Brittia
*Cantre'r Gwaelod
*Iram of the Pillars
*Lemuria (continent)
*List of mythological places
*Mayda
*Mu (lost continent)
*Numenor
*Saint Brendan's Island
*Sandy Island, New Caledonia
*Thule
*Ys
Underwater geography:
*Yonaguni Monument
*Bimini Road
*Early Holocene sea level rise
Other:
*Atlantis in comics
*Doggerland
*Flood myth
*Hidden Worlds
*Kumari Kandam
*List of lost lands
*Minoan eruption
*Frisland
Notes
Further reading
*
*
Ancient sources
*Plato, Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett at [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1572 Project Gutenberg]; [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&layout&loc=Tim.+1a alternative version] with commentary.
*Plato, Critias, translated by Benjamin Jowett at [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1571 Project Gutenberg]; [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&layout&loc=Criti.+106a alternative version] with commentary.
Modern sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
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Category:Allegory
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Category:Phantom islands
Category:Platonism
Category:Theoretical continents
Category:Pseudohistory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.913566 |
2179 | Autobiography | }}
wrote Confessions, the first Western autobiography ever written, around 400. Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century.]]
An autobiography, sometimes informally called an autobio, is a self-written account of one's own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the author's experiences, memories, and insights. This genre allows individuals to share their unique perspectives and stories, offering readers a glimpse into the author's personal journey and the historical or cultural context in which they lived.
The term "autobiography" was first used in 1797, but the practice of writing about one's life dates back to antiquity. Early examples include Saint Augustine's Confessions (), which is considered one of the first Western autobiographies. Unlike biographies, which are written by someone else, autobiographies are based on the author's memory and personal interpretation of events, making them inherently subjective. This subjectivity can sometimes lead to inaccuracies or embellishments, as the author may recall events differently or choose to present them in a certain light.
Autobiographies can take various forms, including memoirs, spiritual autobiographies, and fictional autobiographies. Memoirs typically focus on specific memories or themes from the author's life, rather than providing a comprehensive account. Spiritual autobiographies, such as Augustine's Confessions, detail the author's religious journey and spiritual growth. Fictional autobiographies, on the other hand, are novels written in the first person, presenting a fictional character's life as if it were an autobiography.
Throughout history, autobiographies have served different purposes, from self-reflection and justification to historical documentation and personal expression. They have evolved with literary trends and societal changes, reflecting the cultural and historical contexts of their times. Autobiographies remain a popular and accessible form of literature in the 21st century, allowing individuals from all walks of life to share their stories and experiences with a wider audience.
Definition
The word "autobiography" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical The Monthly Review, when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as "pedantic". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that "[autobiography] is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer's life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer's review of their own life.
The rhetor Libanius (–394) framed his life memoir Oration I (begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that would not be read aloud in privacy.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). Confessions is considered one of the great masterpieces of western literature.
Peter Abelard's 12th-century Historia Calamitatum is in the spirit of Augustine's Confessions, an outstanding autobiographical document of its period.
Early autobiographies
]]
In the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her Memorias, which may be the first autobiography in Castillian.
Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur, who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal Bāburnāma (Chagatai/; literally: "Book of Babur" or "Letters of Babur") which was written between 1493 and 1529.
One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply Vita (Italian: Life). He declares at the start: "No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty." These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.
Another autobiography of the period is De vita propria, by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).
One of the first autobiographies written in an Indian language was Ardhakathānaka, written by Banarasidas, who was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. The poetic autobiography Ardhakathānaka (The Half Story), was composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Mathura.In his autobiography, he describes his transition from an unruly youth, to a religious realization by the time the work was composed. The work also is notable for many details of life in Mughal times.
The earliest known autobiography written in English is the Book of Margery Kempe'', written in 1438. Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe's pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was published for the first time only in 1936. which was regarded by many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour's definitive biography in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual bases for many of Smith's "tall tales", many of which could not have been known by Smith at the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted.
Other notable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, 1666).
Jarena Lee (1783–1864) was the first African American woman to have a published biography in the United States. 18th and 19th centuries
's autobiography, 1793]]
Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, The Life of Henry Brulard and Memoirs of an Egotist, are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt's Liber Amoris (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.
With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of "Cellinian" autobiography.
<!-- Work in progress—to be developed -->
20th and 21st centuries
From the 17th century onwards, "scandalous memoirs" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called "autobiographies" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their "autobiographies". Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's A Million Little Pieces have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives.
Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. A Fortunate Life by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as Angela’s Ashes and The Color of Water, more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson's book The Argonauts is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it autotheory—a combination of autobiography and critical theory.
A genre where the "claim for truth" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction.
See also
* :Category:Autobiographies
* Alphabiography
* Autobiographical comics
* Autobiographical memory
* Autobiographical novel
* Autofiction
* I-novel
* Letter collection
* List of autobiographies
* Memoir
* Unreliable narrator
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
Category:Self-portraiture
Category:Biography (genre)
Category:Works about history
Category:1790s neologisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.924862 |
2180 | Arcadius | 377
| birth_place = Hispania
| death_date = 1 May 408 (aged c. 31)
| death_place = Constantinople
| burial_place = Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople<br />(now Istanbul, Turkey)
| spouse = Aelia Eudoxia
| issue =
| regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Arcadius Augustus
| dynasty = Theodosian
| father = Theodosius I
| mother = Aelia Flaccilla
| religion = Nicene Christianity
}}
Arcadius ( ; 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to his death in 408. He was the eldest son of the Augustus Theodosius I () and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and the brother of Honorius (). Arcadius ruled the eastern half of the empire from 395, when their father died, while Honorius ruled the west. In his time, he was seen as a weak ruler dominated by a series of powerful ministers and by his wife, Aelia Eudoxia. Early life
. C. 388 AD.]]
Arcadius was born in 377 in Hispania, the eldest son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Honorius. On 19 January 383, his father declared the five-year-old Arcadius an Augustus and co-ruler for the eastern half of the Empire. Ten years later a corresponding declaration made Honorius the Augustus of the western half. Arcadius passed his early years under the tutelage of the rhetorician Themistius and Arsenius Zonaras, a monk. Reign Early reign
.]]
Both of Theodosius's sons were young and inexperienced, susceptible to being dominated by ambitious subordinates. In 394 Arcadius briefly exercised independent power with the help of his advisors in Constantinople, when his father Theodosius went west to fight Arbogastes and Eugenius. Theodosius died on 17 January 395, and Arcadius, still aged only 17, fell under the influence of the praetorian prefect of the East, Rufinus. Honorius, aged 10, was consigned to the guardianship of the magister militum Stilicho. Rufinus ambitiously sought to marry his daughter to Arcadius and thereby gain the prestige of being the emperor's father-in-law. However, when the prefect was called away to business in Antioch (where according to Zosimus, Rufinus had Lucianus, the comes orientis, flogged to death with whips loaded with lead), Arcadius was shown a painting of Aelia Eudoxia, the daughter of the deceased Frankish magister militum per orientem, Bauto. Seeing the young emperor's interest in Eudoxia, Eutropius, the eunuch praepositus sacri cubiculi, arranged for the two to meet. Arcadius fell in love and a marriage was quickly arranged, with the ceremony performed on 27 April 395. According to Zosimus, Rufinus assumed that his daughter was still to be the bride, only discovering otherwise when the nuptial procession went to Eudoxia's residence rather than his own. The rise of Eudoxia, facilitated by a general who was a rival of Rufinus, demonstrates the shifting of the centres of power in the eastern court. Such jostling for influence over the malleable emperor would be a recurring feature of Arcadius's reign.
The first crisis facing the young Arcadius was the Gothic revolt in 395, under the command of Alaric I (), who sought to take advantage of the accession of two inexperienced Roman emperors. As Alaric marched towards Constantinople, plundering Macedonia and Thrace, the eastern court could offer no response, as the majority of its army had gone to Italy with Theodosius and was now in the hands of Stilicho. Perhaps sensing an opportunity to exercise power in the eastern half of the empire as well, Stilicho declared that Theodosius had made him guardian over both his sons. He traveled eastward, ostensibly to face Alaric, leading both his own forces and the Gothic mercenaries whom Theodosius had taken west in the civil war with Eugenius. Arcadius and Rufinus felt more threatened by Stilicho than by Alaric; upon landing in Thessaly Stilicho received an imperial order to send along the eastern regiments, but himself to proceed no further. Stilicho complied, falling back to Salona while Gainas led the mercenaries to Constantinople. Arcadius and his entourage received Gainas in the Campus Martius, a parade ground adjacent to the city, on 27 November 395. There Rufinus was suddenly assassinated by the Goths, on the orders of Stilicho and possibly with the support of Eutropius. The murder certainly created an opportunity for Eutropius and for Arcadius's wife, Eudoxia, who took Rufinus's place as advisors and guardians of the emperor.
While Eutropius consolidated his hold on power in the capital, the distracted government still failed to react to the presence of Alaric in Greece. At first Eutropius may have coordinated with Stilicho around the defence of Illyricum; by 397, when Stilicho personally led a blockade that compelled Alaric to retreat into Epirus, the atmosphere of the eastern court had changed. As neither Arcadius nor Eutropius was keen to have Stilicho intervening in the affairs of the eastern empire, they provided no further military aid to Stilicho, who then abandoned the blockade of the Visigoths. At Eutropius's urging, Arcadius declared Stilicho to be a hostis publicus, and came to an arrangement with Alaric, making him magister militum per Illyricum. At around the same time, the eastern court persuaded Gildo, the magister utriusque militiae per Africam, to transfer his allegiance from Honorius to Arcadius, causing relations between the two imperial courts to deteriorate further.
Eutropius's influence lasted four years, during which time he sought to marginalise the military and promote the civilian offices within the bureaucracy. He brought to trial two prominent military officers, Timasius and Abundantius. He also had Arcadius introduce two administrative innovations: the running of the cursus publicus (office of postmaster general) and the office in charge of manufacturing military equipment was transferred from the praetorian prefects to the magister officiorum (master of offices). Secondly, the role that Eutropius held, the praepositus sacri cubiculi (grand chamberlain) was given the rank of illustris, and therefore equal in rank to the praetorian prefects. In the autumn of 397 he issued a law in Arcadius's name, targeting the Roman military, where any conspiracy involving soldiers or the barbarian regiments against persons holding the rank of illustris was considered to be treason, with the conspirators to be sentenced to death, and their descendants to be deprived of citizenship.
In 398, Eutropius led a successful campaign against the Huns in Roman Armenia. The following year he convinced Arcadius to grant him the consulship, triggering protests across the empire. For traditionalists, the granting of the consulship to a eunuch and former slave was an insult to the Roman system and other contemporary Romans, and the western court refused to recognize him as consul. The crisis escalated when the Ostrogoths who had been settled in Asia Minor by Theodosius I revolted, demanding the removal of Eutropius.
The emperor sent two forces against Tribigild, the rebel leader; the first, under an officer named Leo, was defeated. The second force was commanded by Gainas, rival of Eutropius in the Eastern court. He returned to Arcadius and argued that the Ostrogoths could not be defeated, and that it would be sensible to accede to their demand. Arcadius viewed this proposal with displeasure, but was convinced to support it by Eudoxia, who wished to take Eutropius's place as the main influence upon the emperor. Arcadius therefore dismissed Eutropius and sent him into exile (17 August 399), before recalling him to face trial and execution during the autumn of 399. The imperial edict issued by Arcadius detailing Eutropius's banishment survives:
<blockquote>The Emperors Arcadius and Honorius, Augusti, to Aurelian, Praetorian Prefect. We have added to our treasury all the property of Eutropius, who was formerly the Praepositus sacri cubiculi, having stripped him of his splendour, and delivered the consulate from the foul stain of his tenure, and from the recollection of his name and the base filth thereof ; so that, all his acts having been repealed, all time may be dumb concerning him; and that the blot of our age may not appear by the mention of him; and that those who by their valour and wounds extend the Roman borders or guard the same by equity in the maintenance of law, may not groan over the fact that the divine reward of consulship has been befouled and defiled by a filthy monster. Let him learn that he has been deprived of the rank of the patriciate and all lower dignities that he stained with the perversity of his character. That all the statues, all the images—whether of bronze or marble, or painted in colours, or of any other material used in art—we command to be abolished in all cities, towns, private and public places, that they may not, as a brand of infamy on our age, pollute the gaze of beholders. Accordingly under the conduct of faithful guards let him be taken to the island of Cyprus, whither let your sublimity know that he has been banished; so that therein guarded with most watchful diligence he may be unable to work confusion with his mad designs.</blockquote> Later reign With Eutropius's fall from power, Gainas sought to take advantage of Arcadius's current predicament. He joined the rebel Ostrogoths, and, in a face to face meeting with Arcadius, forced the emperor to make him magister militum praesentalis and Consul designate for 401. Arcadius also acquiesced when Gainas asked for the dismissal of further officials, such as the urban prefect Aurelianus, as well as a place for settlement for his troops in Thrace. However, Arcadius refused to agree to Gainas's demand for an Arian church in Constantinople for his Gothic mercenaries, following the advice of John Chrysostom, the Archbishop of Constantinople.
By July 400, the actions of Gainas had irritated a significant portion of the population of Constantinople to the point that a general riot broke out in the capital. Although Gainas had stationed his troops outside of the capital walls, he was either unable or unwilling to bring them into the capital when many Goths in the city were hunted down and attacked. As many as 7,000 Goths were killed in the rioting; those who took refuge in a church were stoned and burned to death, after they received the emperor's permission, nor was it condemned by the Archbishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom.
Although initially staying his hand (probably through the intervention of the new Praetorian Prefect of the East Caesarius), Gainas eventually withdrew with his Gothic mercenaries into Thrace and rebelled against Arcadius. He attempted to take his forces across the Hellespont into Asia, but was intercepted and defeated by Fravitta, another Goth who held the position of magister militum praesentalis. Following his defeat, Gainas fled to the Danube with his remaining followers, but was ultimately defeated and killed by Uldin the Hun in Thrace.
With the fall of Gainas, the next conflict emerged between Eudoxia and John Chrysostom. The Archbishop was a stern, ascetic individual, who was a vocal critic of all displays of extravagant wealth. But his ire tended to focus especially on wealthy women, and their use of clothing, jewellery and makeup as being vain and frivolous. Eudoxia assumed that Chrysostom's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her. As the tensions between the two escalated, Chrysostom, who felt that Eudoxia had used her imperial connections to obtain the possessions of the wife of a condemned senator, preached a sermon in 401 in which Eudoxia was openly called Jezebel, the infamous wife of the Israelite king Ahab. Eudoxia retaliated by supporting Bishop Severian of Gabala in his conflict with Chrysostom. As Chrysostom was very popular in the capital, riots erupted in favour of the Archbishop, forcing Arcadius and Eudoxia to publicly back down and beg Chrysostom to revoke Severian's excommunication.
Then in 403, Eudoxia saw another chance to strike against the Archbishop, when she threw her support behind Theophilus of Alexandria who presided over a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak) to charge Chrysostom with heresy. Although Arcadius originally supported Chrysostom, the Archbishop's decision not to participate caused Arcadius to change his mind and support Theophilus, resulting in Chrysostom's deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people started rioting over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace. There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.
Peace was short-lived. In September 403 a silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion, near the Magna Ecclesia church. Chrysostom, who was conducting a mass at the time, denounced the noisy dedication ceremonies as pagan and spoke against the Empress in harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and again desires to receive John's head in a charger", an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist. This time Arcadius was unwilling to overlook the insult to his wife; a new synod was called in early 404 where Chrysostom was condemned. Arcadius hesitated until Easter to enforce the sentence, but Chrysostom refused to go, even after Arcadius sent in a squad of soldiers to escort him into exile. Arcadius procrastinated, but by 20 June 404, the emperor finally managed to get the Archbishop to submit, and he was taken away to his place of banishment, this time to Abkhazia in the Caucasus. Eudoxia did not get to enjoy her victory for long, dying later that year. Death In his later reign, Arcadius delegated a large amount of the responsibilities to Anthemius, the Praetorian Prefect. Anthemius attempted to heal the divisions of the past decade by trying to make peace with Stilicho in the West. Stilicho, however, had lost patience with the eastern court, and in 407 encouraged Alaric and the Visigoths to seize the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum and hand it over to the western empire. Stilicho's plan failed, and soon after, on 1 May 408, Arcadius died. He was succeeded by his young son, Theodosius.
Like Constantine the Great and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.
of Arcadius.]]
Character and achievements
In noting the character of Arcadius, the historian J. B. Bury described him and his abilities thus: <blockquote>He was of short stature, of dark complexion, thin and inactive, and the dullness of his wit was betrayed by his speech and by his sleepy, drooping eyes. His mental deficiency and the weakness of his character made it inevitable that he should be governed by the strong personalities of his court.</blockquote>
Traditional interpretations of the reign of Arcadius have revolved around his weakness as an Emperor, and the formulation of policy by prominent individuals (and the court parties that formed and regrouped round them) towards curtailing the increasing influence of barbarians in the military, which in Constantinople at this period meant the Goths. Scholars such as the historian J. B. Bury spoke of a group in Arcadius's court with Germanic interests and, opposed to them, a Roman faction. So, the revolt of Gainas, and the massacre of the Goths in Constantinople in 400, have traditionally been interpreted by scholars (such as Otto Seeck) as violent anti-barbarian reactions that prevented the rise of all-powerful Romanised barbarian military leaders—such as Stilicho was, in the West—in what has been termed the victory of anti-Germanism in the eastern empire.
The main source of this interpretation has been the works Synesius of Cyrene, specifically Aegyptus sive de providentia and De regno. Both works have traditionally been interpreted to support the thesis that there were anti-barbarian and pro-barbarian groups, with the Praetorian Prefect Aurelianus being the leader of the anti-barbarian faction. Recent scholarly research has revised this interpretation, and has instead favoured the interaction of personal ambition and enmities among the principal participants as being the leading cause for the court intrigue throughout Arcadius's reign. On 13 July 399, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished.
In terms of buildings and monuments, a new forum was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of Constantinople, the Xērolophos, in which a column was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the column was only completed after Arcadius's death by Theodosius II). The Pentelic marble portrait head of Arcadius (now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum) was discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating foundations for new buildings of the university at Beyazit. The neck was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or inscription was found. The diadem is a fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about with pearls over the young Emperor's forehead.
A more nuanced assessment of Arcadius's reign was provided by Warren Treadgold: <blockquote>By failing to reign, Arcadius had allowed a good deal of maladministration. But by continuing to reign—so harmlessly that nobody had taken the trouble to depose him—he had maintained legal continuity during a troubled time.</blockquote>
Arcadius had four children with Eudoxia: three daughters, Pulcheria, Arcadia and Marina; and one son, Theodosius, the future Emperor Theodosius II.
Notes
Sources
Primary sources
* Zosimus, "Historia Nova", [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm Book 5]
Secondary sources
* McEvoy, Meaghan, An imperial jellyfish? The emperor Arcadius and imperial leadership in the late fourth century A.D.', in Erika Manders, Daniëlle Slootjes (eds), [http://www.steiner-verlag.de/reihe/view/titel/61821.html Leadership, ideology and crowds in the Roman empire of the fourth century AD]. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag (2020).
*Nicholson, O. ed. (2018). "Arcadius, Flavius". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity.
* Lee, A. D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565, Edinburgh University Press.
* Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. (2011). Ambrose and John Chrysostom: Clerics Between Desert and Empire. Oxford University Press.
* Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). The Fall of the West: The Death of the Roman Superpower. Phoenix.
*
* Long, Jacqueline (1996). ''Claudian's In Eutropium, Or, How, When, and why to Slander a Eunuch. University of North Carolina Press.
*
*
* Kazhdan, Alexander ed. (1991). [https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/173/mode/1up Arkadios]. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, pp. 173–174.
* }}
* Bury, J. B. (1889). A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene I.
*Gibbon, Edward (1932) [1789]. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. New York: The Modern Library.
External links
*[http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Arcadius_Laws.html Laws of Arcadius], extracted from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Classics/bcj/11-06.html Watts, Edward, "the motifs of Imperial authority in the bust of Arcadius"]
* This [https://web.archive.org/web/20081025063840/http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-364 list of Roman laws of the fourth century] shows laws passed by Arcadius relating to Christianity.
Category:370s births
Category:408 deaths
Category:4th-century Roman consuls
Category:5th-century Roman consuls
Category:4th-century Roman emperors
Category:5th-century Byzantine emperors
Category:4th-century Christians
Category:5th-century Christians
Category:Sons of Roman emperors
Category:Theodosian dynasty | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadius | 2025-04-05T18:25:56.943782 |
2185 | Arabs | | native_name_lang = ar
| rawimage = Arab people around the world.svg
| image | image_caption
| total –420 million
| total_year | total_source
| region1 = Brazil
| pop1 11,600,000–20,000,000
| region3 = France
| pop3 5,500,000–7,000,000
| region4 = Turkey
| pop4 5,000,000}}
| region5 = Argentina
| pop5 3,500,000
| region6 = Colombia
| pop6 3,200,000
| region7 = United States
| pop7 2,097,642
| region8 = Israel
| pop8 2,080,000
| region9 = Chad
| pop9 1,800,000
| region10 = Iran
| pop10 1,600,000–4,000,000
| region11 = Venezuela
| pop11 1,600,000
| region12 = Germany
| pop12 1,401,950
| region13 = Spain
| pop13 1,350,000
| region14 = Mexico
| pop14 1,100,000
| region15 = Chile
| pop15 800,000
| region16 = Canada
| pop16 750,925
| region17 = Italy
| pop17 705,968
| region18 = Sweden
| pop18 543,350
| region19 = United Kingdom
| pop19 500,000
| region20 = Australia
| pop20 500,000
| region21 = Netherlands
| pop21 480,000–613,800
| region22 = Ivory Coast
| pop22 300,000
| region23 = Honduras
| pop23 280,000
| region24 = Ecuador
| pop24 170,000 <!--Higher estimate for Lebanese in Ecuador-->
| region25 = Niger
| pop25 150,000
| region26 = Denmark
| pop26 121,000
| region27 = Indonesia
| pop27 118,866
| region28 = El Salvador
| pop28 100,000
| region29 = Eritrea
| pop29 80,000
| region30 = Uruguay
| pop30 75,000
| region31 = Tanzania
| pop31 70,000
| region32 = Kenya
| pop32 59,021
| region33 = Somalia
| pop33 30,000
| languages = Arabic
| religions =
* Significant minority:
* Christianity
*
* Smaller minority:
*
* Historically:
* Pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism (Nabataean religion)
}}
| related Other Semitic peoples of the Middle East and North Africa, especially Assyrians, Mandaeans, Jews, and Samaritans
| footnotes =
}}
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years. In the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians made written references to Arabs as inhabitants of the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia. Throughout the Ancient Near East, Arabs established influential civilizations starting from 3000 BCE onwards, such as Dilmun, Gerrha, and Magan, playing a vital role in trade between Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean. Other prominent tribes include Midian, ʿĀd, and Thamud mentioned in the Bible and Quran. Later, in 900 BCE, the Qedarites enjoyed close relations with the nearby Canaanite and Aramaean states, and their territory extended from Lower Egypt to the Southern Levant. From 1200 BCE to 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged such as Saba, Lihyan, Minaean, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Awsan, and Homerite emerged in Arabia. According to the Abrahamic tradition, Arabs are descendants of Abraham through his son Ishmael.
. Nabataean kingdom, Jordan]]
During classical antiquity, the Nabataeans established their kingdom with Petra as the capital in 300 BCE, by 271 CE, the Palmyrene Empire with the capital Palmyra, led by Queen Zenobia, encompassed the Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, Egypt, and large parts of Anatolia. The Arab Itureans inhabited Lebanon, Syria, and northern Palestine (Galilee) during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The Osroene and Hatran were Arab kingdoms in Upper Mesopotamia around 200 CE. In 164 CE, the Sasanians recognized the Arabs as "Arbayistan", meaning "land of the Arabs," as they were part of Adiabene in upper Mesopotamia. The Arab Emesenes ruled by 46 BCE Emesa (Homs), Syria. During late antiquity, the Tanukhids, Salihids, Lakhmids, Kinda, and Ghassanids were dominant Arab tribes in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, they predominantly embraced Christianity.
During the Middle Ages, Islam fostered a vast Arab union, leading to significant Arab migrations to the Maghreb, the Levant, and neighbouring territories under the rule of Arab empires such as the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid, ultimately leading to the decline of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. At its peak, Arab territories stretched from southern France to western China, forming one of history's largest empires. The Great Arab Revolt in the early 20th century aided in dismantling the Ottoman Empire, ultimately leading to the formation of the Arab League on 22 March 1945, with its Charter endorsing the principle of a "unified Arab homeland".
Arabs from Morocco to Iraq share a common bond based on ethnicity, language, culture, history, identity, ancestry, nationalism, geography, unity, and politics, which give the region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of the Muslim world. They also have their own customs, literature, music, dance, media, food, clothing, society, sports, architecture, art and, mythology. Arabs have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields, including science, technology, philosophy, ethics, literature, politics, business, art, music, comedy, theatre, cinema, architecture, food, medicine, and religion. Before Islam, most Arabs followed polytheistic Semitic religion, while some tribes adopted Judaism or Christianity and a few individuals, known as the hanifs, followed a form of monotheism. Currently, around 93% of Arabs are Muslims, while the rest are mainly Arab Christians, as well as Arab groups of Druze and Baháʼís. Etymology
is an Arabic epitaph in Nabataean script of Imru' al-Qais, son of "Amr, king of all the Arabs". Basalt, found at Nimreh in the Hauran (Southern Syria), dated 7 December 328 CE.]]
The earliest documented use of the word Arab in reference to a people appears in the Kurkh Monoliths, an Akkadian-language record of the Assyrian conquest of Aram (9th century BCE). The Monoliths used the term to refer to Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula under King Gindibu, who fought as part of a coalition opposed to Assyria.
The related word ʾaʿrāb is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast to ʿArab which refers to Arabs in general. Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-Islamic Sabaean inscriptions. The term ʿarab ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of the Himyarite kings from the time of 'Abu Karab Asad until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the term ʾaʿrāb is derived from the term ʿarab. The term is also mentioned in Quranic verses, referring to people who were living in Madina and it might be a south Arabian loanword into Quranic language.
The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the Nabataean alphabet, which refers to Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as 'King of all the Arabs'. Herodotus refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the frankincense region (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like Agatharchides, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo mention Arabs living in Mesopotamia (along the Euphrates), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the Nabataeans), the Syrian steppe and in eastern Arabia (the people of Gerrha). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.
The most popular Arab account holds that the word Arab came from an eponymous father named Ya'rub, who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were called gharab ('westerners') by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into Arab.
Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word Arab was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the Arabah valley. In Biblical etymology, Arab (Hebrew: arvi) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (arava means 'wilderness').
The root ʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms were metathetical from , 'moving around' (Arabic: , 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'. Origins
in the desert (1819) by François-Joseph Navez]]
Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian Peninsula" has long been accepted as the original Urheimat (linguistic homeland) of the Semitic languages. with some scholars investigating if its origins are in the Levant. The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in the ancient Near East, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity. Proto-Semitic likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there, while Old Arabic began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE. Central Semitic is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, Aramaic, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew and others. The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as the Akkadians who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE.
According to Arab–Islamic–Jewish traditions, Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar was "father of the Arabs". Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael." Ibn Khaldun, an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.
The Quran mentions that Ibrahim (Abraham) and his wife Hajar (Hagar) bore a prophetic child named Ishmael, who was gifted by God a favor above other nations. Ibrahim and Ishmael built the Kaaba in Mecca, which was originally constructed by Adam. According to the Samaritan book Asaṭīr: "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children of Nebaot ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from the river of Egypt to the river Euphrates; and they built Mecca." The Targum Onkelos annotates (Genesis 25:16), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side of Mizraim (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (Assyria) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East. History
The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of the Fertile Crescent since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period covers various regions such as Arabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE. There are also records from Sargon's reign that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in Babylon, causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the Israelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.
Magan, Midian, and ʿĀd are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan (, ), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the Qur'an as a place where Musa (Moses) traveled during his lifetime. Midian (, ), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are mentioned in the Qur'an as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience. Moses also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd (, ), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to God. ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.
The historian Herodotus provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the spices, terrain, folklore, trade, clothing, and weapons of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before Cambyses' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include Theophrastus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny the Elder. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by Herod, the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions. Geshem the Arab was an Arab man who opposed Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible (Neh. 2:19, 6:1). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the Samaritans made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem.
thumb|Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards.
Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula
in Petra, capital of the Nabataean Kingdom, built as a mausoleum to Nabataean King Aretas IV in the first century AD]]
The term "Saracens" was a term used in the early centuries, both in Greek and Latin writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the Romans as Arabia Petraea (Levant) and Arabia Deserta (Arabia). The Christians of Iberia used the term Moor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. Hagarenes is a term widely used by early Syriac, Greek, and Armenian to describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs." The Arab conquests in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for Islam, which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.
Antiquity
's rule, circa 2028 BCE.]]
Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the Arabian Gulf trading routes. Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East. which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. Gerrha was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. Thamud, which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE, Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south Arabian musnad script, including the 8th century BCE Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the Thamudic texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and Sinai.
The Qedarites were a largely nomadic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in the Wādī Sirḥān in the Syrian Desert. They were known for their nomadic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the Mediterranean world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and the Sinai Peninsula. The Qedarites were influential in the ancient Near East, and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.
Sheba ( Saba) is kingdom mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the Quran, though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in Jewish, Muslim, and Christian traditions, whose lineage goes back to Qahtan son of Hud, one of the ancestors of the Arabs, Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of Greek and Roman writers. One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them. king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the Sana'a National Museum.]] Sabaeans are mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible. In the Quran, they are described as either (, not to be confused with , ), They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and Rome, making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The Maʾrib Dam was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of Maʾrib and the surrounding agricultural lands. The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day Al Ula), and it controlled a large territory that extended from Yathrib in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.
The Kingdom of Ma'in was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on agriculture and trade. Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the Phoenician alphabet and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the Arab Sabaean people.Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in the South Arabia, which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE. It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles. Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans. It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE. Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and Ḥimyar in the 1st century CE.
The Kingdom of Hadhramaut it was known for its rich cultural heritage, as well as its strategic location along important trade routes that connected the Middle East, South Asia, and East Africa. The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive architecture, particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families. The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia. Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.
Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula.]]
The ancient Kingdom of Awsān (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia, and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.
The Himyarite Kingdom or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the city of Zafar, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke a South Arabian language and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring, they controlled the southern part of Arabia and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to Judaism in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including Christianity and the local pagan religions. Their early inscriptions were in Aramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The Nabataean alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by Safaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in Nabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw reveal a dialect no longer considered proto-Arabic, but pre-classical Arabic. Five Syriac inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at Sumatar Harabesi, one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.
240 – c. 274 CE) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria. One of several ancient female rulers in antiquity of Arab origin.
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Arabs are first recorded in Palmyra in the late first millennium BCE. The soldiers of the sheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra. After the Battle of Edessa in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king Shapur I was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. Zenobia was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as Aurelian was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.
Most scholars identify the Itureans as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea, emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base around Mount Lebanon and the Beqaa Valley, they came to dominate vast stretches of Syrian territory, and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of Palestine as far as the Galilee.
The Osroene Arabs, also known as the Abgarids, were in possession of the city of Edessa in the ancient Near East for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Abgar V, who is said to have corresponded with Jesus Christ and is believed to have converted to Christianity. The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and scholarship. The Kingdom of Hatra was an ancient city located in the region of Mesopotamia, it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the Parthian Empire. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of Banu Tanukh seized control of Hatra and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."
The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs of Adiabene which was an ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, its chief city was Arbela (Arba-ilu), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela. This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the Sasanians, who called the region Arbayistan, meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription of the second Sasanian King of Kings, Shapur I (), which was erected in 262. Late antiquity
The Ghassanids, Lakhmids and Kindites were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized Syria, the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix". The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire Arabia Petraea, after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna. The Lakhmids as a dynasty inherited their power from the Tanukhids, the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-Hira. They ended up allying with the Sassanids against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the Kingdom of Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main ally Himyar. The Persian Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control. The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir, and his son 'Amr.
The Ghassanids were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of the Azd tribe. They fought alongside the Byzantines against the Sasanians and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to Christianity in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon. The Salihids were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, with the Tarikh of Ya'qubi considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines. Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and literature, with the rise of great cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba, they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals. Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from Spain to India. During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of Basra, and under the leadership of Umar, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was Midian, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to Kufa. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of Uthman, the Arab empire expanded through the conquest of Persia, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of Khorasan in 651. The conquest of Armenia also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire Sassanid Empire and more than two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by the First Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with Hassan ibn Ali and the suppression of early Kharijite disturbances, Muawiyah I became the Caliph. This marked a significant transition in leadership. Arab empires Rashidun era (632–661)
After the death of Muhammad in 632, Rashidun armies launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the Caliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire Tanukhids of Queen Mawia or the Arab Palmyrene Empire. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the Himyarite, Lakhmids or Ghassanids.
During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community. These caliphs are Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.
Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a rebellion by some tribes who refused to pay Zakat, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed. Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031)
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the Umayyad dynasty and Damascus was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at Ramla, Raqqa, Basra, Kufa, Mosul and Samarra, all of which developed into major cities. Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686. Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to Baghdad.
during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III. Receiving the Ambassador by Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer 1885 CE.]]
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including Punics, Vandals and Romans. After the Abbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.
Their last holding became known as the Emirate of Córdoba. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the Caliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture and the library of Al-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, Al-Andalus was divided into small kingdoms.
Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517)
(r. 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by Charlemagne at his court in Baghdad.|left]]
The Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the Battle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects. The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when Wilayas began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the Mongols, who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the Caliph Al-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the Mamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature. Fatimid era (909–1171)
(left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes]]
The Fatimid caliphate was founded by al-Mahdi Billah, a descendant of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in Cairo, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, and Palestine. The Fatimid state took shape among the Kutama, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to Al-Mansuriya, near Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
in Cairo, Egypt in the historic Islamic core of the city, Cairo was established as the new capital of the Fatimid Caliphate in 970]]
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the Islamic world. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the Al-Azhar Mosque and Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the Ayyubid dynasty, led by Saladin. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come. Ottoman era (1517–1918)
(1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty, which claimed descent from Muhammad.|left]]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of Marj Dabiq and Ridaniya. They entered the Levant and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the Young Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.
The Arab Revolt was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by Sherif Hussein bin Ali, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come. The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I, the Sykes–Picot Agreement had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination. Renaissance
The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century. The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Siege of Baghdad in 1258. During this time, Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the Renaissance.
The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with Europe, including translations of Arabic texts. These translations had a significant impact on culture of Europe, leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, agriculture, alchemy, music, and pottery, and traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such as sugar, camphor, cotton, coffee, etc.
From the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably Averroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia, most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.
During the Timurid Renaissance spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Arab Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture. Modern period
The modern period in Arab history refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the Arab world experienced significant political, economic, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new nation-states in the Arab world.
Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the Allies in World War I, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the independence of the Hejaz and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies. literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora" predecessors in the Nahda movement (or the "Arab Renaissance"). (From left to right): Nasib Arida, Kahlil Gibran, Abd al-Masih Haddad, and Mikhail Naimy.|left]] Arab nationalism emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world. This movement gained momentum after World War II, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. Pan-Arabism that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single nation or state. It emphasized on a shared ancestry, culture, history, language and identity and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.
The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the Arab Renaissance or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, Gamal Abdel Nasser, who led the 1952 revolution in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of Arab socialism, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other Arab leaders, such as Hafez al-Assad, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Faisal I of Iraq, Muammar Gaddafi, Saddam Hussein, Gaafar Nimeiry and Anwar Sadat.
of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and colors are the basis of many of the Arab states' flags. The Pan-Arab colors are black, white, green and red. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colors were intended to represent a certain aspect of the Arabs and their history.]]
Many proposed unions aimed to create a unified Arab entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities. The United Arab Republic (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the Arab Republic of Egypt. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the Arab Federation, was established between Jordan and Iraq, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the 14 July Revolution. A confederation called the United Arab States, which included the UAR and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961. Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the Federation of Arab Republics, which was formed by Egypt, Libya, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the Arab Islamic Republic with Tunisia, aiming to include Algeria and Morocco, instead the Arab Maghreb Union was formed in 1989.
During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The Arab-Israeli conflict remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of globalization. The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries. Identity
Arab identity is defined independently of religious identity, and pre-dates the spread of Islam, with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jewish tribes. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely Christianity, but also Druze and Baháʼí. Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in the Arab world when it comes to membership into an ethnic group or clan.
Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions. Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall of empires, colonization, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.
Subgroups
, al-Urdunn and Hims, while the Qays inhabited al-Jazirah, the Byzantine frontier and Qinnasrin.]]
Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.
The Arabs of the Levant are traditionally divided into Qays and Yaman tribes. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they include Banu Kalb, Kinda, Ghassanids, and Lakhmids. The Qays were made up of tribes such as Banu Kilab, Banu Tayy, Banu Hanifa, and Banu Tamim, among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such as Banu Hashim, Banu Makhzum, Banu Umayya, and Banu Zuhra, among others.
There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before the Arab conquest of Persia in 633 CE. The largest group of Iranian Arabs are the Ahwazi Arabs, including Banu Ka'b, Bani Turuf and the Musha'sha'iyyah sect. Smaller groups are the Khamseh nomads in Fars province and the Arabs in Khorasan.
As a result of the centuries-long Arab migration to the Maghreb, various Arab tribes (including Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym and Maqil) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. The Banu Hilal spent almost a century in Egypt before moving to Libya, Tunisia and Algeria, and another century later moved to Morocco.
According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.
They are:
* Kinanah, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Sudan, Palestine, Tunisia, Morocco, and Syria.
* Hawazin, has descendants in Arabia, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, and Iraq.
* Tamim, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Palestine, Algeria, and Morocco
* Azd, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Levant, and North Africa.
* Ghatafan, has descendants in Arabia and the Maghreb.
* Madhhij, has descendants in Arabia and Iraq.
* Abd al-Qays, has descendants in Arabia.
* Al Qays (القيس), has descendants in Arabia.
* Quda'a, has descendants in Arabia, Syria, and North Africa.
Geographic distribution
Arab homeland
The total number of Arabs living in the Arab nations is estimated at 366 million by the CIA Factbook (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around , from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. Arab diaspora
Arab diaspora refers to descendants of the Arab immigrants who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily in East Africa, South America, Europe, North America, Australia and parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and West Africa. According to the International Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries. The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in West Africa is the largest non-African group in the region. Arab traders have long operated in Southeast Asia and along the East Africa's Swahili coast. Zanzibar was once ruled by Omani Arabs. Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Arabia in the Hadramawt coastal region.
Europe
There are millions of Arabs living in Europe, mostly concentrated in France (about 6,000,000 in 2005). Most Arabs in France are from the Maghreb but some also come from the Mashreq areas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largest ethnic group after French people. In Italy, Arabs first arrived on the southern island of Sicily in the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population. The modern Arab population of Spain numbers 1,800,000, and there have been Arabs in Spain since the early 8th century when the Muslim conquest of Hispania created the state of Al-Andalus. In Germany the Arab population numbers over 1,401,950. in the United Kingdom between 366,769 and 500,000, and in Greece between 250,000 and 750,000). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g. refugees of the Syrian civil war). In the Netherlands 180,000, As of late 2015, Turkey had a total population of 78.7 million, with Syrian refugees accounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 Arab residents, Turkey's Arab population is now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.
Americas
Arab immigration to the United States began in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau. Arab Americans are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live in Los Angeles, Detroit, and New York City specifically. Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.
Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Their immigration was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter. According to the website "Who are Arab Canadians", Montreal, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.
Latin America has the largest Arab population outside of the Arab World. Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world. The Brazilian and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million Brazilians of Lebanese descent. Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million Brazilians of Syrian descent. Other large Arab communities includes Argentina (about 3,500,000)
The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity. Colombia (over 3,200,000), Venezuela (over 1,600,000), Mexico (over 1,100,000), Chile (over 800,000), and Central America, particularly El Salvador, and Honduras (between 150,000 and 200,000).) a large number of whom live in the capital are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses. Caucasus
In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated the Caspian shores of Mughan (in present-day Azerbaijan). It is believed that these groups migrated to the South Caucasus in the 16th century. The 1888 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire. They retained an Arabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century, there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab (for example, Arabgadim, Arabojaghy, Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the South Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in Dagestan. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west of Derbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s. Central, South, East and Southeast Asia
According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region. However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example, Tajiks, Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such as Sayyid, Khoja or Siddiqui.
|urlhttp://www.dailymirror.lk/article/Communal-violence-and-political-instability-in-Sri-Lanka--147158.html|access-date20 May 2020}}</ref>]]
There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, the Chaush of the Deccan region and the Chavuse of Gujarat. These groups are largely descended from Hadhrami migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration to Eastern Arabia and thus a re-adoption of Arabic. In South Asia, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following the Shafi'i madhab (in contrast to other South Asian Muslims who follow the Hanafi madhab) claim descent from Arab traders like the Konkani Muslims of the Konkan region, the Mappilla of Kerala, and the Labbai and Marakkar of Tamil Nadu and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state of Kerala. South Asian Iraqi biradri may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. The Sri Lankan Moors are the third largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, constituting 9.2% of the country's total population. Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri Lankan Moors to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries. There are about 118,866 Arab-Indonesians of Hadrami descent in the 2010 Indonesian census. Sub-Saharan Africa
Afro-Arabs are individuals and groups from Africa who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit the Swahili Coast in the African Great Lakes region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world. Large numbers of Arabs migrated to West Africa, particularly Côte d'Ivoire (home to over 100,000 Lebanese), Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese), Sierra Leone (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak of civil war in 1991), Liberia, and Nigeria. Since the end of the civil war in 2002, Lebanese traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone. The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called the Baggara grouping of Arab ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa's Sahel. There are 171,000 in Cameroon, 150,000 in Niger), and 107,000 in the Central African Republic.
Religion
Arabs are mostly Muslims with a Sunni majority and a Shia minority, one exception being the Ibadis, who predominate in Oman. Arab Christians generally follow Eastern Churches such as the Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches, though a minority of Protestant Church followers also exists. There are also Arab communities consisting of Druze and Baháʼís. Historically, there were also sizeable populations of Arab Jews around the Arab World.
Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, including Hubal, Wadd, Allāt, Manat, and Uzza. A few individuals, the hanifs, had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the Ghassanid and Lakhmid kingdoms. When the Himyarite king converted to Judaism in the late 4th century, the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the Kindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly Islamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.
Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in Bahrain and southern Iraq while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist in Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, northern Syria and Al-Batinah Region in Oman. There are small numbers of Ibadi and non-denominational Muslims too.
Christianity had a prominent presence In pre-Islamic Arabia among several Arab communities, including the Bahrani people of Eastern Arabia, the Christian community of Najran, in parts of Yemen, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as the Ghassanids, Lakhmids, Taghlib, Banu Amela, Banu Judham, Tanukhids and Tayy. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known as Arabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."
Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa. In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population. In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population. Christians in Palestine make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively. In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.
In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population). Arab Christians make up 8% of the population of Jordan. Most North and South American Arabs are Christian, so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community is Saint Abo, martyr and the patron saint of Tbilisi, Georgia. Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such as Nazareth, Bethlehem and the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem and many other villages with holy Christian sites. Culture
Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout their history and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to the ethnogenesis and formation of modern Arab culture. Language, literature, gastronomy, art, architecture, music, spirituality, philosophy and mysticism are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs. Language
is the artistic practice of writing Arabic script in a decorative and stylized manner.]]
Arabic is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic family. The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as a lingua franca for more than 500 million people. It is also a liturgical language for 1.7 billion Muslims. Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations, and is revered in Islam as the language of the Quran.
Arabic has two main registers. Classical Arabic is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects of Arab tribes. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content, while the lexis and stylistics of Modern Standard Arabic are different from Classical Arabic. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic. Mythology
from the One Thousand and One Nights]]
Arabic mythology comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.
The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology are Bahamut, Dandan, Falak, Ghoul, Hinn, Jinn, Karkadann, Marid, Nasnas, Qareen, Roc, Shadhavar, Werehyena and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly polytheistic environment of pre-Islamic.
The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is the Jinn or genie. Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil. They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. The jinn, humans, and angels make up the known sapient creations of God.
Ghouls also feature in the mythology as a monster or evil spirit associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh. In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retained donkey's hooves. Literature
]]
The Quran, the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad. As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.
There is a small remnant of pre-Islamic poetry, but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in the Middle Ages, during the Golden Age of Islam. Imru' al-Qais was a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king of Kindite. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father of Arabic poetry. Kitab al-Aghani by Abul-Faraj was called by the 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun the register of the Arabs. Literary Arabic is derived from Classical Arabic, based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed by Arabic grammarians beginning in the 8th century.
was a writer, poet and visual artist; he is best known as the author of The Prophet, has since become one of the best-selling books of all time, having been translated into more than 100 languages]]
A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj or rhymed prose. The ghazal or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit. In the Sufi tradition the love poem would take on a wider, mystical and religious importance.
Arabic epic literature was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so. Maqama or rhymed prose is intermediate between poetry and prose, and also between fiction and non-fiction. Maqama was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Arabic literature and culture declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit of Turkish and Persian. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongside resistance against Ottoman rule. The literary revival is known as al-Nahda in Arabic, and was centered in Egypt and Lebanon. Two distinct trends can be found in the nahda period of revival.
The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the maqama—and works like One Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic. A tradition of modern Arabic poetry was established by writers such as Francis Marrash, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim. Iraqi poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab is considered to be the originator of free verse in Arabic poetry. Cuisine
s in Petra, Jordan]]
Arab cuisine is largely divided into Khaleeji cuisine, Levantine cuisine and Maghrebi cuisine. Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, including Ottoman, Persian, and Andalusian.
It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, including cumin, coriander, cinnamon, sumac, za'atar, cardamom, mint, saffron, sesame, thyme turmeric and parsley. Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such as Knafeh, Baklava, Halva, and Qatayef. Arabic coffee, or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates.Art
Arabic art has taken various forms, including, among other things, jewelry, textiles and architecture. Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorful Arabic calligraphy, with one notable and widely used example being Kufic script. Arabic miniatures (Arabic: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة, Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are small paintings on paper, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several Arab caliphates.
Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the Ottoman occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (Persian miniatures, Ottoman miniatures and Mughal miniatures) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.
Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early Umayyad Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include Ismail al-Jazari, who illustrated his own Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.
The Abbasid artist, Yahya Al-Wasiti, who probably lived in Baghdad in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the book Maqamat (also known as the Assemblies or the Sessions''), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by Al-Hariri of Basra. The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world., 11th–12th century, Egypt]]
With most surviving Arabic manuscripts in western museums, Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture. Arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems". It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.Architecture
The Arab world is home to around 8% of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states). The oldest examples of architecture include those of pre-Islamic Arabia, as well as Nabataean architecture that developed in the ancient kingdom of the Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of the Middle East from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city of Petra, which is located in modern-day Jordan, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.
Prior to the start of the Arab conquests, Arab tribal client states, the Lakhmids and Ghassanids, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both. They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.
The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls. Music
was an Arab singer, songwriter, and film actress (1920s–1970s). She has been named among the "200 Greatest Singers of All Time".]]
Arabic music, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today. Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE. Arab poets of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes. It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.
A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the Oud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from the Maghreb rebab, the guitar from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian Tar, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal, the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments, the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe), the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna, the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya, geige (violin) from ghichak, and the theorbo from the tarab.
During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artists Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, and Shadia along with composers Mohamed Abd al-Wahab and Baligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Lydia Canaan, musical pioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of the Middle East
Spirituality
, al-Lat and the dedicator. Palmyrene, 2nd–3rd century CE.]]
Arab polytheism was the dominant religion in pre-Islamic Arabia. Gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-'Uzzá and Manāt, were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion. Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them. Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions. Although significant Jewish and Christian minorities developed, polytheism remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.
The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic bedouin were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as Mecca. Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included fetishism, totemism and veneration of the dead but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger philosophical questions such as the afterlife.
Most notable Arab gods and goddesses: 'Amm, A'ra, Abgal, Allah, Al-Lat, Al-Qaum, Almaqah, Anbay, ʿAṯtar, Basamum, Dhu l-Khalasa, Dushara, Haukim, Hubal, Isāf and Nā'ila, Manaf, Manāt, Nasr, Nuha, Quzah, Ruda, Sa'd, Shams, Samas, Syn, Suwa', Ta'lab, Theandrios, al-'Uzzá, Wadd, Ya'uq, Yaghūth, Yatha, Aglibol, Astarte, Atargatis, Baalshamin, Bēl, Bes, Ēl, Ilāh, Inanna/Ishtar, Malakbel, Nabū, Nebo, Nergal, Yarhibol.
Philosophy
The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic Philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought include Avicennism and Averroism. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to be al-Kindi (801–873 A.D.), a Neo-Platonic philosopher, mathematician and scientist who lived in Kufa and Baghdad (modern day Iraq). After being appointed by the Abbasid Caliphs to translate Greek scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic, he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from metaphysics and ethics to mathematics and pharmacology.
Much of his philosophical output focuses on theological subjects such as the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medieval Scholasticism in Europe. The Arabic tradition combines Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabs al-Farabi and Avicenna. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed by Moses Maimonides and Ibn Khaldun.
Science
's Selenographia, showing Alhazen representing reason, and Galileo representing the senses.]]
Arabic science underwent considerable development during the Middle Ages (8th to 13th centuries CE), a source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was Arabic. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the Muslim world. These accomplishments occurred after Muhammad united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.
Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to North Africa to Central Asia and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; al-Andalus was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in Baghdad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the Islamic world during a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (~750 to 1258 CE).
This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945, and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates. The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the ulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields of Sharia law, speculative thought and theology. Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large. These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
from the Maqamat of Al-Hariri manuscript.]]
Al-Battani was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the Islamic Golden Age. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off. In mathematics, al-Battānī produced a number of trigonometrical relationships. His surgical treatise "De chirurgia" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years. The book helped lay the foundation to establish surgery as a scientific discipline independent from medicine, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.
Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of organic chemistry by Jābir ibn Hayyān, establishing the science of cryptology and cryptanalysis by al-Kindi, the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham, who has been described as the "world's first true scientist", the discovery of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn al-Nafis, the discovery of the itch mite parasite by Ibn Zuhr, the first use of irrational numbers as an algebraic objects by Abū Kāmil, the first use of the positional decimal fractions by al-Uqlidisi, the development of the Arabic numerals and an early algebraic symbolism in the Maghreb, the Thabit number and Thābit theorem by Thābit ibn Qurra, the discovery of several new trigonometric identities by Ibn Yunus and al-Battani, the mathematical proof for Ceva's theorem by Ibn Hűd, the invention of the equatorium by al-Zarqali, the discovery of the physical reaction by Avempace, the identification of more than 200 new plants by Ibn al-Baitar the Arab Agricultural Revolution, and the Tabula Rogeriana, which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by al-Idrisi.
Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the University of Al Quaraouiyine, Al Azhar University, and Al Zaytuna University are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by Fatima al Fihri in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fez is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.
There are many scientific Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French. This includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, alcohol, alkali, cipher, zenith, etc.
Under Ottoman rule, cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include Ahmed Zewail and Elias Corey (Nobel Prize), Michael DeBakey and Alim Benabid (Lasker Award), Omar M. Yaghi (Wolf Prize), Huda Zoghbi (Shaw Prize), Zaha Hadid (Pritzker Prize), and Michael Atiyah (both Fields Medal and Abel Prize). Rachid Yazami was one of the co-inventors of the lithium-ion battery, and Tony Fadell was important in the development of the iPod and the iPhone.
Theatre
, (1898–1982) was a prominent Arab playwright, actor, and director who played a major role in shaping modern Arab theatre.]]
Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancient Arabic poetry and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In the early Arabic period, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.
During the Islamic Golden Age in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of Baghdad emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.
Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role of women in Arab society, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture. Fashion
cushions. From top left, clockwise: Gaza, Ramallah, Ramallah, Nablus, Beit Jalla, Bethlehem.]]
Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxurious fabrics and intricate embroidery. Traditional garments, such as the Abaya and Thobe, are often made from high-quality fabrics like silk, satin, brocade, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading. In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers like Elie Saab, Zuhair Murad, and Reem Acra showcasing their designs on international runways.
These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometric patterns, calligraphy, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries. Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and the arabesque, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.
Wedding and marriage
tattoo in Morocco]]
Arabic weddings have changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-day Bedouin weddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice of marrying of relatives is a common feature of Arab culture.
In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages are consanguineous or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations. In Egypt, around 40% of the population marry a cousin. A 1992 survey in Jordan found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives. 67% of marriages in Saudi Arabia are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in Kuwait, whereas 18% of all Lebanese were between blood relatives. Due to the actions of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in Islam and the Quran itself does not discourage or forbid the practice. Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the phenomenon should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between Christian Arabs or Muslim Arabs when comparing the occurrence of consanguinity. Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist across northeastern Africa with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along the Nile river valley across Sudan and South Sudan the more they go south. This genetic cline of admixture is dated to the time of Arab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb and northeast Africa. According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established by Out of Africa migrations. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.
See also
* Arab Union
* Arab world
* Lists of Arab companies
* North African Arabs
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
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* |doi-accessfree}}
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* (2 volumes)
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* Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. .
*
* Lipinski, Edward. Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar, 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001
* Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh University Press (1997)
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01663a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906045819/http://www.paklinks.com/gs/archive/index.php/t-4130.html History of Arabic language](1894), Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd.
* The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006)
*
* Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University.
* Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" p. 57
*
*
*
Further reading
* Price-Jones, David. The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p.
* Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000. .
*
External links
* [http://www.lasportal.org/Pages/Welcome.aspx www.LasPortal.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161202074825/http://arabculturefund.org/home/index.php ArabCultureFund AFAC] (archived 2 December 2016)
Category:Semitic-speaking peoples
Category:Ancient peoples of the Near East
Category:Ethnic groups in Africa
Category:Ethnic groups in North Africa
Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East
Category:Muslim communities in Africa
Category:Muslim communities in Asia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.125178 |
2186 | Armadillo | <small>Late Paleocene – Recent</small>
| image = File:Nine-banded Armadillo.jpg
| image_caption | image2 Pink Fairy Armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus) (cropped).jpg
| image2_caption = From top to bottom: nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), pink fairy armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus)
| parent = Cingulata
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = *Chlamyphoridae
**Chlamyphorinae
**Euphractinae
**Tolypeutinae
**Glyptodontinae
**Pampatheriinae
*Dasypodidae
}}
skeleton.]]
skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology]]
Armadillos () are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata. They form part of the superorder Xenarthra, along with the anteaters and sloths. 21 extant species of armadillo have been described, some of which are distinguished by the number of bands on their armor. All species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of environments.
Living armadillos are characterized by a leathery armor shell and long, sharp claws for digging. They have short legs, but can move quite quickly. The average length of an armadillo is about , including its tail. The giant armadillo grows up to and weighs up to , while the pink fairy armadillo has a length of only . When threatened by a predator, Tolypeutes species frequently roll up into a ball; they are the only species of armadillo capable of this.
Recent genetic research has shown that the megafaunal glyptodonts (up to tall with maximum body masses of around 2 tonnes), which became extinct around 12,000 years ago are true armadillos more closely related to all other living armadillos than to Dasypus (the long-nosed or naked-tailed armadillos). Armadillos are currently classified into two families, Dasypodidae, with Dasypus as the only living genus, and Chlamyphoridae, which contains all other living armadillos as well as the glyptodonts.EtymologyThe word means in Spanish; it is derived from , with the diminutive suffix attached. While the phrase little armored one would translate to normally, the suffix can be used in place of when the diminutive is used in an approximative tense. The Aztecs called them , Nahuatl for : and . The Portuguese word for is which is derived from the Tupi language and ; and used in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay; similar names are also found in other, especially European, languages.
Other various vernacular names given are:
* (from ) in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and Peru;
* (from Nahuatl) in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua;
* in Argentina and Uruguay;
* in Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Uruguay;
* in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Paraguay;
* in Colombia and Venezuela
* in Tolima, Caldas and Antioquia, Colombia;
* in Caribbean Colombia;
* in southeast Mexico;
* in the state of Veracruz, Mexico;
* in Perú.
Classification
Family Dasypodidae
* Subfamily Dasypodinae
** Genus Dasypus
***Nine-banded armadillo or long-nosed armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus
***Seven-banded armadillo, Dasypus septemcinctus
***Southern long-nosed armadillo, Dasypus hybridus
***Llanos long-nosed armadillo, Dasypus sabanicola
***Greater long-nosed armadillo, Dasypus kappleri
***Hairy long-nosed armadillo, Dasypus pilosus
***Yepes's mulita, Dasypus yepesi
***†Beautiful armadillo, Dasypus bellus
***†Dasypus neogaeus
** Genus †Stegotherium
Family Chlamyphoridae
* Subfamily Chlamyphorinae
** Genus Calyptophractus
*** Greater fairy armadillo, Calyptophractus retusus
** Genus Chlamyphorus
***Pink fairy armadillo, Chlamyphorus truncatus
* Subfamily Euphractinae
** Genus Chaetophractus ]]
***Screaming hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus vellerosus
***Big hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus villosus
***Andean hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus nationi
**Genus †Macroeuphractus
**Genus †Paleuphractus
**Genus †Proeuphractus
**Genus †Doellotatus
**Genus †Peltephilus
*** †Horned armadillo, Peltephilus ferox
** Genus Euphractus
***Six-banded armadillo, Euphractus sexcinctus
** Genus Zaedyus
***Pichi, Zaedyus pichiy
* Subfamily Tolypeutinae
** Genus †Kuntinaru The dagger symbol, "†", denotes extinct groups.
}}
|label2=Pilosa
|2=
|label2=Folivora
|2=
}}
|2= }} }} }} }} }}EvolutionRecent genetic research suggests that an extinct group of giant armored mammals, the glyptodonts, should be included within the lineage of armadillos, having diverged some 35 million years ago, more recently than previously assumed.DistributionLike all of the Xenarthra lineages, armadillos originated in South America. Due to the continent's former isolation, they were confined there for most of the Cenozoic. The recent formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed a few members of the family to migrate northward into southern North America by the early Pleistocene, as part of the Great American Interchange.
Characteristics
Size
The smallest species of armadillo, the pink fairy armadillo, weighs around and is in total length. The largest species, the giant armadillo, can weigh up to , and can be long. The scutes are held together by collagen fibres that can contract to curve following the armadillo's body shape. The skin of an armadillo can glow under ultraviolet light.
Most species have rigid shields over the shoulders and hips, with a number of bands separated by flexible skin covering the back and flanks. Additional armor covers the top of the head, the upper parts of the limbs, and the tail. The underside of the animal is never armored and is simply covered with soft skin and fur. Humans can acquire a leprosy infection from armadillos by handling them or consuming armadillo meat. Armadillos are a presumed vector and natural reservoir for the disease in Texas, Louisiana and Florida. Wildlife enthusiasts are using the northward march of the armadillo as an opportunity to educate others about the animals, which can be a burrowing nuisance to property owners and managers.
A whimsical account of The Beginning of the Armadillos is one of the chapters of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories 1902 children's book. The vocal and piano duo Flanders and Swann recorded a humorous song called "The Armadillo".
Shel Silverstein wrote a two-line poem called "Instructions" on how to bathe an armadillo in his collection A Light in the Attic. The reference was "use one bar of soap, a whole lot of hope, and 72 pads of Brillo."
See also
* Armadillo shoe
* Echidnas, a type of monotreme with a defensive keratin body covering
* Hedgehogs, another mammal group with defensive keratin body coverings
* Pangolins, another mammal group with defensive keratin body coverings
* Porcupines, another mammal group with defensive keratin body coverings
References
Further reading
*
*External links
*
* [http://armadillo-online.org/index.html "Armadillo online" website] hosted by [http://armadillo-online.org/me.html zoologist Dr. Joshua Nixon]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070309063838/http://seabed.nationalgeographic.com/splat_ngx_pathfinder/templates/output/articles/gallery.tmpl?DB_NUM_PARAMS2&DB_PARAM_00503&DB_PARAM_1=2 Photographs of armadillo rolling into a ball]
Category:Armadillos
Category:Cingulata
Category:Extant Thanetian first appearances
Category:Mammal common names
Category:Rolling animals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.154429 |
2187 | Antisemitism in the Arab world | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
<!--Note. If you intend to insert something to the effect: Arabs view this term as oxymoronic, as they themselves are semites - Please read the section #Usage first.-->
Antisemitism (prejudice against and hatred of Jews) has increased greatly in the Arab world since the beginning of the 20th century, for several reasons: the dissolution and breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; European influence, brought about by Western imperialism and Arab Christians; Nazi propaganda and relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world; resentment over Jewish nationalism;
Traditionally, Jews in the Muslim world were considered to be People of the Book and were subjected to dhimmi status. They were afforded relative security against persecution, provided they did not contest the varying inferior social and legal status imposed on them under Islamic rule.
While there were antisemitic incidents before the 20th century, during this time antisemitism in the Arab world increased greatly. During the 1930s and the 1940s several Jewish communities in the Arab world suffered from pogroms. However, by the mid-1970s the vast majority of Jews had left Arab and Muslim countries, moving primarily to Israel, France, and the United States. The reasons for the exodus are varied and disputed. The rise of political Islam during the 1980s and afterwards provided a new mutation of Islamic antisemitism, giving the hatred of Jews a religious component. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League published a global survey of worldwide antisemitic attitudes, reporting that in the Middle East, 74% of adults agreed with a majority of the survey's eleven antisemitic propositions, including that "Jews have too much power in international financial markets" and that "Jews are responsible for most of the world's wars."Medieval times
Jews, along with Christians, Sabians, and Zoroastrians living under early and medieval Muslim rule were known as "People of the Book" to Muslims and subjected to the status of dhimmi ("protected" minority) in the lands conquered by Muslim Arabs, a status generally applied to Non-Muslim minorities that was later also extended to other Non-Muslims like Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. Jews were generally seen as a religious group (not a separate race), thus being a part of the "Arab family".
Dhimmi were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which varied with time and place. Restrictions included residency in segregated quarters, obligation to wear distinctive clothing, public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and against marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal system (the testimony of a Jew did not count if contradicted by that of a Muslim). Dhimmi had to pay a special poll tax (the jizya), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the zakat alms tax required of Muslims. In return, dhimmi were granted limited rights, including a degree of tolerance, community autonomy in personal matters, and protection from being killed outright. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim rulers.
The situation of Jews was comparatively better than their European counterparts, though they still suffered persecution. Between the years of death of Idris I of Morocco in 793 and beginning of Almohad rule in 1130, Jews mostly led a peaceful existence in North Africa. The Almohads started forcing Jews and Christians to convert to Islam or be killed after conquering the region. There were also numerous massacres at other times in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria.
The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:
<blockquote>It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.
</blockquote>
Views in modernity
Some scholars hold that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized"), Mark Cohen states. According to Bernard Lewis:
Pre-state antisemitism
While Arab antisemitism has increased in the wake of the Arab–Israeli conflict, there were pogroms against Jews prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, including Nazi-inspired pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and attacks on the Jews of Iraq and Libya in the 1940s. In 1941, 180 Jews were murdered and 700 were injured in the anti-Jewish riots known as "the Farhud". Four hundred Jews were injured in violent demonstrations in Egypt in 1945 and Jewish property was vandalized and looted. In Libya, 130 Jews were killed and 266 injured. In December 1947, 13 Jews were killed in Damascus, including 8 children, and 26 were injured. In Aleppo, rioting resulted in dozens of Jewish casualties, damage to 150 Jewish homes, and the torching of 5 schools and 10 synagogues. In Yemen, 97 Jews were murdered and 120 injured. In March 1921, Musa Khazem El Husseini, Mayor of Jerusalem, told Winston Churchill "The Jews have been amongst the most active advocates of destruction in many lands. ... It is well known that the disintegration of Russia was wholly or in great part brought about by the Jews, and a large proportion of the defeat of Germany and Austria must also be put at their door."
Matthias Küntzel has suggested that the decisive transfer of Jewish conspiracy theory took place between 1937 and 1945 under the impact of Nazi propaganda targeted at the Arab world. According to Kuntzel, the Nazi Arabic radio service had a staff of 80 and broadcast every day in Arabic, stressing the similarities between Islam and Nazism and supported by the activities of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini (who broadcast pro-Nazi propaganda from Berlin). </blockquote>
, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the chairman of the Supreme Islamic Council meeting with Adolf Hitler (December 1941)]]
George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the Arab world to the defeat and breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; domination by Western colonial powers under which Jews gained a disproportionately large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of Arab nationalism, whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular Arab regimes to scapegoat local Jews for political purposes.
After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Palestinian exodus, the creation of the state of Israel, and the independence of Arab countries from European control, conditions for Jews in the Arab world deteriorated. Over the next few decades, almost all would flee the Arab world, some willingly, and some under threat (see Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries). In 1945 there were between 758,000 and 866,000 Jews (see table below) living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,000. In some Arab states, such as Libya (which was once around 3% Jewish), the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain.
Harvard University Professor Ruth R. Wisse claims that "anti-Semitism / Zionism has been the cornerstone of pan-Arab politics since the Second World War" and that it is the "strongest actual and potential source of unity" in the Arab world. This is because Jews and Israel function as substitutes for Western values that challenge the hegemony of religious and political power in the Middle East. Antisemitism is also malleable enough that it can unite right-wing and left-wing groups within the Arab world.
Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".Contemporary attitudesIsraeli Arabs
In 2003, Israeli-Arab Raed Salah, the leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel published the following poem in the Islamic Movement's periodical:
<blockquote>
You Jews are criminal bombers of mosques,<br />
Slaughterers of pregnant women and babies.<br />
Robbers and germs in all times,<br />
The Creator sentenced you to be loser monkeys,<br />
Victory belongs to Muslims, from the Nile to the Euphrates.
</blockquote>
During a speech in 2007, Salah accused Jews of using children's blood to bake bread. "We have never allowed ourselves to knead [the dough for] the bread that breaks the fast in the holy month of Ramadan with children's blood," he said. "Whoever wants a more thorough explanation, let him ask what used to happen to some children in Europe, whose blood was mixed in with the dough of the [Jewish] holy bread."
Kamal Khatib, deputy leader of the northern branch of the Islamic movement, referred in one of his speeches to the Jews as "fleas".
Of all groups surveyed, a 2010 Pew Research global poll found that Israeli Arabs have the lowest rate of anti-Jewish attitudes in the Middle East.
Egypt
Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Mahdi Akef has denounced what he called "the myth of the Holocaust" in defending Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's denial of it.
The Egyptian government-run newspaper, Al Akhbar, on April 29, 2002, published an editorial denying the Holocaust as a fraud. The next paragraph decries the failure of the Holocaust to eliminate all of the Jews:
<blockquote>
With regard to the fraud of the Holocaust. ... Many French studies have proven that this is no more than a fabrication, a lie, and a fraud!! That is, it is a 'scenario' the plot of which was carefully tailored, using several faked photos completely unconnected to the truth. Yes, it is a film, no more and no less. Hitler himself, whom they accuse of Nazism, is in my eyes no more than a modest 'pupil' in the world of murder and bloodshed. He is completely innocent of the charge of frying them in the hell of his false Holocaust!!
The entire matter, as many French and British scientists and researchers have proven, is nothing more than a huge Israeli plot aimed at extorting the German government in particular and the European countries in general. But I, personally and in light of this imaginary tale, complain to Hitler, even saying to him from the bottom of my heart, 'If only you had done it, brother, if only it had really happened, so that the world could sigh in relief [without] their evil and sin.'</blockquote>
In an article in October 2000 columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in the state-owned Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram that Jews made Matza from the blood of (non-Jewish) children. Mohammed Salmawy, editor of Al-Ahram Hebdo, "defended the use of old European myths like the blood libel" in his newspapers.
In August 2010, Saudi columnist Iman Al-Quwaifli sharply criticized the "phenomenon of sympathy for Adolf Hitler and for Nazism in the Arab world",
In an October 2012 sermon broadcast on Egyptian Channel 1 (which was attended by Egyptian President Muhammad Morsi) Futouh Abd Al-Nabi Mansour, the Head of Religious Endowment of the Matrouh Governorate, prayed (as translated by MEMRI):
In 2001–2002, Arab Radio and Television produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled Horseman Without a Horse, starring prominent Egyptian actor Mohamed Sobhi, which contains dramatizations of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The United States and Israel criticized Egypt for airing the program, which includes racist falsehoods that have a history of being used "as a pretext for persecuting Jews".
Jordan
Jordan does not allow entry to Jews with visible signs of Judaism or even with personal religious items in their possession. The Jordanian ambassador to Israel replied to a complaint by a religious Jew denied entry that security concerns required that travelers entering the Hashemite Kingdom not do so with prayer shawls (Tallit) and phylacteries (Tefillin). Jordanian authorities state that the policy is in order to ensure the Jewish tourists' safety.
In July 2009, six Breslov Hasidim were deported after attempting entry into Jordan in order to visit the tomb of Aaron / Sheikh Harun on Mount Hor, near Petra, because of an alert from the Ministry of Tourism. The group had taken a ferry from Sinai, Egypt because they understood that Jordanian authorities were making it hard for visible Jews to enter from Israel. The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs is aware of the issue.Saudi Arabia
Hostility toward Jews is common in Saudi Arabian media, religious sermons, school curriculum, and official government policy.
Indoctrination against Jews is a part of school curriculum in Saudi Arabia. Children are advised not to befriend Jews, are given false information about them (such as the claim that Jews worship the Devil), and are encouraged to engage in jihad against Jews.
Conspiracy theories about Jews are widely disseminated in Saudi Arabian state-controlled media.
According to the U.S. State Department, religious freedom "does not exist" in Saudi Arabia, and therefore, Jews may not freely practice their religion.
Syria
On March 2, 1974, the bodies of four Syrian Jewish women were discovered by border police in a cave in the Zabdani Mountains northwest of Damascus. Fara Zeibak (24), her sisters Lulu Zeibak (23), Mazal Zeibak (22) and their cousin Eva Saad (18), had contracted with a band of smugglers to flee Syria to Lebanon and eventually to Israel. The girls' bodies were found raped, murdered and mutilated. The police also found the remains of two Jewish boys, Natan Shaya (18) and Kassem Abadi (20), victims of an earlier massacre. Syrian authorities deposited the bodies of all six in sacks before the homes of their parents in the Jewish ghetto in Damascus.
In 1984 Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass published a book called The Matzah of Zion, which claimed that Jews had killed Christian children in Damascus to make Matzas (see Damascus affair). His book inspired the Egyptian TV series Horseman Without a Horse (see ) and a spinoff, The Diaspora, which led to Hezbollah's al-Manar being banned in Europe for broadcasting it.
Former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke visited Syria in November 2005 and made a speech that was broadcast live on Syrian television.TunisiaThe history of the Jews in Tunisia goes back to Roman times. Before 1948, the Jewish population of Tunisia reached a peak of 110,000. Today it has a Jewish community of less than 2,000 people. Antisemitism in Vichy-era Tunisia was deeply intertwined with colonial politics and Mediterranean rivalries. Following France's 1940 defeat, the Vichy government implemented antisemitic laws in Tunisia, targeting the region's diverse Jewish community of Tunisian, French, and Italian nationals. These laws, aimed at economic aryanization and exclusion of Jews from public life, were also tools for consolidating French colonial authority. However, enforcement was inconsistent, as colonial officials sought to avoid destabilising the economy or provoking intervention from Fascist Italy, which used its Jewish population to maintain influence. Rather than reflecting ethical restraint, this caution highlighted the tension between antisemitic ideology and pragmatic efforts to safeguard French control amid geopolitical competition and wartime pressures.
For a personal account of the discrimination and physical attacks experienced by Jews in Tunisia the Jewish-Arab anti-colonialist writer Albert Memmi wrote:
<blockquote>
At each crisis, with every incident of the slightest importance, the mob would go wild, setting fire to Jewish shops. This even happened during the Yom Kippur War. Tunisia's President, Habib Bourguiba, has in all probability never been hostile to the Jews, but there was always that notorious "delay", which meant that the police arrived on the scene only after the shops had been pillaged and burnt. Is it any wonder that the exodus to France and Israel continued and even increased?
</blockquote>
On November 30, 2012, prominent Tunisian imam Sheikh Ahmad Al-Suhayli of Radès, told his followers during a live broadcast on Hannibal TV that "God wants to destroy this [Tunisian] sprinkling of Jews and is sterilizing the wombs of Jewish women." This was the fourth time incitement against Jews has been reported in the public sphere since the overthrow of Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in 2011, thus prompting Jewish community leaders to demand security protection from the Tunisian government.
On January 18, 2021, Tunisian president Kais Saied was caught on video telling a crowd that "We know very well who the people are who are controlling the country today. It is the Jews who are doing the stealing, and we need to put an end to it." Saied's office responded that the president's words had been misheard and that he meant to say something else instead of Jews. Two days later, Saied publicly apologized for his statements, holding a phone call with Djerba's chief rabbi, Haim Bitan in which he expressed regret for his statements.
The El Ghriba Synagogue in Djerba has twice been the target of terrorist atrocities: in 2002 an al-Qaeda suicide bomber killed 20 and injured dozens more, while in 2023 a lone gunman killed two worshippers and two police and injured several others.Palestinian territories
s next to Palestinian flags in Huwara]]
Hamas, an offshoot of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, has a foundational statement of principles, or "covenant" that claims that the French revolution, the Russian revolution, colonialism and both world wars were created by the Zionists. It also claims the Freemasons and Rotary clubs are Zionist fronts and refers to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
Claims that Jews and Freemasons were behind the French Revolution originated in Germany in the mid-19th century.
Mahmoud Abbas, leader of the PLO, published a Ph.D. thesis (at Moscow University) in 1982, called The Secret Connection between the Nazis and the Leaders of the Zionist Movement.
His doctoral thesis later became a book, The Other Side: the Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism, which, following his appointment as Palestinian Prime Minister in 2003, was heavily criticized as an example of Holocaust denial. In his book, Abbas wrote:
<blockquote>
It seems that the interest of the Zionist movement, however, is to inflate this figure [of Holocaust deaths] so that their gains will be greater. This led them to emphasize this figure [six million] in order to gain the solidarity of international public opinion with Zionism. Many scholars have debated the figure of six million and reached stunning conclusions—fixing the number of Jewish victims at only a few hundred thousand.
</blockquote>
Lebanon
Hezbollah's Al-Manar TV channel has often been accused of airing antisemitic broadcasts, blaming the Jews for a Zionist conspiracy against the Arab world, and often airing excerpts from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion,
Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called The Diaspora, which is based on historical antisemitic allegations. BBC reporters who watched the series said that: <blockquote> Correspondents who have viewed The Diaspora note that it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious 19th-century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred. </blockquote>
In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to "Zionist attempts to transmit AIDS to Arab countries". Al-Manar officials deny broadcasting antisemitic incitement and state that their position is anti-Israeli, not antisemitic. However, Hezbollah has directed strong rhetoric both against Israel and Jews, and it has cooperated in publishing and distributing outright antisemitic literature. The government of Lebanon has not criticized continued broadcast of antisemitic material on television.
Due to protests by the CRIF umbrella group of French Jews regarding allegations of antisemitic content, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin called for a ban on Al-Manar broadcasting in France on December 2, 2004, just two weeks after al-Manar was authorised to continue broadcasting in Europe by France's media watchdog agency. On December 13, 2004, France's highest administrative court banned Hizbullah's Al-Manar TV station on the grounds that it consistently incites racial hatred and antisemitism.
Yemen
The 1940s and the establishment of Israel saw rapid emigration of Jews out of Yemen, in the wake of anti-Jewish riots and massacres. By the late 1990s, only several hundred remained, mainly in a northwestern mountainous region named Sa'ada and town of Raida. Houthi members put up notes on the Jews' doors, accusing them of corrupting Muslim morals. Eventually, the Houthi leaders sent threatening messages to the Jewish community: "We warn you to leave the area immediately.... We give you a period of 10 days, or you will regret it."
On 28 March 2021, 13 Jews were forced by the Houthis to leave Yemen, leaving four elderly Jews the only Jews still in Yemen.
Opinion polling
In 2008, a Pew Research Center survey found that negative views concerning Jews were most common in the three predominantly Arab nations polled, with 97% of Lebanese having unfavorable opinion of Jews, 95% in Egypt, and 96% in Jordan.
See also
* Contemporary imprints of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
* Covenant of Umar I
* Dhimmi
* Islam and antisemitism
* Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands
* Jizya
* Mellah
* Pact of Umar II
* Qutbism
* Racism in the Arab world
Notes
ReferencesBibliography
* Bostom, Andrew G. The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism: From Sacred texts to Solemn History. Prometheus Books. 2008.
* Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society.
*
* Levy, Richard S., ed. Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution (Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO, 2005) pp 30–33.
* Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and anti-Semites.
* Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006.
* Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House.
*
* Segev, Tom. One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate. Trans. Haim Watzman. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001.
*
*
* Wistrich, Robert S. ''Hitler's Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 1985.
* Wistrich, Robert S. A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad''. Random House. 2010.
External links
<!-- Do not simply keep adding links onto the list. Wikipedia is not a repository of links. Read "WP: External links" first. -->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021126072641/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw98-9/arab.html Arab Anti-Semitism in 1998/99] – summary of Arab antisemitism, by the University of Tel Aviv
* [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:S.RES.366: S.RES.366] Urging the Government of Egypt and other Arab governments not to allow their government-controlled television stations to broadcast any program that lends legitimacy to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and for other purposes. (Passed/agreed to in Senate on November 20, 2002).
* [http://www.memri.org MEMRI] Organization that monitors Middle-Eastern media for antisemitism. See MEMRI.
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Egypt
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Iraq
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Lebanon
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Libya
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Palestine
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Syria
Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Yemen
Category:Arab world
Category:Racism in Africa
Category:Racism in the Middle East
Arab world | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.201618 |
2192 | August 11 | Events
Pre-1600
*3114 BC – The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, used by several pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations, notably the Maya, begins.
*2492 BC – Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation.
*106 – The south-western part of Dacia (modern Romania) becomes a Roman province: Roman Dacia.
*117 – Hadrian is proclaimed Roman emperor, two days after Trajan's death.
* 355 – Claudius Silvanus, accused of treason, proclaims himself Roman Emperor against Constantius II.
* 490 – Battle of Adda: The Goths under Theodoric the Great and his ally Alaric II defeat the forces of Odoacer on the Adda River, near Milan.
* 923 – The Qarmatians of Bahrayn capture and pillage the city of Basra.
*1315 – The Great Famine of Europe becomes so dire that even the king of England has difficulties buying bread for himself and his entourage.
*1332 – Wars of Scottish Independence: Battle of Dupplin Moor: Scots under Domhnall II, Earl of Mar are routed by Edward Balliol.
*1473 – The Battle of Otlukbeli: Mehmed the Conqueror of the Ottoman Empire decisively defeats Uzun Hassan of Aq Qoyunlu.
*1492 – Rodrigo de Borja is elected as Head of the Catholic Church, taking the name Pope Alexander VI.
1601–1900
*1675 – Franco-Dutch War: Forces of the Holy Roman Empire defeat the French in the Battle of Konzer Brücke.
*1685 – Morean War: The 49-day Siege of Coron ends with the surrender and massacre of its garrison by the Venetians.
*1786 – Captain Francis Light establishes the British colony of Penang in Malaysia.
*1804 – Francis II assumes the title of first Emperor of Austria.
*1812 – Peninsular War: French troops engage British-Portuguese forces in the Battle of Majadahonda.
*1813 – In Colombia, Juan del Corral declares the independence of Antioquia.
*1858 – The Eiger in the Bernese Alps is ascended for the first time by Charles Barrington accompanied by Christian Almer and Peter Bohren.
*1871 – An explosion of guncotton occurs in Stowmarket, England, killing 28.
*1898 – Spanish–American War: American troops enter the city of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.
1901–present
*1918 – World War I: The Battle of Amiens ends.
*1919 – Germany's Weimar Constitution is signed into law.
*1920 – The 1920 Cork hunger strike begins which eventually results in the deaths of three Irish Republicans including the Lord Mayor of Cork Terence MacSwiney.
* 1920 – The Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty, which relinquished Russia's authority and pretenses to Latvia, is signed, ending the Latvian War of Independence.
*1929 – Babe Ruth becomes the first baseball player to hit 500 home runs in his career with a home run at League Park in Cleveland, Ohio.
*1934 – The first civilian prisoners arrive at the Federal prison on Alcatraz Island.
*1942 – Actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil receive a patent for a Frequency-hopping spread spectrum communication system that later became the basis for modern technologies in wireless telephones, two-way radio communications, and Wi-Fi.
*1945 – Poles in Kraków engage in a pogrom against Jews in the city, killing one and wounding five.
*1952 – Hussein bin Talal is proclaimed King of Jordan.
*1959 – Sheremetyevo International Airport, the second-largest airport in Russia, opens.
*1960 – Chad declares independence from France.
*1961 – The former Portuguese territories in India of Dadra and Nagar Haveli are merged to create the Union Territory Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
*1962 – Vostok 3 launches from the Baikonur Cosmodrome and cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev becomes the first person to float in microgravity.
*1965 – Race riots (the Watts Riots) begin in the Watts area of Los Angeles, California.
*1969 – The Apollo 11 astronauts are released from a three-week quarantine following their liftoff from the Moon.
*1972 – Vietnam War: The last United States ground combat unit leaves South Vietnam.
*1973 – At the 1520 Sedgwick Avenue apartment building in The Bronx, New York, DJ Kool Herc hosts a house party widely considered to mark the birthplace of hip hop culture and music. DJ Kool Herc demonstrates a new technique of beat juggling and Coke La Rock performs a new style of vocal performance called rapping.
*1975 – East Timor: Governor Mário Lemos Pires of Portuguese Timor abandons the capital Dili, following a coup by the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) and the outbreak of civil war between UDT and Fretilin.
*1979 – Two Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-134s collide over the Ukrainian city of Dniprodzerzhynsk and crash, killing all 178 aboard both airliners.
*1982 – A bomb explodes on Pan Am Flight 830, en route from Tokyo, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii, killing one passenger and injuring 15 others.
*1984 – "We begin bombing in five minutes": United States President Ronald Reagan, while running for re-election, jokes while preparing to make his weekly Saturday address on National Public Radio.
*1988 – A meeting between Sayyed Imam Al-Sharif, Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, and leaders of Egyptian Islamic Jihad in Afghanistan culminates in the formation of Al-Qaeda.
*1991 – Nickelodeon's first line of “Nicktoons” (Doug, Rugrats & Ren & Stimpy) premiere on the channel.
*1992 – The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota opens. At the time the largest shopping mall in the United States.
*2000 – An air rage incident occurs on board Southwest Airlines Flight 1763 when 19-year-old Jonathan Burton attempts to storm the cockpit, but he is subdued by other passengers and dies from his injuries.
*2003 – NATO takes over command of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, marking its first major operation outside Europe in its 54-year-history.
* 2003 – Jemaah Islamiyah leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as Hambali, is arrested in Bangkok, Thailand.
*2006 – The oil tanker MT Solar 1 sinks off the coast of Guimaras and Negros Islands in the Philippines, causing the country's worst oil spill.
*2012 – At least 306 people are killed and 3,000 others injured in a pair of earthquakes near Tabriz, Iran.
*2017 – At least 41 people are killed and another 179 injured after two passenger trains collide in Alexandria, Egypt.
*2023 – Luna 25 launches from the Vostochny Cosmodrome.
Births
Pre-1600
*1086 – Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1125)
*1384 – Yolande of Aragon (d. 1442)
*1472 – Nikolaus von Schönberg, Catholic cardinal (d. 1537)
*1510 – Margaret Paleologa, Sovereign Marchioness of Montferrat (d. 1566)
1601–1900
*1673 – Richard Mead, English physician and astrologer (d. 1754)
*1718 – Frederick Haldimand, Swiss-English general and politician, 22nd Governor of Quebec (d. 1791)
*1722 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (d. 1797)
*1748 – Joseph Schuster, German composer (d. 1812)
*1778 – Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Prussian gymnast, educator, and politician (d. 1852)
*1794 – James B. Longacre, American engraver (d. 1869)
*1807 – David Rice Atchison, American general, lawyer, and politician (d. 1886)
*1808 – William W. Chapman, American lawyer and politician (d. 1892)
*1816 – Frederick Innes, Scottish-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1882)
*1833 – Robert G. Ingersoll, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 1899)
* 1833 – Kido Takayoshi, Japanese samurai and politician (d. 1877)
*1836 – Warren Brown, American historian and politician (d. 1919)
*1837 – Marie François Sadi Carnot, French engineer and politician, 4th President of the French Republic (d. 1894)
*1855 – John Hodges, Australian cricketer (d. 1933)
*1858 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1930)
*1860 – Ottó Bláthy, Hungarian engineer and chess player (d. 1939)
*1870 – Tom Richardson, English cricketer (d. 1912)
*1874 – Princess Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg (d. 1953)
*1877 – Adolph M. Christianson, American lawyer and judge (d. 1954)
*1878 – Oliver W. F. Lodge, English poet and author (d. 1955)
*1881 – Aleksander Aberg, Estonian wrestler (d. 1920)
*1884 – Hermann Wlach, Austrian-Swiss actor (d. 1962)
*1885 – Stephen Butterworth, English physicist and engineer (d. 1958)
*1891 – Stancho Belkovski, Bulgarian architect and educator (d. 1962)
* 1891 – Edgar Zilsel, Austrian historian and philosopher of science, linked to the Vienna Circle (d. 1944)
*1892 – Hugh MacDiarmid, Scottish poet and linguist (d. 1978)
* 1892 – Eiji Yoshikawa, Japanese author (d. 1962)
*1897 – Enid Blyton, English author, poet, and educator (d. 1968)
* 1897 – Louise Bogan, American poet and critic (d. 1970)
*1898 – Peter Mohr Dam, Faroese educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1968)
*1900 – Charley Paddock, American sprinter (d. 1943)
* 1900 – Philip Phillips, American archaeologist and scholar (d. 1994)
1901–present
*1902 – Alfredo Binda, Italian cyclist (d. 1986)
* 1902 – Lloyd Nolan, American actor (d. 1985)
* 1902 – Christian de Castries, French general (d. 1991)
*1905 – Erwin Chargaff, Austrian-American biochemist and academic (d. 2002)
* 1905 – Ernst Jaakson, Estonian diplomat (d. 1998)
*1907 – Ted a'Beckett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1989)
*1908 – Don Freeman, American author and illustrator (d. 1978)
* 1908 – Torgny T:son Segerstedt, Swedish sociologist and philosopher (d. 1999)
*1909 – Yūji Koseki, Japanese composer (d. 1989)
* 1909 – Uku Masing, Estonian philosopher and theologian (d. 1985)
*1911 – Thanom Kittikachorn, Thai field marshal and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Thailand (d. 2004)
*1912 – Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs, German astronomer and academic (d. 1954)
* 1912 – Raphael Blau, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1996)
*1913 – Paul Dupuis, Canadian actor (d. 1976)
* 1913 – Bob Scheffing, American baseball player and manager (d. 1985)
* 1913 – Angus Wilson, English author and academic (d. 1991)
*1915 – Morris Weiss, American author and illustrator (d. 2014)
*1916 – Johnny Claes, English-Belgian race car driver and trumpet player (d. 1956)
*1919 – Luis Olmo, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and manager (d. 2017)
*1920 – Mike Douglas, American singer and talk show host (d. 2006)
* 1920 – Chuck Rayner, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2002)
*1921 – Alex Haley, American historian and author (d. 1992)
*1922 – John "Mule" Miles, American baseball player (d. 2013)
*1923 – Stan Chambers, American journalist and actor (d. 2015)
*1925 – Floyd Curry, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2006)
* 1925 – Arlene Dahl, American actress, businesswoman and writer (d. 2021)
*1926 – Aaron Klug, Lithuanian-English chemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)
*1927 – Raymond Leppard, English harpsichord player and conductor (d. 2019)
* 1927 – Stuart Rosenberg, American director and producer (d. 2007)
*1932 – Fernando Arrabal, Spanish actor, director, and playwright
* 1932 – Izzy Asper, Canadian lawyer, businessman, and politician, founded Canwest (d. 2003)
* 1932 – Geoffrey Cass, English businessman
* 1932 – Peter Eisenman, American architect, designed the City of Culture of Galicia
* 1932 – John Gorrie, English director and screenwriter
*1933 – Jerry Falwell, American minister and television host (d. 2007)
* 1933 – Jerzy Grotowski, Polish director and producer (d. 1999)
* 1933 – Tamás Vásáry, Hungarian pianist and conductor
*1934 – Bob Hepple, South African lawyer and academic (d. 2015)
*1936 – Andre Dubus, American short story writer, essayist, and memoirist (d. 1999)
* 1936 – Bill Monbouquette, American baseball player and coach (d. 2015)
* 1936 – Jonathan Spence, English-American historian and academic (d. 2021)
*1937 – Anna Massey, English actress (d. 2011)
* 1937 – Patrick Joseph McGovern, American businessman, founded International Data Group (d. 2014)
*1939 – James Mancham, first President of Seychelles (d. 2017)
* 1939 – Ronnie Dawson, American singer and guitarist (d. 2003)
*1940 – Glenys Page, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2012)
*1941 – John Ellison, American-Canadian musician and songwriter
*1942 – Mike Hugg, English drummer and keyboard player
* 1942 – Otis Taylor, American football player (d. 2023)
*1943 – Jim Kale, Canadian bass player
* 1943 – Pervez Musharraf, Pakistani general and politician, 10th President of Pakistan (d. 2023)
* 1943 – Denis Payton, English saxophonist (d. 2006)
*1944 – Martin Linton, Swedish-English journalist and politician
* 1944 – Frederick W. Smith, American businessman, founded FedEx
* 1944 – Ian McDiarmid, Scottish actor
*1946 – John Conlee, American singer-songwriter
* 1946 – Marilyn vos Savant, American journalist and author
*1947 – Theo de Jong, Dutch footballer, coach, and manager
* 1947 – Georgios Karatzaferis, Greek journalist and politician
* 1947 – Wilma van den Berg, Dutch sprinter
*1948 – Don Boyd, Scottish director, producer, and screenwriter
*1949 – Eric Carmen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2024)
* 1949 – Tim Hutchinson, American lawyer and politician
* 1949 – Ian Charleson, Scottish-English actor and singer (d. 1990)
*1950 – Erik Brann, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)
* 1950 – Gennadiy Nikonov, Russian engineer, designed the AN-94 rifle (d. 2003)
* 1950 – Steve Wozniak, American computer scientist and programmer, co-founded Apple Inc.
*1952 – Reid Blackburn, American photographer (d. 1980)
* 1952 – Bob Mothersbaugh, American singer, guitarist, and producer
*1953 – Hulk Hogan, American wrestler
* 1953 – Wijda Mazereeuw, Dutch swimmer
*1954 – Bryan Bassett, American guitarist
* 1954 – Vance Heafner, American golfer and coach (d. 2012)
* 1954 – Joe Jackson, English singer-songwriter and musician
* 1954 – Tarmo Rüütli, Estonian footballer, coach, and manager
* 1954 – Yashpal Sharma, Indian cricketer and umpire (d. 2021)
*1955 – Marc Bureau, Canadian politician, 16th Mayor of Gatineau
* 1955 – Sylvia Hermon, Northern Irish academic and politician
*1956 – Pierre-Louis Lions, French mathematician and academic
*1957 – Ian Stuart Donaldson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993)
*1957 – Masayoshi Son, Japanese technology entrepreneur and investor
*1958 – Steven Pokere, New Zealand rugby player
* 1958 – Jah Wobble, English singer-songwriter and bass player
*1959 – Gustavo Cerati, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2014)
* 1959 – Yoshiaki Murakami, Japanese businessman
* 1959 – Taraki Sivaram, Sri Lankan journalist and author (d. 2005)
* 1959 – Richard Scudamore, English businessman
* 1959 – László Szlávics, Jr., Hungarian sculptor
*1961 – David Brooks, American journalist and author
* 1961 – Craig Ehlo, American basketball player and coach
* 1961 – Suniel Shetty, Indian actor and film producer
*1962 – Brian Azzarello, American author
* 1962 – Charles Cecil, English video game designer and co-founded Revolution Software
* 1962 – John Micklethwait, English journalist and author
* 1962 – Rob Minkoff, American director and producer
*1963 – Hiromi Makihara, Japanese baseball player
*1964 – Jim Lee, South Korean-American author and illustrator
* 1964 – Grant Waite, New Zealand golfer
*1965 – Marc Bergevin, Canadian ice hockey player and manager
* 1965 – Embeth Davidtz, American actress
* 1965 – Viola Davis, American actress
*1966 – Nigel Martyn, English footballer and coach
* 1966 – Juan María Solare, Argentinian pianist and composer
*1967 – Massimiliano Allegri, Italian footballer and manager
* 1967 – Enrique Bunbury, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1967 – Joe Rogan, American actor, comedian, and television host
* 1967 – Petter Wettre, Norwegian saxophonist and composer
*1968 – Anna Gunn, American actress
* 1968 – Sophie Okonedo, British actress
* 1968 – Charlie Sexton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1970 – Dirk Hannemann, German footballer and manager
* 1970 – Gianluca Pessotto, Italian footballer
*1971 – Alejandra Barros, Mexican actress and screenwriter
* 1971 – Tommy Mooney, English footballer
*1973 – Kristin Armstrong, American cyclist
*1974 – Marie-France Dubreuil, Canadian figure skater
* 1974 – Hadiqa Kiani, Pakistani singer, songwriter and philanthropist
* 1974 – Audrey Mestre, French biologist and diver (d. 2002)
* 1974 – Carolyn Murphy, American model and actress
*1975 – Chris Cummings, Canadian singer-songwriter
*1976 – Iván Córdoba, Colombian footballer and manager
* 1976 – Bubba Crosby, American baseball player
* 1976 – Will Friedle, American actor and screenwriter
* 1976 – Ben Gibbard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1976 – Ľubomír Višňovský, Slovak ice hockey player
*1977 – Gemma Hayes, Irish singer-songwriter
* 1977 – Dênio Martins, Brazilian footballer
*1978 – Spyros Gogolos, Greek footballer
* 1978 – Charlotte Leslie, British politician
* 1978 – Lillian Nakate, Ugandan politician
* 1978 – Isy Suttie, English comedian, musician, actress, and writer
*1979 – Walter Ayoví, Ecuadorian footballer
*1980 – Daniel Lloyd, English cyclist and sportscaster
* 1980 – Lee Suggs, American football player
*1981 – Daniel Poohl, Swedish journalist
*1982 – Andy Lee, American football player
*1983 – Chris Hemsworth, Australian actor
* 1983 – Luke Lewis, Australian rugby league player
* 1983 – Pavel 183, Russian painter (d. 2013)
*1984 – Mojtaba Abedini, Iranian Olympic fencer
* 1984 – Melky Cabrera, Dominican baseball player
* 1984 – Lucas di Grassi, Brazilian race car driver
*1985 – Jacqueline Fernandez, Bahraini–Sri Lankan actress
* 1985 – Asher Roth, American rapper
*1986 – Mokhtar Benmoussa, Algerian footballer
* 1986 – Hélène Defrance, French sailor
* 1986 – Pablo Sandoval, Venezuelan baseball player
*1987 – Dany N'Guessan, French footballer
* 1987 – Drew Storen, American baseball player
*1988 – Rabeh Al-Hussaini, Filipino basketball player
* 1988 – Patty Mills, Australian basketball player
* 1988 – Mustafa Pektemek, Turkish footballer
*1989 – Junior Heffernan, Irish cyclist and triathlete (d. 2013)
* 1989 – Sebastian Huke, German footballer
*1990 – Lenka Juríková, Slovak tennis player
*1991 – Cristian Tello, Spanish footballer
*1992 – Tomi Lahren, American conservative political commentator
*1993 – Alyson Stoner, American actor, singer, and dancer
*1994 – Storm Sanders, Australian tennis player
* 1994 – Anton Cooper, New Zealand cross-country cyclist
* 1994 – Joseph Barbato, French footballer
* 1994 – Song I-han, South Korean singer
* 1995 – Brad Binder, South African motorcycle racer
*1997 – Sarah Clelland, Scottish footballer
*1999 – Gregoria Mariska Tunjung, Indonesian badminton player
* 1999 – Changbin, South Korean rapper
*2001 – Moyuka Uchijima, Japanese tennis player
*2002 – Marvin Harrison Jr., American football player
<!-- Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 223 – Jia Xu, Chinese politician and strategist (b. 147)
* 353 – Magnentius, Roman usurper (b. 303)
* 449 – Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople
* 632 – Rusticula, abbess of Arles
* 919 – Dhuka al-Rumi, Abbasid governor of Egypt
* 979 – Gero, Count of Alsleben
* 991 – Byrhtnoth, English soldier (b. 956)
*1044 – Sokkate, king of the Pagan dynasty of Burma (b. 1001)
*1204 – Guttorm of Norway (b. 1199)
*1253 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (b. 1194)
*1259 – Möngke Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1208)
*1268 – Agnes of Faucigny, Dame ruler of Faucigny, Countess consort of Savoy
*1332 – Domhnall II, Earl of Mar
* 1332 – Robert II Keith, Marischal of Scotland
* 1332 – Thomas Randolph, 2nd Earl of Moray
* 1332 – Murdoch III, Earl of Menteith
* 1332 – Robert Bruce, Lord of Liddesdale
*1456 – John Hunyadi, Hungarian general and politician (b. 1387)
*1464 – Nicholas of Cusa, German cardinal and mystic (b. 1401)
*1465 – Kettil Karlsson, regent of Sweden and Bishop of Linköping (b. 1433)
*1486 – William Waynflete, English Lord Chancellor and bishop of Winchester (b. c. 1398)
*1494 – Hans Memling, German-Belgian painter (b. 1430)
*1519 – Johann Tetzel, German preacher (b. 1465)
*1556 – John Bell, English bishop
*1563 – Bartolomé de Escobedo, Spanish composer and educator (b. 1500)
*1578 – Pedro Nunes, Portuguese mathematician and academic (b. 1502)
*1596 – Hamnet Shakespeare, son of William Shakespeare (b. 1585)
1601–1900
*1614 – Lavinia Fontana, Italian painter (b. 1552)
*1656 – Ottavio Piccolomini, Austrian-Italian field marshal (b. 1599)
*1725 – Prince Vittorio Amedeo Theodore of Savoy (b. 1723)
*1774 – Charles-François Tiphaigne de la Roche, French physician and author (b. 1722)
*1813 – Henry James Pye, English poet and politician (b. 1745)
*1851 – Lorenz Oken, German botanist, biologist, and ornithologist (b. 1779)
*1854 – Macedonio Melloni, Italian physicist and academic (b. 1798)
*1868 – Halfdan Kjerulf, Norwegian pianist and composer (b. 1815)
*1886 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (b. 1843)
*1890 – John Henry Newman, English cardinal and theologian (b. 1801)
*1892 – Enrico Betti, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1813)
1901–present
*1903 – Eugenio María de Hostos, Puerto Rican-American sociologist, philosopher, and lawyer (b. 1839)
*1908 – Khudiram Bose, Indian Bengali revolutionary (b. 1889)
*1919 – Andrew Carnegie, Scottish-American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Carnegie Steel Company and Carnegie Hall (b. 1835)
*1921 – Mary Sumner, English philanthropist, founded the Mothers' Union (b. 1828)
*1936 – Blas Infante, Spanish historian and politician (b. 1885)
*1937 – Edith Wharton, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1862)
*1939 – Jean Bugatti, German-Italian engineer (b. 1909)
* 1939 – Siegfried Flesch, Austrian fencer (b. 1872)
*1945 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and theater producer (b. 1883)
*1953 – Tazio Nuvolari, Italian race car driver and motorcycle racer (b. 1892)
*1956 – Jackson Pollock, American painter (b. 1912)
*1961 – Antanas Škėma, Lithuanian-American author, playwright, actor, and director (b. 1910)
*1963 – Otto Wahle, Austrian-American swimmer and coach (b. 1879)
*1965 – Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (b. 1897)
*1969 – Miriam Licette, English soprano and educator (b. 1885)
*1972 – Max Theiler, South African-American virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
*1974 – Vicente Emilio Sojo, Venezuelan conductor and composer (b. 1887)
*1977 – Frederic Calland Williams, British co-inventor of the Williams-Kilborn tube, used for memory in early computer systems (b. 1911)
*1978 – Berta Ruck, Indian-born Welsh romance novelist (b. 1878)
*1979 – J. G. Farrell, English author (b. 1935)
*1980 – Paul Robert, French lexicographer and publisher (b. 1910)
*1982 – Tom Drake, American actor and singer (b. 1918)
*1984 – Alfred A. Knopf Sr., American publisher, founded Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. (b. 1892)
* 1984 – Paul Felix Schmidt, Estonian–American chemist and chess player (b. 1916)
*1986 – János Drapál, Hungarian motorcycle racer (b. 1948)
*1988 – Anne Ramsey, American actress (b. 1929)
*1989 – John Meillon, Australian actor (b. 1934)
*1991 – J. D. McDuffie, American race car driver (b. 1938)
*1994 – Peter Cushing, English actor (b. 1913)
*1995 – Phil Harris, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1904)
*1996 – Rafael Kubelík, Czech conductor and composer (b. 1914)
* 1996 – Ambrosio Padilla, Filipino basketball player and politician (b. 1910)
*2000 – Jean Papineau-Couture, Canadian composer and academic (b. 1916)
*2001 – Percy Stallard, English cyclist and coach (b. 1909)
*2002 – Galen Rowell, American photographer and mountaineer (b. 1940)
*2003 – Armand Borel, Swiss-American mathematician and academic (b. 1923)
* 2003 – Herb Brooks, American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1937)
*2006 – Mike Douglas, American singer and talk show host (b. 1920)
*2008 – George Furth, American actor and playwright (b. 1932)
* 2008 – Dursun Karataş, founding leader of the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party–Front (DHKP-C) in Turkey (b. 1952)
*2009 – Eunice Kennedy Shriver, American activist, founded the Special Olympics (b. 1921)
*2010 – James Mourilyan Tanner, British paediatric endocrinologist (b. 1920)
*2012 – Red Bastien, American wrestler, trainer, and promoter (b. 1931)
* 2012 – Michael Dokes, American boxer (b. 1958)
* 2012 – Lucy Gallardo, Argentinian-Mexican actress and screenwriter (b. 1929)
*2013 – Raymond Delisle, French cyclist (b. 1943)
* 2013 – Zafar Futehally, Indian ornithologist and author (b. 1919)
* 2013 – David Howard, English ballet dancer and educator (b. 1937)
*2014 – Vladimir Beara, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1928)
* 2014 – Raymond Gravel, Canadian priest and politician (b. 1952)
* 2014 – Kika Szaszkiewiczowa, Polish author and blogger (b. 1917)
* 2014 – Robin Williams, American actor and comedian (b. 1951)
*2015 – Serge Collot, French viola player and educator (b. 1923)
* 2015 – Harald Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager (b. 1941)
* 2015 – Richard Oriani, Salvadoran-American metallurgist and engineer (b. 1920)
*2017 – Yisrael Kristal, Polish-Israeli supercentenarian; oldest living Holocaust survivor and one of the ten oldest men ever (b. 1903)
* 2017 – Segun Bucknor, Nigerian musician and journalist (b. 1946)
*2018 – V S Naipaul, British writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1932)
*2019 – Sergio Obeso Rivera, Mexican Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1931)
*2020 – Trini Lopez, American singer and guitarist (b. 1937)
* 2020 – Sumner Redstone, American billionaire businessman (b. 1923)
*2022 – Anne Heche, American actress (b. 1969)
* 2022 – Hanae Mori, Japanese fashion designer (b. 1926)
*2023 – Mike Ahern, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Queensland (b. 1942)
*2024 – Ángel Salazar, Cuban-American comedian and actor (b. 1956)
*2024 – Noël Treanor, Irish Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1950)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian Feast Day:
** Athracht
** Clare of Assisi
** Gaugericus
** John Henry Newman (Church of England)
** Philomena
** Susanna
** Taurinus of Évreux
** Tiburtius and Chromatius
** August 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Flag Day (Pakistan)
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Chad from France in 1960.
* Mountain Day (Japan)
References
External links
*
*
*
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_11 | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.243838 |
2193 | Arcology | thumb|upright=1.3|Concept design for the NOAH (New Orleans Arcology Habitat) proposal, designed by E. Kevin Schopfer
Arcology, a portmanteau of "architecture" and "ecology", is a field of creating architectural design principles for very densely populated and ecologically low-impact human habitats.
The term was coined in 1969 by architect Paolo Soleri, who believed that a completed arcology would provide space for a variety of residential, commercial, and agricultural facilities while minimizing individual human environmental impact. These structures have been largely hypothetical, as no large-scale arcology has yet been built.
The concept has been promoted by various science fiction writers. Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle provided a detailed description of an arcology in their 1981 novel Oath of Fealty. William Gibson popularized the term in his seminal 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, where each corporation has its own self-contained city known as an arcology. More recently, authors such as Peter Hamilton in Neutronium Alchemist and Paolo Bacigalupi in The Water Knife explicitly used arcologies as part of their scenarios. They are often portrayed as self-contained or economically self-sufficient.
Development
An arcology is distinguished from a merely large building in that it is designed to lessen the impact of human habitation on any given ecosystem. It could be self-sustainable, employing all or most of its own available resources for a comfortable life: power, climate control, food production, air and water conservation and purification, sewage treatment, etc. An arcology is designed to make it possible to supply those items for a large population. An arcology would supply and maintain its own municipal or urban infrastructures in order to operate and connect with other urban environments apart from its own.
Arcologies were proposed in order to reduce human impact on natural resources. Arcology designs might apply conventional building and civil engineering techniques in very large, but practical projects in order to achieve pedestrian economies of scale that have proven, post-automobile, to be difficult to achieve in other ways.
Frank Lloyd Wright proposed an early version called Broadacre City although, in contrast to an arcology, his idea is comparatively two-dimensional and depends on a road network. Wright's plan described transportation, agriculture, and commerce systems that would support an economy. Critics said that Wright's solution failed to account for population growth, and assumed a more rigid democracy than the US actually has.
thumb|Buckminster Fuller with a drawing of his domed city proposal
Buckminster Fuller proposed the Old Man River's City project, a domed city with a capacity of 125,000, as a solution to the housing problems in East St. Louis, Illinois.
Paolo Soleri proposed later solutions, and coined the term "arcology". Soleri describes ways of compacting city structures in three dimensions to combat two-dimensional urban sprawl, to economize on transportation and other energy uses. Like Wright, Soleri proposed changes in transportation, agriculture, and commerce. Soleri explored reductions in resource consumption and duplication, land reclamation; he also proposed to eliminate most private transportation. He advocated for greater "frugality" and favored greater use of shared social resources, including public transit (and public libraries).
Similar real-world projects
thumb|Arcosanti city
Arcosanti is an experimental "arcology prototype", a demonstration project under construction in central Arizona since 1970. Designed by Paolo Soleri, its primary purpose is to demonstrate Soleri's personal designs, his application of principles of arcology to create a pedestrian-friendly urban form.
Many cities in the world have proposed projects adhering to the design principles of the arcology concept, like Tokyo, and Dongtan near Shanghai. The Dongtan project may have collapsed, and it failed to open for the Shanghai World Expo in 2010. The Ihme-Zentrum in Hanover was an attempt to build a "city within a city".
left|thumb|McMurdo Station
McMurdo Station of the United States Antarctic Program and other scientific research stations on Antarctica resemble the popular conception of an arcology as a technologically advanced, relatively self-sufficient human community. The Antarctic research base provides living and entertainment amenities for roughly 3,000 staff who visit each year. Its remoteness and the measures needed to protect its population from the harsh environment give it an insular character. The station is not self-sufficientthe U.S. military delivers 30,000,000 liters (8,000,000 US gal) of fuel and of supplies and equipment yearly through its Operation Deep Freeze resupply effortbut it is isolated from conventional support networks. Under international treaty, it must avoid damage to the surrounding ecosystem.
thumb|Begich Towers
Begich Towers operates like a small-scale arcology encompassing nearly all of the population of Whittier, Alaska. The building contains residential housing as well as a police station, grocery, and municipal offices.
The Line was planned as a long and wide linear smart city in Saudi Arabia in Neom, Tabuk Province, designed to have no cars, streets or carbon emissions. The Line is planned to be the first development in Neom, a $500 billion project. The city's plans anticipated a population of 9 million. Excavation work had started along the entire length of the project by October 2022. However, the project was scaled down in 2024 to long, housing 300,000 people.
In popular culture
Most proposals to build real arcologies have failed due to financial, structural or conceptual shortcomings. Arcologies are therefore found primarily in fictional works.
In Robert Silverberg's The World Inside, most of the global population of 75 billion live inside giant skyscrapers, called "urbmons", each of which contains hundreds of thousands of people. The urbmons are arranged in "constellations". Each urbmon is divided into "neighborhoods" of 40 or so floors. All the needs of the inhabitants are provided inside the building – food is grown outside and brought into the building – so the idea of going outside is heretical and can be a sign of madness. The book examines human life when the population density is extremely high.
Another significant example is the 1981 novel Oath of Fealty by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, in which a segment of the population of Los Angeles has moved into an arcology. The plot examines the social changes that result, both inside and outside the arcology. Thus the arcology is not just a plot device but a subject of critique.
In the city-building video game SimCity 2000, self-contained arcologies can be built, reducing the infrastructure needs of the city.
The isometric, cyberpunk themed action roleplay game The Ascent takes place in a futuristic dystopian version of an arcology on the alien world Velesand prominently uses the structure and its levels to flesh out progression in the game, starting you in the bottom levels of the sewers with the ultimate goal of reaching the top of the structure to leave the city.
See also
References
Notes
Further reading
Soleri, Paolo. Arcology: The City in the Image of Man. 1969: Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press.
External links
Arcology: The City in the Image of Man by Paolo Soleri (full text online)
Arcology.com – useful links
The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson (full text online)
Victory City
A discussion of arcology concepts
What is an Arcology?
Usage of "arcology" vs. "hyperstructure"
Arcology.com ("An arcology in southern China" on front page)
Arcology ("An arcology is a self-contained environment...")
SculptorsWiki: Arcology ("The only arcology yet on Earth...")
Review of Shadowrun: Renraku Arcology ("What's an arcology? A self-contained, largely self-sufficient living, working, recreational structure...")
Category:Megastructures
Category:Exploratory engineering
Category:Environmental design
Category:Human habitats
Category:Planned communities
Category:Urban studies and planning terminology
Category:Cyberpunk themes
Category:Architecture related to utopias | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcology | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.261114 |
2194 | April 5 | Events
Pre-1600
* 823 – Lothair I is crowned King of Italy by Pope Paschal I.
* 919 – The second Fatimid invasion of Egypt begins, when the Fatimid heir-apparent, al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, sets out from Raqqada at the head of his army.
*1242 – During the Battle on the Ice of Lake Peipus, Russian forces, led by Alexander Nevsky, rebuff an invasion attempt by the Teutonic Knights.
*1536 – Charles V makes a Royal Entry into Rome, demolishing a swath of the city to re-enact a Roman triumph.
*1566 – Two hundred Dutch noblemen, led by Hendrick van Brederode, force themselves into the presence of Margaret of Parma and present the Petition of Compromise, denouncing the Spanish Inquisition in the Seventeen Provinces.
1601–1900
*1614 – In Virginia, Native American Pocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe.
*1621 – The Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth, Massachusetts on a return trip to England.
*1792 – United States President George Washington exercises his authority to veto a bill, the first time this power is used in the United States.
*1795 – Peace of Basel between France and Prussia is made.
*1818 – In the Battle of Maipú, Chile's independence movement, led by Bernardo O'Higgins and José de San Martín, win a decisive victory over Spain, leaving 2,000 Spaniards and 1,000 Chilean patriots dead.
*1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Yorktown begins.
*1879 – Bolivia declares war on Chile, and Chile declares war on Peru, starting the War of the Pacific.
1901–present
*1902 – A stand box collapses at Ibrox Park (now Ibrox Stadium) in Glasgow, Scotland, which led to the deaths of 25 and injuries to more than 500 supporters during an international association football match between Scotland and England.
*1910 – The Transandine Railway connecting Chile and Argentina is inaugurated.
*1922 – The American Birth Control League, forerunner of Planned Parenthood, is incorporated.
*1932 – Dominion of Newfoundland: Ten thousand rioters seize the Colonial Building leading to the end of self-government.
*1933 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs two executive orders: 6101 to establish the Civilian Conservation Corps, and 6102 "forbidding the Hoarding of Gold Coin, Gold Bullion, and Gold Certificates" by U.S. citizens.
* 1933 – Andorran Revolution: The Young Andorrans occupy the Casa de la Vall and force the government to hold democratic elections with universal male suffrage.
*1936 – Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: An F5 tornado kills 233 in Tupelo, Mississippi.
*1938 – Spanish Civil War: Two days after the Nationalist army occupied the Catalan city of Lleida, dictator Francisco Franco decrees the abolition of the Generalitat (the autonomous government of Catalonia), the self-government granted by the Republic, and the official status of the Catalan language.
*1942 – World War II: Adolf Hitler issues Fuhrer Directive No. 41 summarizing Case Blue, including the German Sixth Army's planned assault on Stalingrad.
* 1942 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy launches a carrier-based air attack on Colombo, Ceylon during the Indian Ocean raid. Port and civilian facilities are damaged and the Royal Navy cruisers and are sunk southwest of the island.
*1943 – World War II: United States Army Air Forces bomber aircraft accidentally cause more than 900 civilian deaths, including 209 children, and 1,300 wounded among the civilian population of the Belgian town of Mortsel. Their target was the Erla factory from the residential area hit.
*1945 – Cold War: Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito signs an agreement with the Soviet Union to allow "temporary entry of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory".
*1946 – Soviet troops end their year-long occupation of the Danish island of Bornholm.
* 1946 – A Fleet Air Arm Vickers Wellington crashes into a residential area in Rabat, Malta during a training exercise, killing all 4 crew members and 16 civilians on the ground.
*1949 – A fire in a hospital in Effingham, Illinois, kills 77 people and leads to nationwide fire code improvements in the United States.
*1951 – Cold War: Ethel and Julius Rosenberg are sentenced to death for spying for the Soviet Union.
*1956 – Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro declares himself at war with Cuban President Fulgencio Batista.
*1958 – Ripple Rock, an underwater threat to navigation in the Seymour Narrows in Canada is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear controlled explosions of the time.
*1966 – During the Buddhist Uprising, South Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ personally attempts to lead the capture of the restive city of Đà Nẵng before backing down.
*1971 – In Sri Lanka, Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna launches a revolt against the United Front government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike.
*1974 – Carrie, the first novel by American author Stephen King, is published for the first time with a print run of 30,000 copies.
*1976 – In China, the April Fifth Movement leads to the Tiananmen Incident.
*1977 – The US Supreme Court rules that congressional legislation that diminished the size of the Sioux people's reservation thereby destroyed the tribe's jurisdictional authority over the area in Rosebud Sioux Tribe v. Kneip.
*1983 – The People's Armed Police is officially founded
*1991 – An ASA EMB 120 crashes in Brunswick, Georgia, killing all 23 aboard including Sen. John Tower and astronaut Sonny Carter.
*1991 – The Space shuttle Atlantis launches on STS-37 to deploy the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
*1992 – Alberto Fujimori, president of Peru, dissolves the Peruvian congress by military force.
* 1992 – Peace protesters Suada Dilberovic and Olga Sučić are killed on the Vrbanja Bridge in Sarajevo, becoming the first casualties of the Bosnian War.
*1998 – In Japan, the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge opens to traffic, becoming the longest bridge span in the world.
*1999 – Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988 are handed over for eventual trial in the Netherlands.
*2007 – The cruise ship MS Sea Diamond strikes a volcanic reef near Nea Kameni and sinks the next day. Two passengers were never recovered and are presumed dead.
*2009 – North Korea launches its controversial Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellite. The satellite passed over mainland Japan, which prompted an immediate reaction from the United Nations Security Council, as well as participating states of Six-party talks.
*2010 – Up to 50 people are killed and another 100 injured in two militant suicide bombings and attacks in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan: the first on an Awami National Party rally in Timergara; the second on the U.S. Consulate in Peshawar.
* 2010 – Twenty-nine coal miners are killed in an explosion at the Upper Big Branch Mine in West Virginia.
* 2010 – Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-131 to resupply the International Space Station.
*2018 – Agents with the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement raid a slaughterhouse in Tennessee, detaining nearly 100 undocumented Hispanic workers in one of the largest workplace raids in the history of the United States.
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1170 – Isabella of Hainault (d. 1190)
*1219 – Wonjong of Goryeo, 24th ruler of Goryeo (d. 1274)
*1279 – Al-Nuwayri, Egyptian Muslim historian (d. 1333)
*1288 – Emperor Go-Fushimi of Japan (d. 1336)
*1315 – James III of Majorca (d. 1349)
*1365 – William II, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1417)
*1472 – Bianca Maria Sforza, Italian wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1510)
*1521 – Francesco Laparelli, Italian architect (d. 1570)
*1523 – Blaise de Vigenère, French cryptographer and diplomat (d. 1596)
*1533 – Giulio della Rovere, Italian Catholic Cardinal (d. 1578)
*1539 – George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1603)
*1549 – Princess Elizabeth of Sweden (d. 1597)
*1568 – Pope Urban VIII (d. 1644)
*1588 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher (d. 1679)
*1591 – Frederick Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg (d. 1634)
*1595 – John Wilson, English composer and educator (d. 1674)
1601–1900
*1604 – Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1675)
*1616 – Frederick, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (d. 1661)
*1622 – Vincenzo Viviani, Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. 1703)
*1649 – Elihu Yale, American-English merchant and philanthropist (d. 1721)
*1656 – Nikita Demidov, Russian industrialist (d. 1725)
*1664 – Élisabeth Thérèse de Lorraine, French noblewoman and Princess of Epinoy (d. 1748)
*1674 – Margravine Elisabeth Sophie of Brandenburg (d. 1748)
*1691 – Louis VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (d. 1768)
*1692 – Adrienne Lecouvreur, French actress (d. 1730)
*1719 – Axel von Fersen the Elder, Swedish field marshal and politician, Lord Marshal of Sweden (d. 1794)
*1726 – Benjamin Harrison V, American politician, planter and merchant (d. 1791)
*1727 – Pasquale Anfossi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1797)
*1729 – Frederick Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1809)
*1730 – Jean Baptiste Seroux d'Agincourt, French archaeologist and historian (d. 1814)
*1732 – Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and etcher (d. 1806)
*1735 – Franziskus Herzan von Harras, Czech Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1804)
*1739 – Philemon Dickinson, American lawyer and politician (d. 1809)
*1752 – Sébastien Érard, French instrument maker (d. 1831)
*1761 – Sybil Ludington, American figure of the American Revolutionary War (d. 1839)
*1769 – Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet, English admiral (d. 1839)
*1773 – José María Coppinger, governor of Spanish East Florida (d. 1844)
*1773 – Duchess Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1839)
*1774 – David Gillespie, American politician and surveyor (d. 1829)
*1777 – Marie Jules César Savigny, French zoologist (d. 1851)
*1782 – Wincenty Krasiński, Polish nobleman (d. 1858)
*1784 – Louis Spohr, German violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1859)
*1788 – Franz Pforr, German painter (d. 1812)
*1793 – Casimir Delavigne, French poet and dramatist (d. 1843)
* 1793 – Felix de Muelenaere, Belgian politician (d. 1862)
*1795 – Henry Havelock, British general (d. 1857)
*1799 – Jacques Denys Choisy, Swiss clergyman and botanist (d. 1859)
*1801 – Félix Dujardin, French biologist (d. 1860)
* 1801 – Vincenzo Gioberti, Italian philosopher, publicist and politician (d. 1852)
*1804 – Matthias Jakob Schleiden, German botanist (d. 1881)
*1809 – Karl Felix Halm, German scholar and critic (d. 1882)
*1810 – Sir Henry Rawlinson, British East India Company army officer and politician (d. 1895)
*1811 – Jules Dupré, French painter (d. 1889)
*1814 – Felix Lichnowsky, Czech soldier and politician (d. 1848)
*1822 – Émile Louis Victor de Laveleye, Belgian economist (d. 1892)
*1827 – Joseph Lister, English surgeon and academic (d. 1912)
*1832 – Jules Ferry, French lawyer and politician, 44th Prime Minister of France (d. 1893)
*1834 – Prentice Mulford, American humorist and author (d. 1891)
* 1834 – Wilhelm Olbers Focke, German medical doctor and botanist (d. 1922)
* 1834 – Frank R. Stockton, American writer and humorist (d. 1902)
*1835 – Vítězslav Hálek, Czech poet, writer, journalist, dramatist and theatre critic. (d. 1874)
*1837 – Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic (d. 1909)
*1839 – Robert Smalls, African-American ship's pilot, sea captain, and politician (d. 1915)
*1840 – Ghazaros Aghayan, Armenian historian and linguist (d. 1911)
*1842 – Hans Hildebrand, Swedish archaeologist (d. 1913)
*1845 – Friedrich Sigmund Merkel, German anatomist and histopathologist (d. 1919)
* 1845 – Jules Cambon, French diplomat (d. 1935)
*1846 – Sigmund Exner, Austrian physiologist (d. 1926)
* 1846 – Henry Wellesley, British peer and politician (d. 1900)
*1848 – Thure de Thulstrup, American illustrator (d. 1930)
* 1848 – Ulrich Wille, Swiss army general (d. 1925)
*1850 – Enrico Mazzanti, Italian engineer and cartoonist (d. 1910)
*1852 – Émile Billard, French sailor (d. 1930)
* 1852 – Walter W. Winans, American marksman and sculptor (d. 1920)
* 1852 – Franz Eckert, German composer and musician (d. 1916)
*1856 – Booker T. Washington, African-American educator, essayist and historian (d. 1915)
*1857 – Alexander of Battenberg (d. 1893)
*1858 – Washington Atlee Burpee, Canadian businessman, founded Burpee Seeds (d. 1915)
*1859 – Reinhold Seeberg, German theologian (d. 1935)
*1860 – Harry S. Barlow, British tennis player (d. 1917)
*1862 – Louis Ganne, French conductor (d. 1923)
* 1862 – Leo Stern, English cellist (d. 1904)
*1863 – Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine (d. 1950)
*1867 – Ernest Lewis, British tennis player (d. 1930)
*1869 – Sergey Chaplygin, Russian physicist, mathematician, and engineer (d. 1942)
* 1869 – Albert Roussel, French composer (d. 1937)
*1870 – Motobu Chōki, Japanese karateka (d. 1944)
*1871 – Stanisław Grabski, Polish economist and politician (d. 1949)
*1872 – Samuel Cate Prescott, American microbiologist and chemist (d. 1962)
*1873 – Joseph Rheden, Austrian astronomer (d. 1946)
*1874 – Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, French Cardinal of the Catholic Church (d. 1949)
* 1874 – Manuel María Ponce Brousset, President of Peru (d. 1966)
*1878 – Albert Champion, French cyclist (d. 1927)
* 1878 – Georg Misch, German philosopher (d. 1965)
* 1878 – Paul Weinstein, German high jumper (d. 1964)
*1879 – Arthur Berriedale Keith, Scottish lawyer (d. 1944)
* 1879 – Nikolaus zu Dohna-Schlodien, German naval officer and author (d. 1956)
*1880 – Eric Carlberg, Swedish Army officer, diplomat, shooter, fencer and modern pentathlete (d. 1963)
* 1880 – Vilhelm Carlberg, Swedish Army officer and shooter (d. 1970)
*1882 – Song Jiaoren, Chinese revolutionary (d. 1913)
* 1882 – Natalia Sedova, 2nd wife of Leon Trotsky (d. 1962)
*1883 – Walter Huston, Canadian-American actor and singer (d. 1950)
*1884 – Ion Inculeț, Bessarabian academic and politician, President of Moldova (d. 1940)
*1885 – Dimitrie Cuclin, Romanian composer (d. 1978)
*1886 – Gotthelf Bergsträsser, German linguist (d. 1933)
* 1886 – Frederick Lindemann, British physicist (d. 1957)
* 1886 – Gustavo Jiménez, Peruvian colonel and politician, 73rd President of Peru (d. 1933)
*1887 – William Cowhig, British gymnast (d. 1964)
*1889 – Vicente Ferreira Pastinha, Brazilian martial artist (d. 1981)
*1890 – Karl Kirk, Danish gymnast (d. 1955)
* 1890 – William Moore, British track and field athlete (d. 1956)
*1891 – Arnold Jackson, English runner, soldier, and lawyer (d. 1972)
* 1891 – Laura Vicuña, Chilean nun (d. 1904)
*1892 – Raymond Bonney, American ice hockey player (d. 1964)
*1893 – Frithjof Andersen, Norwegian wrestler (d. 1975)
* 1893 – Clas Thunberg, Finnish speed skater (d. 1973)
*1894 – Lawrence Dale Bell, American industrialist and founder of Bell Aircraft Corporation (d. 1956)
* 1894 – Hans Hüttig, German SS officer (d. 1980)
* 1894 – Carl Rudolf Florin, Swedish botanist (d. 1965)
*1895 – Mike O'Dowd, American boxer (d. 1957)
*1896 – Einar Lundborg, Swedish aviator (d. 1931)
*1897 – Hans Schuberth, German politician (d. 1976)
*1898 – Solange d'Ayen, French noblewoman, Duchess of Ayen and journalist (d. 1976)
*1899 – Alfred Blalock, American surgeon and academic (d. 1964)
*1900 – Herbert Bayer, Austrian-American graphic designer, painter, and photographer (d. 1985)
* 1900 – Roman Steinberg, Estonian wrestler (d. 1939)
* 1900 – Spencer Tracy, American actor (d. 1967)
1901–present
*1901 – Curt Bois, German actor (d. 1991)
* 1901 – Chester Bowles, American diplomat and ambassador (d. 1986)
* 1901 – Melvyn Douglas, American actor (d. 1981)
* 1901 – Doggie Julian, American football, basketball, and baseball player and coach (d. 1967)
*1902 – Menachem Mendel Schneerson, Russian-American rabbi (d. 1994)
*1903 – Marion Aye, American actress (d. 1951)
*1904 – Richard Eberhart, American poet and academic (d. 2005)
*1906 – Albert Charles Smith, American botanist (d. 1999)
* 1906 – Fernando Germani, Italian organist (d. 1998)
* 1906 – Ted Morgan, New Zealand boxer (d. 1952)
*1907 – Sanya Dharmasakti, Thai jurist (d. 2002)
*1908 – Bette Davis, American actress (d. 1989)
* 1908 – Kurt Neumann, German director (d. 1958)
* 1908 – Jagjivan Ram, Indian politician, 4th Deputy Prime Minister of India (d. 1986)
* 1908 – Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor and manager (d. 1989)
*1909 – Albert R. Broccoli, American film producer, co-founded Eon Productions (d. 1996)
* 1909 – Giacomo Gentilomo, Italian film director and painter (d. 2001)
* 1909 – Károly Sós, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 1991)
* 1909 – Erwin Wegner, German hurdler (d. 1945)
*1910 – Sven Andersson, Swedish politician (d. 1987)
* 1910 – Oronzo Pugliese, Italian football manager (d. 1990)
*1911 – Hedi Amara Nouira, Tunisian politician (d. 1993)
* 1911 – Johnny Revolta, American golfer (d. 1991)
*1912 – Jehan Buhan, French fencer (d. 1999)
* 1912 – Habib Elghanian, Iranian businessman (d. 1979)
* 1912 – Antonio Ferri, Italian scientist (d. 1975)
* 1912 – Carlos Guastavino, Argentine composer (d. 2000)
* 1912 – Makar Honcharenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 1997)
* 1912 – John Le Mesurier, English actor (d. 1983)
* 1912 – István Örkény, Hungarian author and playwright (d. 1979)
* 1912 – Bill Roberts, English sprinter and soldier (d. 2001)
*1913 – Antoni Clavé, Catalan artist (d. 2005)
* 1913 – Nicolas Grunitzky, 2nd President of Togo (d. 1969)
* 1913 – Ruth Smith, Faroese artist (d. 1958)
*1914 – Felice Borel, Italian footballer (d. 1993)
*1916 – Gregory Peck, American actor, political activist, and producer (d. 2003)
*1917 – Robert Bloch, American author (d. 1994)
* 1917 – Frans Gommers, Belgian footballer (d. 1996)
*1919 – Lester James Peries, Sri Lankan director, screenwriter, and producer (d. 2018)
*1920 – Barend Biesheuvel, Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2001)
* 1920 – Arthur Hailey, English-Canadian soldier and author (d. 2004)
* 1920 – Alfonso Thiele, Turkish-Italian race car driver (d. 1986)
* 1920 – John Willem Gran, Swedish bishop (d. 2008)
*1921 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and theatre director (d. 2001)
*1922 – Tom Finney, English footballer (d. 2014)
* 1922 – Harry Freedman, Polish-Canadian horn player, composer, and educator (d. 2005)
* 1922 – Andy Linden, American race car driver (d. 1987)
* 1922 – Gale Storm, American actress and singer (d. 2009)
*1923 – Ernest Mandel, German-born Belgian Marxist economist, Trotskyist activist and theorist (d. 1995)
* 1923 – Michael V. Gazzo, American actor (d. 1995)
* 1923 – Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, Vietnamese general and politician, 5th President of South Vietnam (d. 2001)
*1924 – Igor Borisov, Soviet rower (d. 2003)
*1925 – Janet Rowley, American human geneticist (d. 2013)
* 1925 – Pierre Nihant, Belgian cyclist (d. 1993)
*1926 – Roger Corman, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2024)
* 1926 – Liang Yusheng, Chinese writer (d. 2009)
*1927 – Thanin Kraivichien, Thai lawyer and politician, 14th prime minister of Thailand (d. 2025)
* 1927 – Arne Hoel, Norwegian ski jumper (d. 2006)
*1928 – Enzo Cannavale, Italian actor (d. 2011)
* 1928 – Tony Williams, American singer (d. 1992)
*1929 – Hugo Claus, Belgian author, poet, and painter (d. 2008)
* 1929 – Ivar Giaever, Norwegian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1929 – Nigel Hawthorne, English actor and producer (d. 2001)
* 1929 – Joe Meek, English songwriter and producer (d. 1967)
* 1929 – Mahmoud Mollaghasemi, Iranian wrestler
*1930 – Mary Costa, American singer and actress
* 1930 – Pierre Lhomme, French director of photography (d. 2019)
*1931 – Jack Clement, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)
* 1931 – Héctor Olivera, Argentine director, producer and screenwriter
*1933 – Feridun Buğeker, Turkish footballer (d. 2014)
* 1933 – Frank Gorshin, American actor (d. 2005)
* 1933 – Barbara Holland, American author (d. 2010)
* 1933 – K. Kailasapathy, Sri Lankan journalist and academic (d. 1982)
*1934 – John Carey, English author and critic
* 1934 – Roman Herzog, German lawyer and politician, 7th President of Germany (d. 2017)
* 1934 – Moise Safra, Brazilian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Banco Safra (d. 2014)
* 1934 – Stanley Turrentine, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2000)
*1935 – Giovanni Cianfriglia, Italian actor (d. 2024)
* 1935 – Peter Grant, English talent manager (d. 1995)
* 1935 – Donald Lynden-Bell, English astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 2018)
* 1935 – Frank Schepke, German rower (d. 2017)
*1936 – Ronnie Bucknum, American race car driver (d. 1992)
* 1936 – Glenn Jordan, American director and producer
* 1936 – Dragoljub Minić, Yugoslavian chess Grandmaster (d. 2005)
*1937 – Joseph Lelyveld, American journalist and author (d. 2024)
* 1937 – Colin Powell, American general and politician, 65th United States Secretary of State (d. 2021)
* 1937 – Andrzej Schinzel, Polish mathematician (d. 2021)
* 1937 – Arie Selinger, Israeli volleyball player and manager
* 1937 – Juan Vicente Lezcano, Paraguayan footballer (d. 2012)
*1938 – Colin Bland, Zimbabwean-South African cricketer (d. 2018)
* 1938 – Mal Colston, Australian educator and politician (d. 2003)
* 1938 – Nancy Holt, American sculptor and painter (d. 2014)
* 1938 – Natalya Kustinskaya, Soviet actress (d. 2012)
* 1938 – Giorgos Sideris, Greek footballer
*1939 – Leka I, Crown Prince of Albania (d. 2011)
* 1939 – Crispian St. Peters, English singer-songwriter (d. 2010)
* 1939 – Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, Prime Minister of Yemen
* 1939 – Ronald White, American singer-songwriter (d. 1995)
* 1939 – David Winters, English-American actor, choreographer and producer (d. 2019)
*1940 – Tommy Cash, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2024)
* 1940 – Gilles Proulx, Canadian journalist, historian, and radio host
*1941 – Michael Moriarty, American-Canadian actor
* 1941 – Dave Swarbrick, English singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2016)
*1942 – Allan Clarke, English singer-songwriter
* 1942 – Pascal Couchepin, Swiss politician
* 1942 – Juan Gisbert Sr., Spanish tennis player
* 1942 – Peter Greenaway, Welsh director and screenwriter
*1943 – Dean Brown, Australian politician, 41st Premier of South Australia
* 1943 – Max Gail, American actor and director
* 1943 – Fighting Harada, Japanese boxer
* 1943 – Miet Smet, Belgian politician
* 1943 – Jean-Louis Tauran, French cardinal (d. 2018)
*1944 – Willeke van Ammelrooy, Dutch actress and director
* 1944 – János Martonyi, Hungarian politician
* 1944 – Evan Parker, British musician
* 1944 – Douangchay Phichit, Laotian politician (d. 2014)
* 1944 – Willy Planckaert, Belgian cyclist
* 1944 – Pedro Rosselló, Puerto Rican physician and politician, 7th Governor of Puerto Rico
* 1944 – Peter T. King, American soldier, lawyer, and politician
*1945 – Ove Bengtson, Swedish tennis player
* 1945 – Steve Carver, American director and producer (d. 2021)
* 1945 – Cem Karaca, Turkish musician (d. 2004)
* 1945 – Tommy Smith, English footballer (d. 2019)
*1946 – Jane Asher, English actress
* 1946 – Julio Ángel Fernández, Uruguayan astronomer
* 1946 – Björn Granath, Swedish actor (d. 2017)
* 1946 – Georgi Markov, Bulgarian Greco-Roman wrestler
*1947 – Đurđica Bjedov, Yugoslav swimmer
* 1947 – Willy Chirino, Cuban-American musician
* 1947 – Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, Filipino academic and politician, 14th President of the Philippines
* 1947 – Ramón Mifflin, Peruvian footballer
* 1947 – Virendra Sharma, Indian-English lawyer and politician
*1948 – Pierre-Albert Chapuisat, Swiss footballer
* 1948 – Dave Holland, English drummer (d. 2018)
* 1948 – Roy McFarland, English footballer and manager
*1949 – Stanley Dziedzic, American wrestler
* 1949 – Larry Franco, American film producer
* 1949 – Judith Resnik, American engineer and astronaut (d. 1986)
*1950 – Ann C. Crispin, American writer (d. 2013)
* 1950 – Franklin Chang Díaz, Costa Rican-Chinese American astronaut and physicist
* 1950 – Agnetha Fältskog, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer
* 1950 – Toshiko Fujita, Japanese actress, singer and narrator (d. 2018)
* 1950 – Miki Manojlović, Serbian actor
*1951 – Les Binks, Irish drummer and songwriter
* 1951 – Yevgeniy Gavrilenko, Belarusian hurdler
* 1951 – Nedim Gürsel, Turkish writer
* 1951 – Dean Kamen, American inventor and businessman, founded Segway Inc.
* 1951 – Dave McArtney, New Zealand singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)
* 1951 – Ubol Ratana, Thai Princess
*1952 – Alfie Conn, Scottish international footballer
* 1952 – John C. Dvorak, American author and editor
* 1952 – Sandy Mayer, American tennis player
* 1952 – Dennis Mortimer, English footballer
* 1952 – Mitch Pileggi, American actor
*1953 – Frank Gaffney, American journalist and radio host
* 1953 – Keiko Han, Japanese actress
* 1953 – Tae Jin-ah, South Korean singer
* 1953 – Raleb Majadele, Israeli politician
* 1953 – Ian Swales, English accountant and politician
*1954 – Guy Bertrand, Canadian linguist and radio host
* 1954 – Peter Case, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1954 – Mohamed Ben Mouza, Tunisian footballer
* 1954 – Stan Ridgway, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1954 – Yoshiichi Watanabe, Japanese footballer
*1955 – Charlotte de Turckheim, French actress, producer, and screenwriter
* 1955 – Ricardo Ferrero, Argentine footballer (d. 2015)
* 1955 – Christian Gourcuff, French footballer and manager
* 1955 – Anthony Horowitz, English author and screenwriter
* 1955 – Bernard Longley, English prelate
* 1955 – Akira Toriyama, Japanese illustrator (d. 2024)
* 1955 – Takayoshi Yamano, Japanese footballer
*1956 – Diamond Dallas Page, American wrestler and actor
* 1956 – Leonid Fedun, Russian businessman
* 1956 – Reid Ribble, American politician
*1957 – Sebastian Adayanthrath, Indian bishop
* 1957 – Karin Roßley, German hurdler
*1958 – Kevin Dann, Australian rugby league player (d. 2021)
* 1958 – Henrik Dettmann, Finnish basketball coach
* 1958 – Ryoichi Kawakatsu, Japanese footballer
* 1958 – Johan Kriek, South African-American tennis player
* 1958 – Daniel Schneidermann, French journalist
* 1958 – Lasantha Wickrematunge, Sri Lankan lawyer and journalist (d. 2009)
*1959 – Paul Chung, Hong Kong actor and host (d. 1989)
*1960 – Asteris Koutoulas, Romanian-German record producer, manager, and author
* 1960 – Larry McCray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1960 – Ian Redford, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2014)
* 1960 – Hiromi Taniguchi, Japanese long-distance runner
* 1960 – Adnan Terzić, Bosnian politician
*1961 – Andrea Arnold, English filmmaker and actress
* 1961 – Anna Caterina Antonacci, Italian soprano
* 1961 – Abdulhadi al-Khawaja, Bahraini-Danish human rights activist
* 1961 – Lisa Zane, American actress and singer
*1962 – Lana Clarkson, American actress and model (d. 2003)
* 1962 – Sara Danius, Swedish scholar of literature and aesthetics (d. 2019)
* 1962 – Richard Gough, Swedish born Scottish international footballer
* 1962 – Arild Monsen, Norwegian cross-country skier
* 1962 – Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, Russian businessman and politician, 1st President of Kalmykia
*1963 – Arthur Adams, American comic book artist and writer
*1964 – Neil Eckersley, British judoka
* 1964 – Vakhtang Iagorashvili, Soviet modern pentathlete
* 1964 – Levon Julfalakyan, Soviet Armenian Greco-Roman wrestler
* 1964 – Marius Lăcătuș, Romanian footballer and coach
*1965 – Aykut Kocaman, Turkish footballer and manager
* 1965 – Lang Tzu-yun, Taiwanese actress
* 1965 – Elizabeth McIntyre, American freestyle skier
* 1965 – Svetlana Paramygina, Belarusian biathlete
*1966 – Yoon Hyun, South Korean judoka
* 1966 – Mike McCready, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1966 – Peter Overton, English-Australian journalist and television host
*1967 – Troy Gentry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)
* 1967 – Franck Silvestre, French footballer
* 1967 – Erland Johnsen, Norwegian footballer
* 1967 – Laima Zilporytė, Soviet cyclist
*1968 – Paula Cole, American singer-songwriter and pianist
*1969 – Dinos Angelidis, Greek basketball player
* 1969 – Viatcheslav Djavanian, Russian cyclist
* 1969 – Pontus Kåmark, Swedish footballer
* 1969 – Pavlo Khnykin, Ukrainian swimmer
* 1969 – Tomislav Piplica, Bosnian footballer and manager
* 1969 – Ravindra Prabhat, Indian writer and journalist
*1970 – Soheil Ayari, French race car driver
* 1970 – Valérie Bonneton, French actress
* 1970 – Diamond D, American hip hop producer
* 1970 – Petar Genov, Bulgarian chess grandmaster
* 1970 – Thea Gill, Canadian actress
* 1970 – Miho Hatori, Japanese singer-songwriter
* 1970 – Irina Timofeyeva, Russian long-distance runner
*1971 – Dong Abay, Filipino singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1971 – Krista Allen, American actress
* 1971 – Austin Berry, Costa Rican footballer
* 1971 – Simona Cavallari, Italian actress
* 1971 – Victoria Hamilton, English actress
* 1971 – Nelson Parraguez, Chilean footballer
* 1971 – Kim Soo-nyung, South Korean archer
*1972 – Nima Arkani-Hamed, American-Canadian theoretical physicist
* 1972 – Tom Coronel, Dutch race car driver
* 1972 – Paul Okon, Australian footballer and manager
* 1972 – Duncan Spencer, English cricketer
* 1972 – Yasuhiro Takemoto, Japanese animator and director (d. 2019)
* 1972 – Junko Takeuchi, Japanese actress
*1973 – Élodie Bouchez, French-American actress
* 1973 – Brendan Cannon, Australian rugby player
* 1973 – Lidia Trettel, Italian snowboarder
* 1973 – Pharrell Williams, American singer, songwriter and rapper
*1974 – Sandra Bagarić, Croatian opera singer and actress
* 1974 – Julien Boutter, French tennis player
* 1974 – Katja Holanti, Finnish biathlete
* 1974 – Oleg Khodkov, Russian handball player
* 1974 – Ariel López, Argentine footballer
* 1974 – Lukas Ridgeston, Slovak actor and director
* 1974 – Vyacheslav Voronin, Russian high jumper
*1975 – Sarah Baldock, English organist and conductor
* 1975 – John Hartson, Welsh footballer and coach
* 1975 – Juicy J, American rapper and producer
* 1975 – Serhiy Klymentiev, Ukrainian ice hockey player
* 1975 – Caitlin Moran, English journalist, author, and critic
* 1975 – Marcos Vales, Spanish footballer
* 1975 – Shammond Williams, American basketball player and coach
*1976 – Luis de Agustini, Uruguayan footballer
* 1976 – Péter Biros, Hungarian water polo player
* 1976 – Sterling K. Brown, American actor
* 1976 – Aleksei Budõlin, Estonian judoka
* 1976 – Simone Inzaghi, Italian footballer
* 1976 – Fernando Morientes, Spanish footballer and coach
* 1976 – Natascha Ragosina, Russian boxer
* 1976 – Henrik Stenson, Swedish golfer
* 1976 – Valeria Straneo, Italian long-distance runner
* 1976 – Indrek Tobreluts, Estonian biathlete
* 1976 – Anouska van der Zee, Dutch cyclist
*1977 – Jonathan Erlich, Israeli tennis player
* 1977 – Trevor Letowski, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1977 – Daniel Majstorović, Swedish footballer
*1978 – Dwain Chambers, British track sprinter
* 1978 – Marcone Amaral Costa, Qatari footballer
* 1978 – Tarek El-Said, Egyptian footballer
* 1978 – Jairo Patiño, Colombian footballer
* 1978 – Sohyang, South Korean singer
* 1978 – Stephen Jackson, American basketball player
* 1978 – Arnaud Tournant, French cyclist
* 1978 – Franziska van Almsick, German swimmer
* 1978 – Günther Weidlinger, Austrian long-distance runner
*1979 – Vlada Avramov, Serbian footballer
* 1979 – Josh Boone, American screenwriter and director
* 1979 – Song Dae-nam, South Korean judoka
* 1979 – Timo Hildebrand, German footballer
* 1979 – Imany, French singer
* 1979 – Barel Mouko, Congolese footballer
* 1979 – Cesare Natali, Italian footballer
* 1979 – Mitsuo Ogasawara, Japanese footballer
* 1979 – Alexander Resch, German luger
* 1979 – Andrius Velička, Lithuanian footballer
* 1979 – Dante Wesley, American football player
* 1979 – Chen Yanqing, Chinese weightlifter
*1980 – Matt Bonner, American basketball player
* 1980 – Alberta Brianti, Italian tennis player
* 1980 – Rafael Cavalcante, Brazilian mixed martial artist
* 1980 – David Chocarro, Argentinian baseball player and actor
* 1980 – Mike Glumac, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1980 – Mario Kasun, Croatian basketball player
* 1980 – Lee Jae-won, South Korean DJ and singer
* 1980 – Joris Mathijsen, Dutch footballer
* 1980 – Rasmus Quist Hansen, Danish rower
* 1980 – Odlanier Solís, Cuban boxer
*1981 – Matthew Emmons, American rifle shooter
* 1981 – Michael A. Monsoor, American sailor, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2006)
* 1981 – Mariqueen Maandig, Filipino-American musician and singer-songwriter
* 1981 – Daba Modibo Keïta, Malian taekwondo athlete
* 1981 – Marissa Nadler, American musician
* 1981 – Tom Riley, English actor and producer
* 1981 – Mompati Thuma, Botswana footballer
* 1981 – Pieter Weening, Dutch cyclist
*1982 – Hayley Atwell, English-American actress
* 1982 – Matheus Coradini Vivian, Brazilian footballer
* 1982 – Thomas Hitzlsperger, German footballer
* 1982 – Kelly Pavlik, American boxer
* 1982 – Matt Pickens, American soccer player
* 1982 – Alexandre Prémat, French race car driver
* 1982 – Danylo Sapunov, Ukrainian-Kazakhstani triathlete
* 1982 – Hubert Schwab, Swiss cyclist
* 1982 – Marcel Seip, Dutch former footballer
*1983 – Jaime Castrillón, Colombian footballer
* 1983 – Jorge Andrés Martínez, Uruguayan footballer
* 1983 – Brock Radunske, Canadian-South Korean ice hockey player
* 1983 – Yohann Sangaré, French basketball player
* 1983 – Cécile Storti, French cross-country skier
* 1983 – Shikha Uberoi, Indian-American tennis player
*1984 – Marshall Allman, American actor
* 1984 – Aram Mp3, Armenian singer and comedian
* 1984 – Rune Brattsveen, Norwegian biathlete
* 1984 – Alexei Glukhov, Russian ice hockey player
* 1984 – Maartje Goderie, Dutch field hockey player
* 1984 – Darija Jurak, Croatian tennis player
* 1984 – Dejan Kelhar, Slovenian footballer
* 1984 – Dmitry Kozonchuk, Russian cyclist
* 1984 – Shin Min-a, South Korean actress
* 1984 – Jess Sum, Hong Kong actress
* 1984 – Peter Penz, Austrian luger
* 1984 – Samuele Preisig, Swiss footballer
* 1984 – Cristian Săpunaru, Romanian footballer
* 1984 – Fabio Vitaioli, San Marinese footballer
* 1984 – Kisho Yano, Japanese footballer
* 1984 – Saba Qamar, Pakistani actress-model
*1985 – Daniel Congré, French footballer
* 1985 – Erwin l'Ami, Dutch chess player
* 1985 – Jolanda Keizer, Dutch heptathlete
* 1985 – Sergey Khachatryan, Armenian violinist
* 1985 – Linas Pilibaitis, Lithuanian footballer
* 1985 – Jan Smeets, Dutch chess grandmaster
* 1985 – Kristof Vandewalle, Belgian cyclist
*1986 – Anna Sophia Berglund, American model and actress
* 1986 – Anzor Boltukayev, Chechen wrestler
* 1986 – Diego Chará, Colombian footballer
* 1986 – Charlotte Flair, American wrestler, author and actress
* 1986 – Róbert Kasza, Hungarian Modern pentathlete
* 1986 – Eetu Muinonen, Finnish footballer
* 1986 – Manuel Ruz, Spanish footballer
* 1986 – Albert Selimov, Azerbaijani boxer
*1987 – Max Grün, German footballer
* 1987 – Balázs Hárai, Hungarian water polo player
* 1987 – Anton Kokorin, Russian sprint athlete
* 1987 – Fyodor Kudryashov, Russian footballer
* 1987 – Etiënne Reijnen, Dutch footballer
*1988 – Gerson Acevedo, Chilean footballer
* 1988 – Teresa Almeida, Angolan handball player
* 1988 – Quade Cooper, New Zealand-Australian rugby player and boxer
* 1988 – Jonathan Davies, Welsh rugby union player
* 1988 – Gevorg Ghazaryan, Armenian footballer
* 1988 – Alisha Glass, American ex-indoor volleyball player
* 1988 – Vurğun Hüseynov, Azerbaijani footballer
* 1988 – Matthias Jaissle, German footballer and manager
* 1988 – Christopher Papamichalopoulos, Cypriot skier
* 1988 – Zack Smith, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1988 – Pape Sy, French basketball player
* 1988 – Alexey Volkov, Russian biathlete
*1989 – Kader Amadou, Nigerien footballer
* 1989 – Yémi Apithy, Beninese fencer
* 1989 – Liemarvin Bonevacia, Dutch sprinter
* 1989 – Freddie Fox, English actor
* 1989 – Emre Güral, Turkish footballer
* 1989 – Justin Holiday, American basketball player
* 1989 – Rachel Homan, Canadian curler
* 1989 – Lily James, English actress
* 1989 – Trevor Marsicano, American speed skater
* 1989 – Jonathan Rossini, Swiss footballer
* 1989 – Kiki Sukezane, Japanese actress
* 1989 – Sosuke Takatani, Japanese wrestler
*1990 – Amer Said Al-Shatri, Omani footballer
* 1990 – Alex Cuthbert, Welsh rugby player
* 1990 – Patrick Dangerfield, Australian footballer
* 1990 – Fredy Hinestroza, Colombian footballer
* 1990 – Chen Huijia, Chinese swimmer
* 1990 – Haruma Miura, Japanese actor and singer (d. 2020)
* 1990 – Ismaeel Mohammad, Qatari footballer
* 1990 – Iryna Pamialova, Belarusian canoeist
* 1990 – Jakub Sedláček, Czech ice hockey player
* 1990 – Sercan Yıldırım, Turkish footballer
* 1990 – Género Zeefuik, Dutch footballer
*1991 – Yassine Bounou, Moroccan footballer
* 1991 – Nathaniel Clyne, English footballer
* 1991 – Adriano Grimaldi, Italian-German footballer
* 1991 – Joël Mall, Swiss footballer
* 1991 – Guilherme dos Santos Torres, Brazilian footballer
*1992 – Emmalyn Estrada, Canadian singer-songwriter and dancer
* 1992 – Shintaro Kurumaya, Japanese footballer
* 1992 – Kaveh Rezaei, Iranian footballer
* 1992 – Dmytro Ryzhuk, Ukrainian footballer
*1993 – Andreas Bouchalakis, Greek footballer
* 1993 – Maya DiRado, American swimmer
* 1993 – Laura Feiersinger, Austrian footballer
* 1993 – Benjamin Garcia, French rugby league player
* 1993 – Kurtis Patterson, Australian cricketer
* 1993 – Scottie Wilbekin, American-Turkish basketball player
*1994 – Mateusz Bieniek, Polish volleyball player
* 1994 – Edem Rjaïbi, Tunisian footballer
* 1994 – Richard Sánchez, Mexican footballer
*1995 – Viliame Kikau, Fijian rugby league player
* 1995 – Sei Muroya, Japanese footballer
* 1995 – Gleb Rassadkin, Belarusian footballer
* 1995 – Sebastian Starke Hedlund, Swedish footballer
*1996 – Nicolas Beer, Danish race car driver
* 1996 – Raouf Benguit, Algerian footballer
*1997 – Borja Mayoral, Spanish footballer
* 1997 – Dominik Mysterio, American wrestler
*1999 – Bobby Miller, American baseball player
*2001 – Johnny Beecher, American ice hockey player
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Deaths
Pre-1600
* 517 – Timothy I of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch
* 582 – Eutychius of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch
* 584 – Ruadán of Lorrha, Irish abbot
* 902 – Al-Mu'tadid, Abbasid caliph
*1168 – Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester, English politician (b. 1104)
*1183 – Ramon Berenguer III, Spanish count of Cerdanya and Provence
*1205 – Isabella I of Jerusalem, queen regnant of Jerusalem (b. 1172)
*1258 – Juliana of Liège, Belgian canoness and saint
*1308 – Ivan Kőszegi, Hungarian baron and oligarch
*1325 – Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron of Monthermer and Earl of Gloucester (b. c. 1270)
*1419 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1350)
*1431 – Bernard I, margrave of Baden-Baden (b. 1364)
*1512 – Lazzaro Bastiani, Italian painter (b. 1429)
*1534 – Jan Matthys, Dutch anabaptist reformer
*1594 – Catherine of Palma, Spanish nun (b. 1533)
1601–1900
*1612 – Diana Scultori, Italian engraver (b. 1547)
*1617 – Alonso Lobo, Spanish composer (b. 1555)
*1626 – Anna Koltovskaya, Russian tsarina
*1673 – François Caron, Belgian-French explorer and politician, 8th Governor of Formosa (b. 1600)
*1679 – Anne Geneviève de Bourbon, French princess (b. 1619)
*1684 – William Brouncker, English mathematician (b. 1620)
* 1684 – Karl Eusebius, prince of Liechtenstein (b. 1611)
*1693 – Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, French noblewoman (b. 1627)
* 1693 – Philip William August, German nobleman (b. 1668)
*1695 – George Savile, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1633)
*1697 – Charles XI, king of Sweden (b. 1655)
*1704 – Christian Ulrich I, German nobleman and Duke of Württemberg-Oels (b. 1652)
*1708 – Christian Heinrich, German prince and member of the House of Hohenzollern (b. 1661)
*1709 – Roger de Piles, French painter, engraver, art critic and diplomat (b. 1635)
*1712 – Jan Luyken, Dutch poet, illustrator and engraver (b. 1649)
*1717 – Jean Jouvenet, French painter (b. 1647)
*1723 – Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Austrian architect, sculptor and historian (b. 1656)
*1735 – William Derham, English minister and philosopher (b. 1657)
*1751 – Frederick I, prince consort and king of Sweden (b. 1676)
*1765 – Edward Young, English poet and author (b. 1683)
*1767 – Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, German princess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (b. 1685)
*1768 – Egidio Forcellini, Italian philologist (b. 1688)
*1769 – Marc-Antoine Laugier, Jesuit priest (b. 1713)
*1794 – Georges Danton, French lawyer and politician, French Minister of Justice (b. 1759)
* 1794 – François Chabot, French politician (b. 1756)
* 1794 – Camille Desmoulins, French journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1760)
* 1794 – Fabre d'Églantine, French actor, dramatist, poet and politician (b. 1750)
* 1794 – Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles, French judge and politician (b. 1759)
* 1794 – Pierre Philippeaux, French lawyer (b. 1754)
* 1794 – François Joseph Westermann, French general (b. 1751)
*1799 – Johann Christoph Gatterer, German historian (b. 1727)
*1804 – Jean-Charles Pichegru, French general (b. 1761)
*1808 – Johann Georg Wille, German engraver (b. 1715)
*1830 – Richard Chenevix, Irish chemist and playwright (b. 1774)
*1831 – Pierre Léonard Vander Linden, Belgian entomologist (b. 1797)
*1842 – Shah Shujah Durrani, 5th Emir of Afghanistan (b. 1785)
*1852 – Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg, (b. 1800)
*1861 – Ferdinand Joachimsthal, German mathematician (b. 1818)
*1862 – Barend Cornelis Koekkoek, Dutch artist (b. 1803)
*1865 – Manfredo Fanti, Italian general (b. 1806)
*1866 – Thomas Hodgkin, British physician (b. 1798)
*1868 – Karel Purkyně, Czech painter (b. 1834)
*1871 – Paolo Savi, Italian geologist and ornithologist (b. 1798)
*1872 – Paul-Auguste-Ernest Laugier, French astronomer (b. 1812)
*1873 – Milivoje Blaznavac, Serbian soldier and politician (b. 1824)
*1882 – Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play, (b. 1806)
*1888 – Vsevolod Garshin, Russian author (b. 1855)
*1891 – Johann Hermann Bauer, Austrian chess master (b. 1861)
*1900 – Joseph Bertrand, French mathematician, economist, and academic (b. 1822)
* 1900 – Osman Nuri Pasha, Ottoman field marshal and the hero of the Siege of Plevna in 1877 (b. 1832)
1901–present
*1901 – Angelo Messedaglia, Italian social scientist and statistician (b. 1820)
*1902 – Hans Ernst August Buchner, German bacteriologist (b. 1850)
*1904 – Ernst Leopold, 4th Prince of Leiningen (b. 1830)
* 1904 – Frances Power Cobbe, Irish writer (b. 1822)
*1906 – Eastman Johnson, American painter (b. 1824)
*1914 – Bernard Borggreve, German forestry scientist (b. 1836)
*1916 – Maksim Kovalevsky, Russian sociologist (b. 1851)
*1918 – George Tupou II, King of Tonga (b. 1874)
* 1918 – Paul Vidal de La Blache, French geographer (b. 1845)
*1920 – Laurent Marqueste, French sculptor (b. 1848)
*1921 – Alphons Diepenbrock, Dutch composer (b. 1862)
* 1921 – Sophie Elkan, Swedish writer and translator (b. 1853)
*1923 – George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English archaeologist and businessman (b. 1866)
*1924 – Victor Hensen, German zoologist (b. 1835)
*1928 – Roy Kilner, English cricketer and soldier (b. 1890)
* 1928 – Viktor Oliva, Czech painter and illustrator (b. 1861)
*1929 – Francis Aidan Gasquet, English Benedictine monk (b. 1846)
* 1929 – Ludwig von Sybel, German archeologist (b. 1846)
*1932 – María Blanchard, Spanish painter (b. 1881)
*1933 – Earl Derr Biggers, American novelist and playwright (b. 1884)
* 1933 – Hjalmar Mellin, Finnish mathematician and functional theorist (b. 1854)
*1934 – Salvatore Di Giacomo, Italian poet, playwright, songwriter and fascist intellectual (b. 1860)
* 1934 – Jiro Sato, Japanese tennis player (b. 1908)
*1935 – Achille Locatelli, Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1856)
* 1935 – Emil Młynarski, Polish conductor, violinist, composer, and pedagogue (b. 1870)
* 1935 – Franz von Vecsey, Hungarian violinist and composer (b. 1893)
*1936 – Chandler Egan, American golfer and architect (b. 1884)
*1937 – Gustav Adolf Deissmann, (b. 1866)
* 1937 – José Benlliure y Gil, Spanish painter (b. 1858)
*1938 – Helena Westermarck, Finnish artist and writer (b. 1857)
* 1938 – Verner Lehtimäki, Finnish revolutionary (b. 1890)
*1940 – Charles Freer Andrews, English-Indian priest, missionary, and educator (b. 1871)
* 1940 – Robert Maillart, Swiss civil engineer (b. 1872)
* 1940 – Jay O'Brien, American bobsledder (b. 1883)
* 1940 – Song Zheyuan, Chinese general (b. 1885)
*1941 – Parvin E'tesami, Persian poet (b. 1907)
* 1941 – Nigel Gresley, Scottish-English engineer (b. 1876)
* 1941 – Franciszek Kleeberg, Polish general (b. 1888)
*1945 – Heinrich Borgmann, German officer (b. 1912)
* 1945 – Karl-Otto Koch, German SS officer (b. 1897)
*1946 – Vincent Youmans, American composer and producer (b. 1898)
*1947 – Bernhard Pankok, German painter, artist and architect (b. 1872)
* 1947 – Elis Strömgren, Swedish-Danish astronomer (b. 1870)
*1948 – Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, American socialite and philanthropist (b. 1874)
*1949 – Erich Zeigner, Prime Minister of Saxony (b. 1886)
*1950 – Hiroshi Yoshida, Japanese painter (b. 1876)
*1952 – Agnes Morton, British tennis player (b. 1872)
*1954 – Princess Märtha of Sweden, (b. 1901)
* 1954 – Claude Delvincourt, French pianist and composer (b. 1888)
*1955 – Tibor Szele, Hungarian mathematician (b. 1918)
*1956 – William Titt, British gymnast (b. 1881)
*1958 – Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria (b. 1884)
* 1958 – Ásgrímur Jónsson, Icelandic painter (b. 1876)
* 1958 – Isidora Sekulić, Serbian writer (b. 1877)
*1961 – Nikolai Kryukov, Russian composer (b. 1908)
*1962 – Boo Kullberg, Swedish gymnast (b. 1889)
*1963 – Jacobus Oud, Dutch architect (b. 1890)
*1964 – James Chapin, American ornithologist (b. 1889)
* 1964 – Aloïse Corbaz, Swiss artist (b. 1886)
* 1964 – Douglas MacArthur, American general (b. 1880)
*1965 – Pedro Sernagiotto, Italian-Brazilian footballer (b. 1908)
* 1965 – Sándor Szalay, Hungarian figure skater (b. 1893)
*1967 – Mischa Elman, Ukrainian-American violinist (b. 1891)
* 1967 – Johan Falkberget, Norwegian author (b. 1879)
* 1967 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890)
* 1967 – Herbert Johnston, British runner (b. 1902)
*1968 – Félix Couchoro, Togolese writer (b. 1900)
* 1968 – Lajos Csordás, Hungarian footballer (b. 1932)
* 1968 – Giuseppe Paris, Italian gymnast (b. 1895)
*1969 – Alberto Bonucci, Italian actor and director (b. 1918)
* 1969 – Rómulo Gallegos, Venezuelan novelist and politician (b. 1917)
* 1969 – Ain-Ervin Mere, Estonian SS officer (b. 1903)
*1970 – Louisa Bolus, South African botanist and taxonomist (b. 1877)
* 1970 – Alfred Sturtevant, American geneticist and academic (b. 1891)
* 1970 – Karl von Spreti, German diplomat (b. 1907)
*1971 – José Cubiles, Spanish pianist and conductor (b. 1894)
*1972 – Isabel Jewell, American actress and singer (b. 1907)
*1973 – David Murray, British race car driver (b. 1909)
* 1973 – Alla Tarasova, Russian ballerina (b. 1898)
*1974 – Bino Bini, Italian fencer (b. 1900)
* 1974 – A. Y. Jackson, Canadian painter (b. 1882)
*1975 – Tell Berna, American middle and long-distance runner (b. 1891)
* 1975 – Victor Marijnen, Dutch politician (b. 1917)
* 1975 – Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese general and politician, 1st President of the Republic of China (b. 1887)
* 1975 – Harold Osborn, American track and fielder (b. 1899)
*1976 – Howard Hughes, American pilot, engineer, and director (b. 1905)
* 1976 – Wilder Penfield, American-Canadian surgeon and academic (b. 1891)
* 1976 – Harry Wyld, British cyclist (b. 1900)
*1977 – Carlos Prío Socarrás, President of Cuba, (b. 1903)
* 1977 – Yuri Zavadsky, Russian actor and director (b. 1894)
*1981 – Émile Hanse, Belgian footballer (b. 1892)
* 1981 – Bob Hite, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945)
* 1981 – Pinchus Kremegne, French artist (b. 1890)
*1982 – Abe Fortas, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1910)
*1983 – Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari, Saudi Arabian historian, journalist and writer. (b. 1907)
*1984 – Hans Lunding, Danish military officer (b. 1899)
* 1984 – Giuseppe Tucci, Italian scholar of oriental cultures (b. 1894)
*1986 – Manly Wade Wellman, American writer (b. 1903)
*1987 – Leabua Jonathan, 2nd Prime Minister of Lesotho (b. 1914)
*1988 – Alf Kjellin, Swedish actor and director (b. 1920)
*1989 – Frank Foss, American pole vaulter (b. 1895)
* 1989 – Karel Zeman, Czech director, artist, production designer and animator (b. 1910)
*1991 – Sonny Carter, American soccer player, physician, and astronaut (b. 1947)
* 1991 – Jay Miller, American basketball player (b. 1943)
* 1991 – Jiří Mucha, Czech journalist, writer and screenwriter (b. 1915)
* 1991 – William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle (b. 1909)
* 1991 – John Tower, American soldier, academic, and politician (b. 1925)
*1992 – Takeshi Inoue, Japanese footballer (b. 1928)
* 1992 – Molly Picon, American actress (b. 1898)
* 1992 – Sam Walton, American businessman, founded Walmart and Sam's Club (b. 1918)
*1993 – Divya Bharti, Indian actress (b. 1974)
*1994 – Kurt Cobain, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1967)
*1995 – Nicolaas Cortlever, Dutch chess player (b. 1915)
* 1995 – Emilio Greco, Italian sculptor and engraver (b. 1913)
* 1995 – Christian Pineau, French Resistance fighter (b. 1904)
*1996 – Charlene Holt, American actress (b. 1928)
*1997 – Allen Ginsberg, American poet (b. 1926)
*1998 – Charles Frank, British theoretical physicist (b. 1911)
* 1998 – Cozy Powell, English drummer (b. 1947)
*1999 – Giulio Einaudi, Italian book publisher (b. 1912)
*2000 – Heinrich Müller, Austrian footballer (b. 1909)
* 2000 – Lee Petty, American race car driver (b. 1914)
*2001 – Aldo Olivieri, Italian footballer (b. 1910)
*2002 – Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (b. 1967)
* 2002 – Kim Won-gyun, North Korean composer and politician (b. 1917)
*2003 – Keizo Morishita, Japanese painter (b. 1944)
*2004 – Fernand Goyvaerts, Belgian footballer (b. 1938)
* 2004 – Sławomir Rawicz, Polish lieutenant (b. 1915)
* 2004 – Heiner Zieschang, German mathematician and academic (b. 1936)
*2005 – Saul Bellow, Canadian-American novelist, essayist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915)
* 2005 – Robert Borg, American military officer and equestrian (b. 1913)
* 2005 – Chung Nam-sik, South Korean footballer (b. 1917)
*2006 – Allan Kaprow, American painter and educator (b. 1927)
* 2006 – Gene Pitney, American singer-songwriter (b. 1940)
* 2006 – Yevgeny Seredin, Russian swimmer (b. 1958)
* 2006 – Pasquale Macchi, Roman Catholic archbishop (b. 1923)
*2007 – Maria Gripe, Swedish journalist and author (b. 1923)
* 2007 – Leela Majumdar, Indian author and academic (b. 1908)
* 2007 – Werner Maser, German historian and journalist (b. 1922)
* 2007 – Mark St. John, American guitarist (b. 1956)
* 2007 – Thomas Stoltz Harvey, American pathologist (b. 1912)
*2008 – Charlton Heston, American actor, director, and political activist (b. 1923)
*2009 – I. J. Good, British mathematician (b. 1916)
*2010 – Vitaly Sevastyanov, Soviet cosmonaut and engineer (b. 1935)
*2011 – Baruch Samuel Blumberg, American physician and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
* 2011 – Ange-Félix Patassé, Central African politician (b. 1937)
*2012 – Ferdinand Alexander Porsche, German designer (b. 1935)
* 2012 – Pedro Bartolomé Benoit, Dominican Republican politician military officer (b. 1921)
* 2012 – Jim Marshall, English businessman, founded Marshall Amplification (b. 1923)
* 2012 – Barney McKenna, Irish musician (b. 1939)
* 2012 – Bingu wa Mutharika, Malawian economist and politician, 3rd President of Malawi (b. 1934)
*2013 – Regina Bianchi, Italian actress (b. 1921)
* 2013 – Piero de Palma, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1924)
* 2013 – Nikolaos Pappas, Greek Navy admiral (b. 1930)
*2014 – Alan Davie, Scottish saxophonist and painter (b. 1920)
* 2014 – Mariano Díaz, Spanish cyclist (b. 1939)
* 2014 – Peter Matthiessen, American novelist, short story writer, editor, co-founded The Paris Review (b. 1927)
* 2014 – John Pinette, American comedian (b. 1964)
* 2014 – José Wilker, Brazilian actor, director, and producer (b. 1947)
*2015 – Fredric Brandt, American dermatologist and author (b. 1949)
* 2015 – Juan Carlos Cáceres, Argentinian singer and pianist (b. 1936)
*2016 – Koço Kasapoğlu, Turkish footballer (b. 1936)
*2017 – Attilio Benfatto, Italian cyclist (b. 1943)
* 2017 – Arthur Bisguier, American chess Grandmaster (b. 1929)
* 2017 – Paul G. Comba, Italian-American computer scientist and astronomer (b. 1926)
* 2017 – Makoto Ōoka, Japanese poet and literary critic (b. 1931)
* 2017 – Paul O'Neill, American rock composer and producer (b. 1956)
* 2017 – Tim Parnell, British race car driver (b. 1932)
* 2017 – Memè Perlini, Italian actor and director (b. 1947)
* 2017 – Atanase Sciotnic, Romanian sprint canoeist (b. 1942)
* 2017 – Ilkka Sinisalo, Finnish ice hockey player (b. 1958)
*2018 – Isao Takahata, Japanese director (b. 1935)
*2019 – Sydney Brenner, South African biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)
*2021 – Paul Ritter, English actor (b. 1966)
*2022 – Nehemiah Persoff, Israeli-American actor (b. 1919)
* 2022 – Jimmy Wang Yu, Taiwanese actor (b. 1943)
* 2024 – C. J. Snare, American musician and songwriter (b. 1959)
<!--Please do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Albert of Montecorvino
**Derfel Gadarn
**Æthelburh of Kent
**Gerald of Sauve-Majeure
**Juliana of Liège
**Maria Crescentia Höss
**Blessed Mariano de la Mata
**Pandita Mary Ramabai (Episcopal Church (USA))
**Ruadhán of Lorrha
**Vincent Ferrer
**April 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Cold Food Festival, held on April 4 if it is a leap year (China); and its related observances:
*Earliest day on which Sham el-Nessim can fall, while May 9 is the latest; celebrated on Monday after the Orthodox Easter (Egypt)
*Children's Day (Palestinian territories)
*First Contact Day (International observance)
*Sikmogil (South Korea)
*National Maritime Day is observed in India, in commemoration of the first voyage of SS Loyalty of the Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd. in 1919.
* International Day of Conscience
Other
* April the Fifth (1929–1954), British Thoroughbred racehorse
* (ends 5 April)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/5 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/5 Historical Events on April 5]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_5 | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.346218 |
2195 | April 20 | Events
Pre-1600
*1303 – The Sapienza University of Rome is instituted by a bull of Pope Boniface VIII.
1601–1900
*1653 – Oliver Cromwell dissolves England's Rump Parliament.
*1657 – English Admiral Robert Blake destroys a Spanish silver fleet, under heavy fire from the shore, at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
* 1657 – Freedom of religion is granted to the Jews of New Amsterdam (later New York City).
*1752 – Start of Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War, a new phase in the Burmese Civil War (1740–57).
*1770 – The Georgian king, Erekle II, abandoned by his Russian ally Count Totleben, wins a victory over Ottoman forces at Aspindza.
*1789 – George Washington arrives at Grays Ferry, Philadelphia, while en route to Manhattan for his inauguration.
*1792 – France declares war against the "King of Hungary and Bohemia", the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars.
*1800 – The Septinsular Republic is established.
*1809 – Two Austrian army corps in Bavaria are defeated by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon at the Battle of Abensberg on the second day of a four-day campaign that ended in a French victory.
*1828 – René Caillié becomes the second non-Muslim to enter Timbuktu, following Major Gordon Laing. He would also be the first to return alive.
*1836 – U.S. Congress passes an act creating the Wisconsin Territory.
*1861 – American Civil War: Robert E. Lee resigns his commission in the United States Army in order to command the forces of the state of Virginia.
* 1861 – Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, attempting to display the value of balloons, makes record journey, flying 900 miles from Cincinnati to South Carolina.
*1862 – Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard complete the experiment disproving the theory of spontaneous generation.
*1865 – Astronomer Angelo Secchi demonstrates the Secchi disk, which measures water clarity, aboard Pope Pius IX's yacht, the ''L'Immaculata Concezion.
*1876 – The April Uprising begins. Its suppression shocks European opinion, and Bulgarian independence becomes a condition for ending the Russo-Turkish War.
*1884 – Pope Leo XIII publishes the encyclical Humanum genus'', condemning Freemasonry.
*1898 – U.S. President William McKinley signs a joint resolution to Congress for declaration of war against Spain, beginning the Spanish–American War.
1901–present
*1902 – Pierre and Marie Curie refine radium chloride.
*1908 – Opening day of competition in the New South Wales Rugby League.
*1914 – Nineteen men, women, and children participating in a strike are killed in the Ludlow Massacre during the Colorado Coalfield War.
*1918 – Manfred von Richthofen, a.k.a. The Red Baron, shoots down his 79th and 80th victims, his final victories before his death the following day.
*1922 – The Soviet government creates South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within Georgian SSR.
*1945 – World War II: U.S. troops capture Leipzig, Germany, only to later cede the city to the Soviet Union.
* 1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: On his 56th birthday Adolf Hitler makes his last trip to the surface to award Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth.
* 1945 – Twenty Jewish children used in medical experiments at Neuengamme are killed in the basement of the Bullenhuser Damm school.
*1946 – The League of Nations officially dissolves, giving most of its power to the United Nations.
* 1949 – Amethyst incident: The People's Liberation Army attacks travelling to the British embassy in Nanjing during the Chinese Civil War.
*1961 – Cold War: Failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion of US-backed Cuban exiles against Cuba.
*1968 – English politician Enoch Powell makes his controversial "Rivers of Blood" speech.
* 1968 – South African Airways Flight 228 crashes near the Hosea Kutako International Airport in South West Africa (now Namibia), killing 123 people.
*1972 – Apollo program: Apollo 16 Lunar Module, commanded by John Young and piloted by Charles Duke, lands on the Moon.
*1998 – Air France Flight 422 crashes after taking off from El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá, Colombia, killing all 53 people on board.
*1999 – Columbine High School massacre: Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold kill 14 people and injure 23 others before committing suicide at Columbine High School in Columbine, Colorado.
*2004 - The Nicoll Highway in Singapore collapsed, killing four workers.
*2007 – Johnson Space Center shooting: William Phillips barricades himself with a handgun in NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas before killing a male hostage and himself.
*2008 – Danica Patrick wins the Indy Japan 300 becoming the first female driver in history to win an Indy car race.
*2010 – The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explodes in the Gulf of Mexico, killing eleven workers and beginning an oil spill that would last six months.
*2012 – One hundred twenty-seven people are killed when a plane crashes in a residential area near the Benazir Bhutto International Airport near Islamabad, Pakistan.
*2013 – A 6.6-magnitude earthquake strikes Lushan County, Ya'an, in China's Sichuan province, killing at least 193 people and injuring thousands.
*2015 – Ten people are killed in a bomb attack on a convoy carrying food supplies to a United Nations compound in Garowe in the Somali region of Puntland.
*2020 – For the first time in history, oil prices drop below zero, an effect of the 2020 Russia-Saudi Arabia oil price war.
*2021 – State of Minnesota v. Derek Michael Chauvin: Derek Chauvin is found guilty of all charges in the murder of George Floyd by the Fourth Judicial District Court of Minnesota.
*2023 – SpaceX's Starship rocket, the largest and most powerful rocket ever built, launches for the first time. It explodes 4 minutes into flight.
Births
Pre-1600
*1494 – Johannes Agricola, German theologian and reformer (d. 1566)
*1544 – Renata of Lorraine, Duchess consort of Bavaria (d. 1602)
*1586 – Rose of Lima, Peruvian mystic and saint (d. 1617)
1601–1900
*1633 – Emperor Go-Kōmyō of Japan (d. 1654)
*1646 – Charles Plumier, French botanist and author (d. 1704)
*1650 – William Bedloe, English spy (d. 1680)
*1718 – David Brainerd, American missionary (d. 1747)
*1723 – Cornelius Harnett, American merchant, farmer, and politician (d. 1781)
*1727 – Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Belgian-Austrian minister and diplomat (d. 1794)
*1745 – Philippe Pinel, French physician and psychiatrist (d. 1826)
*1748 – Georg Michael Telemann, German composer and theologian (d. 1831)
*1808 – Napoleon III, French politician, 1st President of France, Emperor of French Second Empire (d. 1873)
*1816 – Bogoslav Šulek, Croatian philologist, historian, and lexicographer (d. 1895)
*1818 – Heinrich Göbel, German-American mechanic and engineer (d. 1893)
*1826 – Dinah Craik, English author and poet (d. 1887)
*1839 – Carol I of Romania, King of Romania (d. 1914)
*1840 – Odilon Redon, French painter and illustrator (d. 1916)
*1850 – Daniel Chester French, American sculptor, designed the Lincoln statue (d. 1931)
*1851 – Alexander Dianin, Russian chemist (d. 1918)
* 1851 – Siegmund Lubin, Polish-American businessman, founded the Lubin Manufacturing Company (d. 1923)
*1860 – Justinien de Clary, French target shooter (d. 1933)
*1871 – Sydney Chapman, English economist and civil servant (d. 1951)
*1873 – James Harcourt, English character actor (d. 1951)
*1875 – Vladimir Vidrić, Croatian poet and lawyer (d. 1909)
*1879 – Paul Poiret, French fashion designer (d. 1944)
*1882 – Holland Smith, American general (d. 1967)
*1884 – Princess Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1966)
* 1884 – Oliver Kirk, American boxer (d. 1960)
* 1884 – Daniel Varoujan, Armenian poet and educator (d. 1915)
*1889 – Albert Jean Amateau, Turkish rabbi, lawyer, and activist (d. 1996)
* 1889 – Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland (d. 1918)
* 1889 – Marie-Antoinette de Geuser, French mystic (d. 1918)
* 1889 – Adolf Hitler, Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Nazi Germany (d. 1945)
* 1889 – Tonny Kessler, Dutch footballer (d. 1960)
*1890 – Maurice Duplessis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 16th Premier of Quebec (d. 1959)
* 1890 – Adolf Schärf, Austrian soldier and politician, 6th President of Austria (d. 1965)
*1891 – Dave Bancroft, American baseball player and manager (d. 1972)
*1893 – Harold Lloyd, American actor, comedian, and producer (d. 1971)
* 1893 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter and sculptor (d. 1983)
*1895 – Henry de Montherlant, French essayist, novelist, and dramatist (d. 1972)
*1899 – Alan Arnett McLeod, Canadian lieutenant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1918)
1901–present
*1904 – Bruce Cabot, American actor (d. 1972)
*1907 – Miran Bakhsh, Pakistani cricketer (d. 1991)
* 1907 – Augoustinos Kantiotes, Greek bishop (d. 2010)
*1908 – Lionel Hampton, American vibraphone player, pianist, bandleader, and actor (d. 2002)
*1910 – Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, Turkish diplomat and politician (d. 1961)
*1913 – Mimis Fotopoulos, Greek actor and poet (d. 1986)
* 1913 – Willi Hennig, German biologist and entomologist (d. 1976)
*1914 – Betty Lou Gerson, American actress (d. 1999)
*1915 – Joseph Wolpe, South African psychotherapist and physician (d. 1997)
*1916 – Nasiba Zeynalova, Azerbaijani actress (d. 2004)
*1918 – Kai Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)
*1919 – Richard Hillary, Australian lieutenant and pilot (d. 1943)
*1920 – Frances Ames, South African neurologist, psychiatrist, and human rights activist (d. 2002)
* 1920 – Clement Isong, Nigerian banker and politician, Governor of Cross River State (d. 2000)
* 1920 – John Paul Stevens, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 2019)
*1921 – Katarína Kolníková, Slovak actress (d. 2006)
*1923 – Mother Angelica, American nun and broadcaster, founded Eternal Word Television Network (d. 2016)
* 1923 – Irene Lieblich, Polish-American painter and illustrator (d. 2008)
* 1923 – Tito Puente, American drummer and producer (d. 2000)
*1924 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (d. 2008)
* 1924 – Leslie Phillips, English actor and producer (d. 2022)
* 1924 – Guy Rocher, Canadian sociologist and academic
*1925 – Ernie Stautner, German-American football player and coach (d. 2006)
* 1925 – Elena Verdugo, American actress (d. 2017)
*1927 – Bud Cullen, Canadian judge and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Employment and Immigration (d. 2005)
* 1927 – Phil Hill, American race car driver (d. 2008)
* 1927 – K. Alex Müller, Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2023)
*1928 – Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (d. 2013)
* 1928 – Johnny Gavin, Irish international footballer (d. 2007)
*1930 – Dwight Gustafson, American composer and conductor (d. 2014)
* 1930 – Antony Jay, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016)
*1931 – Michael Allenby, 3rd Viscount Allenby, English lieutenant and politician (d. 2014)
* 1931 – John Eccles, 2nd Viscount Eccles, English businessman and politician
*1932 – Myriam Bru, French actress
*1936 – Lisa Davis, English-American actress
* 1936 – Pauli Ellefsen, Faroese technician, surveyor, and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 2012)
* 1936 – Pat Roberts, American captain, journalist, and politician
*1937 – Jiří Dienstbier, Czech journalist and politician, Czech Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2011)
* 1937 – Harvey Quaytman, American painter and educator (d. 2002)
* 1937 – George Takei, American actor
*1938 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (d. 2017)
* 1938 – Manfred Kinder, German runner
* 1938 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress (d. 1991)
*1939 – Peter S. Beagle, American author and screenwriter
* 1939 – Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norwegian physician and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Norway
* 1939 – Johnny Tillotson, American singer-songwriter
*1940 – James Gammon, American actor (d. 2010)
*1941 – Ryan O'Neal, American actor (d. 2023)
*1943 – Alan Beith, English academic and politician
* 1943 – John Eliot Gardiner, English conductor and director
*1944 – Toivo Aare, Estonian journalist and author (d. 1999)
*1945 – Michael Brandon, American actor and director
* 1945 – Olga Karlatos, Greek actress and Bermudian lawyer
* 1945 – Thein Sein, Burmese general and politician, 8th President of Burma
* 1945 – Naftali Temu, Kenyan runner (d. 2003)
* 1945 – Steve Spurrier, American football player and coach
*1946 – Sandro Chia, Italian painter and sculptor
*1947 – Rita Dionne-Marsolais, Canadian economist and politician
* 1947 – Viktor Suvorov, Russian intelligence officer, historian, and author
* 1947 – Niko Lekishvili, Georgian politician (d. 2025)
*1948 – Matthias Kuhle, German geographer and academic (d. 2015)
*1949 – Veronica Cartwright, English-American actress
* 1949 – Toller Cranston, Canadian-Mexican figure skater and painter (d. 2015)
* 1949 – Massimo D'Alema, Italian journalist and politician, 76th Prime Minister of Italy
* 1949 – Jessica Lange, American actress
*1950 – Alexander Lebed, Russian general and politician (d. 2002)
* 1950 – N. Chandrababu Naidu, Indian politician, 13th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh
*1951 – Luther Vandross, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)
*1952 – Louka Katseli, Greek economist and politician
*1953 – Sebastian Faulks, English journalist and author
* 1953 – James Chance, American musician (d. 2024)
*1955 – Donald Pettit, American engineer and astronaut
* 1955 – Svante Pääbo, Swedish geneticist and Nobel Laureate
*1956 – Beatrice Ask, Swedish politician, Swedish Minister for Justice
* 1956 – Peter Chelsom, English film director, writer, and actor
* 1956 – Kakha Bendukidze, Georgian economist and politician (d. 2014)
*1958 – Viacheslav Fetisov, Russian ice hockey player and coach
*1960 – Debbie Flintoff-King, Australian hurdler and coach
*1961 – Don Mattingly, American baseball player, coach, and manager
* 1961 – Konstantin Lavronenko, Russian actor
*1963 – Rachel Whiteread, English sculptor
*1964 – John Carney, American football player
* 1964 – Crispin Glover, American actor and filmmaker
* 1964 – Andy Serkis, English actor and director
* 1964 – Rosalynn Sumners, American figure skater
*1965 – Kostis Chatzidakis, Greek politician, Ministry of Economy, Infrastructure, Shipping and Tourism
* 1965 – Léa Fazer, Swiss film director, screenwriter and actress
* 1965 – Mark Mallia, Maltese painter and sculptor (d. 2024)
*1966 – David Chalmers, Australian philosopher and academic
* 1966 – David Filo, American businessman, co-founded Yahoo!
* 1967 – Lara Jill Miller, American actress
*1967 – Mike Portnoy, American drummer and songwriter
*1968 – Julia Morris, Australian entertainer
*1969 – Felix Baumgartner, Austrian daredevil
* 1969 – Will Hodgman, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Tasmania
*1970 – Shemar Moore, American actor
*1971 – Allan Houston, American basketball player
*1972 – Carmen Electra, American model and actress
* 1972 – Stephen Marley, Jamaican-American musician
*1973 – Julie Powell, American food writer and memoirist (d. 2022)
*1975 – Killer Mike, American rapper
*1978 – Carl Greenidge, English cricketer
*1980 – Emma Husar, Australian politician
*1983 – Miranda Kerr, Australian model
*1987 – Jorge Pinto, Portuguese politician
*1988 – Brandon Belt, American baseball player
*1989 – Vannesa Rosales, Venezuelan activist and teacher
*1990 - Kyle Higashioka, American baseball player
*1990 – Jason Behrendorff, Australian cricketer
*1991 – Luke Kuechly, American football player
*1997 – Alexander Zverev, German tennis player
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Deaths
Pre-1600
* 689 – Cædwalla, king of Wessex (b. 659)
*888 – Xi Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 862)
*1099 – Peter Bartholomew (b. 1061)
*1164 – Antipope Victor IV
*1176 – Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English-Irish politician, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland (b. 1130)
*1248 – Güyük Khan, Mongol ruler, 3rd Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (b. 1206)
*1284 – Hōjō Tokimune, regent of Japan (b. 1251)
*1314 – Pope Clement V (b. 1264)
*1322 – Simon Rinalducci, Italian Augustinian friar
*1502 – Mary of Looz-Heinsberg, Dutch noble (b. 1424)
*1521 – Zhengde, Chinese emperor (b. 1491)
*1534 – Elizabeth Barton, English nun and martyr (b. 1506)
*1558 – Johannes Bugenhagen, German priest and theologian (b. 1485)
1601–1900
*1643 – Christoph Demantius, German composer and poet (b. 1567)
*1703 – Lancelot Addison, English clergyman and educator (b. 1632)
*1769 – Chief Pontiac, American tribal leader (b. 1720)
*1831 – John Abernethy, English surgeon and anatomist (b. 1764)
*1873 – William Tite, English architect, designed the Royal Exchange (b. 1798)
*1874 – Alexander H. Bailey, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1817)
*1881 – William Burges, English architect and designer (b. 1827)
*1886 – Charles-François-Frédéric, marquis de Montholon-Sémonville, French general and diplomat, French ambassador to the United States (b. 1814)
*1887 – Muhammad Sharif Pasha, Greek-Egyptian politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Egypt (b. 1826)
*1899 – Joseph Wolf, German ornithologist and illustrator (b. 1820)
1901–present
*1902 – Joaquim de Sousa Andrade, Brazilian poet and educator (b. 1833)
*1912 – Bram Stoker, Anglo-Irish novelist and critic, created Count Dracula (b. 1847)
*1918 – Jussi Merinen, Finnish politician (b. 1873)
*1918 – Karl Ferdinand Braun, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)
*1927 – Enrique Simonet, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1866)
*1929 – Prince Henry of Prussia (b. 1862)
*1931 – Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, 5th Baronet, Scottish-English fencer and businessman (b. 1862)
*1932 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1858)
*1935 – John Cameron, Scottish footballer and manager (b. 1872)
* 1935 – Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon, English fashion designer (b. 1863)
*1942 – Jüri Jaakson, Estonian businessman and politician, 6th State Elder of Estonia (b. 1870)
*1944 – Elmer Gedeon, American baseball player and pilot (b. 1917)
*1945 – Erwin Bumke, Polish-German jurist and politician (b. 1874)
*1946 – Mae Busch, Australian actress (b. 1891)
*1947 – Christian X of Denmark (b. 1870)
*1951 – Ivanoe Bonomi, Italian politician, 25th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1873)
*1967 – Léo-Paul Desrosiers, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1896)
*1968 – Rudolph Dirks, German-American illustrator (b. 1877)
*1969 – Vjekoslav Luburić, Croatian Ustaše official and concentration camp administrator (b. 1914)
*1980 – M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (b. 1924)
*1982 – Archibald MacLeish, American poet, playwright, and lawyer (b. 1892)
*1986 – Sibte Hassan, Pakistani journalist, scholar, and activist (b. 1916)
*1991 – Steve Marriott, English singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)
* 1991 – Don Siegel, American director and producer (b. 1912)
*1992 – Marjorie Gestring, American springboard diver (b. 1922)
* 1992 – Benny Hill, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1924)
*1993 – Cantinflas, Mexican actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1911)
*1995 – Milovan Đilas, Yugoslav communist, politician, theorist and author (b. 1911)
*1996 – Trần Văn Trà, Vietnamese general and politician (b. 1918)
*1999 – Rick Rude, American professional wrestler (b. 1958)
*1999 – Rachel Scott, American victim of Columbine High School massacre (b. 1981)
*1999 – Cassie Bernall, American victim of Columbine High School massacre (b. 1981)
*2001 – Giuseppe Sinopoli, Italian conductor and composer (b. 1946)
*2002 – Alan Dale, American singer (b. 1925)
*2003 – Bernard Katz, German-English biophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
*2004 – Lizzy Mercier Descloux, French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter (b. 1956)
*2005 – Fumio Niwa, Japanese journalist and author (b. 1904)
*2007 – Andrew Hill, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1931)
* 2007 – Michael Fu Tieshan, Chinese bishop (b. 1931)
*2008 – Monica Lovinescu, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1923)
*2010 – Dorothy Height, American educator and activist (b. 1912)
*2011 – Tim Hetherington, English photographer and journalist (b. 1970)
*2012 – Bert Weedon, English guitarist and songwriter (b. 1920)
*2014 – Neville Wran, Australian politician, 35th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1926)
*2016 – Victoria Wood, British comedian, actress and writer (b. 1953)
*2018 – Avicii, Swedish DJ and musician (b. 1989)
*2021 – Idriss Déby, Chadian politician and military officer (b. 1952)
* 2021 – Monte Hellman, American film director (b. 1929)
* 2021 – Les McKeown, Scottish pop singer (b. 1955)
*2022 – Gavin Millar, Scottish film director (b. 1938)
*2024 – Antonio Cantafora, Italian film and television actor (b. 1944)
*2024 – Andrew Davis, English conductor (b. 1944)
*2024 – Roman Gabriel, Filipino-American NBA American footballer
*2024 – Lourdes Portillo, Mexican film director, producer, and writer (b. 1943)
<!--Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order of surname. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Agnes of Montepulciano
**Beuno
**Johannes Bugenhagen (Lutheran)
**Theotimos
**April 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* 420 (cannabis culture)
*UN Chinese Language Day (United Nations)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/20 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/20 Historical Events on April 20]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_20 | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.450541 |
2196 | April 19 | Events
Pre-1600
*AD 65 – The freedman Milichus betrays Piso's plot to kill the Emperor Nero and all of the conspirators are arrested.
* 531 – Battle of Callinicum: A Byzantine army under Belisarius is defeated by the Persians at Raqqa (northern Syria).
*1506 – The Lisbon Massacre begins, in which accused Jews are slaughtered by Portuguese Catholics.
*1529 – Beginning of the Protestant Reformation: After the Second Diet of Speyer bans Lutheranism, a group of rulers (German: Fürst) and independent cities protests the reinstatement of the Edict of Worms.
*1539 – The Treaty of Frankfurt between Protestants and the Holy Roman Emperor is signed.
1601–1900
*1608 – In Ireland, O'Doherty's Rebellion is launched by the Burning of Derry.
*1677 – The French army captures the town of Cambrai held by Spanish troops.
*1713 – With no living male heirs, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, issues the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 to ensure that Habsburg lands and the Austrian throne would be inheritable by a female; his daughter and successor, Maria Theresa, was not born until 1717.
*1770 – Captain James Cook, still holding the rank of lieutenant, sights the eastern coast of what is now Australia.
* 1770 – Marie Antoinette marries Louis XVI in a proxy wedding.
*1775 – American Revolutionary War: The war begins during the Battles of Lexington and Concord with a victory of American minutemen and other militia over British forces, later referred to as the "shot heard round the world".
* 1775 – American Revolutionary War: Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Siege of Boston begins with American militias blocking land access to the British-held city.
*1782 – John Adams secures Dutch recognition of the United States as an independent government. The house which he had purchased in The Hague becomes the first American embassy.
*1809 – An Austrian corps is defeated by the forces of the Duchy of Warsaw in the Battle of Raszyn, part of the struggles of the Fifth Coalition. On the same day the Austrian main army is defeated by a First French Empire Corps led by Louis-Nicolas Davout at the Battle of Teugen-Hausen in Bavaria, part of a four-day campaign that ended in a French victory.
*1810 – Venezuela achieves home rule: Vicente Emparán, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a junta is installed.
*1818 – French physicist Augustin Fresnel signs his preliminary "Note on the Theory of Diffraction" (deposited on the following day). The document ends with what we now call the Fresnel integrals.
*1839 – The Treaty of London establishes Belgium as a kingdom and guarantees its neutrality.
*1861 – American Civil War: Baltimore riot of 1861: A pro-Secession mob in Baltimore attacks United States Army troops marching through the city.
1901–present
*1903 – The Kishinev pogrom in Kishinev (Bessarabia) begins, forcing tens of thousands of Jews to later seek refuge in Palestine and the Western world.
*1927 – Mae West is sentenced to ten days in jail for obscenity for her play Sex.
*1936 – The Jaffa riots commence, initiating the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine.
*1942 – World War II: In German-occupied Poland, the Majdan-Tatarski ghetto is established, situated between the Lublin Ghetto and a Majdanek subcamp.
*1943 – World War II: In German-occupied Poland, the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising begins, after German troops enter the Warsaw Ghetto to round up the remaining Jews.
* 1943 – Albert Hofmann deliberately doses himself with LSD for the first time, three days after having discovered its effects on April 16, an event commonly known and celebrated as Bicycle Day.
*1956 – Actress Grace Kelly marries Prince Rainier of Monaco.
*1960 – Students in South Korea hold a nationwide pro-democracy protest against president Syngman Rhee, eventually forcing him to resign.
*1971 – Sierra Leone becomes a republic, and Siaka Stevens the president.
* 1971 – Launch of Salyut 1, the first space station.
* 1971 – Charles Manson is sentenced to death (later commuted to life imprisonment) for conspiracy in the Tate–LaBianca murders.
*1973 – The Portuguese Socialist Party is founded in the German town of Bad Münstereifel.
*1975 – India's first satellite Aryabhata launched in orbit from Kapustin Yar, Russia.
* 1975 – South Vietnamese forces withdrew from the town of Xuan Loc in the last major battle of the Vietnam War.
*1976 – A violent F5 tornado strikes around Brownwood, Texas, injuring 11 people. Two people were thrown at least by the tornado and survived uninjured.
*1984 – Advance Australia Fair is proclaimed as Australia's national anthem, and green and gold as the national colours.
*1985 – Two hundred ATF and FBI agents lay siege to the compound of the white supremacist survivalist group The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord in Arkansas; the CSA surrenders two days later.
*1987 – The Simpsons first appear as a series of shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show, first starting with "Good Night".
*1989 – A gun turret explodes on the , killing 47 sailors.
*1993 – The 51-day FBI siege of the Branch Davidian building in Waco, Texas, USA, ends when a fire breaks out. Seventy-six Davidians, including 18 children under age 10, died in the fire.
*1995 – Oklahoma City bombing: The Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, USA, is bombed, killing 168 people including 19 children under the age of six.
*1999 – The German Bundestag returns to Berlin.
*2000 – Air Philippines Flight 541 crashes in Samal, Davao del Norte, killing all 131 people on board.
*2001 – Space Shuttle Endeavour is launched on STS-100 carrying the Canadarm2 to the International Space Station.
*2005 – Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is elected to the papacy and becomes Pope Benedict XVI.
*2011 – Fidel Castro resigns as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba after holding the title since July 1961.
*2013 – Boston Marathon bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shootout with police. His brother Dzhokhar is later captured hiding in a boat inside a backyard in the suburb of Watertown.
*2020 – A killing spree in Nova Scotia, Canada, leaves 22 people and the perpetrator dead, making it the deadliest rampage in the country's history.
*2021 – The Ingenuity helicopter becomes the first aircraft to achieve flight on another planet.BirthsPre-1600*1452 – Frederick IV, King of Naples (d. 1504)
*1593 – Sir John Hobart, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1647)
1601–1900
*1603 – Michel Le Tellier, French politician, French Minister of Defence (d. 1685)
*1613 – Christoph Bach, German musician (d. 1661)
*1633 – Willem Drost, Dutch painter (d. 1659)
*1655 – George St Lo(e), Royal Navy officer and administrator (d. 1718)
*1658 – Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, German husband of Archduchess Maria Anna Josepha of Austria (d. 1716)
*1665 – Jacques Lelong, French author (d. 1721)
*1686 – Vasily Tatishchev, Russian ethnographer and politician (d. 1750)
*1715 – James Nares, English organist and composer (d. 1783)
*1721 – Roger Sherman, American lawyer and politician (d. 1793)
*1734 – Karl von Ordóñez, Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1786)
*1757 – Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, English admiral and politician (d. 1833)
*1758 – William Carnegie, 7th Earl of Northesk, Scottish admiral (d. 1831)
*1785 – Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, French pianist and composer (d. 1858)
*1787 – Deaf Smith, American soldier (d. 1837)
*1793 – Ferdinand I of Austria (d. 1875)
*1806 – Sarah Bagley, American labor organizer (d. 1889)
*1814 – Louis Amédée Achard, French journalist and author (d. 1875)
*1831 – Mary Louise Booth, American writer, editor and translator (d. 1889)
*1832 – José Echegaray, Spanish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916)
*1835 – Julius Krohn, Finnish poet and journalist (d. 1888)
*1861 – Amalie Andersen, Norwegian actress (d. 1924)
*1863 – Hemmo Kallio, Finnish actor (d. 1940)
*1872 – Alice Salomon, German social reformer (d. 1948)
*1873 – Sydney Barnes, English cricketer (d. 1967)
*1874 – Ernst Rüdin, Swiss psychiatrist, geneticist, and eugenicist (d. 1952)
*1877 – Ole Evinrude, Norwegian-American engineer, invented the outboard motor (d. 1934)
*1879 – Arthur Robertson, Scottish runner (d. 1957)
*1882 – Getúlio Vargas, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 14th President of Brazil (d. 1954)
*1883 – Henry Jameson, American soccer player (d. 1938)
* 1883 – Richard von Mises, Austrian-American mathematician and physicist (d. 1953)
*1885 – Karl Tarvas, Estonian architect (d. 1975)
*1889 – Otto Georg Thierack, German jurist and politician (d. 1946)
*1891 – Françoise Rosay, French actress (d. 1974)
*1892 – Germaine Tailleferre, French composer and educator (d. 1983)
*1894 – Elizabeth Dilling, American author and activist (d. 1966)
*1897 – Peter de Noronha, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1970)
* 1897 – Jiroemon Kimura, Japanese super-centenarian, oldest verified man ever (d. 2013)
*1898 – Constance Talmadge, American actress and producer (d. 1973)
*1899 – George O'Brien, American actor (d. 1985)
* 1899 – Cemal Tollu, Turkish lieutenant and painter (d. 1968)
*1900 – Iracema de Alencar, Brazilian film actress (d. 1978)
* 1900 – Richard Hughes, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1976)
* 1900 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (d. 1991)
* 1900 – Rhea Silberta, American Yiddish songwriter and singing teacher (d. 1959)
1901–present
*1902 – Veniamin Kaverin, Russian author and screenwriter (d. 1989)
*1903 – Eliot Ness, American law enforcement agent (d. 1957)
*1908 – Irena Eichlerówna, Polish actress (d. 1990)
*1912 – Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
*1913 – Ken Carpenter, American discus thrower and coach (d. 1984)
*1917 – Sven Hassel, Danish-German soldier and author (d. 2012)
*1919 – Sol Kaplan, American pianist and composer (d. 1990)
*1920 – Marvin Mandel, American lawyer and politician, 56th Governor of Maryland (d. 2015)
* 1920 – Julien Ries, Belgian cardinal (d. 2013)
* 1920 – Ragnar Ulstein, Norwegian journalist and war historian (d. 2019)
*1921 – Anna Lee Aldred, American jockey (d. 2006)
* 1921 – Leon Henkin, American logician (d. 2006)
* 1921 – Roberto Tucci, Italian Jesuit leader, cardinal, and theologian (d. 2015)
*1922 – Erich Hartmann, German colonel and pilot (d. 1993)
*1925 – John Kraaijkamp, Sr., Dutch actor (d. 2011)
* 1925 – Hugh O'Brian, American actor (d. 2016)
*1926 – Rawya Ateya, Egyptian captain and politician (d. 1997)
*1928 – John Horlock, English engineer and academic (d. 2015)
* 1928 – Azlan Shah of Perak, Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia (d. 2014)
*1931 – Walter Stewart, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2004)
*1932 – Fernando Botero, Colombian painter and sculptor (d. 2023)
*1933 – Jayne Mansfield, American model and actress (d. 1967)
*1934 – Dickie Goodman, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1989)
*1935 – Dudley Moore, English actor, comedian, and pianist (d. 2002)
* 1935 – Justin Francis Rigali, American cardinal
*1936 – Wilfried Martens, Belgian politician, 60th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2013)
* 1936 – Jack Pardee, American football player and coach (d. 2013)
*1937 – Antonio Carluccio, Italian-English chef and author (d. 2017)
* 1937 – Elinor Donahue, American actress
* 1937 – Joseph Estrada, Filipino politician, 13th President of the Philippines
*1938 – Stanley Fish, American theorist, author, and scholar
*1939 – Clay Shaw, American accountant, judge, and politician (d. 2013)
*1941 – Michel Roux, French-English chef and author (d. 2020)
* 1941 – Bobby Russell, American singer-songwriter (d. 1992)
*1942 – Alan Price, English keyboard player, singer, and composer
*1943 – Margo MacDonald, Scottish journalist and politician (d. 2014)
*1944 – James Heckman, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1944 – Bernie Worrell, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2016)
*1946 – Tim Curry, English actor and singer
*1951 – Jóannes Eidesgaard, Faroese educator and politician, Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands
*1952 – Simon Cowell, English conservationist and author
*1954 – Trevor Francis, English footballer and manager (d. 2023)
*1956 – Anne Glover, Scottish biologist and academic
*1957 – Mukesh Ambani, Indian businessman, chairman of Reliance Industries
*1960 – Ara Gevorgyan, Armenian pianist, composer, and producer
* 1960 – Frank Viola, American baseball player and coach
*1964 – Kim Weaver, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic
*1965 – Suge Knight, American record executive
*1966 – Véronique Gens, French soprano and actress
*1968 – Ashley Judd, American actress
* 1968 – Mswati III, King (Ngwenyama) of Eswatini (Swaziland)
*1970 – Kelly Holmes, English athlete and double Olympic champion
*1972 – Rivaldo Vitor Borba Ferreira, Brazilian footballer
*1978 – James Franco, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1978 – Amanda Sage, American-Austrian painter and educator
*1979 – Kate Hudson, American actress
*1981 – Hayden Christensen, Canadian actor
* 1981 – Lise Klaveness, Norwegian footballer and lawyer, president of the Norwegian Football Federation
* 1981 – Troy Polamalu, American football player
*1982 – Samuel C. Morrison, Jr., Liberian-American journalist, producer, and screenwriter
* 1982 – Ali Wong, American comedian and actress
*1983 – Joe Mauer, American baseball player
*1986 – Candace Parker, American basketball player
*1987 – Joe Hart, English footballer
* 1987 – Maria Sharapova, Russian tennis player
*1989 – Simu Liu, Canadian actor
*1990 – Jackie Bradley Jr., American baseball player
* 1990 – Kim Chiu, Filipino actress, singer, and dancer
*1991 – Kelly Olynyk, Canadian basketball player
*2002 – Loren Gray, American singer and internet personality
*2003 – Jackson Merrill, American baseball player
*2016 – Christian Joseph, American internet personality
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 843 – Judith of Bavaria, Frankish empress
*1012 – Ælfheah of Canterbury, English archbishop and saint (b. 954)
*1013 – Hisham II, Umayyad caliph of Córdoba (b. 966)
*1044 – Gothelo I, duke of Lorraine
*1054 – Leo IX, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1002)
*1321 – Gerasimus I, patriarch of Constantinople
*1390 – Robert II, king of Scotland (b. 1316)
*1405 – Thomas West, 1st Baron West, English nobleman (b. 1335)
*1431 – Adolph III, count of Waldeck (b. 1362)
*1560 – Philip Melanchthon, German theologian and reformer (b. 1497)
*1567 – Michael Stifel, German monk and mathematician (b. 1487)
*1578 – Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1530)
*1588 – Paolo Veronese, Italian painter (b. 1528)
1601–1900
*1608 – Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset, English poet, playwright, and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1536)
*1618 – Thomas Bastard, English priest and author (b. 1566)
*1619 – Jagat Gosain, Mughal empress (b. 1573)
*1629 – Sigismondo d'India, Italian composer (b. 1582)
*1686 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish historian and playwright (b. 1610)
*1689 – Christina, queen of Sweden (b. 1626)
*1733 – Elizabeth Hamilton, countess of Orkney (b. 1657)
*1739 – Nicholas Saunderson, English mathematician and academic (b. 1682)
*1768 – Canaletto, Italian painter and etcher (b. 1697)
*1776 – Jacob Emden, German rabbi and author (b. 1697)
*1791 – Richard Price, Welsh-English preacher and philosopher (b. 1723)
*1813 – Benjamin Rush, American physician and educator (b. 1745)
*1824 – Lord Byron, English-Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1788)
*1831 – Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger, German astronomer and mathematician (b. 1765)
*1833 – James Gambier, 1st Baron Gambier, Bahamian-English admiral and politician, 36th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1756)
*1840 – Jean-Jacques Lartigue, Canadian bishop (b. 1777)
*1854 – Robert Jameson, Scottish mineralogist and academic (b. 1774)
*1881 – Benjamin Disraeli, English journalist and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1804)
*1882 – Charles Darwin, English biologist and theorist (b. 1809)
*1893 – Martin Körber, Estonian-German pastor, composer, and conductor (b. 1817)
1901–present
*1901 – Alfred Horatio Belo, American publisher, founded The Dallas Morning News (b. 1839)
*1903 – Oliver Mowat, Canadian politician, third Premier of Ontario, eighth Lieutenant Governor of Ontario (b. 1820)
*1906 – Pierre Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1859)
* 1906 – Spencer Gore, English tennis player and cricketer (b. 1850)
*1909 – Signe Rink, Greenland-born Danish writer and ethnologist (b. 1836)
*1914 – Charles Sanders Peirce, American mathematician and philosopher (b. 1839)
*1915 – Thomas Playford II, English-Australian politician, 17th Premier of South Australia (b. 1837)
*1916 – Ephraim Shay, American engineer, designed the Shay locomotive (b. 1839)
*1926 – Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov, Russian-Swiss statistician and theorist (b. 1874)
*1930 – Georges-Casimir Dessaulles, Canadian businessman and politician (b. 1827)
*1937 – Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English cartographer and politician (b. 1856)
* 1937 – William Morton Wheeler, American entomologist and zoologist (b. 1865)
*1940 – Jack McNeela, Irish Republican Army, died on hunger strike
*1941 – Johanna Müller-Hermann, Austrian composer (b. 1878)
*1949 – Ulrich Salchow, Danish-Swedish figure skater (b. 1877)
*1950 – Ernst Robert Curtius, French-German philologist and scholar (b. 1886)
*1952 – Steve Conway, British singer (b. 1921)
*1955 – Jim Corbett, British-Indian colonel, hunter, and author (b. 1875)
*1960 – Beardsley Ruml, American economist and statistician (b. 1894)
*1961 – Max Hainle, German swimmer (b. 1882)
*1966 – Väinö Tanner, Finnish politician of Social Democratic Party of Finland; the Prime Minister of Finland (b. 1881)
*1967 – Konrad Adenauer, German politician, 1st Chancellor of Germany (b. 1876)
*1971 – Luigi Piotti, Italian race car driver (b. 1913)
*1975 – Percy Lavon Julian, American chemist and academic (b. 1899)
*1988 – Kwon Ki-ok, Korean pilot (b. 1901)
*1989 – Daphne du Maurier, English novelist and playwright (b. 1907)
*1991 – Stanley Hawes, English-Australian director and producer (b. 1905)
*1992 – Frankie Howerd, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1917)
*1993 – David Koresh, American cult leader (b. 1959)
* 1993 – George S. Mickelson, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of South Dakota (b. 1941)
*1998 – Octavio Paz, Mexican poet, philosopher, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1914)
*1999 – Hermine Braunsteiner, Austrian-German SS officer (b. 1919)
*2000 – Louis Applebaum, Canadian composer and conductor (b. 1918)
*2002 – Reginald Rose, American writer (b. 1920)
*2004 – Norris McWhirter, English author and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (b. 1925)
* 2004 – John Maynard Smith, English biologist and geneticist (b. 1920)
* 2004 – Jenny Pike, Canadian WWII servicewoman and photographer (b. 1922)
*2006 – Albert Scott Crossfield, American engineer, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1921)
*2007 – Jean-Pierre Cassel, French actor (b. 1932)
*2009 – J. G. Ballard, English novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1930)
*2011 – Elisabeth Sladen, English actress (b. 1946)
*2012 – Levon Helm, American musician and actor (b. 1940)
*2013 – François Jacob, French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)
* 2013 – Al Neuharth, American journalist, author, and publisher, founded USA Today (b. 1924)
*2015 – Raymond Carr, English historian and academic (b. 1919)
* 2015 – Roy Mason, English miner and politician, Secretary of State for Defence (b. 1924)
*2016 – Patricio Aylwin, Chilean politician (b. 1918)
*2017 – Lu Chao-Hsuan, Taiwanese guitarist, performer and educator. (b. 1929)
*2021 – Walter Mondale, American politician, 42nd Vice President of the United States (b. 1928)
* 2021 – Jim Steinman, American composer, lyricist (b. 1947)
*2022 – Kane Tanaka, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1903)
*2023 – Moonbin, South Korean singer and actor (b. 1998)
*2023 – Ron Hamilton, American musician (b. 1950)
*2024 – Daniel Dennett, American philosopher and author (b. 1942)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Ælfheah of Canterbury (Anglican, Catholic)
** Conrad of Ascoli
** Emma of Lesum
** Expeditus
** George of Antioch
** Olaus and Laurentius Petri (Lutheran)
** Pope Leo IX
** Ursmar
** April 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/19 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/19 Historical Events on April 19]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_19 | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.518646 |
2197 | Amstrad CPC | | Discontinued =
| generation = Third
| unitssold = 3 million
| Processor = Zilog Z80A @ 4 MHz
| Memory 64 or 128 KB, expandable to 576 KB
| Media = Compact Cassette, 3-inch floppy disks
| Graphics = Motorola 6845 or compatible, custom gate array
| Display = 160×200 pixels with 16 colours, 320×200 pixels with 4 colours, 640×200 pixels with 2 colours
| Input = Keyboard
| Connectivity | OS AMSDOS with Locomotive BASIC 1.0 or 1.1; CP/M 2.2 or 3.0
| Baseprice | sound AY-3-8912, 3-voices, 8-octaves
}}
The Amstrad CPC (short for "Colour Personal Computer") is a series of 8-bit home computers produced by Amstrad between 1984 and 1990. It was designed to compete in the mid-1980s home computer market dominated by the Commodore 64 and the ZX Spectrum; it successfully established itself primarily in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and the German-speaking parts of Europe, and also Canada.
The series spawned a total of six distinct models: The CPC 464, CPC 664, and CPC 6128 were highly successful competitors in the European home computer market. The later 464 plus and 6128 plus, intended to prolong the system's lifecycle with hardware updates, were considerably less successful, as was the attempt to repackage the plus hardware into a game console as the GX4000.
The CPC models' hardware is based on the Zilog Z80A CPU, complemented with either 64 or 128 KB of RAM. Their computer-in-a-keyboard design prominently features an integrated storage device, either a compact cassette deck or 3-inch floppy disk drive. The main units were only sold bundled with either a colour, green-screen or monochrome monitor that doubles as the main unit's power supply. Additionally, a wide range of first and third-party hardware extensions such as external disk drives, printers, and memory extensions, was available.
The CPC series was pitched against other home computers primarily used to play video games and enjoyed a strong supply of game software. The comparatively low price for a complete computer system with dedicated monitor, its high-resolution monochrome text and graphic capabilities and the possibility to run CP/M software also rendered the system attractive for business users, which was reflected by a wide selection of application software.
During its lifetime, the CPC series sold approximately three million units.
<!-- Right-aligned image occupying otherwise unused space beside contents list -->
Models
The philosophy behind the CPC series was twofold, firstly the concept was of an "all-in-one", where the computer, keyboard and its data storage device were combined in a single unit and sold with its own dedicated display monitor. Most home computers at that time such as ZX Spectrum series, Commodore 64, and BBC Micro relied on the use of the domestic television set and a separately connected tape recorder or disk drive. In itself, the all-in-one concept was not new, having been seen before on business-oriented machines and the Commodore PET.
Secondly, Amstrad founder Alan Sugar wanted the machine to resemble a "real computer, similar to what someone would see being used to check them in at the airport for their holidays", and for the machine to not look like "a pregnant calculator" – in reference presumably to the ZX81 and ZX Spectrum with their low cost, membrane-type keyboards.
on the CPC 464 in 1988]]
CPC 464
The CPC 464 was one of the most successful computers in Europe and sold more than two million units.
The CPC 464 featured 64 KB RAM and an internal cassette deck. It was introduced in June 1984 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were £249.00/DM899.00 with a green screen and £359.00/DM1398.00 with a colour monitor. Following the introduction of the CPC 6128 in late 1985, suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were cut by £50.00/DM100.00.
In 1990, the 464plus replaced the CPC 464 in the model line-up, and production of the CPC 464 was discontinued.
CPC 664
The CPC 664 features 64 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. It was introduced on 25 April 1985 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 664 were £339.00/DM1198.00 with a green screen and £449.00/DM1998.00 with a colour monitor.
After the successful release of the CPC 464, consumers were constantly asking for two improvements: more memory and an internal disk drive. For Amstrad, the latter was easier to realise. At the deliberately low-key introduction of the CPC 664, the machine was positioned not only as the lowest-cost disk system but even the lowest-cost CP/M 2.2 machine. In the Amstrad CPC product range the CPC 664 complemented the CPC 464 which was neither discontinued nor reduced in price.
Compared to the CPC 464, the CPC 664's main unit has been significantly redesigned, not only to accommodate the floppy disk drive but also with a redesigned keyboard area. Touted as "ergonomic" by Amstrad's promotional material, the keyboard is noticeably tilted to the front with MSX-style cursor keys above the numeric keypad. Compared to the CPC 464's multicoloured keyboard, the CPC 664's keys are kept in a much quieter grey and pale blue colour scheme.
The back of the CPC 664 main unit features the same connectors as the CPC 464, with the exception of an additional 12V power lead. Unlike the CPC 464's cassette tape drive that could be powered off the main unit's 5V voltage, the CPC 664's floppy disk drive requires an additional 12V voltage. This voltage had to be separately supplied by an updated version of the bundled green screen/colour monitor (GT-65 and CTM-644 respectively).
The CPC 664 was only produced for approximately six months. In late 1985, when the CPC 6128 was introduced in Europe, Amstrad decided not to keep three models in the line-up, and production of the CPC 664 was discontinued. CPC 6128
The CPC 6128 features 128 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. Aside from various hardware and firmware improvements, one of the CPC 6128's most prominent features is the compatibility with the CP/M+ operating system that rendered it attractive for business uses.
The CPC 6128 was released on 13 June 1985 and initially only sold in the US. Two months later, on 15 August 1985, it arrived in Europe and soft scrolling, with a colour palette extended from a maximum of 16 colours (plus separately definable border) at one time from a choice of 27, increased to a maximum of 31 (16 for background and 15 for hardware sprites) out of 4096. The enhanced sound hardware offers automatic DMA transfer, allowing more complex sound effects with a significantly reduced processor overhead. Other hardware enhancements include the support of analogue joysticks, 8-bit printers, and ROM cartridges up to 4 Mbits.
The new range of models was intended to be completely backwards compatible with the original CPC models. Its enhanced features are only available after a deliberately obscure unlocking mechanism has been triggered, thus preventing existing CPC software from accidentally invoking them.
Despite the significant hardware enhancements, many viewed it as outdated, being based on an 8-bit CPU, and it failed to attract both customers and software producers who were moving towards systems such as the Amiga and Mega Drive which was launched a few short months after the plus range. The plus range was a commercial failure, and production was discontinued shortly after its introduction in 1990.
464 plus, 6128 plus
The 464 plus and 6128 plus models were intended as "more sophisticated and stylish" replacements of the CPC 464 and CPC 6128. Based on the redesigned plus hardware platform, they share the same base characteristics as their predecessors: The 464 plus is equipped with 64 KB RAM and a cassette tape drive, the 6128 plus features 128 KB RAM and a 3" floppy disk drive. Both models share a common case layout with a keyboard taken over from the CPC 6128 model, and the respective mass storage drive inserted in a case breakout.
In order to simplify the EMC screening process, the edge connectors of the previous models have been replaced with micro-ribbon connectors as previously used on the German Schneider CPC 6128. As a result, a wide range of extensions for the original CPC range are connector-incompatible with the 464 plus and 6128 plus. In addition, the 6128plus does not have a tape socket for an external tape drive.
The plus range is not equipped with an on-board ROM, and thus the 464 plus and the 6128 plus do not contain a firmware. Instead, Amstrad provided the firmware for both models via the ROM extension facility, contained on the included ''Burnin' Rubber and Locomotive BASIC'' cartridge. This resulted in reduced hardware localization cost (only some select key caps and case labels had to be localized) with the added benefit of a rudimentary copy protection mechanism (without a firmware present, the machine itself could not copy a game cartridge's content).
Both the 464 plus and the 6128 plus were introduced to the public in September 1990. Initial suggested retail prices were / with a monochrome monitor and / with a colour monitor for the 464 plus, and / with a monochrome monitor and / with a colour monitor for the 6128plus.
GX4000
Developed as part of the plus range, the GX4000 was Amstrad's short-lived attempt to enter the video game consoles market. Sharing the plus range's enhanced hardware characteristics, it represents the bare minimum variant of the range without a keyboard or support for mass storage devices. and 1558/1985), and a new law (Royal Decree 1250/1985) mandated that all computers sold in Spain must have a Spanish keyboard. To circumvent this, Amstrad's Spanish distributor Indescomp (later to become Amstrad Spain) created and distributed the CPC 472, a modified version of the CPC 464. Its main differences are a small additional daughter board containing a CPC 664 ROM chip and an 8 KB memory chip, and a keyboard with a ñ key (although some of them were temporarily manufactured without the ñ key). The sole purpose of the 8 KB memory chip (which is not electrically connected to the machine, so consequently rendered unusable) is to increase the machine's total memory specs to 72 KB in order to circumvent the import tax. Some months later, Spain joined the European Communities by the Treaty of Accession 1985 and the import tax was suppressed, so Amstrad added the ñ key for the 464 and production of the CPC 472 was discontinued.
KC compact
<!-- Section title used in redirects to this page -->
The ("" - which means "small computer" - being a rather literal German translation of the English "microcomputer") is a clone of the Amstrad CPC built by East Germany's , part of , in October 1989. Although the machine included various substitutes and emulations of an Amstrad CPC's hardware, the machine is largely compatible with Amstrad CPC software. It is equipped with 64 KB of memory and a CPC 6128's firmware customized to the modified hardware, including a copy of Locomotive BASIC 1.1 modified in the startup banner only. The expansion port is a K 1520 bus slot. The KC compact is the last 8-bit computer introduced in East Germany. Due to the German reunification happening at the time of the release, only a very small number of systems were sold. The KC compact can be emulated by free software JKCEMU.
Aleste 520EX
In 1993, Omsk, Russia based company Patisonic released the Aleste 520EX, a computer highly compatible with the Amstrad CPC 6128. It could also be switched into an MSX mode. An expansion board named Magic Sound allowed to play Scream Tracker files.
Reception
Your Computer concluded that the CPC 464 had "Superior graphics and sound, an excellent Basic coupled with a flexible operating system" and that Amstrad's target sales of 200,000 by the end of 1984 were realistic.
A BYTE columnist in January 1985 called the CPC 464 "the closest yet to filling" his criteria for a useful home computer, including good keyboard, 80-column text, inexpensive disk drive, and support for a mainstream operating system like CP/M.HardwareProcessorThe entire CPC series is based on the Zilog Z80; a processor, clocked at 4 MHz. In order to avoid the CPU and the video logic simultaneously accessing the shared main memory and causing video corruption ("snowing"), CPU memory access is constrained to occur on microsecond boundaries. This effectively pads every machine cycle to four clock cycles, causing a minor loss of processing power and resulting in what Amstrad estimated to be an "effective clock rate" of "approximately 3.3 MHz".MemoryAmstrad CPCs are equipped with either 64 (CPC 464, CPC 664, 464plus, GX4000) or 128 (CPC 6128, 6128plus) KB of RAM. This base memory can be extended by up to 512 KB using memory expansions sold by third-party manufacturers, and by up to 4096 KB using experimental methods developed by hardware enthusiasts. Because the Z80 processor is only able to directly address 64 KB of memory, additional memory from the 128 KB models and memory expansions is made available using bank switching.Video
Underlying a CPC's video output is the unusual pairing of a CRTC (Motorola 6845 or compatible) with a custom-designed gate array to generate a pixel display output. CPC 6128s later in production as well as the models from the plus range integrate both the CRTC and the gate array's functions with the system's ASIC.
Three built-in display resolutions are available: 160×200 pixels with 16 colours ("Mode 0", 20 text columns), 320×200 pixels with 4 colours ("Mode 1", 40 text columns), and 640×200 pixels with 2 colours ("Mode 2", 80 text columns). However, the typical users would probably not be aware of this added ROM functionality unless they read the CPC press, as it is not described in the user manual and was hardly ever mentioned in marketing literature. It is, however, documented in the official Amstrad firmware manual.
The machines also feature a 9-pin Atari joystick port that will either directly take one joystick, or two joysticks by use of a splitter cable. In order to conform with stricter German EMC regulations, the complete Schneider CPC line-up is equipped with an internal metal shielding. For the same reason, the Schneider CPC 6128 features micro ribbon type connectors instead of edge connectors. Both the greyscale keyboard and the micro ribbon connectors found their way up into the design of later Amstrad CPC models.
In 1988, after Schneider refused to market Amstrad's AT-compatible computer line, the cooperation ended. Schneider went on to sell the remaining stock of Schneider CPC models and used their now well-established market position to introduce its own PC designs. With the formation of its German daughter company Amstrad GmbH to distribute its product lines including the CPC 464 and CPC 6128, Amstrad attempted but ultimately failed to establish their own brand in the German-speaking parts of Europe.CommunityThe Amstrad CPC enjoyed a strong and long lifetime, mainly due to the machines use for businesses as well as gaming. Dedicated programmers continued working on the CPC range, even producing graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems such as SymbOS. Internet sites devoted to the CPC have appeared from around the world featuring forums, news, hardware, software, programming and games. CPC Magazines appeared during the 1980s including publications in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Australia, and Greece. Titles included the official Amstrad Computer User publication, as well as independent titles like Amstrad Action,Influence on other Amstrad machinesAmstrad followed their success with the CPC 464 by launching the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, another Z80-based machine with a 3" disk drive and software by Locomotive Software. The PCW was originally developed to be partly compatible with an improved version of the CPC (ANT, or Arnold Number Two - the CPC's development codename was Arnold). However, Amstrad decided to focus on the PCW, and the ANT project never came to market.
On 7 April 1986, Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research "...the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer-related products." which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair's unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3" discs that Amstrad CPC machines used. Production Timeline
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:25
PlotArea = left:115 bottom:110 top:20 right:10
Alignbars = justify
DateFormat= dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1984 till:30/06/1992
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy
Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:4
ScaleMajor= increment:1 start:1984
ScaleMinor= increment:2 start:1984
Colors =
id:CPC_464 value:green legend:CPC_464
id:CPC_472 value:limegreen legend:CPC_472
id:CPC_664 value:blue legend:CPC_664
id:CPC_6128 value:red legend:CPC_6128
id:Lines value:black legend:Vertical_lines_are_Product_Announcements
id:Plus_GX4000 value:orange legend:Plus_range_and_GX4000
LineData =
at:11/04/1984 color:green layer:back
at:01/04/1985 color:blue layer:back
at:01/06/1985 color:red layer:back
at:01/09/1990 color:orange layer:back
at:30/06/1992 color:black layer:back
BarData =
bar:CPC464 text:"CPC 464"
bar:CPC472 text:"CPC 472"
bar:CPC664 text:"CPC 664"
bar:CPC6128 text:"CPC 6128"
bar:464Plus text:"464 Plus"
bar:6128Plus text:"6128 Plus"
bar:GX4000 text:"GX 4000"
PlotData =
width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)
bar:CPC464 from:01/06/1984 till:31/08/1990 color:CPC_464
bar:CPC472 from:15/09/1985 till:01/01/1986 color:CPC_472
bar:CPC664 from:01/04/1985 till:30/09/1985 color:CPC_664
bar:CPC6128 from:01/06/1985 till:31/08/1990 color:CPC_6128
bar:464Plus from:01/09/1990 till:30/06/1992 color:Plus_GX4000
bar:6128Plus from:01/09/1990 till:30/06/1992 color:Plus_GX4000
bar:GX4000 from:01/09/1990 till:30/06/1992 color:Plus_GX4000
width:3 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)
</timeline>
See also
* Amstrad CPC character set
* Amstrad CP/M Plus character set
* List of Amstrad CPC emulators
* List of Amstrad CPC games
* GX4000
* SymbOS (multitasking operating system)
Notes and references
External links
* [http://www.cpcwiki.eu/ CPC-Wiki] (CPC specific Wiki containing further information)
* [http://www.cpctech.org.uk/ Unofficial Amstrad WWW Resource]
* [http://www.futureos.de/ New OS for the CPC]
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1984
CPC
Category:Z80-based home computers
Category:Computers designed in the United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.535106 |
2198 | Abdulaziz al-Omari | | native_name_lang = ar
| birth_date
| birth_name = Abdulaziz al-Omari
| birth_place = Aseer, Saudi Arabia
| death_date
| death_place = North Tower, New York City, U.S.
| death_cause = Suicide by plane crash (September 11 attacks)
| nationality = Saudi
}}
Abdulaziz al-Omari (, , also transliterated as Alomari or al-Umari; 28 May 1979 – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi imam and terrorist who was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11 as part of the September 11 attacks in 2001.
Prior to the attacks, al-Omari was an imam at his mosque in Saudi Arabia's al-Qassim province. He arrived in the United States in June 2001 on a tourist visa, obtained through the Visa Express program. On September 11, 2001, al-Omari boarded American Airlines Flight 11 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane, which was crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, as part of the coordinated attacks.
Early life and career
Abdulaziz al-Omari (or Alomari) was born on 28 May 1979 in a poor Arab family. He was born in Aseer, Saudi Arabia and was a fellow countryman of brothers Wail al-Shehri and Waleed al-Shehri, fellow hijackers in the September 11 attacks. It is alleged he graduated with honors from high school. He taught as an imam at his mosque in al-Qassim province, which was the "heartland" of Wahhabism, a strict form of Islam. At the mosque, which experts refer to as a "terrorist factory", he was possibly taught by the radical cleric Sulayman al Alwan. At the time of the hijacking, al-Omari was 22. In the autumn of 2001, after the attacks, al Jazeera television broadcast a tape they claim was made by him. The speaker made a farewell suicide video. In it he read, "I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near... God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheikh Osama bin Laden."
A person with al-Omari's name visited the Philippines twice in February 2001. al-Omari and hijacker Salem al-Hazmi entered the United States through a Dubai flight on June 29, 2001, landing in New York City. al-Omari had used the controversial Visa Express program to gain entry. al-Omari likely stayed with several other hijackers in Paterson, New Jersey (where he rented a mailbox), before moving to his own place in Vero Beach, Florida with his wife and three children. the attacks' mastermind. The employee who gave them the IDs claimed he had no idea they were "anything more [than ordinary] customers".
September 10
On September 10, 2001, Atta picked up al-Omari from the Park Inn Hotel, and the two drove to South Portland, Maine, in a rented Nissan Altima. Some sources state there is no evidence as to why they went to Portland, It is unknown why this connecting flight through Portland happened, especially because the two almost missed their flight at Logan. Atta then commanded the plane's controls, It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology. It was also quickly determined that Mohamed Atta was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker.
A man with the same name as those given by the FBI turned up alive in Saudi Arabia, saying that he had studied at the University of Denver and his passport was stolen there in 1995. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. "I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list", he said. "They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this."
The FBI gave a press conference on October 5, 2001, where they gave details regarding Atta and the real al-Omari's movements on September 10 and 11.
See also
* PENTTBOM
* Hijackers in the 11 September attacks
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060215202606/http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F09%2F23%2Fwiden23.xml portal.telegraph.co.uk] (Article which reports that the Saudi Arabian Airlines pilot named Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)
Category:1979 births
Category:2001 deaths
Category:American Airlines Flight 11 hijackers
Category:People from Al-Bahah Province
Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members
Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdulaziz_al-Omari | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.545042 |
2201 | Aage Bohr | | birth_place = Copenhagen, Denmark
| death_date
| death_place = Copenhagen, Denmark
| alma_mater = University of Copenhagen
| thesis_title = Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei
| thesis_year = 1954
| work_institutions =
| field = Nuclear physics
| known_for = Geometry of atomic nuclei
| prizes =
| parents = Niels Bohr (father)<br />Margrethe Nørlund (mother)
}}
Aage Niels Bohr (; 19 June 1922 – 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Roy Mottelson and James Rainwater "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection". His father was Niels Bohr.
Starting from Rainwater's concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments.
Since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the prize in 1922, he and his father are one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics. Early life and educationBohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922, the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr (née Nørlund). His oldest brother, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934, and his youngest, Harald, was severely disabled and placed away from the home in Copenhagen at the age of four. He would later die from childhood meningitis. Of the others, Hans became a physician; Erik, a chemical engineer; and Ernest, a lawyer and Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London. The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father, such as Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, Yoshio Nishina, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg. While paying a visit to Columbia University, he met Isidor Isaac Rabi, who sparked in him an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium. This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950.
By the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by then-current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others. The shell model, developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert Mayer and others, allowed some additional features to be explained, in particular the so-called magic numbers. However, there were also properties that could not be explained, including the non-spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei. In a 1950 paper, James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non-spherical charge distribution. Rainwater's model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about. He discussed the idea with Bohr, who was visiting Columbia at the time, and had independently conceived the same idea, and had, about a month after Rainwater's submission, submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem, but along more general lines. Bohr imagined a rotating, irregular-shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension. Bohr developed the idea further, in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons.
Upon his return to Copenhagen in 1950, Bohr began working with Ben Roy Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data. In three papers, that were published in 1952 and 1953, Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment; for example, showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum. They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater's concept.
Only after doing his Nobel Prize-winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen, in 1954, writing his thesis on "Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei". Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956, and, following his father's death in 1962, succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute, a position he held until 1970. He remained active there until he retired in 1992. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969, H. C. Ørsted Medal in 1970, Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972, John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974, and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976. Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together, publishing a two-volume monograph, Nuclear Structure. The first volume, Single-Particle Motion, appeared in 1969; the second, Nuclear Deformations, in 1975. He was a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1980. Bohr was also an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the United States National Academy of Sciences.
In 1981, Bohr became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.
Bohr's wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978. His son, Tomas Bohr, is a professor of physics at the Technical University of Denmark, working in the area of fluid dynamics. Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009. He was survived by his second wife and children. Notes References *
*
*
*
*
* External links
* including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1975: "Rotational Motion in Nuclei"
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140911200150/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4514_1.html Oral History interview transcript with Aage Bohr 23 & 30 January 1963, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives]
Category:1922 births
Category:2009 deaths
Category:20th-century Danish physicists
Category:Atoms for Peace Award recipients
Aage
Category:Burials at Mariebjerg Cemetery
Category:Columbia University faculty
Category:Danish expatriates in the United States
Category:Danish Nobel laureates
Category:Danish nuclear physicists
Category:Danish people of Jewish descent
Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Category:Founding members of the World Cultural Council
Category:Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Category:Manhattan Project people
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Aage
Category:Nobel laureates in Physics
Category:Scientists from Copenhagen
Category:University of Copenhagen alumni
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aage_Bohr | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.581300 |
2202 | Analytic geometry | In mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic geometry.
Analytic geometry is used in physics and engineering, and also in aviation, rocketry, space science, and spaceflight. It is the foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete and computational geometry.
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and circles, often in two and sometimes three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean plane (two dimensions) and Euclidean space. As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and representing geometric shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from shapes' numerical definitions and representations. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor–Dedekind axiom.
History
Ancient Greece
The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.
Apollonius of Perga, in On Determinate Section, dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others. Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different from our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations (expressed in words) of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.
Persia
The 11th-century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra and was moving in the right direction when he helped close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra but the decisive step came later with Descartes. Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic geometry, and his book Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra (1070), which laid down the principles of analytic geometry, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. Because of his thoroughgoing geometrical approach to algebraic equations, Khayyam can be considered a precursor to Descartes in the invention of analytic geometry.Western Europe
Analytic geometry was independently invented by René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat, although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit. Cartesian geometry, the alternative term used for analytic geometry, is named after Descartes.
Descartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay titled La Géométrie (Geometry), one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his ''Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences, commonly referred to as Discourse on Method.
<!-- This is a mistranslation of the meaning of that passage, Descartes did not use a pair of axes in his descriptions. Perhaps this can be used elsewhere. -->
La Geometrie'', written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for calculus in Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descartes's masterpiece receive due recognition.
Pierre de Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in his lifetime, a manuscript form of Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes' Discourse. Clearly written and well received, the Introduction also laid the groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes' treatments is a matter of viewpoint: Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric curve that satisfied it, whereas Descartes started with geometric curves and produced their equations as one of several properties of the curves.Cartesian coordinates (in a plane or space)
The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each point has an x-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a y-coordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (x, y). This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (x, y, z).
Polar coordinates (in a plane)
In polar coordinates, every point of the plane is represented by its distance r from the origin and its angle θ, with θ normally measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis. Using this notation, points are typically written as an ordered pair (r, θ). One may transform back and forth between two-dimensional Cartesian and polar coordinates by using these formulae: <math display"block">x r\, \cos\theta,\, y r\, \sin\theta; \, r \sqrt{x^2+y^2},\, \theta \arctan(y/x).</math> This system may be generalized to three-dimensional space through the use of cylindrical or spherical coordinates.Cylindrical coordinates (in a space)
In cylindrical coordinates, every point of space is represented by its height z, its radius r from the z-axis and the angle θ its projection on the xy-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis.
Spherical coordinates (in a space)
In spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance ρ from the origin, the angle θ its projection on the xy-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis, and the angle φ that it makes with respect to the z-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.
Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the trivial equation x x specifies the entire plane, and the equation x<sup>2</sup> + y<sup>2</sup> 0 specifies only the single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric equations. The equation x<sup>2</sup> + y<sup>2</sup> r<sup>2</sup> is the equation for any circle centered at the origin (0, 0) with a radius of r.Lines and planes
Lines in a Cartesian plane, or more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by linear equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form:
<math display"block"> y mx + b </math>
where:
* m is the slope or gradient of the line.
* b is the y-intercept of the line.
* x is the independent variable of the function y = f(x).
In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its "inclination".
Specifically, let <math>\mathbf{r}_0</math> be the position vector of some point <math>P_0 (x_0,y_0,z_0)</math>, and let <math>\mathbf{n} (a,b,c)</math> be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by this point and vector consists of those points <math>P</math>, with position vector <math>\mathbf{r}</math>, such that the vector drawn from <math>P_0</math> to <math>P</math> is perpendicular to <math>\mathbf{n}</math>. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points <math>\mathbf{r}</math> such that
<math display"block">\mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}_0)0.</math>
(The dot here means a dot product, not scalar multiplication.)
Expanded this becomes
<math display"block"> a (x-x_0)+ b(y-y_0)+ c(z-z_0)0,</math>
This is just a linear equation:
<math display"block"> ax + by + cz + d 0, \text{ where } d = -(ax_0 + by_0 + cz_0).</math>
Conversely, it is easily shown that if a, b, c and d are constants and a, b, and c are not all zero, then the graph of the equation
<math display"block"> ax + by + cz + d 0,</math>
{{cn span|textis a plane having the vector <math>\mathbf{n} (a,b,c)</math> as a normal.|date=April 2022}} This familiar equation for a plane is called the general form of the equation of the plane.
In three dimensions, lines can not be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations:
<math display"block"> x x_0 + at </math>
<math display"block"> y y_0 + bt </math>
<math display"block"> z z_0 + ct </math>
where:
* x, y, and z are all functions of the independent variable t which ranges over the real numbers.
* (x<sub>0</sub>, y<sub>0</sub>, z<sub>0</sub>) is any point on the line.
* a, b, and c are related to the slope of the line, such that the vector (a, b, c) is parallel to the line.
Conic sections
]]
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the graph of a quadratic equation in two variables is always a conic section – though it may be degenerate, and all conic sections arise in this way. The equation will be of the form
<math display"block">Ax^2 + Bxy + Cy^2 +Dx + Ey + F 0\text{ with }A, B, C\text{ not all zero.} </math>
As scaling all six constants yields the same locus of zeros, one can consider conics as points in the five-dimensional projective space <math>\mathbf{P}^5.</math>
The conic sections described by this equation can be classified using the discriminant
<math display="block">B^2 - 4AC .</math>
If the conic is non-degenerate, then:
* if <math>B^2 - 4AC < 0 </math>, the equation represents an ellipse;
** if <math>A C </math> and <math>B 0 </math>, the equation represents a circle, which is a special case of an ellipse;
* if <math>B^2 - 4AC = 0 </math>, the equation represents a parabola;
* if <math>B^2 - 4AC > 0 </math>, the equation represents a hyperbola;
** if we also have <math>A + C 0 </math>, the equation represents a rectangular hyperbola.Quadric surfaces
A quadric, or quadric surface, is a 2-dimensional surface in 3-dimensional space defined as the locus of zeros of a quadratic polynomial. In coordinates , the general quadric is defined by the algebraic equation
<math display"block">\sum_{i,j1}^{3} x_i Q_{ij} x_j + \sum_{i1}^{3} P_i x_i + R 0.</math>
Quadric surfaces include ellipsoids (including the sphere), paraboloids, hyperboloids, cylinders, cones, and planes.
Distance and angle
In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (x<sub>1</sub>, y<sub>1</sub>) and (x<sub>2</sub>, y<sub>2</sub>) is defined by the formula
<math display"block">d \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2},</math>
which can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula
<math display"block">\theta \arctan(m),</math>
where m is the slope of the line.
In three dimensions, distance is given by the generalization of the Pythagorean theorem:
<math display"block">d \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2+ (z_2 - z_1)^2},</math>
while the angle between two vectors is given by the dot product. The dot product of two Euclidean vectors A and B is defined by
<math display"block">\mathbf A\cdot\mathbf B \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{} \left\|\mathbf A\right\| \left\|\mathbf B\right\| \cos\theta,</math>
where θ is the angle between A and B.
Transformations
Transformations are applied to a parent function to turn it into a new function with similar characteristics.
The graph of <math>R(x,y)</math> is changed by standard transformations as follows:
* Changing <math>x</math> to <math>x-h</math> moves the graph to the right <math>h</math> units.
* Changing <math>y</math> to <math>y-k</math> moves the graph up <math>k</math> units.
* Changing <math>x</math> to <math>x/b</math> stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of <math>b</math>. (think of the <math>x</math> as being dilated)
* Changing <math>y</math> to <math>y/a</math> stretches the graph vertically.
* Changing <math>x</math> to <math>x\cos A+ y\sin A</math> and changing <math>y</math> to <math>-x\sin A + y\cos A</math> rotates the graph by an angle <math>A</math>.
There are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing is an example of a transformation not usually considered.
For more information, consult the Wikipedia article on affine transformations.
For example, the parent function <math>y1/x</math> has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote, and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal and vertical asymptote, and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if <math>yf(x)</math>, then it can be transformed into <math>y=af(b(x-k))+h</math>. In the new transformed function, <math>a</math> is the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the function if it is less than 1, and for negative <math>a</math> values, the function is reflected in the <math>x</math>-axis. The <math>b</math> value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the function horizontally if less than 1, and like <math>a</math>, reflects the function in the <math>y</math>-axis when it is negative. The <math>k</math> and <math>h</math> values introduce translations, <math>h</math>, vertical, and <math>k</math> horizontal. Positive <math>h</math> and <math>k</math> values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning translation towards the negative end.
Transformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents a function.
Transformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations.
Suppose that <math>R(x,y)</math> is a relation in the <math>xy</math> plane. For example,
<math display"block">x^2+y^2-10</math>
is the relation that describes the unit circle.
Finding intersections of geometric objects
For two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations <math>P(x,y)</math> and <math>Q(x,y)</math> the intersection is the collection of all points <math>(x,y)</math> which are in both relations.
For example, <math>P</math> might be the circle with radius 1 and center <math>(0,0)</math>: <math>P \{(x,y) | x^2+y^21\}</math> and <math>Q</math> might be the circle with radius 1 and center <math>(1,0): Q \{(x,y) | (x-1)^2+y^21\}</math>. The intersection of these two circles is the collection of points which make both equations true. Does the point <math>(0,0)</math> make both equations true? Using <math>(0,0)</math> for <math>(x,y)</math>, the equation for <math>Q</math> becomes <math>(0-1)^2+0^21</math> or <math>(-1)^21</math> which is true, so <math>(0,0)</math> is in the relation <math>Q</math>. On the other hand, still using <math>(0,0)</math> for <math>(x,y)</math> the equation for <math>P</math> becomes <math>0^2+0^21</math> or <math>01</math> which is false. <math>(0,0)</math> is not in <math>P</math> so it is not in the intersection.
The intersection of <math>P</math> and <math>Q</math> can be found by solving the simultaneous equations:
<math display"block">x^2+y^2 1</math>
<math display"block">(x-1)^2+y^2 1.</math>
Traditional methods for finding intersections include substitution and elimination.
Substitution: Solve the first equation for <math>y</math> in terms of <math>x</math> and then substitute the expression for <math>y</math> into the second equation:
<math display"block">x^2+y^2 1</math>
<math display"block">y^21-x^2.</math>
We then substitute this value for <math>y^2</math> into the other equation and proceed to solve for <math>x</math>:
<math display"block">(x-1)^2+(1-x^2)1</math>
<math display"block">x^2 -2x +1 +1 -x^21</math>
<math display"block">-2x -1</math>
<math display"block">x1/2.</math>
Next, we place this value of <math>x</math> in either of the original equations and solve for <math>y</math>:
<math display"block">(1/2)^2+y^2 1</math>
<math display"block">y^23/4</math>
<math display"block">y \frac{\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.</math>
So our intersection has two points:
<math display="block"> \left(1/2,\frac{+ \sqrt{3}}{2}\right) \;\; \text{and} \;\; \left(1/2,\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}\right). </math>
Elimination: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the variables is eliminated. For our current example, if we subtract the first equation from the second we get <math>(x-1)^2-x^2=0</math>. The <math>y^2</math> in the first equation is subtracted from the <math>y^2</math> in the second equation leaving no <math>y</math> term. The variable <math>y</math> has been eliminated. We then solve the remaining equation for <math>x</math>, in the same way as in the substitution method:
<math display"block">x^2 -2x +1 -x^20 </math>
<math display"block">-2x -1</math>
<math display"block">x1/2.</math>
We then place this value of <math>x</math> in either of the original equations and solve for <math>y</math>:
<math display"block">(1/2)^2+y^2 1</math>
<math display"block">y^2 3/4</math>
<math display"block">y \frac{\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.</math>
So our intersection has two points:
<math display="block"> \left(1/2,\frac{+ \sqrt{3}}{2}\right) \;\; \text{and} \;\; \left(1/2,\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}\right). </math>
For conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.
Finding intercepts
One type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> coordinate axes.
The intersection of a geometric object and the <math>y</math>-axis is called the <math>y</math>-intercept of the object.
The intersection of a geometric object and the <math>x</math>-axis is called the <math>x</math>-intercept of the object.
For the line <math>ymx+b</math>, the parameter <math>b</math> specifies the point where the line crosses the <math>y</math> axis. Depending on the context, either <math>b</math> or the point <math>(0,b)</math> is called the <math>y</math>-intercept.Geometric axis
Axis in geometry is the perpendicular line to any line, object or a surface.
Also for this may be used the common language use as a: normal (perpendicular) line, otherwise in engineering as axial line.
In geometry, a normal is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the two-dimensional case, the normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point.
In the three-dimensional case a surface normal, or simply normal, to a surface at a point P is a vector that is perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at P. The word "normal" is also used as an adjective: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force, the normal vector, etc. The concept of normality generalizes to orthogonality.
Spherical and nonlinear planes and their tangents
Tangent is the linear approximation of a spherical or other curved or twisted line of a function.
Tangent lines and planes
In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that "just touches" the curve at that point. Informally, it is a line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve at a point on the curve if the line passes through the point on the curve and has slope (c)}} where f is the derivative of f. A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in n-dimensional Euclidean space.
As it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the point of tangency, the tangent line is "going in the same direction" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.
Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a given point is the plane that "just touches" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.
See also
* Applied geometry
* Cross product
* Rotation of axes
* Translation of axes
* Vector space
Notes
References
Books
*
*
* John Casey (1885) [https://archive.org/details/cu31924001520455 Analytic Geometry of the Point, Line, Circle, and Conic Sections], link from Internet Archive.
*
* Mikhail Postnikov (1982) [https://archive.org/details/postnikov-lectures-in-geometry-semester-i Lectures in Geometry Semester I Analytic Geometry] via Internet Archive
*
Articles
*
*
*
*
* External links
* [http://www.mathopenref.com/tocs/coordpointstoc.html Coordinate Geometry topics] with interactive animations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_geometry | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.621912 |
2204 | Arabic alphabet | ,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0750.pdf U+0750–U+077F]<br /> ,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0870.pdf U+0870-U+089F]<br />,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U08A0.pdf U+08A0–U+08FF]<br /> ,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf U+FB50–U+FDFF]<br /> ,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE70.pdf U+FE70–U+FEFF]<br /> ,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10EC0.pdf U+10EC0-U+10EFF]<br />,
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1EE00.pdf U+1EE00–U+1EEFF]<br />
}}
| iso15924 = Arab
| sample = Arabic Language.svg
| imagesize = 200px
}}
The Arabic alphabet, }} or the Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is a unicameral script written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most have contextual letterforms. Unlike the modern Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of letter case. The Arabic alphabet is considered an abjad, with only consonants required to be written; due to its optional use of diacritics to notate vowels, it is considered an impure abjad.Letters
The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters. Forms using the Arabic script to write other languages added and removed letters: for example ⟨پ⟩ is often used to represent in adaptations of the Arabic script. Unlike Greek-derived alphabets, Arabic has no distinct upper and lower case letterforms.
Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots () above or below their central part (). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters , , and have the same basic shape, but with one dot added below, two dots added above, and three dots added above respectively. The letter also has the same form in initial and medial forms, with one dot added above, though it is somewhat different in its isolated and final forms. Historically, they were often omitted, in a writing style called rasm.
Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most letters within a word directly joined to adjacent letters.
Alphabetical order
There are two main collating sequences ('alphabetical orderings') for the Arabic alphabet: , and .
The Hija'i order ( ) is the more common order and it is used when sorting lists of words and names, such as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries.
The original order ( ) derives from that used by the Phoenician alphabet and therefore resembles the sequence of letters in Hebrew and Greek. Letters are also assigned numerical values (abjad numerals) for purposes of numerology, as is done in Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. Letters in the Hija'i order are not considered to have numerical values.
Hija'i
Modern dictionaries and reference books use the Hija'i alphabetical order instead of the Abjadi alphabetical order, in which letters are arranged mainly by similarity of shape. The Hija'i order is never used as numerals.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Common order
|-
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|-
| <big>ʾ</big> || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || <big></big> || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| colspan"9" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"pink" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"3" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
|}
A different order was used in the Maghreb but is now considered obsolete. The sequence is:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Maghrebian order (obsolete)
|-
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| <big>ʾ</big> || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || <big></big> || || || || || || || ||
|-
| colspan"9" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"3" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"pink" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
|-
| colspan"28" bgcolor"lightgrey" style="font-size: 70%; font-style: italic;" | The colors indicate which letters have different positions from the previous table
|}
The al-Iklīl order, now obsolete, also arranged letters mainly by shape. It was first used in the 10th-century work Kitāb al-Iklīl. The sequence is:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Al-Iklīl order (obsolete)
|-
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| <big>ʾ</big> || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || <big></big> || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| colspan"9" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"3" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgreen" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightblue" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
| colspan"2" bgcolor"pink" |
| colspan"1" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
|}
Abjadi
The Abjadi order is not a simple correspondence with the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, as it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter samek , which has no cognate letter in the Arabic alphabet historically. The abjadi order is the usual Arabic order in dictionaries and reference books of the late 1st millennium to the early 2nd millennium.
The loss of was compensated for by:
* In the Mashriqi abjad sequence, the letter took the place of , and the letter took place of šīn .
* In the Maghrebi abjad sequence, the letter ṣāḏē was split into two independent Arabic letters, and , with the latter taking the place of .
The six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Common sequence
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|<big>ʾ</big>
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| colspan"4" bgcolor"lightgrey" |
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|}
This is commonly vocalized as follows:
: .
Another vocalization is:
:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Maghrebian sequence (quoted in apparently earliest authorities & considered older)
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| colspan"1" bgcolor"yellow" |
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|-
| colspan"28" bgcolor"lightgrey" style="font-size: 70%; font-style: italic;" |The colors indicate which letters have different positions from the previous table
|}
This can be vocalized as:
:
Letter forms
The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (IMFI). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters () can only be linked to their preceding letter. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), notably , which is the only mandatory ligature (the unligated combination is considered difficult to read).Table of basic letters{|class"wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Arabic letters usage in Literary Arabic
|-
!colspan="2"|Abjadi Order
! rowspan"2" |Romanization is romanized to in Egypt and in most other Arabic countries.}}
! rowspan="2" |Letter <br/> name in IPA
!rowspan"2"|Letter <br/> name in Arabic script
!rowspan="2"|Value in Literary Arabic (IPA)
!colspan="3"|Contextual forms
!rowspan="2"|Isolated <br/> form
! rowspan="2" |Hija'i
Order
|-
!Maghreb
!Common
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-
!
!
! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! <!-- separate row for sort icons -->!!
|-
| data-sort-value="01." |1
| data-sort-value="01." |1
| / , can represent different phonemes; initially: a/i/u /a, i, u/ or sometimes silent in the definite article ال (a)l-. Medially and finally it represents a long vowel ā /aː/. It is also used in some hamzah /ʔ/ forms, check #Hamzah forms}}
|
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|, can represent different phonemes; initially: a/i/u /a, i, u/ or sometimes silent in the definite article ال (a)l-. Medially and finally it represents a long vowel ā /aː/. It is also used in some hamzah /ʔ/ forms, check #Hamzah forms}}
| colspan="2" |}}
| colspan="2" |}}
| data-sort-value="01." |1
|-
| data-sort-value="02." |2
| data-sort-value="02." |2
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|}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
| data-sort-value="02." |2
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|22
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|}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
| data-sort-value="03." |3
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|23
|23
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|}}
|}}
|}}
| data-sort-value="04." |4
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| data-sort-value="03." |3
| data-sort-value="03." |3
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| pronunciation varies regionally, most prominently [d͡ʒ] in most of the Arabian Peninsula, parts of the Levant, parts of Egypt (especially the countryside and upper Egypt), Iraq, and northern-central Algeria, it is also considered as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic when reciting the Quran and in Arabic studies outside the Arab world, [ʒ] in most of Northwest Africa and parts of the Levant (especially urban centers) and parts of the Arabian Peninsula, while [ɡ] is the standard pronunciation only in Egypt, ([ɡ] appears as a dialectal pronunciation in coastal Yemen, and coastal Oman), as well as [ɟ] in Sudan.}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
| data-sort-value="05." |5
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| data-sort-value="08." |8
| data-sort-value="08." |8
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|}}
|}}
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| data-sort-value="06." |6
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| data-sort-value="07." |7
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| data-sort-value="04." |4
| data-sort-value="04." |4
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| colspan="2" |}}
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| data-sort-value="08." |8
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| data-sort-value="09." |9
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|10
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| data-sort-value="07." |7
| data-sort-value="07." |7
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| the standard name of the letter is zāy but it is sometimes miscalled "zayn" .}}
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| colspan="2" |}}
| colspan="2" |}}
|11
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|21
|15
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|}}
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|12
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|28
|21
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| data-sort-value="09." |9
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| data-sort-value="05." |5
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| data-sort-value="06." |6
| data-sort-value="06." |6
|,
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|, and respectively in loanwords and dialects. ⟨و⟩ also appears as a silent letter in the name عمرو Amr /ʕamr/ which is sometimes romanized wrongly as Amro or Amru.}}
| colspan="2" |}}
| colspan="2" |}}
|27
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|10
|10
|,
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|, and respectively in loanwords and dialects. ⟨و⟩ also appears as a silent letter in the name عمرو Amr /ʕamr/ which is sometimes romanized wrongly as Amro or Amru.}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
|}}
|28
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! colspan="11" |
|-
| -
| -
|ʾ /
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| colspan="4" |<sub>}}</sub>
(used in medial and final positions as an unlinked letter)
| -
|}
Notes
* See the article Romanization of Arabic for details on various transliteration schemes. Arabic language speakers may usually not follow a standardized scheme when transcribing words or names. Some Arabic letters which do not have an equivalent in English (such as ط) are often spelled as numbers when Romanized. Also names are regularly transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic (if they were of Arabic origin).
* Regarding pronunciation, the phonemic values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic, which is taught in schools and universities. In practice, pronunciation may vary considerably from region to region. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the articles Arabic phonology and varieties of Arabic.
* The names of the Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where they were meaningful words in the Proto-Semitic language.
* Six letters () do not have a distinct medial form and have to be written with their final form without being connected to the next letter. Their initial form matches the isolated form. The following letter is written in its initial form, or isolated form if it is the final letter in the word.
* The letter originated in the Phoenician alphabet as a consonant-sign indicating a glottal stop. Today it has lost its function as a consonant, and, together with and , is a mater lectionis, a consonant sign standing in for a long vowel (see below), or as support for certain diacritics ( and ).
* Arabic currently uses a punctuation mark called the () to denote the glottal stop , written alone or with a carrier:
** alone:
** with a carrier: (above or under an ), (above a ), (above a dotless or ).
:In academic work, the hamza is transliterated with the modifier letter right half ring (ʾ) or () on Wiktionary, while the modifier letter left half ring (ʿ) or () on Wiktionary, transliterates the letter (), which represents a different sound, not found in English.
:The hamza has a single form, since it is never linked to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes combined with a , , or , and in that case the carrier behaves like an ordinary , , or , check the table below:
Hamza forms
The Hamza (glottal stop) can be written either alone, as if it were a letter, or with a carrier, when it becomes a diacritic. () indicates a long + sound as in "sorry", while the other Hamzas indicate the glottal stop in different positions of the word as in and , the writing of the Hamza is based on a set of rules, For the writing rule of each form, see .
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Name
! colspan="4" |Contextual forms
! rowspan="2" |Isolated
! rowspan="2" |Position occurrence
|-
! Final
! colspan="2" |Medial
!Initial
|-
| ()
| colspan"3" style"text-align:center" |}}
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" |<span style="font-size:190%;"><small></small></span>
|Initial / Medial / Final positions
|-
| ()
| colspan"3" style"text-align:center" | -
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" | <span style="font-size:190%;"><small></small></span>
|Initial position only
|-
| ()
| colspan"3" style"text-align:center" | }}
| style="text-align:center" | -
| style"text-align:center" | <span style"font-size:190%;"><small></small></span>
|Medial / Final only
|-
| ()
| colspan"3" style"text-align:center" |}}
| style="text-align:center" | -
| style"text-align:center" | <span style"font-size:190%;"><small></small></span>
|Medial / Final only
|-
| () (medial)<br/> () (final)
| style="text-align:center" |}}
|style="text-align:center" |}}
|}}
| style="text-align:center" | -
|style="text-align:center" |}}
|Medial / Final only
|-
! colspan="7" |
|-
| ()
|style="text-align:center" | -
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" |}}
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" |<span style="font-size:190%;"><small></small></span>
|Initial / Medial only
|}
Modified letters
The following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of the Arabic letters.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Name
! colspan="3" |Contextual forms
! rowspan="2" |Isolated
! rowspan="2" |Translit.
! rowspan="2" |Notes and Phonemic Value (IPA)
|-
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-
|
()
|style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" |<span style"font-size:190%;"></span>
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" |(only final)
| style"text-align:center" |<span style"font-size:190%;"></span>
| style="text-align:center" | or
|(aka "correlated tā")
used in final position, often for denoting singular feminine noun/word or to make the noun/word feminine, it has two pronunciations rules; often unpronounced or pronounced as in / "school" and pronounced in construct state as in "Sara's school".
In rare irregular noun/word cases, it appears to denote masculine singular nouns as in , or some masculine plural noun forms as in plural of .
plural nouns: (a preceding letter followed by a + )
|-
| ()
| style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" |<span style"font-size:190%;"></span>
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center" |(only final)
| style"text-align:center" |<span style"font-size:190%;"></span>
| style="text-align:center" |
| Two uses:<br />1. The letter called or (as opposed to ), pronounced in Modern Standard Arabic. It is used only at the end of words in some special cases to denote the neuter/non-feminine aspect of the word (mainly verbs), where cannot be used.<br />
<br />2. A way of writing the letter without its dots at the end of words, either traditionally or in contemporary use in Egypt and Sudan.
|}
Long vowels
In the fully vocalized Arabic text found in texts such as the Quran, a long following a consonant other than a is written with a short sign () on the consonant plus an after it; long is written as a sign for short () plus a ; and long as a sign for short () plus a . Briefly, ; ; and = . Long following a may be represented by an or by a free followed by an (two consecutive s are never allowed in Arabic).
The table below shows vowels placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a sign. For clarity in the table, the primary letters on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Most consonants do connect to the left with , and written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types.
{|class="wikitable"
|+Long vowels (with fully vocalized text)
|-
! Unicode
! Letter with diacritic
! Name
! Trans.
! Variants
! Value
|- style="text-align:center;"
|style="padding:10px;"|<small>064E 0627</small>
|
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|aa
| rowspan="2" |
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="padding:10px;" |<small>064E 0649</small>
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|aa
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="padding:10px;" |<small>064F 0648</small>
|
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| uw/ ou
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|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="padding:10px;" |<small>0650 064A</small>
|
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|iy
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|-
! colspan="6" |Regional Variation (Egypt and Sudan)
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<small>0650 0649</small>
|
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|ī
|iy
|
|}
In unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the vowel in question: , , or . Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalized text are treated like consonants with a (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity.
Combinations and are always pronounced and respectively. The exception is the suffix in verb endings where is silent, resulting in or . In addition, when transliterating names and loanwords, Arabic language speakers write out most or all the vowels as long ( with , and with , and and with ), meaning it approaches a true alphabet.
Diphthongs
The diphthongs and are represented in vocalized text as follows:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Diphthongs<br />(fully vocalized text)
!Trans.
!Value
|- style="text-align:center;"
|style"padding:10px;"|<small>064A 064E</small><br />
|
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|- style="text-align:center;"
| style"padding:10px;" |<small>0648 064E</small><br />
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! colspan="3" |Other Diphthongs
|- style="text-align:center;"
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|}
A final is usually written at the end of words for nisba ( ) which is a common suffix to form adjectives of relation or pertinence. The suffix is for masculine ( for feminine); for example "socialist", it is also used for a singulative ending that applies to human or other sentient beings as in jundiyy "a soldier". However nowadays this final is mostly pronounced with a long () as in instead of . A similar mistake happens at the end of some third person plural verbs as in "they ran" which is pronounced nowadays as .
Ligatures
<br />2. hamzat waṣl ()<br />3. lām<br />4. lām<br />5. shadda () <br />6. dagger alif () <br />7. hāʾ]]
The use of ligature in Arabic is common. There is one compulsory ligature, that for ل + ا, which exists in two forms. All other ligatures, of which there are many, are optional.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="4" | Contextual forms
! rowspan="2" | Name
! rowspan="2" |Trans.
! rowspan="2" |Value
|-
! Final
! Medial
! Initial
! Isolated
|-
| colspan"2" style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" | <span style="font-size:190%;"></span>
| colspan"2" style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" | <span style="font-size:190%;"></span>
| lām + alif
|lā
|/laː/
|}
A more complex ligature that combines as many as seven distinct components is commonly used to represent the word . The only ligature within the primary range of Arabic script in Unicode (U+06xx) is + . This is the only one compulsory for fonts and word-processing. Other ranges are for compatibility to older standards and contain other ligatures, which are optional.
Note: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one, <code>U+FEFB</code>
Diacritics
Users of Arabic usually write long vowels but omit short ones, so readers must utilize their knowledge of the language in order to supply the missing vowels. However, in the education system and particularly in classes on Arabic grammar these vowels are used since they are crucial to the grammar. An Arabic sentence can have a completely different meaning by a subtle change of the vowels. This is why in an important text such as the the three basic vowel signs are mandated, like the Arabic diacritics and other types of marks, like the cantillation signs.
Short vowels
In the Arabic handwriting of everyday use, in general publications, and on street signs, short vowels are typically not written. On the other hand, copies of the cannot be endorsed by the religious institutes that review them unless the diacritics are included. Children's books, elementary school texts, and Arabic-language grammars in general will include diacritics to some degree. These are known as "vocalized" texts.
Short vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called . All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like "Ali" or "alif", for example, start with a consonant: <!--not DIN 31635 transliteration-->, .
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Short vowels<br />(fully vocalized text)
! Code
! Name
! Name in Arabic script
! Trans.
! Phonemic Value
! scope"col" style"width: 50%;" | Remarks
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
| <small>064E</small>
| fat·ḥah
|
|
|
| Ranges from , , , , , to , depending on the native dialect, position, and stress.
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
| <small>064F</small>
|
|
|
|
|Ranges from , , to , depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "U" (as in "p'<u>u</u>t")
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|<small>0650</small>
|
|
|
|
| Ranges from , , to , depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "I" (as in "p<u>i</u>ck")
|}
Nunation
Nunation ( ) is the addition of a final to a noun or adjective. The vowel before it indicates grammatical case. In written Arabic, nunation is indicated by doubling the vowel diacritic at the end of the word, e.g. .
{| class"wikitable" style"align:left;"
! colspan="4" |Nunation - tanwīn forms
|-
!Symbol
| style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" |<span style"font-size:250%;"></span>
| style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" |<span style"font-size:250%;"></span>
| style"line-height:180%;padding:10px;" |<span style"font-size:250%;"></span>
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Transliteration
| colspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" |
| rowspan="1" |
|}
Gemination
Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Instead of writing the letter twice, Arabic places a W-shaped sign called above it.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | General Unicode
! Name
! Name in Arabic script
! Transliteration
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;" | 0651
|
|
| }}
| (consonant doubled/geminated)
|}
Vowel omission
An Arabic syllable can be open (ending with a vowel) or closed (ending with a consonant):
* open: CV [consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel)
* closed: CVC (short vowel only)
A normal text is composed only of a series of consonants plus vowel-lengthening letters; thus, the word qalb, "heart", is written qlb, and the word qalaba "he turned around", is also written qlb. To write qalaba without this ambiguity, we could indicate that the l is followed by a short a by writing a fatḥah above it.
To write qalb, we would instead indicate that the l is followed by no vowel by marking it with a diacritic called sukūn (), like this: . This is one step down from full vocalization, where the vowel after the q would also be indicated by a fatḥah: .
The Qurʾān is traditionally written in full vocalization.
The long i sound in some editions of the Qur’ān is written with a kasrah followed by a diacritic-less y, and long u by a ḍammah followed by a bare w. In others, these y and w carry a sukūn. Outside of the Qur’ān, the latter convention is extremely rare, to the point that y with sukūn will be unambiguously read as the diphthong , and w with sukūn will be read .
For example, the letters can be read like English meel or mail, or (theoretically) also like mayyal or mayil. But if a sukūn is added on the y then the m cannot have a sukūn (because two letters in a row cannot be sukūnated), cannot have a ḍammah (because there is never an uy sound in Arabic unless there is another vowel after the y), and cannot have a kasrah (because kasrah before sukūnated y is never found outside the Qur’ān), so it must have a fatḥah and the only possible pronunciation is (meaning mile, or even e-mail). By the same token, m-y-t with a sukūn over the y can be mayt but not mayyit or meet, and m-w-t with a sukūn on the w can only be mawt, not moot (iw is impossible when the w closes the syllable).
Vowel marks are always written as if the i‘rāb vowels were in fact pronounced, even when they must be skipped in actual pronunciation. So, when writing the name Aḥmad, it is optional to place a sukūn on the ḥ, but a sukūn is forbidden on the d, because it would carry a ḍammah if any other word followed, as in Aḥmadu zawjī "Ahmad is my husband".
Another example: the sentence that in correct literary Arabic must be pronounced Aḥmadu zawjun shirrīr "Ahmad is a wicked husband", is usually pronounced (due to influence from vernacular Arabic varieties) as Aḥmad zawj shirrīr. Yet, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it were not mispronounced and as if yet another word followed it, i.e., if adding any vowel marks, they must be added as if the pronunciation were Aḥmadu zawjun sharrīrun with a tanwīn 'un' at the end. So, it is correct to add an un tanwīn sign on the final r, but actually pronouncing it would be a hypercorrection. Also, it is never correct to write a sukūn on that r, even though in actual pronunciation it is (and in correct Arabic MUST be) sukūned.
Of course, if the correct i‘rāb is a sukūn, it may be optionally written.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=2| General Unicode
!Name
!Name in Arabic script
!Translit.
!Phonemic Value (IPA)
|- style="text-align:center;"
|style="padding:10px;"| 0652
|style"padding:10px;"|
|sukūn
|
|(no vowel with this consonant letter or<br />diphthong with this long vowel letter)
|∅
|}
The sukūn is also used for transliterating words into the Arabic script. The English name "Mark" is written , for example, might be written with a sukūn above the to signify that there is no vowel sound between that letter and the .
Additional Diacritics
These diacritics are uncommon in modern publications but are often used in Quran and some manuscripts.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | General Unicode
!Name
!Name in Arabic script
!Translit.
!Phonemic Value (IPA)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="padding:10px;" | 0670
| style"padding:10px;" |
| alif khanjariyyah
|
| it indicates that the consonant is followed by a long ā, where the is normally not written.
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
!
|
|
|
|It indicates that the is not pronounced as a glottal stop (written as the hamza)
|∅
|}
ٰThe alif khanjariyyah (, 'dagger ’alif') is written as short vertical stroke on top of a letter. It indicates a long sound for which is normally not written. For example: }} () or }} ().
The Wasla or (, 'hamza of connection') is a variant of the letter hamza () resembling part of the letter () that is rarely placed over the letter ( ʾalif al-waṣl (<big></big>)) to form (<big></big>) at the beginning of the word (). It indicates that the is not pronounced as a glottal stop (written as the hamza), but that the word is connected to the previous word (like liaison in French). Outside of vocalised liturgical texts, the is usually not written. e.g. Abdullah <big></big> can be written with hamzat al-wasl on the first letter of the word <big></big> but it is mostly written without it <big></big>.Additional letters<!--If any are missing, please add them.-->
<!-- This would look nicer in tables. -->
Regional variations
Some letters take a traditionally different form in specific regions:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan"4" | Letter !! rowspan"2" | Explanation
|-
! Isolated !! Final !! Medial !! Initial
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|
|
|
| style="text-align:left;" | The traditional style to write or print the letter, and remains so in the Nile Valley region (Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan... etc.) and sometimes Maghreb; is dotless in the isolated and final position. Merging with the ; e.g. "on" and "Ali" are both written in Egypt and Sudan.
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|
|
|
| style="text-align:left;" | An alternative version of final is used (instead of ) in some script variants, for example in the Madani script which is used on road signs in Medina and on the logo of the chemical company SABIC written .
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|
|
|
| style="text-align:left;" | An obsolete traditional Maghrebi variant of .
|- style="text-align:center;"
| }}
| }}
|
|
| style="text-align:left;" | An obsolete traditional Maghrebi variant of . Generally dotless in isolated and final positions and dotted in the initial and medial forms.
|}
Non-standard letters
Some modified letters are used to represent non-native sounds to Modern Standard Arabic. These letters are used as an optional alternative in transliterated names, loanwords and dialectal words. The usage of these letters depends on the writer and their country of origin and their usage is not mandatory.
The phoneme (considered a standard pronunciation of in Egypt, Oman, and coastal Yemen) has the highest number of variations when writing loanwords or foreign proper nouns in Literary Arabic, and it can be written with either the standard letters , , , and or with the non-standard letters (used only in Tunisia and Algeria), (used only in Morocco), and (used mainly in Iraq) for example "Golf" pronounced can be written , , , , , or depending on the writer and their country of origin. On the other hand, is considered a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects, either as a reflex of as in lower Egypt, parts of Oman and parts of Yemen (e.g. ) or as a reflex of as in most of the Arabian peninsula, Iraq, Sudan, and parts of Egypt, Levant and North Africa (e.g. ).
{| class="wikitable"
! Letter !! Phoneme !! Note
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
|Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of . only used in foreign words.
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" |
|Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of . only used in foreign words.
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
|Only used in Algeria and Tunisia when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of , this form is used to distinguish it from . only used in foreign words.
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center;" |
|Only in Algeria and Tunisia is officially written using or including in city names e.g. the city of Guelma is written or , Gafsa is written or , and Gabès is written or .
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
|Only in Morocco is officially written using or including in city names; e.g. the city of Agadir is written or .
|-
| style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
|Used in Gulf and Mesopotamian Arabic but only when writing dialectal words (e.g. "moon" instead of Standard Arabic ).
|-
| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;font-size:120%;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
|Used in colloquial Gulf and Mesopotamian Arabic but only when writing dialectal words where is considered a native phoneme/allophone (e.g. "dog" instead of the standard ). While in Standard Arabic throughout the Arab world, the sequence + () is usually preferred (e.g. "Chad", "Czechia" and "Chile").
|-
| style="text-align:center;" |
|Used in Egypt when transliterating foreign names and loanwords where standard is mostly pronounced as in the city of Giza is written ., (e.g. or "skirt"). only used in foreign words.
|}
Note: The sounds and are non-native to most Arabic dialects (excl. Anatolian Arabic where "Wolf" is pronounced vīp instead of Standard Arabic ), while , and appear as a native phoneme or allophone in many dialects.
Used in languages other than Arabic
Numerals
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan"2" | Western<br />(Maghreb) || rowspan"2" | Eastern<br />(Mashriq) || colspan="2" | Eastern
|-
!Persian
!Urdu
|-
| 0
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 1
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 2
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 3
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 4
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 5
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 6
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 7
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 8
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 9
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|-
| 10
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
| <span style="font-size:large"></span>
|}
There are two main kinds of numerals used along with Arabic text; Western Arabic numerals and Eastern Arabic numerals. In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western Arabic numerals are used. Like Western Arabic numerals, in Eastern Arabic numerals, the units are always right-most, and the highest value left-most. Eastern Arabic numbers are written from left to right.
Letters as numerals
In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers (Abjad numerals). This usage is based on the order of the alphabet. is 1, is 2, is 3, and so on until 10, 20, 30, ..., 200, ..., 1000. This is sometimes used to produce chronograms. History
(9th–11th century). The is taken as an example, from Kufic manuscripts. (1) Early 9th century script used no dots or diacritic marks; (2) and (3) in the 9th–10th century during the Abbasid dynasty, Abu al-Aswad's system used red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel. Later, a second system of black dots was used to differentiate between letters like and ; (4) in the 11th century (al-Farāhīdī's system) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels. This system is the one used today.]]
The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the Nabataean script used to write Nabataean Aramaic. A transitional phase, between the Nabataean Aramaic script and a subsequent, recognizably Arabic script, is known as Nabataean Arabic. The pre-Islamic phase of the script as it existed in the fifth and sixth centuries, once it had become recognizably similar to the script as it came to be known in the Islamic era, is known as Paleo-Arabic.
The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from 50 km east of in Jordan, but the Zabad trilingual inscription is the earliest dated Arabic text from 512, and was discovered in Syria. Nevertheless, the epigraphic record is extremely sparse. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them. (The Aramaic language had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so that in the early writings 14 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds; cf. the similarly ambiguous Book Pahlavi.)
The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts were and still are frequently memorized, especially in Qurʾan memorization.
Later still, vowel marks and the hamza were introduced, beginning some time in the latter half of the 7th century, preceding the first invention of Syriac and Tiberian vocalizations. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned in the Umayyad era by Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali, a dot above , a dot below , a dot on the line , and doubled dots indicated nunation. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi. Other tributes and alphabets written in Arabic dialects Arabic dialects were written in different alphabets before the spread of the Arabic alphabet currently in use. The most important of these alphabets and inscriptions are the Safaitic inscriptions, amounting to 30,000 inscriptions discovered in the Levant desert.
There are about 3,700 inscriptions in Hismaic in central Jordan and northwest of the Arabian Peninsula, and Nabataean inscriptions, the most important of which are the Umm al-Jimal I inscription and the Numara inscription. script as is clear from one of the Sabaean inscriptions.]]
Arabic printing
Medieval Arabic blockprinting flourished from the 10th century until the 14th. It was devoted to tiny texts, which were usually used in amulets.
In 1514, following Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1450, Gregorio de Gregorii, a Venetian, published an entire book of hours in Arabic script; it was entitled ''Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i'' and was intended for eastern Christian communities. Between 1580 and 1586, type designer Robert Granjon designed Arabic typefaces for Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, and the Medici Oriental Press published many Christian prayer and scholarly Arabic texts in the late 16th century.
and their reasons for geometry and arithmetic by Ahmed bin Katheer Al-Farghani, where the letters appear in red in an arranged order expressing numbers.]]
Maronite monks at Monastery of Qozhaya on Mount Lebanon published the first Arabic books to use movable type in the Middle East. The monks employed Garshuni, the practice of writing Arabic using the Syriac script, usually by Christians.
Although Napoleon generally receives credit for introducing the printing press to Egypt during his invasion of the country in 1798, and though he did indeed bring printing presses and Arabic presses to print the French occupation's official newspaper Al-Tanbiyyah "The Courier," printing in the Arabic language had started several centuries earlier. A goldsmith (like Gutenberg) designed and implemented an Arabic script movable type printing press in the Middle East. The Lebanese Melkite monk Abdallah Zakher set up an Arabic printing press using movable type at the monastery of Saint John at the town of Dhour El Shuwayr in Mount Lebanon, the first homemade press in Lebanon using Arabic script. He cut the type molds and founded the typeface. The first book came off his press in 1734; this press continued in use until 1899.
Computers
The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several character sets, including ISO-8859-6, Windows-1256 and Unicode, the latter of which contains the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, none of the sets indicates the form that each character should take in context. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character.
Each letter has a position-independent encoding in Unicode, and the rendering software can infer the correct glyph form (initial, medial, final or isolated) from its joining context. That is the current recommendation. However, for compatibility with previous standards, the initial, medial, final and isolated forms can also be encoded separately.
Unicode
As of Unicode , the Arabic script is contained in the following blocks:
* Arabic (0600–06FF, 256 characters)
* Arabic Supplement (0750–077F, 48 characters)
* Arabic Extended-A (08A0–08FF, 96 characters)
* Arabic Extended-B (0870–089F, 42 characters)
* Arabic Extended-C (10EC0–10EFF, 7 characters)
* Arabic Presentation Forms-A (FB50–FDFF, 631 characters)
* Arabic Presentation Forms-B (FE70–FEFF, 141 characters)
* Rumi Numeral Symbols (10E60–10E7F, 31 characters)
* Indic Siyaq Numbers (1EC70–1ECBF, 68 characters)
* Ottoman Siyaq Numbers (1ED00–1ED4F, 61 characters)
* Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols (1EE00—1EEFF, 143 characters)
The basic Arabic range encodes the standard letters and diacritics but does not encode contextual forms (U+0621-U+0652 being directly based on ISO 8859-6). It also includes the most common diacritics and Arabic-Indic digits. U+06D6 to U+06ED encode Qur'anic annotation signs such as "end of ayah" ۖ and "start of rub el hizb" ۞. The Arabic supplement range encodes letter variants mostly used for writing African (non-Arabic) languages. The Arabic Extended-A range encodes additional Qur'anic annotations and letter variants used for various non-Arabic languages.
The Arabic Presentation Forms-A range encodes contextual forms and ligatures of letter variants needed for Persian, Urdu, Sindhi and Central Asian languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-B range encodes spacing forms of Arabic diacritics, and more contextual letter forms. The Arabic Mathematical Alphabetical Symbols block encodes characters used in Arabic mathematical expressions.
See also the notes of the section on modified letters.
Keyboards
imposed on a QWERTY keyboard layout]]
Keyboards designed for different nations have different layouts, so proficiency in one style of keyboard, such as Iraq's, does not transfer to proficiency in another, such as Saudi Arabia's. Differences can include the location of non-alphabetic characters.
All Arabic keyboards allow typing Roman characters, e.g., for the URL in a web browser. Thus, each Arabic keyboard has both Arabic and Roman characters marked on the keys. Usually, the Roman characters of an Arabic keyboard conform to the QWERTY layout, but in North Africa, where French is the most common language typed using the Roman characters, the Arabic keyboards are AZERTY.
To encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The range Arabic presentation forms A (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) contain ligatures while the range Arabic presentation forms B (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contains the positional variants. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the zero-width joiner and zero-width non-joiner, as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software; when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings; or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.
Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in logical order, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's bi-directional text features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out of date.
There are competing online tools, e.g. Yamli editor, which allow entry of Arabic letters without having Arabic support installed on a PC, and without knowledge of the layout of the Arabic keyboard.
Handwriting recognition
The first software program of its kind in the world that identifies Arabic handwriting in real time was developed by researchers at Ben-Gurion University (BGU).
The prototype enables the user to write Arabic words by hand on an electronic screen, which then analyzes the text and translates it into printed Arabic letters in a thousandth of a second. The error rate is less than three percent, according to Dr. Jihad El-Sana, from BGU's department of computer sciences, who developed the system along with master's degree student Fadi Biadsy. Variations {| class"wikitable"
|+ The modern Hijā’ī sequence (excluding ) in 15 fonts:
|- class="nowrap"
| style="text-align:center;font-size:180%" |
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;font-size:100%;" | Hijā’ī sequence
|-
| rowspan="15" |
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#00007f;background-color:#00007f" | •
| class"nowrap" style"font-size:95%" | Noto Nastaliq
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#003399;background-color:#003399" | •
| class"nowrap" style"font-size:95%" | Scheherazade New
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#00549a;background-color:#00549a" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Lateef
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#007670;background-color:#007670" | •
| class"nowrap" style"font-size:95%" | Noto Naskh Arabic
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#00b050;background-color:#00b050" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Markazi Text
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#49da00;background-color:#49da00" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Noto Sans Arabic
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#ffc900;background-color:#ffc900" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | El Messiri
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#ff9800;background-color:#ff9800" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Lemonada
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#ff00aa;background-color:#ff00aa" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Changa
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#c900ff;background-color:#c900ff" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Mada
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#9933ff;background-color:#9933ff" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Noto Kufi Arabic
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#6600ff;background-color:#6600ff" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Reem Kufi
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#1f00bf;background-color:#1f00bf" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Lalezar
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#00007f;background-color:#00007f" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Jomhuria
|-
| style="font-size:80%;text-align:center;color:#00003f;background-color:#00003f" | •
| style="font-size:95%" | Rakkas
|}
See also
* Ancient South Arabian script
* Algerian braille
* Arabic braille
* Arabic calligraphy
* Arabic chat alphabet
* Arabic letter frequency
* Arabic numerals
* ArabTeX – provides Arabic support for TeX and LaTeX
* History of the Arabic alphabet
* Modern Arabic mathematical notation
* Romanization of Arabic
Notes
References
Sources
*
* External links*
<!--This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article Arabic alphabet from the French Wikipedia, which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed.-->
Category:Arabic orthography | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabet | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.776975 |
2207 | Angels in art | (1825–1905)]]
Angels have appeared in works of art since early Christian art, and they have been a popular subject for Byzantine and European paintings and sculpture.
(1593–1650), displaying several different types of angelic creatures.]]
, 1900]]
Normally given wings in art, angels are usually intended, in both Christian and Islamic art, to be beautiful, though several depictions go for more awe-inspiring or frightening attributes, notably in the depiction of the living creatures (which have bestial characteristics), ophanim (which are wheels) and cherubim (which have mosaic features); As a matter of theology, they are spiritual beings who do not eat or excrete and are genderless. Many historical depictions of angels may appear to the modern eye to be gendered as either male or female by their dress or actions, but until the 19th century, even the most female looking will normally lack breasts, and the figures should normally be considered as genderless. In 19th-century art, especially funerary art, this traditional convention is sometimes abandoned. The lack of gender was to enable these winged creatures to be relatable to both genders.Christian arts, Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome (432–440)]]In the early ChurchSpecific ideas regarding how to portray angels began to develop in the early Church. Since angels are defined as pure spirits, the lack of a defined form has allowed artists wide latitude for creativity. Daniel 8:15 describes Gabriel as appearing in the "likeness of man" and in Daniel 9:21 he is referred to as "the man Gabriel." Such anthropomorphic descriptions of an angel are consistent with previous descriptions of angels, as in Genesis 19:5. They were usually depicted in the form of young men.
The earliest known Christian image of an angel, in the ''Cubicolo dell'Annunziazione in the Catacomb of Priscilla, which is dated to the middle of the third century, is a depiction of the Annunciation in which Gabriel is portrayed without wings. Representations of angels on sarcophagi and on objects such as lamps and reliquaries of that period also show them without wings, as for example the angel in the Sacrifice of Isaac'' scene in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.
In a third-century fresco of the Hebrew children in the furnace, in the cemetery of St. Priscilla, a dove takes the place of the angel, while a fourth-century representation of the same subject, in the coemeterium maius, substitutes the Hand of God for the heavenly messenger.
The earliest known representation of angels with wings is on what is called the Prince's Sarcophagus, discovered at Sarigüzel, near Istanbul, in the 1930s, and attributed to the time of Theodosius I (379–395). Flying winged angels, very often in pairs flanking a central figure or subject, are derivations in visual terms from pairs of winged Victories in classical art.
From then on Christian art generally represented angels with wings, as in the cycle of mosaics in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore (432–440). Multi-winged angels, often with only their face and wings showing, drawn from the higher grades of angels, especially cherubim and seraphim, are derived from Persian art, and are usually shown only in heavenly contexts, as opposed to performing tasks on Earth. They often appear in the pendentives of domes or semi-domes of churches.Byzantine art
of the Archangels Michael and Gabriel wearing the loros of the Imperial guards.]]
Angels appear in Byzantine art in mosaics and icons. Artists found some of their inspiration from winged Greek figures such as "Victory". They also drew from imperial iconography. Court eunuchs could rise to positions of authority in the Empire. They performed ceremonial functions and served as trusted messengers. Amelia R. Brown points out that legislation under Justinian indicates that many of them came from the Caucasus, having light eyes, hair, and skin, as well as the "comely features and fine bodies" desired by slave traders.
Daniel 10: 5–6 describes an angel as clothed in linen and girt with gold. In the later Middle Ages they often wear the vestments of a deacon, a cope over a dalmatic, especially Gabriel in Annunciation scenes – for example The Annunciation by Jan van Eyck. This indicated that, for all their powers, they could not perform the Eucharist, and were in this respect outranked by every priest, reinforcing the prestige of the clergy. In Early Christian art white robes were almost invariably adopted, sometimes bound with the "golden girdle" of Revelation. During the mediæval period senior angels were often clad in every brilliant colour, while junior ranks wore white. Early Renaissance painters such as Jan van Eyck and Fra Angelico painted angels with multi-colored wings. Depictions of angels came to combine medieval notions of beauty with feminine ideals of grace and beauty, as in da Panicale's 1435 Baptism of Christ. In the Greek mythology, Eros and his Roman counterpart Cupid, are winged and have arrows they use to manipulate people to fall in love.Victorian artIn the late 19th century artists' model Jane Burden Morris came to embody an ideal of beauty for Pre-Raphaelite painters. With the use of her long dark hair and features made somewhat more androgynous, they created a prototype Victorian angel which would appear in paintings and stained glass windows. Roger Homan notes that Edward Burne-Jones and others used her image often and in different ways, creating a new type of angel.Modern artAngels continued to be depicted in the 20th century. One example is the large mosaic mural Angels of the Heavenly Host in St Paul's, Bow Common, created during 1963–68 by Charles Lutyens.
Islamic art
, in the style of Bukhara, 16th century]] Angels in Islamic art often appear in illustrated manuscripts of Muhammad's life. Other common depictions of angels in Islamic art include angels with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, angels discerning the saved from the damned on the Day of Judgement, and angels as a repeating motif in borders or textiles. Islamic depictions of angels resemble winged Christian angels, although Islamic angels are typically shown with multicolored wings. Nevertheless, later depictions of angels in Islamic art are more feminine and androgynous. While some angels are referred to as "Guardians of the Kingdom of God," others are associated with hell. An undated manuscript of The Wonders of Creation from the Bavarian State Library in Munich includes depictions of angels both alone and alongside humans and animals.
Another angel-like creature mentioned in the Qu’ran (4:97, 32:11) is the zabāniya. A zabāniya is a black angel of hell that brings souls of sinners down to hell to punish them and can be seen in illustrations of The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension (c. 1436 A.D.). There are nineteen zabāniya, led by Mālik, an angel considered to be the master of fire or the gatekeeper of hell. ''Mālik's and zabāniya's categorizations as angels are debated as some believe they are better described as spirits or demons. Actually, portrayal of Zabaniyya shares many traits characteristical for demons in Islamic arts. As seen in The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension, Muhammad is greeted by Mālik and later witnesses the torture of sinners carried out by the zabāniya.
Angels associated with Muhammad
(The Compendium of Chronicles), c. 1307.|alt=]]
Although depictions of Muhammad are often forbidden, the few that exist often include images of angels. Specifically, the Archangel Gabriel is frequently shown alongside Muhammad. For example, in The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad’s Ascension, the Archangel Gabriel appears to Muhammad in Mecca to announce his ascension. Kneeling before Muhammad, Gabriel is shown with colorful wings and a crown. Later in The Timurid Book, Muhammad is shown with Gabriel meeting a group of angels in heaven. In the ''Jami' al-tawarikh, a Persian history from the 14th century, Muhammad is depicted beside al-Buraq, whose tail is transformed into an angel, while two other angels approach. Contemporary resistance and ignorance regarding angels in Judaism, and specifically in Jewish art, may partially stem from the current strong association between angels and Christianity.
.]]
Sanoi, Sansoni, and Samanglif (also spelled Senoy, Sansenoy and Semangelof) are three angels that protect newborns. Depictions of them as small, non-human creatures occur on amulets and have had a small resurgence in popularity in recent years.
Cherubim in their classic Jewish description are typically creatures with features of a human, lion, bird, and cattle in some combination. The variety of imagery here was common in the Ancient Near East, The descriptions of cherubim overall vary. Similarly, the imagery used for seraphim derives from the uraeus, which appeared in ancient carvings from Judah. It particularly occurred on seals, where it was invoked as a protective symbol.
While winged humanoid angels are strongly associated with Christianity, some academics argue that rather than Judaism occasionally adopting this imagery from Christianity, Christianity adopted it from Judaism. In text, humanoid beings with wings and no other unusual features appear as early as the writing of Zechariah 5:5–11. The most common wings are feathered, but occasionally winged humanoid angels in Jewish art have been depicted with butterfly wings. Winged angels are sometimes also depicted with halos.
Angels are sometimes depicted as birds without human features. Ancient Greece Ancient Greek mythology has been an integral part of art, serving as an inspiration to a large number of concepts in art. The culture had a winged figure, Ero, the son of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who became Cupid in the Roman Empire
The majority of ancient artwork portrayed Eros as being a slender yet well-built man wielding enormous sexual power. While Eros was not a popular figure in the classical period, the arrival of the Hellenistic period raised him back to prominence. The popularization of Erotes arises from the normalization of the Roman counterpart, Cupid, who has a bow and arrow that he uses to make people fall in love. The majority of people who observe Valentines Day have or utilize stories related to Cupid and Eros.
The classical erotes or putto re-appeared in art during the Italian Renaissance in both religious and mythological art, and is often known in English as a cherub, the singular of cherubim, actually one of the higher ranks in the Christian angelic hierarchy. They normally appear in groups and are generally given wings in religious art, and are sometimes represented as just a winged head. They generally are just in attendance, except that they may be amusing Christ or John the Baptist as infants in scenes of the Holy Family
'', 1437–1446]]
The Greek mythology associates Erotes with love and desire. While they are perceived as heavenly creatures, they contain power that can make a person fall in love based on their enchantments. <ref name=":0a" /> According to Greek mythology, Eros was associated with Gaia, mother earth goddess.
The majority of ancient artwork portrayed Eros as being a slender yet well-built man wielding enormous sexual power. While Eros was not a popular figure in the classical period, the arrival of the Hellenistic period raised him back to prominence. The popularization of Erotes arises from the normalization of the Roman counterpart, Cupid, who has a bow and arrow that he uses to make people fall in love. <ref name":1a" /> The majority of people who observe Valentines Day have or utilize stories related to Cupid and Eros. <ref name":2a" /> Eros or Cupid uses his arrow to manipulate people through the power of love, making his role as a god an intriguing one.
Gallery of angels in Christian art
<gallery>
Jan van eyck, annunciazione, dettaglio, 1434-36 circa.JPG|The Archangel Gabriel in a deacon's vestments, and multi-colored wings in Jan van Eyck's Annunciation, 1434–1436
Master of the St Lucy Legend - Mary, Queen of Heaven- c. 1480 - c. 1510 (hi res).jpg|Master of the St Lucy Legend, Mary, Queen of Heaven, c 1480–1510, accompanied by angels, some making music and others investments
Detail-Isenheim-Altarpiece-Gruenewald.jpg|Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald, c. 1512–1616, Concert of Angels (detail), with fallen angels in the background
GuidoReni MichaelDefeatsSatan.jpg|Guido Reni's Michael (in Santa Maria della Concezione church, Rome, 1636) tramples Satan. A mosaic of the same painting decorates ''St. Michael's Altar'' in St. Peter's Basilica.
Fouquet Madonna.jpg|Madonna Surrounded by Seraphim and Cherubim by Jean Fouquet
024.Jacob Wrestles with the Angel.jpg|Jacob Wrestling with the Angel by Gustave Doré from La Grande Bible de Tours (1866)
Sandro Botticelli - Madonna del Magnificat - Google Art Project.jpg|Magnificat Madonna, c. 1483, with wingless angels.
Seraphim - Petites Heures de Jean de Berry.jpg|God surrounded by Seraphim (Petites Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry)
Cathedral St Michaels Victory.jpg|St Michaels Victory over the Devil, a sculpture by Sir Jacob Epstein
Da Vinci The Annunciation.jpg|The Annunciation by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1472–1475
Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|Rosa Celeste: by Gustave Doré
Aniol z dudami.jpg|Angel playing bagpipes, by Jan Matejko
07Thessaloniki St-Dimetrios03.jpg|Church of Saint Demetrius Patron Saint of Thessaloniki
Archangel Gabriel Icon wearing sacred blue.png|Icon of Archangel Gabriel by Anonymous, c. 13th century
The White Angel, Mileseva 25.jpg|Angel in White by Anonymous, c. 1230, Mileseva Monastery, Republic of Serbia
Archangel Gabriel (Gelati).jpg|Archangel Gabriel. Part of the mosaic fresco from Gelati Monastery, Georgia c. 12th century
Archangel Gabriel Icon in Blue and Red.png|Archangel Gabriel Icon by Anonymous, c. 13th century, Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt
angel letiel.jpg|Ángel arcabucero, 17th-century Peru (?)
File:Apocalipsis_divniy_03.jpg|Angel with body made of clouds, from an Old Believer manuscript of
Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_239.png|Michael and the Dragon. Die Bibel in Bildern by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, 1860
Glasgow. The Barras. Glasgow Antiques & Collectables Market. Sculpture of Angel.jpg|Glasgow. The Barras. Modern sculpture of angel.
Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 068.png|Joshua and the Angel (from ), 1860 woodcut by von Karolsfeld
Four Archangels, St John's Church, Warminster, Wiltshire.jpg|The four archangels in Anglican tradition, 1888 mosaics by James Powell and Sons, St John's Church, Warminster.
File:Seven Archangels (St Michael's, Brighton).jpg|Seven Archangels as given by Pseudo-Dionysius depicted in the stained glass window at St Michael's Church, Brighton.
File:Mosaic in the Church of Saint Paul, Bow Common (01).jpg|An angel in the large Angels of the Heavenly Host mosaic mural by Charles Lutyens (1963–68) in St Paul's, Bow Common.
</gallery>
Gallery of angels in Islamic art
<gallery>
File:Arabic-manuscript.jpg|A page from 'The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence' – Egypt/Syria c.1375-1425 AD
File:Miraj by Sultan Muhammad.jpg|Persian Miraj image from 1539 to 1543, reflecting Muhammad surrounded by angels.
File:Persian angel 1555.jpg|Kneeling angel, Bukhara School (circa 1555–1560)
File:MetatronInIslamicArts.jpg|The high angel Metatron rendered by the 14th century artist Nasir al-Din Rammal.
File:Adam honoured by angels - persian miniature (c. 1560).jpg|Angels witnessing the creation of Adam, Persian miniature (c. 1560).
File:Wonders of creation manuscript angel image.png|Image of an angel with animals from The Wonders of Creation, c. 1650–1700. (held in the Bavarian State Library)
File:Carpet Fragment depicting Angels.jpg|Carpet fragment depicting angels, Safavid dynasty, early 16th century.
File:Konya angel wall fragment.png|Fragment of sculpture from Konya city walls, c. 1220–1221.
File:Siyer-i Nebi 298a.jpg|Muhammad advancing on Mecca, with the angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail. (Siyer-i Nebi, 16th century)
File:Muhammad at Badr.jpg|Muhammad at the Battle of Badr. (Siyer-i Nebi, 16th century)
</gallery>
Gallery of angels in Jewish art
<gallery>
File:Ezekiel 2.jpeg|Angels with butterfly wings restoring life in a mural from the Dura Europos synagogue.
File:XV09 - Roma, Museo civiltà romana - Rilievo giudaico - sec II dC - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 12-Apr-2008.jpg|2nd or 3rd-century carving of the Menorah being attended by angels, including angels who may represent the seasons of the year.
File:Mosaic Zodiac from Synagogue in Beit Alpha, Israel, 6th Century (31858682362).jpg| 6th century zodiac mosaic from the Beth Alpha Synagogue. At the corners are winged female angels, perhaps representing the seasons.
File:Golden haggadah - scenes from genesis - BL Add.27210, f.2v.jpg| Angels in the Golden Haggadah, a 14th-century manuscript.
File:Enluminure Sefarade, Haggadah a.jpg| Angels in the Golden Haggadah.
File:North French Hebrew Miscellany folio 521b522a.l.jpg| Cherubim (left) in a 13th-century French Hebrew manuscript.
File:Creation of Adam Sister Haggadah.jpg|Adam and the angels in the Sister Haggadah, from 1325 to 1374
File:Sarejevohagadah.gif|Abstract depiction of an angel (top right) in the Sarajevo Haggadah, 15th century.
File:Schocken Bible frontispiece.jpg|Torah frontispiece made of miniatures, some of which include angels.
File:Moses, Aaron the High Priest and King David - Passover Haggadah (1740), f.1 - BL Add MS 18724.jpg| Angels in a Haggadah from 1740.
File:Ketuba from Italy.jpg| Angels on a Ketubah from 1746.
File:Hebrew MS A1, cherubs, Venetian Ketubbah Wellcome L0030965.jpg|Angels on a Ketubah from 1754.
File:Unknown Artist, Maker - Marriage Contract - Google Art Project (2743531).jpg|Angels on a Ketubah from 1781.
File:Unknown Artist, Maker - Marriage Contract - Google Art Project (2742705).jpg|Possible angel with butterfly wings on a Ketubah from 1836.
File:Písečné Jüdischer Friedhof - Grabstein 5 Engel.jpg|Angels on a Jewish tombstone.
File:Cimitero Ebreo di Livorno 9.JPG|Italian Jewish tombstone possibly depicting a seraph.
File:Lilien Ephraim Moses, 1923, Szabat.jpg|Early 20th century art from Ephraim Moses Lilien of God being attended by angels.
File:Lilien Ephraim Moses, 1923, Jakub i anioł.jpg| Jacob wrestling the angel.
</gallery>
See also
* Archangel Michael in Christian art
* Michael (archangel)
* Gabriel
* Angels in Islam
* Angelus
* Fleur de lys
* List of films about angels
* List of names referring to El
* Seraph
Notes
References
*
Category:Christian art
Category:Islamic art
Category:Jewish art | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_in_art | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.801399 |
2208 | Arctic fox | | synonyms_ref
}}
The Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), also known as the white fox, polar fox, or snow fox, is a small species of fox native to the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and common throughout the Arctic tundra biome. It is well adapted to living in cold environments, and is best known for its thick, warm fur that is also used as camouflage. It has a large and very fluffy tail. In the wild, most individuals do not live past their first year but some exceptional ones survive up to 11 years. Arctic wolves, polar bears, wolverines, red foxes, and grizzly bears.BehaviorArctic foxes must endure a temperature difference of up to between the external environment and their internal core temperature. To prevent heat loss, the Arctic fox curls up tightly tucking its legs and head under its body and behind its furry tail. This position gives the fox the smallest surface area to volume ratio and protects the least insulated areas. Arctic foxes also stay warm by getting out of the wind and residing in their dens. They build up their fat reserves in the autumn, sometimes increasing their body weight by more than 50%. This provides greater insulation during the winter and a source of energy when food is scarce. The young emerge from the den when 3 to 4 weeks old and are weaned by 9 weeks of age. This fox is a significant bird-egg predator, consuming eggs of all except the largest tundra bird species.
Arctic foxes survive harsh winters and food scarcity by either hoarding food or storing body fat subcutaneously and viscerally. At the beginning of winter, one Arctic fox has approximately 14740 kJ of energy storage from fat alone. Using the lowest BMR value measured in Arctic foxes, an average sized fox of would need 471 kJ/day during the winter to survive. In Canada, Arctic foxes acquire from snow goose eggs at a rate of 2.7–7.3 eggs/h and store 80–97% of them. Scats provide evidence that they eat the eggs during the winter after caching. Isotope analysis shows that eggs can still be eaten after a year, and the metabolizable energy of a stored goose egg only decreases by 11% after 60 days; a fresh egg has about 816 kJ. Eggs stored in the summer are accessed the following spring prior to reproduction.AdaptationsThe Arctic fox lives in some of the most frigid extremes on the planet, but they do not start to shiver until the temperature drops to . Among its adaptations for survival in the cold is its dense, multilayered pelage, which provides excellent insulation. Additionally, the Arctic fox is the only canid whose foot pads are covered in fur. There are two genetically distinct coat color morphs: white and blue. The fur of the Arctic fox provides the best insulation of any mammal.
The Arctic fox has a low surface area to volume ratio, as evidenced by its generally compact body shape, short muzzle and legs, and short, thick ears. Since less of its surface area is exposed to the Arctic cold, less heat escapes from its body.Sensory modalitiesThe Arctic fox has a functional hearing range between 125 Hz–16 kHz with a sensitivity that is ≤ 60 dB in air, and an average peak sensitivity of 24 dB at 4 kHz. Overall, the Arctic foxes hearing is less sensitive than the dog and the kit fox. The Arctic fox and the kit fox have a low upper-frequency limit compared to the domestic dog and other carnivores. The Arctic fox can easily hear lemmings burrowing under 4-5 inches of snow. When it has located its prey, it pounces and punches through the snow to catch its prey.
Physiology
The Arctic fox contains advantageous genes to overcome extreme cold and starvation periods. Transcriptome sequencing has identified two genes that are under positive selection: Glycolipid transfer protein domain containing 1 (GLTPD1) and V-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 2 (AKT2). GLTPD1 is involved in the fatty acid metabolism, while AKT2 pertains to the glucose metabolism and insulin signaling.
The average mass specific BMR and total BMR are 37% and 27% lower in the winter than the summer. The Arctic fox decreases its BMR via metabolic depression in the winter to conserve fat storage and minimize energy requirements. According to the most recent data, the lower critical temperature of the Arctic fox is at in the winter and in the summer. It was commonly believed that the Arctic fox had a lower critical temperature below . However, some scientists have concluded that this statistic is not accurate since it was never tested using the proper equipment. Arctic foxes maintain the temperature in their paws independently from the core temperature. If the core temperature drops, the pad of the foot will remain constantly above the tissue freezing point. In some regions, no difference in size is seen between males and females. The tail is about long in both sexes. The height at the shoulder is . On average males weigh , with a range of , while females average , with a range of .TaxonomyVulpes lagopus'' is a 'true fox' belonging to the genus Vulpes of the fox tribe Vulpini, which consists of 12 extant species.
|2=Kit fox
}}
|2Swift fox The specific name lagopus is derived from Ancient Greek λαγώς (lagōs, "hare") and πούς (pous, "foot"), referring to the hair on its feet similar to those found in cold-climate species of hares.
Looking at the most recent phylogeny, the Arctic fox and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) diverged approximately 3.17MYA. Additionally, the Arctic fox diverged from its sister group, the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), at about 0.9MYA.
Subspecies
Besides the nominate subspecies, the common Arctic fox, V. l. lagopus, four other subspecies of this fox have been described:
* Bering Islands Arctic fox, V. l. beringensis
* Greenland Arctic fox, V. l. foragoapusis
* Iceland Arctic fox, V. l. fuliginosus
* Pribilof Islands Arctic fox, V. l. pribilofensis
Distribution and habitat
The Arctic fox has a circumpolar distribution and occurs in Arctic tundra habitats in northern Europe, northern Asia, and North America. Its range includes Greenland, Iceland, Fennoscandia, Svalbard, Jan Mayen (where it was hunted to extinction) and other islands in the Barents Sea, northern Russia, islands in the Bering Sea, Alaska, and Canada as far south as Hudson Bay. In the late 19th century, it was introduced into the Aleutian Islands southwest of Alaska. However, the population on the Aleutian Islands is currently being eradicated in conservation efforts to preserve the local bird population. and the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska. They are found at elevations up to above sea level and have been seen on sea ice close to the North Pole.
The Arctic fox is the only land mammal native to Iceland. It came to the isolated North Atlantic island at the end of the last ice age, walking over the frozen sea. The Arctic Fox Center in Súðavík contains an exhibition on the Arctic fox and conducts studies on the influence of tourism on the population. Its range during the last ice age was much more extensive than it is now, and fossil remains of the Arctic fox have been found over much of northern Europe and Siberia.
In July 2019, the Norwegian Polar Institute reported the story of a yearling female which was fitted with a GPS tracking device and then released by their researchers on the east coast of Spitsbergen in the Svalbard group of islands. The young fox crossed the polar ice from the islands to Greenland in 21 days, a distance of . She then moved on to Ellesmere Island in northern Canada, covering a total recorded distance of in 76 days, before her GPS tracker stopped working. She averaged just over a day, and managed as much as in a single day.Conservation status
, 1890]]
The Arctic fox has been assessed as least concern on the IUCN Red List since 2004. because even though the animal was declared a protected species in Finland in 1940, the population has not recovered despite that. As a result, the populations of Arctic fox have been carefully studied and inventoried in places such as the Vindelfjällens Nature Reserve (Sweden), which has the Arctic fox as its symbol.
The abundance of the Arctic fox tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings and voles (a 3- to 4-year cycle).
The pelts of Arctic foxes with a slate-blue coloration were especially valuable. They were transported to various previously fox-free Aleutian Islands during the 1920s. The program was successful in terms of increasing the population of blue foxes, but their predation of Aleutian Canada geese conflicted with the goal of preserving that species.
The Arctic fox is losing ground to the larger red fox. This has been attributed to climate change—the camouflage value of its lighter coat decreases with less snow cover. Red foxes dominate where their ranges begin to overlap by killing Arctic foxes and their kits. An alternative explanation of the red fox's gains involves the gray wolf. Historically, it has kept red fox numbers down, but as the wolf has been hunted to near extinction in much of its former range, the red fox population has grown larger, and it has taken over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern Europe, programs are in place that allow the hunting of red foxes in the Arctic fox's previous range.
As with many other game species, the best sources of historical and large-scale population data are hunting bag records and questionnaires. Several potential sources of error occur in such data collections. In addition, numbers vary widely between years due to the large population fluctuations. However, the total population of the Arctic fox must be in the order of several hundred thousand animals.
The world population of Arctic foxes is thus not endangered, but two Arctic fox subpopulations are. One is on Medny Island (Commander Islands, Russia), which was reduced by some 85–90%, to around 90 animals, as a result of mange caused by an ear tick introduced by dogs in the 1970s. The population is currently under treatment with antiparasitic drugs, but the result is still uncertain.
The other threatened population is the one in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula). This population decreased drastically around the start of the 20th century as a result of extreme fur prices, which caused severe hunting also during population lows. The population has remained at a low density for more than 90 years, with additional reductions during the last decade. The total population estimate for 1997 is around 60 adults in Sweden, 11 adults in Finland, and 50 in Norway. From Kola, there are indications of a similar situation, suggesting a population of around 20 adults. The Fennoscandian population thus numbers around 140 breeding adults. Even after local lemming peaks, the Arctic fox population tends to collapse back to levels dangerously close to nonviability.
See also
* Arctic rabies virus
References
Further reading
* Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). ''Walker's Carnivores of the World''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. .
External links
* [https://archive.today/20120523215629/http://www.environment.no/Topics/Biological-diversity/Threatened-species/Arctic-fox/ State of the Environment Norway: Arctic fox]
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=2 Smithsonian Institution – North American Mammals: Vulpes lagopus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140225045357/http://www.islandsmyndir.is/html_skjol/annad/Dyr/Arctic_Fox_cub/index.html Photo Gallery by islandsmyndir.is]
*
* https://www.britannica.com/animal/Arctic-fox
Fox, arctic
Category:Fauna of the Holarctic realm
Category:Mammals described in 1758
Category:Mammals of Europe
Category:Mammals of Asia
Category:Mammals of Greenland
Category:Mammals of Iceland
Category:Mammals of North America
Category:Mammals of Russia
Category:Mammals of Canada
Category:Mammals of the United States
Category:Mammals of the Arctic
Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Category:Vulpes
Category:Habitats Directive species | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_fox | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.827629 |
2209 | Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation) | Anglo-Saxons were Germanic tribes that settled in early medieval England.
These Anglo-Saxons are also referred to under the names of two notable groups of tribes:
Angles
Saxons
Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Saxons may also refer to:
Historical
History of Anglo-Saxon England
Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon architecture
Anglo-Saxon art
Anglo-Saxon brooches
Burial in Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon burial mounds
Anglo-Saxon charters
Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England
List of Anglo-Saxon deities
Anglo-Saxon dress
Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies
Anglo-Saxon glass
Government in Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon law
Anglo-Saxon London
Anglo-Saxon lyre
Magic in Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon metrical charms
Anglo-Saxon mission
Old English, the earliest historical form of the English language
Anglo-Saxon paganism
Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon riddles
Anglo-Saxon runes
Anglo-Saxon runic rings
List of Anglo-Saxon saints
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
Anglo-Saxon turriform churches
Anglo-Saxon warfare
Weapons and armour in Anglo-Saxon England
Witchcraft in Anglo-Saxon England
Women in Anglo-Saxon society
Modern
Anglo-Saxon model, modern macroeconomic term
Anglo-Saxon world, modern societies based on or influenced by English customs
Anglo-Saxon (anthropology) or Nordic race, outdated racial concept
, one of several ships
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, sociological term in the U.S.
Anglo-Saxons (slur), a derogatory term for English-speaking countries used in Russian propaganda
Anglo-Saxonism in the 19th century | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.830909 |
2210 | Folklore of the United States | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
American folklore encompasses the folklore that has evolved in the present-day United States mostly since the European colonization of the Americas. It also contains folklore that dates back to the Pre-Columbian era.
Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales, stories, tall tales, and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared.
Native American folk
Native American cultures are rich in myths and legends that explain natural phenomena and the relationship between humans and the spirit world. According to Barre Toelken, feathers, beadwork, dance steps and music, the events in a story, the shape of a dwelling, or items of traditional food can be viewed as icons of cultural meaning.
Native American cultures are numerous and diverse. Though some neighboring cultures hold similar beliefs, others can be quite different from one another. The most common myths are the creation myths, which tell a story to explain how the earth was formed and where humans and other beings came from. Others may include explanations about the Sun, Moon, constellations, specific animals, seasons, and weather. This is one of the ways that many tribes have kept, and continue to keep, their cultures alive; these stories are told as a way of preserving and transmitting the nation, tribe, or band's particular beliefs, history, customs, spirituality, and traditional way of life. According to Barre Toelken, "Stories not only entertain but also embody Native behavioral and ethical values."
Founding myths
The founding of the United States is often surrounded by national myths, legends, and tall tales. Many stories have developed since the founding long ago to become a part of America's folklore and cultural awareness, and non-Native American folklore especially includes any narrative which has contributed to the shaping of American culture and belief systems. These narratives have varying levels of historical accuracy; the veracity of the stories is not a determining factor.Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus, as a hero and symbol to the then-immigrants, is an important figure in the body of American myth. His status, not unlike most American icons, is representative not of his own accomplishments, but the self-perception of the society which chose him as a hero. Having effected a separation from England and its cultural icons, the United States was left without history—or heroes on which to base a shared sense of their social selves. Washington Irving was instrumental in popularizing Columbus. His version of Columbus' life, published in 1829, was more a romance than a biography.
Jamestown
In May 1607, the Susan Constant, the Discovery, and the Godspeed sailed through Chesapeake Bay and thirty miles up the James River settlers built Jamestown, Virginia, England's first permanent colony. Too late in the season to plant crops, many were not accustomed to manual labor. Within a few months, some settlers died of famine and disease. Only thirty-eight made it through their first year in the New World. Captain John Smith, a pirate turned gentleman, turned the settlers into foragers and successful traders with the Native Americans, who taught the English how to plant corn and other crops. Smith led expeditions to explore the regions surrounding Jamestown, and it was during one of these that the chief of the Powhatan Native Americans captured Smith. According to an account Smith published in 1624, he was going to be put to death until the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, saved him. From this, the legend of Pocahontas sprang forth, becoming part of American folklore, children's books, and movies.PlymouthPlymouth Rock is the traditional site of disembarkation of William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, and an important symbol in American history. There are no contemporary references to the Pilgrims' landing on a rock at Plymouth. The first written reference to the Pilgrims landing on a rock is found 121 years after they landed. The Rock, or one traditionally identified as it, has long been memorialized on the shore of Plymouth Harbor in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The holiday of Thanksgiving is said to have begun with the Pilgrims in 1621. They had come to America to escape religious persecution, but then nearly starved to death. Some friendly Native Americans, including Squanto, helped the Pilgrims survive through the first winter. The perseverance of the Pilgrims is celebrated during the annual Thanksgiving festival.
Revolutionary War figures
George Washington
George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799), the country's first president, is the most preeminent of American historical and folkloric figures, as he holds the place of "Pater Patriae". Apocryphal stories about Washington's childhood include a claim that he skipped a silver dollar across the Rappahannock River at Ferry Farm. Another tale claims that as a young child, Washington chopped down his father's cherry tree. His angry father confronted the young Washington, who proclaimed "I cannot tell a lie" and admitted to the transgression, thus illuminating his honesty. Parson Mason Locke Weems mentions the first citation of this legend in his 1806 book, The Life of George Washington: With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen. This anecdote cannot be independently verified. Samuel Clemens, also known as Mark Twain, is also known to have spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding "I have a higher and greater standard of principle. Washington could not lie. I can lie but I won't."Patrick HenryPatrick Henry (May 29, 1736 – June 6, 1799) was an attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. Patrick Henry is best known for the speech he made in the House of Burgesses on March 23, 1775, in Saint John's Church in Richmond, Virginia. With the House undecided on whether to mobilize for military action against the encroaching British military force, Henry argued in favor of mobilization. Forty-two years later, Henry's first biographer, William Wirt, working from oral histories, tried to reconstruct what Henry said. According to Wirt, Henry ended his speech with words that have since become immortalized: "I know not what course others may take; but as for me, Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" The crowd, by Wirt's account, jumped up and shouted "To Arms! To Arms!". For 160 years Wirt's account was taken at face value. In the 1970s, historians began to question the authenticity of Wirt's reconstruction.
Betsy Ross
Betsy Ross (January 1, 1752 – January 30, 1836) is widely credited with making the first American flag. There is, however, no credible historical evidence that the story is true. Research conducted by the National Museum of American History notes that the story of Betsy Ross making the first American flag for General George Washington entered into American consciousness about the time of the 1876 centennial celebrations. In the 2008 book The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon, Smithsonian experts point out that accounts of the event appealed to Americans eager for stories about the revolution and its heroes and heroines. Betsy Ross was promoted as a patriotic role model for young girls and a symbol of women's contributions to American history.
Other Revolutionary War heroes who became figures of American folklore include: Benedict Arnold, Benjamin Franklin, Nathan Hale, John Hancock, John Paul Jones and Francis Marion.Tall talesThe tall tale is a fundamental element of American folk literature. The tall tale's origins are seen in the bragging contests that often occurred when men of the American frontier gathered. A tall tale is a story with unbelievable elements, relayed as if it were true and factual. Some such stories are exaggerations of actual events; others are completely fictional tales set in a familiar setting, such as the American Old West, or the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. They are usually humorous or good-natured. The line between myth and tall tale is distinguished primarily by age; many myths exaggerate the exploits of their heroes, but in tall tales, the exaggeration looms large, to the extent of becoming the whole of the story.
Based on historical figures
* John Chapman (September 26, 1774 – March 18, 1845), widely known as Johnny Appleseed, was an American pioneer nurseryman who introduced apple trees to large parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. He became an American legend while still alive, largely because of his kind and generous ways, and the symbolic importance he attributed to apples. Johnny Appleseed is remembered in American popular culture by his traveling song or Swedenborgian hymn ("The Lord is good to me...").
* Daniel Boone (November 2, 1734 [O.S. October 22] – September 26, 1820) was an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States.
* Davy Crockett (August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was a 19th-century American folk hero, frontiersman, soldier and politician. He is commonly referred to in popular culture by the epithet, "King of the Wild Frontier". He represented Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives, served in the Texas Revolution, and died at the Battle of the Alamo.
* Mike Fink (c. 1770/1780 – c. 1823) called "king of the keelboaters", was a semi-legendary brawler and river boatman who exemplified the tough and hard-drinking men who ran keelboats up and down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.
* Martha Jane Canary (May 1, 1852 – August 1, 1903), better known as Calamity Jane, was an American frontierswoman, and professional scout best known for her claim of being an acquaintance of Wild Bill Hickok. She is said to have also exhibited kindness and compassion, especially to the sick and needy. It was from her that Bret Harte took his famous character of Cherokee Sal in The Luck of Roaring Camp.
* Jigger Johnson (1871–1935), was a lumberjack and log driver from northern New England who is known for his numerous off-the-job exploits, such as catching bobcats alive with his bare hands, and drunken brawls.
* John Henry was an African-American railroad worker who is said to have worked as a "steel-driving man"—a man tasked with hammering a steel drill into rock to make holes for explosives to blast the rock away in constructing a railroad tunnel. According to legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a steam-powered hammer, which he won, only to die in victory with his hammer in his hand and his heart giving out from stress. The "Ballad of John Henry" is a musical rendition of his story.
* Molly Pitcher was a nickname given to a woman said to have fought in the American Battle of Monmouth, who is generally believed to have been Mary Hays. Since various Molly Pitcher tales grew in the telling, many historians regard Molly Pitcher as folklore rather than history, or suggest that Molly Pitcher may be a composite image inspired by the actions of a number of real women. The name itself may have originated as a nickname given to women who carried water to men on the battlefield during the war.
* Casey Jones (March 14, 1863 – April 30, 1900) was the nickname of John Luther Jones, an engineer for the Illinois Central Railroad, who was killed while attempting to stop his passenger train from colliding with a stalled freight train in Vaughan, Mississippi. His decisive actions saved the lives of all his passengers and multiple railway men at the cost of his own. His final run was immortalized in “The Ballad of Casey Jones”, a traditional folk song about the night of his death.
Other historical figures include Titanic survivor Molly Brown, Gunslinging Outlaw Billy The Kid, Wild West showman Buffalo Bill Cody, and sharpshooter Annie Oakley.
Fictional characters
* Paul Bunyan is a lumberjack figure in North American folklore and tradition. One of the most famous and popular North American folklore heroes, he is usually described as a giant as well as a lumberjack of unusual skill, and is often accompanied in stories by his animal companion, Babe the Blue Ox. The character originated in folktales circulated among lumberjacks in the Northeastern United States and eastern Canada, first appearing in print in a story published by Northern Michigan journalist James MacGillivray in 1906.
* Cordwood Pete is said to be the younger brother of legendary lumberjack Paul Bunyan.
* Johnny Kaw is a mythical Kansas settler whose exploits created elements of the Kansas landscape and helped establish wheat and sunflowers as major crops. The character dates to the 1955 centennial of Kansas and has been explored in numerous books.
* John the Conqueror also known as High John the Conqueror, and many other folk variants, is a folk hero from African-American folklore. John the Conqueror was an African prince who was sold as a slave in the Americas. Despite his enslavement, his spirit was never broken and he survived in folklore as a sort of a trickster figure, because of the tricks he played to evade his masters. Joel Chandler Harris's 'Br'er Rabbit' of the Uncle Remus stories is said to be patterned after High John the Conqueror.
* Pecos Bill is an American cowboy, apocryphally immortalized in numerous tall tales of the Old West during American westward expansion into the Southwest of Texas, New Mexico, Southern California, and Arizona
* Captain Stormalong was an American folk hero and the subject of numerous nautical-themed tall tales originating in Massachusetts. Stormalong was said to be a sailor and a giant, some 30 feet tall; he was the master of a huge clipper ship known in various sources as either the Courser or the Tuscarora, a ship so tall that it had hinged masts to avoid catching on the moon.Legendary and folkloric creatures*Bigfoot, also known as "Sasquatch", is the name given to an ape-like creature that some believe inhabit mostly forests in the Pacific Northwest region of, and throughout the entirety of, North America. Bigfoot is usually described as a large, hairy, bipedal humanoid, although descriptions vary depending on location. The height range is about 6 to 10 feet tall with black, dark brown, or dark reddish hair. One of the most famous accounts of Bigfoot is the Patterson-Gimlin film, where a supposedly female Bigfoot marches across the screen with giant strides, turns to face the camera, then marches off up a steep hill and into the forest. There are more than 100 sightings reported yearly. Among these reporters are veterans, campers, hikers, explorers, hunters, and more. There are several websites, podcasts and organizations related to Bigfoot.
* Champ is the name given to a reputed lake monster living in Lake Champlain, a natural freshwater lake in North America. The lake crosses the Canada–United States border, located partially in the Canadian province of Quebec and partially in the U.S. states of Vermont and New York. There is no scientific evidence for Champ's existence, though there have been over 300 reported sightings. The most recent Champ sighting to get widespread attention occurred during post-production of the Champ movie Lucy and the Lake Monster, the filmmakers reviewed their drone footage from production on August 2, 2024, and noticed what appears to be a large creature swimming just below the surface of the water, in Bulwagga Bay. The alleged plesiosaur image is visible in the bottom right portion of the screen, swimming behind a boat containing the two lead actors in the film. The boat was 142 inches from the tip of the bow to the stern and 50.5 inches at the widest point and the alleged plesiosaur appears bigger than the boat. One of the co-writers, Kelly Tabor, believes it to be a foundational piece of evidence for Champ. The second co-writer, Richard Rossi, referred to himself as the "Doubting Thomas," and he shared the entire five minutes of footage with a conclave of scientists with earned doctorates in science for further study of the Tabor-Rossi footage.
*Punxsutawney Phil is a semi-mythical groundhog central to the most well-known Groundhog Day ceremony, a Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that claims to predict the arrival of spring. According to tradition, the same groundhog has made predictions ever since the 1800s.
* The Jersey Devil is a legendary creature said to inhabit the New Jersey Pine Barrens of Southern New Jersey in the United States. The creature is often described as a flying biped with hooves, but there are many different variations. The most common description is that of a kangaroo-like creature with the face of a horse, the head of a dog, leathery bat-like wings, horns, small arms with clawed hands, red eyes, cloven hooves and a forked tail. It has been reported to move quickly, as to avoid human contact, and often is described as emitting a "blood-curdling scream". The legend goes as such: a woman named Mother Leeds gave birth to her 13th child on a dark, stormy night. Mother Leed is said to be a witch and her 13th child was born the Devil. It soon grew wings and hooves, killed the midwife, and took off into the night.
* The White Lady is a type of female ghost reportedly seen in rural areas and associated with some local legend of tragedy. Common to many of them is the theme of losing or being betrayed by a husband or fiancé. They are often associated with an individual family line or said to be a harbinger of death, similar to a banshee.
* Mothman is a mythical creature from Point Pleasant, West Virginia described as a large humanoid with glowing red eyes on its face and large bird-like wings with fur covering its body. Mothman has been blamed for the collapse of the Silver Bridge.
* The Hodag is a mythical beast that is said to inhabit the forests of Northern Wisconsin, particularly around the city of Rhinelander. The Hodag has a reptilian body with the horns of a bull and is said to have a penchant for mischief.
*Old Black Eyes is a spectral hound said to frequent an area known as the Baker Rocks, located near the top of the Black Mountains of North Carolina. Old Black Eyes is said to be the spirit of Jim Baker, who lived at the rocks and was regarded as a witch with supernatural powers by the local mountain people. According to legend, Jim Baker performed some sort of ritual at an old Indian cemetery, near the Black Mountains, where he proceeded to sell his soul to the Devil. The Devil proceeded to turn Baker's pupils "unnaturally black" as a sign of their deal and hell's claim on his soul. Upon his death, Baker was said to take the spirit of a "devil dog", identifiable by the large black pupils of its eyes, that people feared to approach, believing it was surrounded in black magic. It was said the only way to get rid of Old Black Eyes was to draw its picture, pin it to a tree, and then shoot it with a gun.
*In North American folklore, Fearsome critters were tall tale animals jokingly said to inhabit the wilderness in or around logging camps, especially in the Great Lakes region. Today, the term may also be applied to similar fabulous beasts.
Other folkloric creatures include the Chupacabra, Jackalope, the Nain Rouge of Detroit, Michigan, the Hide-behind, Wendigo of Minnesota and Chessie, a legendary sea monster said to live in Chesapeake Bay.
Literature
Santa Claus, also known as Saint Nicholas, Father Christmas, or simply "Santa", is a figure with legendary, mythical, historical and folkloric origins. The modern figure of Santa Claus was derived from the Dutch figure, Sinterklaas, which may, in turn, have its origins in the hagiographical tales concerning the Christian Saint Nicholas. "A Visit from St. Nicholas", also known as "The Night Before Christmas" is a poem first published anonymously in 1823 and generally attributed to Clement Clarke Moore. The poem, which has been called "arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American", is largely responsible for the conception of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today, including his physical appearance, the night of his visit, his mode of transportation, the number and names of his reindeer, as well as the tradition that he brings toys to children. The poem has influenced ideas about St. Nicholas and Santa Claus from the United States to the rest of the English-speaking world and beyond. Is There a Santa Claus? was the title of an editorial appearing in the September 21, 1897, edition of The (New York) Sun. The editorial, which included the famous reply "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus", has become a part of popular Christmas folklore in the United States and Canada.
The Headless Horseman is a fictional character from the short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" by American author Washington Irving. The story, from Irving's collection of short stories, entitled The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, has worked itself into known American folklore/legend through literature and film.
"Rip Van Winkle" is a short story by the American author Washington Irving, first published in 1819. It follows a Dutch-American villager in colonial America named Rip Van Winkle who meets mysterious Dutchmen, imbibes their liquor and falls asleep in the Catskill Mountains. He awakes 20 years later to a very changed world, having missed the American Revolution.
Inspired by a conversation on nostalgia with his American expatriate brother-in-law, Irving wrote the story while temporarily living in Birmingham, England. It was published in his collection, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. While the story is set in New York's Catskill Mountains near where Irving later took up residence, he admitted, "When I wrote the story, I had never been on the Catskills."
Folk music
Native Americans were the earliest inhabitants of the land that is today known as the United States and played its first music. Beginning in the 17th century, immigrants from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, Germany and France began arriving in large numbers, bringing with them new styles and instruments. African slaves brought musical traditions, and each subsequent wave of immigrants contributes to a melting pot. Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th-century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that.
The earliest American scholars were with The American Folklore Society (AFS), which emerged in the late 1800s. Their studies expanded to include Native American music but still treated folk music as a historical item preserved in isolated societies. In North America, during the 1930s and 1940s, the Library of Congress worked through the offices of traditional music collectors Robert Winslow Gordon, Alan Lomax and others to capture as much North American field material as possible. Lomax was the first prominent scholar to study distinctly American folk music such as that of cowboys and southern blacks. His first major published work was in 1911, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads, and was arguably the most prominent US folk music scholar of his time, notably during the beginnings of the folk music revival in the 1930s and early 1940s.
The American folk music revival was a phenomenon in the United States that began during the 1940s and peaked in popularity in the mid-1960s. Its roots went earlier, and performers like Burl Ives, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Oscar Brand had enjoyed a limited general popularity in the 1930s and 1940s. The revival brought forward musical styles that had, in earlier times, contributed to the development of country & western, jazz, and rock and roll music.African-American musicSlavery was introduced to the Thirteen Colonies beginning in the early 17th century in Virginia. The ancestors of today's African-American population were brought from hundreds of tribes across West Africa and brought with them certain traits of West African music. This included call and response vocals, complex rhythmic music, syncopated beats, shifting accents, incorporation of hums and moans, which are sounds with no distinct meaning, and a combination of sound and body movements. The African musical focus on rhythmic singing and dancing was brought to the New World, where it became part of a distinct folk culture that helped Africans "retain continuity with their past through music." Along with retaining many African elements, there was also a continuation of instruments. Enslaved Africans would either take with them African instruments or reconstructed them once in the New World. The first slaves in the United States sang work songs and field hollers. However, slave music was used for a variety of reasons. Music was included in religious ceremonies and celebrations, used to coordinate work, and to conceal hidden messages, like when they were commenting on slave owners. African American slave songs can be divided into three groups: religious, work, and recreational songs.SpiritualsProtestant hymns written mostly by New England preachers became a feature of camp meetings held among devout Christians across the South. Most slaves were typically animists or were a part of some other form of African Religion. To destroy any remnants of African culture or make more people disciples, slaves would be encouraged and taken to church. They became attracted to the grace and freedom that was preached within the church, which was very different from the lives they were living. Slaves would learn the same hymns that their masters sang, and when they came together they developed and sang adapted versions of these hymns, they were called Negro spirituals. It was from these roots, of spiritual songs, work songs, and field hollers, that blues, jazz, and gospel developed. Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith. These songs provided them a voice for their longing for freedom and to experience it. Around the 1840s, slaves knew that in the northern states, slavery was illegal, and some northerners wanted the complete abolishment of slavery. So when they sang about heaven, it was also about possibly escaping north. In the early 19th century the Underground Railroad was developed, containing a network of secret routes and safe houses, and it greatly impacted slaves' religious music. When there was any mention of trains, stations, etc. in spirituals they were directly referencing the Underground Railroad, such as the song "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot". These songs were designed so that slave owners thought that slaves were only singing about heaven.
Work songs
Work Songs at least had two functions: one to benefit the slaves and another to benefit overseers. When a group of slaves had to work together on a hard task, like carrying a heavy load, singing would provide a rhythm that allowed them to coordinate their movements. When picking crops, music was not necessary, but when there was silence it would be uncomfortable for the overseers. Even though there was a presence of melancholy in songs, Southern slave owners would interpret that their slaves were happy and content, possibly because of their singing.
Folk songs may be classified by subject matter, such as: drinking songs, sporting songs, train songs, work songs, war songs, and ballads.
* The Star-Spangled Banner's tune was adapted from an old English drinking song by John Stafford Smith called "To Anacreon in Heaven."
* "The Ballad of Casey Jones" is a traditional song about railroad engineer Casey Jones and his death at the controls of the train he was driving. It tells of how Jones and his fireman Sim Webb raced their locomotive to make up for lost time, but discovered another train ahead of them on the line, and how Jones remained on board to try to stop the train as Webb jumped to safety.
* "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" (sometimes "When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again") is a popular song of the American Civil War that expressed people's longing for the return of their friends and relatives who were fighting in the war. The Irish anti-war song "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye" and "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" share the same melodic material. Based on internal textual references, "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye" apparently dates from the early 1820s, while When Johnny Comes Marching Home was first published in 1863. "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye" is a popular traditional Irish anti-war and anti-recruiting song. It is generally dated to the early 19th century, when soldiers from Athy, County Kildare served the British East India Company.
* "Oh My Darling, Clementine" (1884) is an American western folk ballad believed to have been based on another song called Down by the River Liv'd a Maiden (1863). The words are those of a bereaved lover singing about his darling, the daughter of a miner in the 1849 California Gold Rush. He loses her in a drowning accident. The song plays during the opening credits for the highly acclaimed John Ford movie "My Darling Clementine". It also runs as a background score all through the movie.
* "The Yellow Rose of Texas" is a traditional folk song. The original love song has become associated with the legend that Emily D. West, a biracial indentured servant, "helped win the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle in the Texas Revolution".
* "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" is a 1908 Tin Pan Alley song by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer which has become the unofficial anthem of baseball, although neither of its authors had attended a game prior to writing the song. The song is traditionally sung during the seventh-inning stretch of a baseball game. Fans are generally encouraged to sing along.
Other American folksongs include: "She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain", "Skewball", "Big Bad John", "Stagger Lee", "Camptown Races" and "The Battle Hymn of the Republic".
Sea shanties
Work songs sung by sailors between the 18th and 20th centuries are known as sea shanties. The shanty was a distinct type of work song, developed especially in American-style merchant vessels that had come to prominence in decades prior to the American Civil War. These songs were typically performed while adjusting the rigging, raising anchor, and other tasks where men would need to pull in rhythm. These songs usually have a very punctuated rhythm precisely for this reason, along with a call-and-answer format. Well before the 19th century, sea songs were common on rowing vessels. Such songs were also very rhythmic in order to keep the rowers together.
They were notably influenced by songs of African Americans, such as those sung whilst manually loading vessels with cotton in ports of the southern United States. The work contexts in which African-Americans sang songs comparable to shanties included: boat-rowing on rivers of the southeastern U.S. and Caribbean; the work of stokers or "firemen", who cast wood into the furnaces of steamboats plying great American rivers;and stevedoring on the U.S. eastern seaboard, the Gulf Coast, and the Caribbean—including "cotton-screwing": the loading of ships with cotton in ports of the American South. During the first half of the 19th century, some of the songs African Americans sang also began to appear in use for shipboard tasks, i.e. as shanties.
Shanty repertoire borrowed from the contemporary popular music enjoyed by sailors, including minstrel music, popular marches, and land-based folk songs, which were adapted to suit musical forms matching the various labor tasks required to operate a sailing ship. Such tasks, which usually required a coordinated group effort in either a pulling or pushing action, included weighing anchor and setting sail.
"Poor Paddy Works on the Railway" is a popular Irish and American folk song. Historically, it was often sung as a sea chanty. The song portrays an Irish worker working on a railroad. There are numerous titles of the song including, "Pat Works on the Railway" and "Paddy on the Railway". "Paddy Works on the Erie" is another version of the song. "Paddy on the Railway" is attested as a chanty in the earliest known published work to use the word "chanty", G. E. Clark's ''Seven Years of a Sailor's Life'' (1867). Clark recounted experiences fishing on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, in a vessel out of Provincetown, Mass. c. 1865–66. At one point, the crew is getting up the anchor in a storm, by means of a pump-style windlass. One of the chanties the men sing while performing this task is mentioned by title, "Paddy on the Railway."
Shaker music
The Shakers are a religious sect founded in 18th-century England upon the teachings of Ann Lee. Shakers today are most known for their cultural contributions, especially style of music and furniture. The Shakers composed thousands of songs, and also created many dances; both were an important part of the Shaker worship services. In Shaker society, a spiritual "gift" could also be a musical revelation, and they considered it important to record musical inspirations as they occurred. "Simple Gifts" was composed by Elder Joseph Brackett and originated in the Alfred Shaker community in Maine in 1848. Aaron Copland's iconic 1944 ballet score Appalachian Spring, uses the now famous Shaker tune "Simple Gifts" as the basis of its finale.
Folk dancing
Folk dances of British origin include the square dance, descended from the quadrille, combined with the American innovation of a caller instructing the dancers. The religious communal society known as the Shakers emigrated from England during the 18th century and developed their own folk dance style.
Locations and landmarks
* The "Lost Colony" of Roanoke Island: In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh recruited over 100 men, women and children to journey from England to Roanoke Island on North Carolina's coast and establish the first English settlement in America under the direction of John White as governor. Virginia Dare (born August 18, 1587) was the first child born in the Americas to English parents, Ananias and Eleanor White Dare in the short-lived Roanoke Colony. The fact of her birth is known because the governor of the settlement, Virginia Dare's grandfather, John White, returned to England in 1587 to seek fresh supplies. When White eventually returned three years later, Virginia and the other colonists were gone. During the past four hundred years, Virginia Dare has become a prominent figure in American myth and folklore, symbolizing different things to different groups of people. She is the subject of a poem (Peregrine White and Virginia Dare) by Rosemary and Stephen Vincent Benét, and the North Carolina Legend of the White Doe. While often cited as an indigenous legend, the white doe seems to have its roots in English folklore. White deer are common in English legends and often used as symbols of Christian virtue. A similar story of a young girl transformed into a white deer can be found in Yorkshire, where it formed the basis for Wordsworth's poem The White Doe of Rylstone. In the four centuries since their disappearance, the Roanoke colonists have been the subject of a mystery that still challenges historians and archaeologists as one of America's oldest.
* Bennington Triangle is an area of southwestern Vermont within which a number of people went missing between 1945 and 1950. The area shares characteristics with the Bridgewater Triangle in Southeastern Massachusetts.
* The Bridgewater Triangle is an area of about 200 square miles (520 km<sup>2</sup>) within southeastern Massachusetts in the United States, claimed to be a site of alleged paranormal phenomena, ranging from UFOs to poltergeists, orbs, balls of fire and other spectral phenomena, various bigfoot-like sightings, giant snakes and thunderbirds. The term was coined by New England-based cryptozoologist Loren Coleman.
* Times Square is a major commercial intersection in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, at the junction of Broadway and Seventh Avenue and stretching from West 42nd to West 47th Streets. Times Square – iconified as "The Crossroads of the World" is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District. Formerly Longacre Square, Times Square was renamed in April 1904 after The New York Times moved its headquarters to the newly erected Times Building site of the annual ball drop on New Year's Eve. The northern triangle of Times Square is technically Duffy Square, dedicated in 1937 to Chaplain Francis P. Duffy of New York City's "Fighting 69th" Infantry Regiment; a memorial to Duffy is located there, along with a statue of George M. Cohan. The Duffy Statue and the square were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.
* Empire State Building is a 102-story skyscraper located in New York City at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State. It stood as the world's tallest building for 40 years, from its completion in 1931. The Empire State Building is generally thought of as an American cultural icon. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk ironworkers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the 1933 film King Kong, in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death after being attacked by airplanes. The 1957 romantic drama film An Affair to Remember involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is averted by an automobile accident. The 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle, a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with a scene at the Empire State observatory.
Other locations and landmarks that have become part of American folklore include: Independence Hall, Monument Valley, Ellis Island, Hoover Dam, Pearl Harbor, the Vietnam War Memorial, and the Grand Canyon.Cultural icons* The Liberty Bell is an iconic symbol of American independence, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The bell was commissioned from the London firm of Lester and Pack in 1752, and was cast with the lettering (part of Leviticus 25:10) "Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." In the 1830s, the bell was adopted as a symbol by abolitionist societies, who dubbed it the "Liberty Bell". It acquired its distinctive large crack sometime in the early 19th century—a widespread story claims it cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835.
* The Statue of Liberty a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, designed by Frédéric Bartholdi and dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tablet upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States: a welcoming signal to immigrants arriving from abroad.
* Uncle Sam (initials U.S.) is a common national personification of the American government and came into use during the War of 1812. According to legend, Samuel Wilson, a meatpacker in New York, supplied rations for the soldiers and stamped the letters U.S. on the boxes, which stood for United States but was jokingly said to be the initials of Uncle Sam. An Uncle Sam is mentioned as early as 1775, in the original "Yankee Doodle" lyrics of the Revolutionary War . "Columbia", who first appeared in 1738 and sometimes was associated with liberty, is the personification of the American nation, while Uncle Sam is a personification of the government; they are some times shown working together or disputing with one another over political issues, especially in the political cartoons of Puck. With the American Revolutionary War came Brother Jonathan as a personification of the American Everyman; but it wasn't until after the War of 1812 Uncle Sam appeared. Brother Jonathan saw full literary development into the personification of American national character through the 1825 novel Brother Jonathan by John Neal.
* Shark Mouth nose art on military aircraft: Although originally from Austria this stylistic design was applied to the American Volunteer Group in Asia known more commonly as "The Flying Tigers". This design was painted on the units' P-40 fighters around the large air intake near the front of the plane. This image has since been placed on various aircraft such as American UH-1 and AH-1 helicopters during the Vietnam War as well as the modern-day A-10 Thunderbolt II, A-29 Supertucano and AT-6 Wolverine, and other vehicles both military and civilian alike.
Other cultural icons include Rosie the Riveter, the United States Constitution, the Colt Single Action Army, Smokey Bear, the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, and apple pie.
History
Historical events that form a part of American folklore include: the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's Ride, the Battle of the Alamo, the Salem witch trials, the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, the California Gold Rush, the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Battle of Gettysburg, the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and the September 11th attacks.
See also
* Black Heritage Trail
* John C. Campbell Folk School
* Seeing the elephant
* Mexican-American folklore
References
Further reading
* Baughman, Ernest Warren. Type And Motif-index of the Folktales of England And North America. The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966–1967.
* Coffin, Tristram P.; Cohen, Hennig, (editors), Folklore in America; tales, songs, superstitions, proverbs, riddles, games, folk drama and folk festivals, Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1966. Selections from the Journal of American folklore.
* —the evolution of the Elephant Riddle that entered U.S. folklore in California in 1963
* Cox, William T. with Latin Classifications by George B. Sudworth. [https://archive.org/details/fearsomecreatur00coxgoog Fearsome Creatures of the Lumberwoods]. Washington, D.C.: Judd & Detweiler Inc., 1910.
External links
* [http://www.afsnet.org American Folklore Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605103540/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA05/cline/obrother/free6/obrother1.htm American Myth Today: O Brother, Where Art Thou?] American Studies at the University of Virginia
United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.848938 |
2215 | Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri | | publisher = Electronic Arts (Win)<br />Aspyr Media (Mac)<br />Loki Software (Linux)
| director | producer
| designer = Brian Reynolds<br />Bing Gordon<br />Sid Meier<br />Douglas Kaufman<br />Timothy Train
| composer = Jeff Briggs<br />David Evans
| series = Civilization
| released |Alpha Centauri<br />Microsoft Windows<br />Mac OS<br />LinuxAlien Crossfire<br />Windows<br />s Planet. In Alien Crossfire, these factions compete along with the human factions for control over the destiny of Planet.Characters and factionsThe game focuses on the leaders of seven factions, chosen by the player from the 14 possible leaders in Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire, and Planet (voiced by Alena Kanka). The characters are developed from the faction leaders' portraits, the spoken monologues accompanying scientific discoveries and the "photographs in the corner of a commlink – home towns, first steps, first loves, family, graduation, spacewalk." The leaders in Alpha Centauri comprise: Lady Deirdre Skye, a Scottish activist (voiced by Carolyn Dahl), of ''Gaia's Stepdaughters; Chairman Sheng-Ji Yang, a Chinese Legalist official (voiced by Lu Yu), of the Human Hive; Academician Prokhor Zakharov, a Russian academic (voiced by Yuri Nesteroff) of the University of Planet; CEO Nwabudike Morgan, a Namibian businessman (voiced by Regi Davis), of Morgan Industries; Colonel Corazon Santiago, an American militiawoman (voiced by Wanda Niño) of the Spartan Federation; Sister Miriam Godwinson, an American minister and social psychologist (voiced by Gretchen Weigel), of the Lord's Believers; and Commissioner Pravin Lal, an Indian surgeon and diplomat (voiced by Hesh Gordon), of the Peacekeeping Forces.
The player controls one of the leaders and competes against the others to colonize and conquer Planet. Each faction excels at one or two important aspects of the game and follows a distinct philosophical belief, such as technological utopianism, Conclave Christianity, "free-market" capitalism, militarist survivalism, Chinese Legalism, U.N. Charter humanitarianism, or Environmentalist Gaia philosophy. The game takes place on Planet, with its "rolling red ochre plains" and "bands of lonely terraformed green".
The seven additional faction leaders in Alien Crossfire are Prime Function Aki Zeta-Five, a Norwegian research assistant-turned-cyborg (voiced by Allie Rivenbark), of The Cybernetic Consciousness; Captain Ulrik Svensgaard, an American fisherman and naval officer (voiced by James Liebman), of The Nautilus Pirates; Foreman Domai, an Australian labor leader (voiced by Frederick Serafin), of The Free Drones; Datajack Sinder Roze, a Trinidadian hacker (voiced by Christine Melton), of The Data Angels; Prophet Cha Dawn, a human born on Planet (voiced by Stacy Spenser) of The Cult of Planet''; Guardian Lular H'minee, a Progenitor leader (voiced by Jeff Gordon), of The Manifold Caretakers; and Conqueror Judaa Maar, a Progenitor leader (voiced by Jeff Gordon), of The Manifold Usurpers.PlotThe story unfolds via the introduction video, explanations of new technologies, videos obtained for completing secret projects, interludes, and cut-scenes. The fungus is difficult to traverse, provides invisibility for the enemy, provides few resources, and spawns "mindworms" that attack population centres and military units by neurally parasitising them. Mindworms can eventually be captured and bred in captivity and used as terroristic bioweapons, and the player eventually discovers that the fungus and mindworms can think collectively. The player discovers that Planet is a dormant semi-sentient hive organism that will soon experience a metamorphosis which will destroy all human life. To counter this threat, the player or a computer faction builds "The Voice of Alpha Centauri" secret project, which artificially links Planet's distributed nervous system into the human Datalinks, delaying Planet's metamorphosis into full self-awareness but incidentally increasing its ultimate intelligence substantially by giving it access to all of humanity's accumulated knowledge. Finally, the player or a computer faction embraces the "Ascent to Transcendence" in which humans too join their brains with the hive organism in its metamorphosis to godhood. Thus, Alpha Centauri closes "with a swell of hope and wonder in place of the expected triumphalism", reassuring "that the events of the game weren't the entirety of mankind's future, but just another step."-->
Gameplay
Alpha Centauri, a turn-based strategy game with a hard science fiction setting, is played from an isometric perspective. Many game features from Civilization II are present, but renamed or slightly tweaked: players establish bases (Civilization II's cities), build facilities (buildings) and secret projects (Wonders of the World), explore territory, research technology, and conquer other factions (civilizations). In addition to conquering all non-allied factions, players may also win by obtaining votes from three-quarters of the total population (similar to Civilization IVs Diplomatic victory), "cornering the Global Energy Market", completing the Ascent to Transcendence secret project, or for alien factions, constructing six Subspace Generators.
The main map (the upper two-thirds of the screen) is divided into squares, on which players can establish bases, move units and engage in combat. Through terraforming, players may modify the effects of the individual map squares on movement, combat and resources. Resources are used to feed the population, construct units and facilities, and supply energy. Players can allocate energy between research into new technology and energy reserves. Unlike Civilization II, new technology grants access to additional unit components rather than pre-designed units, allowing players to design and re-design units as their factions' priorities shift. Energy reserves allow the player to upgrade units, maintain facilities, and attempt to win by the Global Energy Market scenario. Bases are military strongpoints and objectives that are vital for all winning strategies. They produce military units, house the population, collect energy, and build secret projects and Subspace Generators. Facilities and secret projects improve the performance of individual bases and of the entire faction.
In addition to terraforming, optimizing individual base performance and building secret projects, players may also benefit their factions through social engineering, probe teams, and diplomacy. Social engineering modifies the ideologically based bonuses and penalties forced by the player's choice of faction. Probe teams can sabotage and steal information, units, technology, and energy from enemy bases, while diplomacy lets the player create coalitions with other factions. It also allows the trade or transfer of units, bases, technology and energy. The Planetary Council, similar to the United Nations Security Council, takes Planet-wide actions and determines population victories.
In addition to futuristic technological advances and secret projects, the game includes alien life, structures and machines. Monoliths repair units and provide resources; artifacts yield new technology and hasten secret projects; landmarks provide resource bonuses; and random events add danger and opportunity. Excessive development leads to terraforming-destroying fungus blooms and new native life.
Alpha Centauri provides a single player mode and supports customization and multiplayer. Players may customize the game by choosing options at the beginning of the game, using the built-in scenario and map editors, and modifying Alpha Centauris game files. In addition to a choice of seven (or 14 in Alien Crossfire) factions, pre-game options include scenario game, customized random map, difficulty level, and game rules that include victory conditions, research control, and initial map knowledge. The scenario and map editors allow players to create customized scenarios and maps. The game's basic rules, diplomatic dialog, and the factions' starting abilities are in text files, which "the designers have done their best to make it reasonably easy to modify..., even for non-programmers." Alpha Centauri supports play by email ("PBEM") and TCP/IP mode featuring simultaneous movement, and introduces direct player-to-player negotiation, allowing the unconstrained trade of technology, energy, maps, and other elements.DevelopmentInspirationsIn 1996, MicroProse released the lauded Civilization II, designed by Brian Reynolds. Spectrum Holobyte who owned MicroProse at the time, opted to consolidate their business under the MicroProse name, moving the company from Maryland to California by the time the game shipped, and laying off several MicroProse employees. Disagreements between the new management and its employees prompted Reynolds, Jeff Briggs, and Sid Meier (designer of the original Civilization) to leave MicroProse and found Firaxis. Although unable to use the same intellectual property as Civilization II, the new company felt that players wanted "a new sweeping epic of a turn-based game". Having just completed a game of human history up to the present, they wanted a fresh topic and chose science fiction.
With no previous experience in science fiction games, the developers believed future history was a fitting first foray. For the elements of exploring and terraforming an alien world, they chose a plausible near future situation of a human mission to colonize the solar system's nearest neighbour and human factions. Reynolds researched science fiction for the game's writing.
Alpha Centauri set out to capture the whole sweep of humanity's future, including technology, futuristic warfare, social and economic development, the future of the human condition, spirituality, and philosophy.
Terraforming is a natural outgrowth of colonizing an alien world. The first playable prototype was just a map generator that tested climate changes during the game. The designers allow the player to decide on a whole series of value choices and choose a "ruthless", "moderate", or "idealistic" stance. Reynolds said the designers don't promote a single "right" answer, instead giving each value choice positive and negative consequences. This design was intended to force the player to "think" and make the game "addictive". with Reynolds heading the project. Because the development of Gettysburg took up most of Firaxis' time, the designers spent the first year prototyping the basic ideas. Reynolds' previous games omitted internet support because he believed that complex turn-based games with many player options and opportunities for player input are difficult to facilitate online.
Reynolds said that the most important principle of game design is for the designer to play the game as it is developed; Reynolds then taught the computer his reasoning process so the AI could find the right choice when presented several attractive possibilities.
Around the summer of 1997<!-- what time? a date to anchor this would be good-->, the staff began research on the scientific realities involved in interstellar travel. A few months before the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the team incorporated the Explore/Discover/Build/Conquer marketing campaign into the game. Michael Ely directed the Secret Project movies and cast the faction leaders. 25 volunteers participated in Firaxis' first public beta test. The beta testers suggested the Diplomatic and Economic victories and the Random Events.<!-- How are they responsible? Did they provide input that lead to these things? -->}}
The design team started with a very simple playable game. Alpha Centauri was the first Firaxis game with public beta testers. They were able to incorporate many suggestions into the retail version.
Alien Crossfire
A month after Alpha Centauris February 1999 release, the Firaxis team began work on the expansion pack, ''Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire''. Alien Crossfire features seven new factions (two that are non-human), new technologies, new facilities, new secret projects, new alien life forms, new unit special abilities, new victory conditions (including the new "Progenitor Victory")<!-- is this victory more important than the other new victories? --><!--the Progenitor Victory was totally new; other victory conditions were modified to take the aliens into account--> and several additional concepts and strategies. The idea of humans inadvertently caught up in an off-world civil war focused the story. The team believed the "coolness" of the Progenitor aliens would determine the success or failure of Alien Crossfire. They strove to make them feel significantly different to play, but still compatible with the existing game mechanics.
Upon completion, the team felt that Alien Crossfire was somewhere between an expansion and a full-blown sequel. In 2000, both Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire were ported to Classic Mac OS by Aspyr Media and to Linux by Loki Software.<!-- The game can fail to run on some default configurations of modern Linux distributions created after 2004, although there are workarounds available that address this issue. Loki installers for linux gamers supplies an installer that allows the game to run on modern systems.--><!-- This last part about Linux problems comes across as a how-to-guide Is it necessary and are the source reliable? --><!--This is a vestige from the article prior to this summer. The sources are not reliable (three fansites, although one of them is the subject of a WP article). On reflection, I don't think issues with newer Linux systems really belong in Development history, or for that matter, in the article at all.-->ReceptionAlpha Centauri received wide critical acclaim upon its release, with reviewers voicing respect for the game's pedigree, especially that of Reynolds and Meier. The video game review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic, which collect data from numerous review websites, listed scores of 92% and 89%, respectively. The game was favorably compared to Reynold's previous title, Civilization II, and Rawn Shah of IT World Canada praised the expansion for a "believable" plot. Its sales in that country alone reached 224,939 copies by the end of 1999, and rose to 281,115 units by September 2000.
Critical reaction
Walter Morbeck of GameSpot said that Alpha Centauri was "more than hi-tech physics and new ways to blow each other up", and that the game would feature realistic aliens. Terry Coleman of Computer Gaming World predicted that Alpha Centauri would be "another huge hit". OGR awarded it "Most Promising Strategy Game" and one of the top 25 games of E3 '98. In a vote of 27 journalists from 22 gaming magazine, Alpha Centauri won "Best Turn Based Strategy" of E3 Show Award. Aaron John Loeb, the Awards Committee Chairman, said "for those that understand the intricacies, the wonder, the glory of turn based 'culture building,' this is the game worth skipping class for."
''Alpha Centauri's science fiction storyline received high praise; IGN considered the game an exception to PC sci-fi cliches, GamePros Dan Morris said "As the single-player campaign builds to its final showdown, the ramifications of the final theoretical discoveries elevate Alpha Centauri from great strategy game to science-fiction epic." Edge praised the uniqueness of expression saying it was "the same kind of old-fashioned, consensual storytelling that once drew universes out of ASCII." GameSpot reviewer Denny Atkin called the factions and their abilities Alpha Centauris "most impressive aspect". Greg Tito of The Escapist said, "the genius of the game is how it flawlessly blends its great writing with strategy elements." The Adrenaline Vault's Pete Hines said, "While Alpha Centauri is the evolutionary off-spring to [Civilization] and [Civilization II], it is not [Civilization II] in space. Although the comparison is inevitable because of the lineage, it is still short-sighted." was given mixed comments; some reviewers thought it was efficient and logical,
Alpha Centauri has won several Game of the Year awards, In 2000, Alpha Centauri won the Origins Award for Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999. The editors of PC Gamer US named Alpha Centauri their "Best Turn-Based Strategy Game" of 1999, and wrote that it "set a new standard for this venerable genre." Alpha Centauri has the distinction of receiving gaming magazine PC Gamers highest score to date as of 2019 (98%), alongside Half-Life 2 and Crysis, Alien Crossfire was a runner-up for Computer Games Strategy Pluss 1999 "Add-on of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Heroes of Might and Magic III: Armageddon's Blade.LegacyThere have been no direct sequels beyond Alien Crossfire, something that writer Greg Tito attributed to Reynolds leaving Firaxis in 2000 to form Big Huge Games. However, a spiritual sequel, Civilization: Beyond Earth, was announced by Firaxis in April 2014 and released on October 24, 2014; several of those that worked on Alpha Centauri helped to develop the new title. A review in Polygon noted however that while the new game has better graphics, its story fails to rival the original, a sentiment echoed by another review in PC Gamer. Another in Engadget noted "as a spiritual successor to Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri'', however, it's a cut-rate disappointment".
Many of the features introduced in Alpha Centauri were carried over into subsequent Civilization titles; upon its release, Civilization III was compared negatively to Alpha Centauri, whose Civilization characteristics were reminiscent of faction bonuses and penalties.
According to Edge magazine, Alpha Centauri remained "highly regarded" in 2006.<!--Is the re-release of the game ten years later really part of Legacy or is this WP:INDISCRIMINATE?--><!--I think it can be considered part of the legacy, there are plenty of games that have not been re-released. Its continued presence is coincident with the development of spiritual successors like Beyond Earth. It's also informative.FourLights--> Escapist Magazine reviewed the game in 2014, noting that "Alpha Centauri is still playable. It still has a unique flavor that is unlike anything else".
After the release of the expansion, multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote a trilogy of novels based on the game. Writer Steve Darnall and illustrator Rafael Kayanan also made a graphic novel entitled Alpha Centauri: Power of the Mindworms.
See also
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*Alpha Centauri in fiction
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Notes
References
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Further reading
* [https://archive.org/details/IQ.Gamer.Partial.Collection/inquest.049.-.may.1999.-.classic.6th.edition/page/87/mode/2up]
* – covers the early years of colonization of the planet Chiron and describes the siege of United Nations HQ by the Spartans, the loss of Peacekeeper sovereignty and the consequent flight by the United Nations survivors into Gaian territory.
* – occurs years after the events of Centauri Dawn and describes the Gaia's Stepdaughters' use of "mindworms" to rebuff an attack by the technologically superior Morgan Industries.
* – follows the tension between the University of Planet and the Lord's Believers and describes the use of singularity bombs to destroy Morgan Industries and the Spartan Federation and the native life uprising which destroys humanity.
<!-- * – 253-page self-published advance strategy guide covering both single player and multiplayer modes. -->
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External links
* [http://alphacentauri2.info/official/Sid%20Meier%27s%20Alpha%20Centauri.htm Official website] mirrored by alphacentauri2.info
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Category:Fiction about xenoarchaeology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid_Meier's_Alpha_Centauri | 2025-04-05T18:25:57.914870 |
2216 | Abu Sayyaf | classskin-invert
| war = Moro conflict, Cross border attacks in Sabah, War on Terror, South Thailand insurgency, Siege of Marawi
| caption = The logo of ISIL, which was adopted by Abu Sayyaf
| active 1989–2024
| ideology = Islamic Statism
| leaders Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani<br />Khadaffy Janjalani<br />Abu Sabaya<br />Jainal Antel Sali Jr.<br />Albader Parad<br />Isnilon Hapilon<br />Mahmur Japuri<br />Hajan Sawadjaan<br /> Radullan Sahiron
| headquarters Jolo, Sulu, Philippines
| area | partof
| clans | size ≤20 members (April 2023 )
| allies 14K (triad)<br /> Maute group<br /> al-Qaeda (formerly)
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Abu Sayyaf (; ; , ASG), officially known by the Islamic State as the Islamic State – East Asia Province, was a Jihadist militant and pirate group that followed the Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam. It was based in and around Jolo and Basilan islands in the southwestern part of the Philippines, where for more than five decades, Moro groups had been engaged in an insurgency seeking to make Moro Province independent. The group was considered violent and was responsible for the Philippines' worst terrorist attack, the bombing of MV Superferry 14 in 2004, which killed 116 people. , the group was estimated to have about 20 members, down from 1,250 in 2000. They used mostly improvised explosive devices, mortars and automatic rifles.
The group has carried out bombings, kidnappings, assassinations and extortion. It has been involved in criminal activities, including rape, child sexual assault, forced marriage, drive-by shootings and drug trafficking. The goals of the group "appear to have alternated over time between criminal objectives and a more ideological intent".
The group was designated as a terrorist group<!-- see link for inclusion of national bodies --> by Australia, From January 15, 2002, to February 24, 2015, fighting Abu Sayyaf became a mission of the American military's Operation Enduring Freedom and part of the Global War on Terrorism. Several hundred U.S. soldiers were stationed in the area primarily to train Filipino troops in counter-terror and counter-guerrilla operations, but, following a status of forces agreement and under Philippine law, they were not allowed to engage in direct combat.
The group was founded by Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, and led after his death in 1998 by his younger brother Khadaffy Janjalani until his death in 2006. On July 23, 2014, Isnilon Hapilon, one of the group's leaders, swore an oath of loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of the Islamic State (IS). In September 2014, the group began kidnapping people for ransom, in the name of the IS.
Since the "All-Out-War" directive was issued in 2019 during the term of President Rodrigo Duterte over continuous attacks perpetrated by Abu Sayyaf towards civilians, especially after the Jolo Cathedral bombings, this has greatly diminished the terror group, with many of their leaders and members being killed and arrested, while former followers who returned to normal lives were reintegrated into society after serving their time in prison and undergoing rehabilitation. On March 22, 2024, the AFP's Western Mindanao Command (WESTMINCOM) had announced that the Abu Sayyaf group was dismantled. Abdurajak went to Afghanistan to fight against the Soviet Union and the Afghan government during the Soviet–Afghan War. During that period, he was alleged to have met Osama bin Laden and been given $6 million to establish a more Islamic group drawn from the MNLF. Both Abdurajak Abubakar and Khadaffy were natives of Isabela City, one of the poorest cities of the Philippines and capital of Basilan.Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani leadership (1989–1998)In the early 1990s, the MNLF moderated into governing the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, becoming the ruling government in majority Muslim areas of Mindanao in 1996. When Abdurajak returned to Basilan in 1990, he gathered radical members of the old MNLF who wanted to resume armed struggle and in 1991 established the Abu Sayyaf. Khalifa married a local woman, Alice "Jameelah" Yabo.
By 1995, Abu Sayyaf was active in large-scale bombings and attacks. The first attack was the assault on the town of Ipil, Zamboanga del Sur in April 1995. This year marked the escape of 20-year-old Khadaffy Janjalani from Camp Crame in Manila along with another member named Jovenal Bruno. On December 18, 1998, Abdurajak was killed in a gun battle with the Philippine National Police in Basilan. He then worked to consolidate his leadership, causing the group to appear inactive for a period. After his leadership was secured, Abu Sayyaf began a new strategy, taking hostages. The group's motive for kidnapping became more financial than religious during this period, according to locals. Hostage money probably provides the group's financing.]]
Abu Sayyaf expanded its operations to Malaysia in 2000, when it abducted foreigners from two resorts. This action was condemned by most Islamic leaders. It was responsible for the kidnapping and murder of more than 30 foreigners and Christian clerics and workers, including Martin and Gracia Burnham. An influential commander named Abu Sabaya was killed at sea in June 2002 while trying to evade local forces. His death was considered a crucial turning point for the group, as the number of operatives working for Abu Sayyaf sharply decreased from 1,100 in 2001 to 450 in late 2002, and had since been stagnant for the next ten years.
Ghalib Andang, alias Commander Robot, one of the group's leaders, was captured in Sulu in December 2003. On 14 March 2005, inmates from the Abu Sayyaf Group rioted inside Camp Bagong Diwa in Taguig in an apparent escape attempt and barricaded the second floor of the building, leading to a standoff which ended the next day when government forces stormed the prison. 24 Abu Sayyaf members, including Commanders Robot, Kosovo (Alhamser Limbong) and Global (Nadjmi Sabdullah), were killed, along with three prison guards and a police officer.
An explosion at a military base in Jolo, on February 18, 2006, was blamed on the group by Brig. General Alexander Aleo. Khadaffy was indicted in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia for his alleged involvement in terrorist attacks, including hostage-taking and murder, against United States nationals and other foreign nationals. Consequently, on February 24, 2006, Khadaffy was among six fugitives in the second and most recent group of indicted fugitives to be added to the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list along with two fellow members, Isnilon Totoni Hapilon and Jainal Antel Sali Jr.
, one of the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists, was an Abu Sayyaf member until he was killed by the Philippine Army during the battle of Marawi on October 16, 2017.]]
On December 13, 2006, it was reported that Abu Sayyaf members may have been planning attacks during the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) summit in the Philippines. The group was reported to have trained alongside Jemaah Islamiyah militants. The plot was reported to have involved detonating a car bomb in Cebu City where the summit was to take place. On December 27, the Philippine military reported that Khaddafi's remains had been recovered near Patikul, in Jolo and that DNA tests had been ordered to confirm the discovery. He was allegedly shot in the neck in an encounter with government troops in September on Luba Hills in Patikul, Sulu.
2010–2024
In a video published in the summer of 2014, senior Abu Sayyaf leader Isnilon Hapilon and other masked men swore their allegiance or "bay'ah" to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the "Islamic State" (IS) caliph. "We pledge to obey him on anything which our hearts desire or not and to value him more than anyone else. We will not take any emir (leader) other than him unless we see in him any obvious act of disbelief that could be questioned by Allah in the hereafter." For many years prior to this, Islamic State's competitor, al-Qaeda, had the support of Abu Sayyaf "through various connections".
In August 2020, MNLF chairman Nur Misuari turned in Abu Sayyaf sub-commander Anduljihad "Idang" Susukan to the Philippine National Police four months after Susukan surrendered to Misuari in Davao City.
By 2022, the Islamic State's East Asia Province had absorbed pro-IS groups in Indonesia and a few militants in Thailand. In the latter country, alleged IS members have become involved in the South Thailand insurgency, claiming their first attack in Pattani on April 15, 2022.
In 2023, the government declared that Sulu province was free of Abu Sayyaf militants. In December, ISIS declared responsibility for the deadly Mindanao State University bombing.
On March 22, 2024, the Philippines announced that Abu Sayyaf had been "fully dismantled", bringing an end to the decades-long jihadist insurgency. However, the group is still operating and attacking Philippine security forces.
On July 6, 2024, President Bongbong Marcos commended the joint efforts and sacrifices that resulted in the weakening of Abu Sayyaf during his visit to the headquarters of the 11th Infantry Division (ID) at Camp Teodulfo Bautista in Jolo, Sulu.
On December 23, 2024, three members of the Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP) were killed in an ambush by unidentified gunmen in Basilan. Despite the attack, Basilan province was declared free from Abu Sayyaf militants after the last remaining members surrendered to the authorities on December 26, 2024.
The Philippine government is currently working continuously to revitalize and rejuvenate the dark image of former Abu Sayyaf strongholds with the restoration of peace and increased security with social and economic development for the inhabitants.
Supporters and funding
Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani's first recruits were soldiers of MNLF and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). However, both MNLF and MILF deny links with Abu Sayyaf. Both officially distance themselves because of its attacks on civilians and its supposed profiteering. The Philippine military, however, has claimed that elements of both groups provide support to Abu Sayyaf. The group was originally not thought to receive funding from outside sources, but intelligence reports from the United States, Indonesia and Australia found intermittent ties to the Indonesian Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group, and the Philippine government considers the Abu Sayyaf to be part of Jemaah Islamiyah.
Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist Ramzi Yousef operated in the Philippines in the mid-1990s and trained Abu Sayyaf soldiers. The 2002 edition of the United States Department's Patterns of Global Terrorism mention links to Al-Qaeda. Continuing ties to Islamist groups in the Middle East indicate that al-Qaeda may be continuing support. As of mid-2005, Jemaah Islamiyah personnel reportedly had trained about 60 Abu Sayyaf cadres in bomb assembling and detonations.FundingThe group obtained most of its financing through kidnap ransom and extortion. One report estimated its revenues from ransom payments in 2000 were between $10 and $25 million. According to the State Department, it may receive funding from radical Islamic benefactors in the Middle East and South Asia. It was reported that Libya facilitated ransom payments to Abu Sayyaf. It was also suggested that Libyan money could possibly be channeled to Abu Sayyaf. Russian intelligence agencies connected with Victor Bout's planes reportedly provided Abu Sayyaf with arms. In 2014 and since, kidnapping for ransom has been the primary means of funding. The more detailed information can be seen in the Timeline of Abu Sayyaf attacks.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Event
!Hostage(s) released
!Ransom demanded ($US)
!Amount paid ($US)
|-
|2011 Kidnapping of an Australian
|Warren Rodwell (2013)
|$2 million
|$100,000
|-
|2014 kidnapping of two Germans
|Both (2014)
|$5.6 million for Dr. Stefan Viktor Okonek and Henrike Dielen
|$5,600,000
|-
|2015 Samal Island kidnappings
|Kjartan Sekkingstad (2016)
|$16 million for Canadians Robert Hall and John Ridsdel (both beheaded), and Kjartan Sekkingstad (Norway)
|$638,000
|-
|2015 kidnapping of an Italian
|Rolando del Torchio (2016)
|$650,000 (P29 million)
|$650,000
|-
|2016 kidnapping of Indonesian sailors
|All (2016)
|$1 million for ten Indonesian crew on the tugboat Brahma 12 and barge Anand 12
|$1,000,000
|-
|2016 kidnapping of Malaysian sailors
|All (2016)
|$3 million for Wong Teck Kang, Teck Chii, Lau Jung Hien and Wong Hung Sing
|$3,000,000
|}
Motivation, beliefs, targets
Filipino Islamist guerrillas such as Abu Sayyaf have been described as "rooted in a distinct class made up of closely-knit networks built through the marriage of important families through socioeconomic backgrounds and family structures", according to Michael Buehler. This tight-knit, familial structure provides resilience but also limits their growth.
Unlike MILF and MNLF, the group is not recognised by the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and according to author Robert East, was seen as "nothing more than a criminal operation" at least prior to 2001. A Center for Strategic and International Studies report by Jack Fellman notes the political rather than religious motivation of ASG. He quotes Khadaffy's statement that his brother was right to split from MNLF because "up to now, nothing came out" of attempts to gain more autonomy for Moro Muslims. This suggests, Fellman believes, that ASG "is merely the latest, albeit most violent, iteration of Moro political dissatisfaction that has existed for the last several decades".
Some Abu Sayyaf members are also "shabu" (methamphetamine) users as described by surviving hostages who saw Abu Sayyaf members taking shabu as well from military findings who found drug packets in many of the abandoned Abu Sayyaf nests that justified their motivation as extreme criminals and terrorists as their state of mind were under the influence of drugs rather than being consciously fighting for the betterment of their region as well rights to living under their minority religion without any discrimination from the majority Filipinos. Its spokesman known as Abu Rami ( 2017) appeared to lack knowledge of the activities of other members, as the group had apparently separated into many small groups with their own leaders.
Targets
Most Abu Sayyaf victims have been Filipinos; however, in recent years (especially from 2011 onwards), Australian, British, Canadian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Norwegian, Swiss and Vietnamese nationals have been kidnapped or attacked.
In 1993, Abu Sayyaf kidnapped an American Bible translator. In 2000, Abu Sayyaf captured an American Muslim and demanded that the United States release Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and Ramzi Yousef, who were jailed for their involvement in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City.
Between March 2016 – July 2017, the majority of Abu Sayyaf kidnap for ransom operations shifted to the high seas. Seventeen ships were boarded and some sixty-five hostages from six countries were taken. In total, thirty hostages have been released (usually after a ransom was paid), seven escaped, three were rescued by Philippine security forces, and four were executed. Two others were killed during the attacks while eight seamen escaped during the shipjackings. An additional forty seamen were not taken hostage.Crimes and terrorism
Abu Sayyaf has carried out numerous bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, and extortion activities.In the PhilippinesJournalists abducted since 2000
ABS-CBN's Newsbreak reported that Abu Sayyaf abducted at least 20 journalists from 2000 to 2008 (mostly foreign journalists). All of them were eventually released upon payment of ransom.
*GMA-7 television reporter Susan Enriquez (April 2000, Basilan, a few days);
* 10 Foreign journalists (7 German, 1 French, 1 Australian and 1 Danish, in May 2000, Jolo, for 10 hours);
* German Andreas Lorenz of the magazine Der Spiegel (July 2000, Jolo, for 25 days; he was also kidnapped in May);
* French television reporter Maryse Burgot and cameraman Jean-Jacques Le Garrec and sound technician Roland Madura (July 2000, Jolo, for 2 months);
* ABS-CBN television reporter Maan Macapagal and cameraman Val Cuenca (July 2000, Jolo, for 4 days);
*Philippine Daily Inquirer contributor and Net 25 television reporter Arlyn de la Cruz (January 2002, Zamboanga, for 3 months)
* GMA-7 television reporter Carlo Lorenzo and cameraman Gilbert Ordiales (September 2002, Jolo, for 6 days).
* Filipino Ces Drilon and news cameramen Jimmy Encarnacion and Angelo Valderrama released unharmed after ransom paid (June 2008 Maimbung, Sulu for 9 days; See 2008 Maimbung kidnappings).
* Jordanian TV journalist Baker Atyani and his two Filipino crews were kidnapped in June 2012 by the Abu Sayyaf militants they had sought to interview in the jungles of Sulu province. The two crew were freed in February 2013. Al Arabiya News Channel stated that their correspondent, Atyani, was handed over to the local governor's office on December 4, 2013. However, police and military officials could not ascertain whether Atyani had escaped from his captors or was freed.
Jeffrey Schilling
On August 31, 2000, American citizen and Muslim convert Jeffrey Schilling from Oakland, California, was captured on Jolo while visiting a terrorist camp with his new wife, Ivy Osani (a cousin of Abu Sabaya, one of the rebel leaders), whom he had met online. ASG demanded a $10 million ransom. Rebels also sarcastically threatened to behead him in 2001 as a "birthday present" to then Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who responded by declaring "all-out war" on them. The beheading threat was withdrawn after Schilling's mother, Carol, flew to the Philippines and appealed for mercy on local radio. On April 12, 2001, Philippine soldiers raided a rebel camp and rescued the American. The United States praised the Philippine government for freeing Schilling.
Many commentators have been critical of Schilling, who claims to have walked willingly into the camp after he was invited by his wife's cousin, a member of Abu Sayyaf.
Schilling was one of more than 40 hostages taken by Abu Sayyaf in 2000, including 21 tourists and workers seized in a raid on Sipadan diving resort in neighboring Malaysia. Many of the hostages were released after Libya paid millions of dollars. A Libyan official stated that Schilling had visited the Jolo camp often before his capture. Philippine intelligence sources say he was interested in selling military equipment to the rebels, while the bandits accused him of being a CIA agent. Abu Sayyaf threatened several times to kill Schilling. At one stage, Schilling reportedly went on a hunger strike to win his freedom. The hostages and hostage-takers then returned to Abu Sayyaf territories in Mindanao. According to Bowden, the leader of the raid was Abu Sabaya. According to Gracia Burnham, she told her husband "to identify his kidnappers" to authorities "as 'the Osama bin Laden Group,' but Burnham was unfamiliar with that name and stuck with" Abu Sayyaf. After returning to Mindanao, Abu Sayyaf conducted numerous raids, including one that culminated in the Siege of Lamitan and "one at a coconut plantation called Golden Harvest; they took about 15 people captive there and later used bolo knives to hack the heads off two men. The number of hostages waxed and waned as some were ransomed and released, new ones were taken and others were killed." Alhamzer Limbong was later killed in a prison uprising. Burnham claimed that Philippine military officials were colluding with her captors, saying that the Armed Forces of the Philippines "didn't pursue us ... As time went on, we noticed that they never pursued us".2007 Father Bossi kidnappingOn June 10, 2007, Italian priest Reverend Giancarlo Bossi was kidnapped near Pagadian, capital of Zamboanga del Sur Province in the southern Philippines. Pope Benedict XVI made an appeal to free him. Bossi was released on July 19, 2007, at Karumatan, a Muslim town in Lanao del Norte Province, allegedly after the payment of ransom. Father Bossi died in Italy on September 23, 2012.
In December 2020, Samad Awang, alias Ahmad Jamal, of the Abdussalam kidnap-for-ransom group was killed in a firefight with government troops in Zamboanga City. Awang was reportedly involved in the kidnapping of Italian missionary Fr. Giancarlo Bossi in 2007, businessman Joel Endino in 2011, and teacher Kathy Kasipong in 2013.
2009 Red Cross kidnapping
On January 15, 2009, Abu Sayyaf kidnapped International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) delegates in Patikul, Sulu Province, Philippines. Three ICRC workers had finished conducting fieldwork in Sulu province, located in the southwest of the country when they were abducted by an unknown group, later confirmed as Albader Parad's group. All three were eventually released. According to a CNN story, Parad was reportedly killed, along with five other militants, in an assault by Philippine marines in Sulu province on Sunday, February 21, 2010.
2009 Irish priest kidnapping
On October 11, 2009, Irish Catholic missionary Michael Sinnott, aged 79, from Barntown County Wexford was kidnapped from a gated compound in Pagadian, the capital of Zamboanga del Sur province, suspected to be part of ASG and some renegade members of MILF. Six kidnappers forced the priest into a mini-van and drove towards Sta. Lucia (district), where they transferred to a boat. Sinnott had a heart condition and was without medication when abducted. In early November, a demand for $US2 million ransom was made. On November 11, 2009, Father Sinnott was released in Zamboanga City. The Department of Foreign Affairs (Ireland) claimed that no ransom was paid by the Irish Government.
2010 Japanese treasure hunter
On July 16, 2010, Japanese national Toshio Ito was kidnapped from Pangutaran, Sulu. At one point, the Philippine police believed the "treasure hunter", a Muslim convert also known by his Muslim name Mamaito Katayama, was acting as a cook for Abu Sayyaf; however, this was disputed by other nations, including the United States, which included him on its list of kidnap victims. A classified document obtained by Rappler lists Ito first, saying he was held captive by Abu Sayyaf's most senior leader, Radullan Sahiron, in Langpas, Indanan, Sulu early in 2013.2011 Malaysian gecko traderOn May 8, 2011, Malaysian gecko trader Mohammad Nasauddin Bin Saidin was kidnapped while hunting for gecko (tuko) in Indanan, Sulu. Saidin was freed on May 12, 2012.2011 Indian national kidnappingOn June 22, 2011, Indian national Biju Kolara Veetil was captured by four armed men while visiting his wife's relatives on the island of Jolo. A$10 million ransom was demanded. Veetil later denied that he was released in August 2012 because he had converted to Islam during captivity.Warren RodwellWarren Richard Rodwell, a former Australian Army soldier and university English teacher, was shot through the right hand when seized from his home at Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay on the island of Mindanao in the southern Philippines on December 5, 2011 by ASG militants. Rodwell later had to have a finger amputated. ASG threatened to behead Rodwell if their $US2 million ransom demand was not met. Both the Australian and Philippine governments had strict policies against paying ransoms. Australia formed a multi-agency task force to liaise with Rodwell's family and assist Philippine authorities. A news blackout was imposed. Filipino politicians helped negotiate the release. After the payment of $AUD94,000 for "board and lodging" expenses
Arrests and killings
On June 16, 2014, suspects Jimmy Nurilla (alias Doc) and Bakrin Haris were arrested. Both reportedly worked under Basilan-based Abu Sayyaf leader Khair Mundos and Furuji Indama. Authorities believed Nurilla and Haris took part in the Rodwell kidnapping, as well as the separate abduction of US citizen Gerfa Yeatts Lunsman and her son Kevin in 2012. In January 2015, Mindanao Examiner newspaper reported the arrest of Barahama Ali kidnap gang sub-leaders linked to the kidnapping of Rodwell, who was seized by at least 5 gunmen (disguised as policemen), and eventually handed over or sold by the kidnappers to the Abu Sayyaf in Basilan province.
In May 2015, ex-Philippine National Police (PNP) officer Jun A. Malban, alias Michael Zoo, was arrested in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia, for the crime of "Kidnapping for Ransom" after Rodwell identified him as the negotiator/spokesperson. Further PNP investigation revealed that Malban is the cousin of Abu Sayyaf leaders Khair and Borhan Mundos (both of whom were arrested in 2014). The director of the Anti-Kidnapping Group (AKG) stated that Malban's arrest resulted from close co-ordination by the PNP, National Bureau of Investigation (Philippines) and Presidential Anti-Organized Crime Commission with the Malaysian counterparts and through Interpol. In January 2018, Rodwell attended a court hearing for Malban and others in Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay, pursuant to a Supreme Court petition to transfer his case for security reasons to a court in either Manila or Zamboanga City.
In August 2015, Edeliza Sumbahon Ulep, alias Gina Perez, was arrested at Trento, Agusan del Sur during a joint manhunt operation by police and military units. Ulep was tagged as the ransom courier in the kidnapping. In August 2016, The Manila Times reported the arrest of the kidnap-for-ransom group of Barahama Alih sub-leader, Hasim Calon alias Husien (also a notorious drug dealer), in his hideout in Tenan village in Ipil town. Hasim Calon was involved in Rodwell's abduction. Earlier in 2016, police forces killed Waning Abdulsalam, a former MILF leader, in the village of Singkilon. Abdulsalam was one of the most wanted criminals in the southern Philippines and connected to ASG. He was linked to the kidnappings of Rodwell in 2011, Irish missionary Michael Sinnott in 2009 in Pagadian City, and Italian Catholic priest Giancarlo Bossi in Zamboanga del Sur's Payao town in 2007.
In February 2018, Abu Sayyaf sub-commander Nurhassan Jamiri was reported by Malaysia regional intelligence sources as one of three gunmen killed in a gunfight with police in Sabah. Jamiri was atop the Philippines' most wanted list and implicated in dozens of ransom kidnappings including Rodwell. In March 2018, Jamiri turned up alive when he and thirteen followers surrendered to authorities in Basilan. Over the preceding two years, many Abu Sayyaf bandits had surrendered to authorities in Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. More were expected to yield because of the regional government's Program Against Violence and Extremism (PAVE), designed to provide opportunities and interventions, including psychosocial sessions, medical check-ups, introduction to farming systems, and expository tours outside the island provinces to facilitate the reintegration of former combatants into society. In April 2018, Rodwell lauded the surrenders and reintegration program, but said he would not interfere with the legal processing of any charges already filed against anyone involved with his own kidnapping.
In June 2020, Inquirer newspaper reported the killing of Mamay Aburi by government troops in Titay, Zamboanga Sibugay after authorities attended to serve a warrant of arrest. Aburi was allegedly a subleader of a kidnap-for-ransom group and had been linked with the Abu Sayyaf Group based in Sulu. The provincial director of the Criminal Investigation and Detection Group (CIDG) said Aburi was involved in the 2011 kidnapping of Australian national Warren Rodwell and the 2019 abduction of the Hyrons couple in Tukuran, Zamboanga del Sur.2012 European bird watchersOn February 1, 2012, two European bird watchers were seized on Tawi Tawi island. Swiss Lorenzo Vinciguerra escaped in December 2014 as government troops attacked the jungle camp where he was captive on the island of Jolo. Vinciguerra was shot by rebels as he escaped; however, his injuries were non-life-threatening. Dutch captive Ewold Horn was reportedly unable to escape. The whereabouts of Horn remained unknown. On May 31, 2019, Western Mindanao Command confirmed that Horn was shot dead during a clash with military in Patikul, Sulu. Additionally, the military advised that the wife of ASG leader Radulan Sahiron and five other ASG members were also killed.
2012 Mayor Jeffrey Lim Kidnapping
On April 2, 2012, Mayor Jeffrey Lim of Salug, Zamboanga del Norte was kidnapped by ten armed men disguised as policemen. Lim was reportedly handed over to Abu Sayyaf. On November 6, he was freed near Zamboanga City after payment of P1.3M ($US25,000) ransom. On August 9, 2013, a Mindanao Pagadian Frontline report named a "Sehar Muloc" aka "Red Eye" as a suspect in the 2012 kidnapping of Mayor Jeffrey Lim. Abner Gumandol, alias Sehar Muloc and Red Eye, was said to be the leader of a criminal syndicate called the Muloc Group. Gumandol was arrested on June 12, 2016.
2014 Kabasalan ZSP kidnapping
On September 11, 2014, Chinese national Li Pei Zhei was abducted by four gunmen in Kabasalan, Zamboanga Sibugay and taken to Basilan. He was released in Sitio Lugay-Lugay, Barangay Naga-Naga, Alicia, Zamboanga Sibugay on November 5, 2014. Police subsequently charged Ibni Basaludin, Yug Enriquez, Brahama Ali, and Ging-Ging Calon, all residents of Barangay Tenan, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay with kidnapping with serious illegal detention.2015 Roseller Lim ZSP kidnappingOn January 24, 2015, Korean national Nwi Seong Hong was abducted by armed men in Roseller Lim, Zamboanga Sibugay Province. The victim's son, Abby, escaped after he fought off the kidnappers. According to intelligence information from the JTG-SULU, the captors of were Algabsy Misaya, Idang Susukan, Alden Bagade and Mohammad Salud alias Ama Maas, Indanan-based members led by sub-leaders Isang Susukan and Anga Adji. On October 31, 2015, the body of 74-year-old Nwi Seong Hong was found in Barangay Bangkal, Patikul, Sulu. Investigators said the victim died due to severe illness. Ridsdel was beheaded by Abu Sayyaf on April 25, 2016, following a ransom deadline. ASG reportedly demanded more than $8.1 million for Ridsdel and the others.
On May 3, 2016, a video of the Ridsdel execution was released, along with new demands for the remaining hostages. A masked captor said, "Note to the Philippine government and to the Canadian government: The lesson is clear. John Ridsdel has been beheaded. Now there are three remaining captives here. If you procrastinate once again the negotiations, we will behead this all anytime".
On May 15, Hall appeared in a new video, announcing that he and Norwegian Kjartan Sekkingstad would be decapitated at 3 pm on Monday June 13 absent a ransom of $16 million. Both hostages wore orange coveralls, similar to hostages in videos produced by IS, to which Abu Sayyaf had previously pledged allegiance. The deadline passed. Hall was beheaded.
On June 24, Abu Sayyaf released Filipina Marites Flor. She was subsequently flown to Davao to meet President-elect Rodrigo Duterte. Duterte said he directed negotiations with the Abu Sayyaf. He did not elaborate.
On September 17, 2016, remaining hostage Norwegian Kjartan Sekkingstad was released on Jolo island. Abu Rami, an ASG spokesman, claimed $638,000 was paid as ransom.2019 Tukuran kidnappingOn October 4, 2019, armed men abducted British national Allan Hyrons and his Filipina wife Wilma from their beach resort in Tukuran town, Zamboanga del Sur province on the southern island of Mindanao. After a brief exchange of gunfire in November between Abu Sayyaf and Philippine troops on the island of Jolo, the couple was abandoned and rescued. No ransom was reportedly paid.
In Malaysia
2000 Sipadan kidnappings
On May 3, 2000, Abu Sayyaf guerrillas occupied the Malaysian dive resort island Sipadan and took 21 hostages, including 10 tourists and 11 resort workers – 19 foreign nationals in total. The hostages were taken to an Abu Sayyaf base in Jolo. Two Muslim Malaysians were released soon after. Abu Sayyaf made various demands for the release of several prisoners, including 1993 World Trade Center bomber Ramzi Yousef and $2.4 million. In July, a Filipino television evangelist and 12 of members of the Jesus Miracle Crusade Church offered their help and went as mediators for the relief of other hostages. They, three French television crew members and a German journalist, all visiting Abu Sayyaf on Jolo, were also taken hostage. Most hostages were released in August and September 2000, partly due to mediation by Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and an offer of $25 million in "development aid".
Abu Sayyaf conducted a second raid on the island of Pandanan near Sipadan on September 10 and seized three more Malaysians. The Philippine army launched a major offensive on September 16, 2000, rescuing all remaining hostages, except Filipino dive instructor Roland Ullah. He was freed in 2003. During the ambush, Taiwanese citizen Chang An-wei was kidnapped and her husband, Hsu Li-min, was killed. Chang was taken to the Sulu Archipelago.2014 Singamata, Baik Island and Kampung Air Sapang kidnappingsOn April 2, 2014, a kidnap gang believed to originate from Abu Sayyaf militants raided Singamata Reef Resort off Semporna. Chinese tourist Gao Huayun from Shanghai and Filipino resort worker Marcy Dayawan were abducted and taken to the Sulu Archipelago. The two hostages were later rescued after a collaboration between Malaysian and Philippines security forces.
On May 6, five Abu Sayyaf gunmen raided a Malaysian fish farm on Baik Island Sabah, kidnapped the fish farm manager and took him to Jolo island. He was freed in July with the help of Malaysian negotiators.
On June 16, two gunmen believed to be from Abu Sayyaf kidnapped a Chinese fish farm manager and one Filipino worker in Kampung Air Sapang. The worker managed to escape and disappeared. Meanwhile, the fish farm manager was taken to Jolo. He was released on December 10.
Malaysian authorities identified five Filipinos, the "Muktadil brothers", as responsible for these cases. They sold their hostages to the Abu Sayyaf group. Of the five Muktadil brothers: Mindas Muktadil was killed by Philippine police in May 2015, Kadafi Muktadil was arrested in late 2015, Nixon Muktadil and Brown Muktadil were killed by the Philippine military on September 27, 2016, after they resisted arrest, while Badong Muktadil succumbed to his injuries while fleeing after he was shot when his brothers was killed. His body was discovered in a pump boat in Mususiasi.2015 Ocean King Restaurant kidnappingsOn May 15, 2015, four armed Abu Sayyaf members kidnapped two Malaysian nationals from Ocean King Restaurant in an upscale resort in Sandakan, Sabah and took them to Parang, Sulu. Police identified the leaders of the group behind the abduction as Alhabsy Misaya, Alden Bagade and Angah Adji. On November 8, Thien Nyuk Fun, the seafood restaurant owner, was released after payment of 30 million pesos ($US675,000) ransom. The initial agreement of 30 million pesos was reportedly for both hostages; however, a faction within the Abu Sayyaf Group demanded more after Thien Nyuk Fun was released. Further negotiations broke down and the other hostage, electrical engineer Bernard Then, was beheaded on Jolo Island on November 17.
Philippines and Malaysia waters
2014 German sailors kidnapping
In April 2014, Germans Dr. Stefan Viktor Okonek and Henrike Dielen were captured on their yacht on the high seas near Borneo. Abu Sayyaf threatened to behead one of them. After payment of $US5.6 million in October 2014, the pair were released in Patikul, Sulu. The Indonesian vessels were freighting coal from South Borneo heading for Batangas port when hijacked. In April, the Indonesian government announced that the company that owned tugboat Brahma 12 had agreed to pay the 50-million-peso ($1 million) ransom.
On April 1, four Malaysian sailors aboard a tugboat from Manila were kidnapped when they arrived near the shore of Ligitan Island. Their companions, three Myanmar nationals and two Indonesians, were unharmed. On June 8, they were released.
On April 15, four Indonesian sailors were kidnapped when two Indonesian tugboats from Cebu, Henry and Cristi, were attacked by Abu Sayyaf militants. While five of the passengers were safe, one was shot before he was rescued. They were released on May 11. A group of concerned Filipinos in Sabah urged Philippine president-elect Rodrigo Duterte to intervene for the release of four Malaysians held hostage by Abu Sayyaf. The issue strained the relationship between the Philippines and Malaysia.
On June 21, seven Indonesian sailors were kidnapped while aboard a tugboat passing through the Sulu Archipelago.
On July 9, three Indonesian fishermen were kidnapped near the coast of Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia and released on September 17.
On July 18, five Malaysian sailors were abducted near the coast of Lahad Datu.
On August 3, an Indonesian sailor was kidnapped in the waters of Malaysia leaving two other crew members unharmed. This incident was reported by victims on August 5. Two of the hostages managed to escape after receiving persistent threats of beheading.
On September 10, three Filipino fishermen were kidnapped on the shores of Pom Pom Island.
On September 22, another Indonesian hostage was released.
On September 27, one Malaysian boat-skipper was kidnapped from his trawler by seven armed militants before the group attacked another Indonesian trawler; however, no kidnappings were committed in the second incident. The hostage was released on October 1, with no ransom demand, along with three Indonesians hostages who were released the same day.
On October 21, approximately ten Abu Sayyaf militants attacked a South Korean-bound vessel named MV Dongbang Gian and abducted a South Korean skipper and a Filipino crewman off Bongao, Tawi-Tawi.
On November 5, German sailor Sabine Merz was shot dead while her husband Jürgen Kantner was abducted from their yacht off Tanjong Luuk Pisuk in Sabah. On or before February 27, 2017, Kantner was beheaded after a ransom of 30 million pesos ($US600,000) was not paid.
On November 11, Vietnamese vessel MV Royale 16 with nineteen sailors on board was attacked by Abu Sayyaf near Basilan, abducting six sailors and injuring one. The remaining thirteen sailors were released.
On November 20, two Indonesian fishermen were kidnapped by five gunmen off Lahad Datu.
Due to the increase of attacks against foreign vessels by Abu Sayyaf, the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines agreed to jointly patrol their waters on May 5, 2016. The three countries formed another agreement on joint air patrols.
During the first six months of 2016, Abu Sayyaf made $7.3 million, equivalent to Php 353 million, from ransom payoffs.Beheadings
As part of its kidnap-for-ransom operations, the Abu Sayyaf has executed some of their male hostages if ransom demands were not met. The group had previously beheaded Christian civilians and others they consider kafir without demanding ransoms for their release, due to their religious affiliation.Bombings2004 Superferry 14 Bombing
Superferry 14 was a large ferry destroyed by a bomb on February 27, 2004, killing 116 people in the Philippines' worst terrorist attack and the world's deadliest terrorist attack at sea. On that day, the 10,192 ton ferry sailed out of Manila with about 900 passengers and crew on board. A television set filled with 8 lb. (4 kilograms) of TNT had been placed on board. 90 minutes out of port, the bomb exploded. 63 people were killed instantly and 53 were missing and presumed dead. Despite claims from terrorist groups, the blast was initially thought to have been an accident caused by a gas explosion. However, after divers righted the ferry five months after it had sunk, they found evidence of a bomb blast. A man called Redendo Cain Dellosa admitted to planting the bomb for Abu Sayyaf. Six suspects were arrested in connection with the bombing while the masterminds, Khadaffy Janjalani and Abu Sulaiman, were killed.2016 Davao City bombing
On September 2, 2016, an explosion occurred at a night market in Davao City, Philippines killing at least 15 and injuring 70. Shortly before the bombing, Abu Sayyaf made a threat following the intensified military operation against them. Abu Sayyaf spokesperson Abu Rami was reported to claim responsibility. He later denied the report and any involvement, saying a group allied to them; the Daulat Ul-Islamiya were responsible. Although the Abu Sayyaf spokesman denied involvement, the Philippine government blame the group.
2019 Jolo Cathedral bombings
On January 27, 2019, two bombs detonated at the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady of Mount Carmel in Jolo town which is the center of Abu Sayyaf stronghold. The Philippine military said the Abu Sayyaf under the faction of Ajang-Ajang are responsible which is also echoed by peace advocate with evidence from military intelligence operatives that they have intercepted plans of the latter to bomb the other parts of downtown Jolo months before. The bombings took place a week after a referendum for the creation of Bangsamoro Autonomous Region with the attacks is described as the opposition by the Abu Sayyaf group for their areas inclusion under the Bangsamoro authorities since the whole Sulu province itself is already known to be against the referendum with 163,526 oppose votes (54.3%).
Criticism of attacks against civilians
Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi in Qatar denounced the kidnappings and killings committed by Abu Sayyaf, asserting that they are not part of the dispute between the Abu Sayyaf and the Philippine government. He stated that it is shameful to commit such acts in the name of the Islamic faith, saying that such acts produce backlash against Islam and Muslims. During the 2000 Sipadan kidnappings, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) condemned the kidnapping and offered to help secure their release. OIC Secretary General Azeddine Laraki told the Philippine government he was prepared to send an envoy to help save the hostages and issued a statement condemning the rebels. "The Secretary General has pointed out that this operation and the like are rejected by divine laws and that they are neither the appropriate nor correct means to resolve conflicts", the statement said. Both Christian and Muslim groups in the Philippines condemned Abu Sayyaf beheadings.
The kidnappings were criticized by Indonesia. On July 14, 2016, a group of Indonesian protesters gathered in front of the Philippine Embassy in Jakarta, holding banners that read "Go to hell Philippines and Abu Sayyaf" and "Destroy the Philippines and Abu Sayyaf" due to what was seen as the lack of action from the Philippine government. The group demanded a large scale military operation to destroy the Abu Sayyaf, with the Indonesian military proposing to send its forces to the Philippines prior to the protest, only to be rejected by the Philippine government on constitutional grounds.
Military operations
The Philippine military has engaged Abu Sayyaf since the 1990s. Under President Duterte, the Philippine government sought a peace agreement with the MNLF and MILF, but not the "bunch of criminals" in Abu Sayyaf. The Philippine military intensified operations in 2003, following the arrest of a Filipino-American who was alleged to have sold illegal weapons to the group. The suspect was tagged by US authorities as "one of the United States' most wanted fugitives". He was then deported by the Philippine government to face legal action in the United States.
On July 29, 2016, the military gained control of an Abu Sayyaf stronghold in Tipo-Tipo. The Philippine military pledged to eliminate Abu Sayyaf. On August 25, President Duterte ordered the group to be "destroyed" after it beheaded a teenager. Both MNLF and MILF began helping to suppress extremism in Mindanao, which helps the peace process for both groups. The Indonesian government proposed to station army units in Mindanao to launch a major offensive against Abu Sayyaf. The Indonesian government called on the Malaysian and Philippine armies to launch combined land attacks together on Mindanao, while at the same time urging the Philippine government to allow Indonesia and Malaysia military forces to enter Philippine territory. The Vietnamese military started to hold military exercises against Abu Sayyaf (known locally as "pirates" by the Vietnamese) following the repeat kidnappings of Malaysian and Indonesian sailors. The Philippine military provided one battalion to go against each subgroup. On September 9, following the meeting between President Duterte and Indonesian President Joko Widodo, an agreement was reached to pursue the Abu Sayyaf. The Philippine President said:
However, the government of Indonesia decided to not launch a military operation in the southern Philippines, stating that there is enough Philippine military personnel had been deployed. Indonesia's view was seconded by Malaysia. Philippine military chief Ricardo Visaya warned the Abu Sayyaf that they would continue with further major military operations. The military chief gave notice to Abu Sayyaf members to surrender or be "neutralised", (killed or apprehended).
Some 20 Abu Sayyaf surrendered in Sumisip on September 22. The day before, Philippine armed forces confiscated 200 speedboats used by the Abu Sayyaf in Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Zamboanga. President Duterte rejected a proposal by Nur Misuari, the leader of MNLF to include Abu Sayyaf in peace talks. On September 27, another attempt to smuggle weapons to Abu Sayyaf was prevented by the Philippine National Police in San Juan City. Four people were arrested. By October 14, the Philippine military had launched 579 military operations, 426 of which were focused to "neutralise" group members. 54 engagements resulted in 56 Abu Sayyaf members killed, 21 surrendered and 17 arrested.
Abu Sayyaf fatalities then increased to 102, with seven more apprehended. Notable Abu Sayyaf leaders were killed, including Nelson Muktadil, Braun Muktadil, their sub-leader Mohammad Said, Jamiri Jawhari, Musanna Jamiri, the group spokesman Abu Rami and Alhabsy Misaya. In addition, another 165 fast boats used for transport and kidnapping activities were confiscated. (notable foreigners such as Sanusi, Zulkifli Abdhir, Ibrahim Ali, Mohd Najib Husen and Mohisen were among the dead) as well as the presence of a "traitor" among their security members when a top policewoman was caught for her ties with the group. Indonesia admitted the presence of its citizens who came from North Sulawesi and said they could not prevent them from joining, given the lack of security on their borders. Malaysia discovered that militants were using Sabah as a transit point. The two pledged to prevent cross-border terrorism and curb the activities of militants.
Early on November 26, 2016, Duterte stated that he would open peace talks with Abu Sayyaf group (as he did with the MNLF and MILF by offering federalism as a possible solution) while continuing to fight against the Maute group, a move criticized by Philippine analysts as it would be used by extreme rebels to claim for legitimacy as a group. In a statement, the President said:
His statements were criticized by national media as leading to confusion about whether he wanted peace talks. Another IS-linked group, the Maute emerged in 2016. On December 7, Duterte told the Indonesian and Malaysian leaders that "they can bomb the Abu Sayyaf along with the hostages if the Abu Sayyaf continue to present persistent threats and the hostages should already know that there is repeated warnings to not go there". In early 2019, Duterte emphatically stated that he would never initiate or agree to any peace talks with Abu Sayyaf due to his detestation for the group's record of atrocities and its treatment of innocent people as young as 8 years old.
In the aftermath of the 2019 Jolo Cathedral bombings, President Duterte ordered an "All-Out-War" directive against the Abu Sayyaf Group, which led to heavy ground operations, massive airstrikes, artillery bombardment in surrounding areas, the evacuation of civilian in other areas, and the creation of the 11th Infantry Division of the Philippine Army.See also
* Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters
*Siege of Marawi
Notes
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060607015241/http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/terrorists/terjanjalani.htm Most Wanted Terrorists], Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice
* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/9235/ Council on Foreign Relations: Abu Sayyaf Group (Philippines, Islamist separatists)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070608112409/http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/english/index.cfm?page=Philippines Reward For Information] (on five ASG members), Rewards for Justice Program, US Department of State
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060518105521/http://www.mindanews.com/2003/01/2nd/vws06torres.html Looking for al-Qaeda in the Philippines]
* [http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB625.pdf#search=%22abu%20sayyaf%22 Balik-Terrorism: The Return of Abu Sayyaf (PDF)], Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College
* [http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/focus/10/18/14/bloodstained-trail-abu-sayyaf The bloodstained trail of the Abu Sayyaf], Agence France-Presse
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Category:Organized crime groups in the Philippines
Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by Australia
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Category:Moro history
Category:Organizations established in 1989
Category:Rebel groups in the Philippines
Category:Salafi jihadists
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Category:Al-Qaeda allied groups
Category:Defunct organizations designated as terrorist in Asia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Sayyaf | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.002064 |
2217 | Armenian language | | pronunciation =
| states = }})
* Iran
* Nagorno-Karabakh
* Turkey
}}
| speakers = million million for Western Armenian and million for Eastern Armenian}}
| date = 2013–2021
| ref = e26
| familycolor = Indo-European
| ancestor = Proto-Indo-European
| ancestor2 = Proto-Armenian
| ancestor3 = Classical Armenian
| ancestor4 = Middle Armenian
| stand1 = Eastern Armenian
| stand2 = Western Armenian
| dia1 = Yerevan
| dia2 = Homshetsi
| dia3 = Karabakh
| dia4 = Karin
| dia5 = Mush
| dia6 = Kharberd–Yerznka
| dia7 = Shabin–Karahisar
| dia8 = Kakavaberd
| dia9 = Zok
| dia10 = Akn
| dia11 = Malatia
| dia12 = Nor-Nakhichevan
| script =
| nation =
* Organisations:
*
}}
| minority =
|
|
|
|
| }}
| agency =
| iso1 = hy
| iso2b = arm
| iso2t = hye
| lc1 = hye
| ld1 = Eastern Armenian
| lc2 = hyw
| ld2 = Western Armenian
| lc3 = xcl
| ld3 = Classical Armenian
| lc4 = axm
| ld4 = Middle Armenian
| lingua = 57-AAA-a
| image = Armenian language in the Armenian alphabet.svg
| imagescale | imagecaption "Armenian language" in the Armenian alphabet
| map = Armenian Language distribution map.png
| mapcaption = The current distribution of the Armenian language in the southern Caucasus
| map2 = Map-of-speakers-of-armenian.png
| mapcaption2 =
| notice = IPA
| glotto = arme1241
| glottorefname = Armenic
| ethnicity = Armenians
}}
Armenian (endonym: ,.|nameclassical}} , ) is an Indo-European language and the sole member of the independent branch of the Armenian language family. It is the native language of the Armenian people and the official language of Armenia. Historically spoken in the Armenian highlands, today Armenian is also widely spoken throughout the Armenian diaspora. Armenian is written in its own writing system, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Saint Mesrop Mashtots. The estimated number of Armenian speakers worldwide is between five and seven million.HistoryClassification and origins
Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological changes within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian, Greek (and Phrygian), Albanian and Indo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other; within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated between Proto-Greek (centum subgroup) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup).
The Armenian language has a long literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Another text translated into Armenian early on, and also in the 5th-century, was the Armenian Alexander Romance. The vocabulary of the language has historically been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian; its derivational morphology and syntax were also affected by language contact with Parthian, but to a lesser extent. Contact with Greek, Persian, and Syriac also resulted in a number of loanwords. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian (spoken mainly in Armenia) and Western Armenian (spoken originally mainly in modern-day Turkey and, since the Armenian genocide, mostly in the diaspora). The differences between them are considerable but they are mutually intelligible after significant exposure. Some subdialects such as Homshetsi are not mutually intelligible with other varieties.
Although Armenians were known to history much earlier (for example, they were mentioned in the 6th-century BC Behistun Inscription and in Xenophon's 4th century BC history, The Anabasis), the oldest surviving Armenian-language writing is etched in stone on Armenian temples and is called Mehenagir. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405, at which time it had 36 letters. He is also credited by some with the creation of the Georgian alphabet and the Caucasian Albanian alphabet.
While Armenian constitutes the sole member of the Armenian branch of the Indo-European family, Aram Kossian has suggested that the hypothetical Mushki language may have been a (now extinct) Armenic language.Early contacts
from Jerusalem with Armenian language and alphabet]]
]]
W. M. Austin (1942) concluded that there was early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine gender and the absence of inherited long vowels. Unlike shared innovations (or synapomorphies), the common retention of archaisms (or symplesiomorphy) is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. There are words used in Armenian that are generally believed to have been borrowed from Anatolian languages, particularly from Luwian, although some researchers have identified possible Hittite loanwords as well. One notable loanword from Anatolian is Armenian xalam, "skull", cognate to Hittite ḫalanta, "head".
In 1985, the Soviet linguist Igor M. Diakonoff noted the presence in Classical Armenian of what he calls a "Caucasian substratum" identified by earlier scholars, consisting of loans from the Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages. Noting that Hurro-Urartian-speaking peoples inhabited the Armenian homeland in the second millennium BC, Diakonoff identifies in Armenian a Hurro-Urartian substratum of social, cultural, and animal and plant terms such as ałaxin "slave girl" ( ← Hurr. al(l)a(e)ḫḫenne), cov "sea" ( ← Urart. ṣûǝ "(inland) sea"), ułt "camel" ( ← Hurr. uḷtu), and xnjor "apple (tree)" ( ← Hurr. ḫinzuri). Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, but he suggests they were borrowed through Hurrian or Urartian. Given that these borrowings do not undergo sound changes characteristic of the development of Armenian from Proto-Indo-European, he dates their borrowing to a time before the written record but after the Proto-Armenian language stage.
Contemporary linguists, such as Hrach Martirosyan, have rejected many of the Hurro-Urartian and Northeast Caucasian origins for these words and instead suggest native Armenian etymologies, leaving the possibility that these words may have been loaned into Hurro-Urartian and Caucasian languages from Armenian, and not vice versa. A notable example is arciv, meaning "eagle", believed to have been the origin of Urartian Arṣibi and Northeast Caucasian arzu. This word is derived from Proto-Indo-European *h₂r̥ǵipyós, with cognates in Sanskrit (ऋजिप्य, ṛjipyá), Avestan (ərəzifiia), and Greek (αἰγίπιος, aigípios). Hrach Martirosyan and Armen Petrosyan propose additional borrowed words of Armenian origin loaned into Urartian and vice versa, including grammatical words and parts of speech, such as Urartian eue ("and"), attested in the earliest Urartian texts and likely a loan from Armenian (compare to Armenian , ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₁epi). Other loans from Armenian into Urartian includes personal names, toponyms, and names of deities.
Loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led some linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two languages meant that Armenian belonged to the Iranian language family. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann (1875) used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian words from the older Armenian vocabulary. He showed that Armenian often had two morphemes for one concept, that the non-Iranian components yielded a consistent Proto-Indo-European pattern distinct from Iranian, and that the inflectional morphology was different from that of Iranian languages.
Graeco-Armenian hypothesis
The hypothesis that Greek is Armenian's closest living relative originates with Holger Pedersen (1924), who noted that the number of Greek-Armenian lexical cognates is greater than that of agreements between Armenian and any other Indo-European language. Antoine Meillet (1925, 1927) further investigated morphological and phonological agreement and postulated that the parent languages of Greek and Armenian were dialects in immediate geographical proximity during the Proto-Indo-European period. Meillet's hypothesis became popular in the wake of his book ''Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine (1936). Georg Renatus Solta (1960) does not go as far as postulating a Proto-Graeco-Armenian stage, but he concludes that considering both the lexicon and morphology, Greek is clearly the dialect to be most closely related to Armenian. Eric P. Hamp (1976, 91) supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis and even anticipates a time "when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian" (meaning the postulate of a Graeco-Armenian proto-language). Armenian shares the augment and a negator derived from the set phrase in the Proto-Indo-European language ("never anything" or "always nothing"), the representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels, and other phonological and morphological peculiarities with Greek. Nevertheless, as Fortson (2004) comments, "by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces".
Greco-Armeno-Aryan hypothesis
Graeco-(Armeno)-Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have become divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-3rd millennium BC. Conceivably, Proto-Armenian would have been located between Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, consistent with the fact that Armenian shares certain features only with Indo-Iranian (the satem change) but others only with Greek (s > h'').
Graeco-Aryan has comparatively wide support among Indo-Europeanists who believe the Indo-European homeland to be located in the Armenian Highlands, the "Armenian hypothesis". Early and strong evidence was given by Euler's 1979 examination on shared features in Greek and Sanskrit nominal flection.
Used in tandem with the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, the Armenian language would also be included under the label Aryano-Greco-Armenic, splitting into Proto-Greek/Phrygian and "Armeno-Aryan" (ancestor of Armenian and Indo-Iranian). and contains smaller inventories of loanwords from Greek, Arabic, Mongol, Persian, and indigenous languages such as Urartian. An effort to modernize the language in Bagratid Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11–14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet ("" and ""), bringing the total number to 38.
The Book of Lamentations by Gregory of Narek (951–1003) is an example of the development of a literature and writing style of Old Armenian by the 10th century. In addition to elevating the literary style and vocabulary of the Armenian language by adding well above a thousand new words, through his other hymns and poems Gregory paved the way for his successors to include secular themes and vernacular language in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. "A Word of Wisdom", a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love, or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the population at large were reflected in other literary works as well. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others took the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. These changes represented the nature of the literary style and syntax, but they did not constitute immense changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. Often, when writers codify a spoken dialect, other language users are then encouraged to imitate that structure through the literary device known as parallelism.
In the 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland was once again divided. This time Eastern Armenia was conquered from Qajar Iran by the Russian Empire, while Western Armenia, containing two thirds of historical Armenia, remained under Ottoman control. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were further consolidated. Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Istanbul, whereas Tbilisi became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life.
The introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe, reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vernacular, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Grabar. Numerous dialects existed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major standards emerged:
* Western standard: The influx of immigrants from different parts of the traditional Armenian homeland to Istanbul crystallized the common elements of the regional dialects, paving the way for a style of writing that required a shorter and more flexible learning curve than Grabar.
* Eastern standard: The Yerevan dialect provided the primary elements of Eastern Armenian, centered in Tbilisi, Georgia. Similar to the Western Armenian variant, the Modern Eastern was in many ways more practical and accessible to the masses than Grabar.
Both centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhabar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language's existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Grabar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from several morphological, phonetic, and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and generally analogous rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other as long as they are fluent in one of the literary standards.
After World War I, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, whereas the diaspora created after the Armenian genocide preserved the Western Armenian dialect.
The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian genocide.
<gallery widths"200px" heights"200px">
File:Manuscript arm 5-6AD.jpg|Armenian manuscript, 5th–6th centuries.
File:Gandzasar 01.jpg|Armenian inscription in Gandzasar Monastery
File:The Four Gospels, 1495, Portrait of St Mark Wellcome L0031107.jpg|The Four Gospels, 1495, Portrait of St Mark Wellcome with Armenian inscriptions
File:The first Bible printed in the Armenian language.jpg|First printed Armenian language Bible, 1666
File:Panneau près d'Ohanavan.JPG|Armenian language road sign.
</gallery>
Geographic distribution
In addition to Armenia and Turkey, where it is indigenous, Armenian is spoken among the diaspora. According to Ethnologue, globally there are million Western Armenian speakers and million Eastern Armenian speakers, totalling million Armenian speakers.
Status and usage
The short-lived First Republic of Armenia declared Armenian its official language. Eastern Armenian was then dominating in institutions and among the population. When Armenia was incorporated into the USSR, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic made Eastern Armenian the language of the courts, government institutions and schools. Armenia was also russified. The current Republic of Armenia upholds the official status of the Armenian language. Eastern Armenian is the official variant used, making it the prestige variety while other variants have been excluded from national institutions. Indeed, Western Armenian is perceived by some as a mere dialect. Armenian was also official in the Republic of Artsakh. It is recognized as an official language of the Eurasian Economic Union although Russian is the working language.
Armenian (without reference to a specific variety) is officially recognized as a minority language in Cyprus,
Western Armenian is the language of the diaspora, it is the medium of instruction in the majority of Armenian-language schools outside Armenia. The Lebanese curriculum allows Armenian schools to teach the Armenian language as a basic language. In California, home to a large Armenian American community, various state government agencies provide Armenian translations of their documents: the California Department of Social Services, California Department of Motor Vehicles, California superior courts. In the city of Glendale, there are street signs in Armenian.
In Lebanon, Syria and Iran, Armenian communities were given greater autonomy than other groups, namely Assyrians and Kurds. In practice, Armenians were the only ethnic minority group of these countries that were allowed to teach their language in their schools. In Iran, article 15 of the constitution allows the use of "regional and tribal languages" in the mass media as well as within the schools. However, these languages do not receive formal status and are not officially regulated by the authorities. Iranian Armenians are de facto the only non-Persian ethnic group in Iran enjoying this right. They have their own private schools, where Armenian is the medium of instruction.Phonology
Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants are aspirated in the Proto-Armenian language, one of the circumstances that is often linked to the glottalic theory, a version of which postulated that some voiceless occlusives of Proto-Indo-European were aspirated.
Stress
In Armenian, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last syllable contains the definite article or , and the possessive articles and , in which case it falls on the penultimate one. For instance, wikt:ախորժակ|, wikt:մաղադանոս|, wikt:գինի| but wikt:Վահագն| and wikt:դաշտը|. Exceptions to this rule are some words with the final letter ( in the reformed orthography) () and sometimes the ordinal numerals (, etc.), as well as , and a small number of other words.Vowels
All varieties of Armenian employ only monophthongs. Eastern Armenian has six vowels, while Western Armenian has an additional two front rounded vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Eastern Armenian vowel phonemes
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Close
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" | /}} <br /><br />i
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" | /}} <br /><br />u
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Mid
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" | /}} <br />, <br />e, ē
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" | /}} <br /><br />ë
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center;" | /}} <br />, <br />o, ō
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Open
|
|
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" | /}} <br /><br />a
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Western Armenian vowel phonemes
!
! colspan=2| Front
! rowspan=2| Central
! colspan=2| Back
|-
!|| Unrounded || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
! align="left" | Close
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
|
|
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
|-
! align="left" | Mid
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center" |
|
| class"nounderlines" style"text-align:center;" |
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Dental/<br />Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
!Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| – m
| – n
|
| ()
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! <small>voiced</small>
| – b
| – d
|
| – g
|
|
|-
! <small>voiceless</small>
| – p
| – t
|
| – k
|
|
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
| – pʻ
| – tʻ
|
| – kʻ
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Affricate
! <small>voiced</small>
|
| – j
| – ǰ
|
|
|
|-
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| – c
| – č
|
|
|
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
|
| – cʻ
| – čʻ
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! <small>voiceless</small>
| – f
| – s
| – š
|colspan2| / ~ / – x
| – h
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| – v
| – z
| – ž
|colspan2| / ~ / – ġ
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
| ()
| – l
| – y
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Trill
|
| – ṙ
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Flap
|
|// – r
|
|
|
|
|}
The major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:
:{| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center
|+Correspondence in initial position
!Armenian Letter
|Թ
|Տ
|Դ
|-
!Indo-European
|*
|*
|*
|-
!Karin, Sebastia
| rowspan="6" |
|
|
|-
!Istanbul
|colspan=2|
|-
!Kharberd, Middle Armenian
| rowspan="2" |
|
|-
!Malatya, SWA
|
|-
!Classical Armenian, Agulis, SEA, Yerevan
|
|
|-
!Van, Artsakh
|colspan=2|
|}
Morphology
Armenian corresponds to other Indo-European languages in structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and grammatical features with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. Armenian orthography is rich in consonant clusters, but in pronunciation, they are broken up with schwas. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a system of noun declensions, with six or seven cases but no gender. In modern Armenian, the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to "will" in "he will go") has generally supplanted the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English "he goes" and "he does not go") in many tenses, otherwise adding only the negative to the positive conjugation. Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language has undergone many analytic transformations like modern Greek.
Nouns
Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in pronouns, but there is a feminine suffix ( "-uhi") which has no grammatical effect. For example, (usucʻičʻ, "teacher") becomes (usucʻčʻuhi, female teacher). The nominal inflection preserves several types of inherited stem classes. Historically, nouns were declined for one of seven cases: nominative (ուղղական uġġakan), accusative (հայցական haycʻakan), locative (ներգոյական nergoyakan), genitive (սեռական seṙakan), dative (տրական trakan), ablative (բացառական bacʻaṙakan), or instrumental (գործիական gorciakan), but in the modern language, the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the dative and genitive cases, have merged.
;Examples of noun declension in Eastern Armenian
{| class="wikitable"
|+ (telephone)
!Case
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|
|
|-
!Dative
|
|
|-
!Ablative
|
|
|-
!Instrumental
|
|
|-
!Locative
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ (mother)
!Case
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|
|
|-
!Dative
|
|
|-
!Ablative
|
|
|-
!Instrumental
|
|
|}
Which case the direct object takes is split based on animacy (a phenomenon more generally known as differential object marking). Inanimate nouns take the nominative, while animate nouns take the dative. Additionally, animate nouns can never take the locative case.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ (republic)
!Case
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|
|
|-
!Dative
|
|
|-
!Ablative
|
|
|-
!Instrumental
|
|
|-
!Locative
|
|
|}
;Examples of noun declension in Western Armenian
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | (field)
! colspan="2" | (cow)
|-
! singular || plural
! singular || plural
|-
! Nom-Acc<br />(Ուղղական-Հայցական)
|
|
|
|
|-
! Gen-Dat<br />(Սեռական-Տրական)
|
|
|
|
|-
! Abl<br />(Բացառական)
|
|
|
|
|-
! Instr<br />(Գործիական)
|
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | (spring)
! colspan="2" | (day)
! colspan="2" | (sister)
|-
! singular || plural
! singular || plural
! singular || plural
|-
! Nom-Acc<br />(Ուղղական-Հայցական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Gen-Dat<br />(Սեռական-Տրական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Abl<br />(Բացառական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Instr<br />(Գործիական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | հայր / hayr (father)
! colspan="2" | Աստուած / Asdvaj (God)
! colspan="2" | գիտութիւն / kidutiwn (science)
|-
! singular || plural
! singular || plural
! singular || plural
|-
! Nom-Acc<br />(Ուղղական-Հայցական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Gen-Dat<br />(Սեռական-Տրական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Abl<br />(Բացառական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Instr<br />(Գործիական)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
Verbs
Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types in Eastern Armenian and three in Western Armenian changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.
Dialects
:
]]
Armenian is a pluricentric language, having two modern standardized forms: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. And numerous other non-standard dialects, many of which are extinct. The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic- and Turkish-speaking communities.
Classical Armenian (Grabar), which remained the standard until the 18th century, was quite homogeneous across the different regions that works in it were written; it may have been a cross-regional standard. The Middle Armenian variety used in the court of Cilician Armenia (1080–1375) provides a window into the development of Western Armenian, which came to be based on what became the dialect of Istanbul, while the standard for Eastern Armenian was based on the dialect around Mount Ararat and Yerevan.
Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce () as [tʰ], () as [d], and () as a tenuis occlusive [t˭]. Western Armenian has simplified the occlusive system into a simple division between voiced occlusives and aspirated ones; the first series corresponds to the tenuis series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both () and () as [tʰ], and the () letter as [d].
There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects.
Armenian can be divided into two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have become extinct due to the effects of the Armenian genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Although Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, many subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, a fluent speaker of one of two greatly varying dialects who is also literate in one of the standards, when exposed to the other dialect for a period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease.
Distinct Western Armenian varieties currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin peoples; the dialects of Armenians of Kessab (Քեսապի բարբառ), Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur (Syria), Anjar, Lebanon, and Vakıflı, Samandağ (Turkey), part of the "Sueidia" dialect (Սուէտիայի բարբառ).
Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in Shirak Province, and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).
Nakhichevan-on-Don Armenians speak another Western Armenian variety based on the dialect of Armenians in Crimea, where they came from in order to establish the town and surrounding villages in 1779 (Նոր Նախիջևանի բարբառ).
Western Armenian dialects are currently spoken also in Gavar (formerly Nor Bayazet and Kamo, on the western shore of Lake Sevan), Aparan, and Talin in Armenia (Mush dialect), and by the large Armenian population residing in Abkhazia, where they are considered to be the first or second ethnic minority, or even equal in number to the local Abkhaz population
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples
!English
! Eastern Armenian
!Western Armenian
|-
| Yes
| Ayo ()
| Ayo ()
|-
| No
| Vočʻ ()
| Voč ()
|-
| I see you
| Yes kʻez tesnum em ()
| Yes kez(i) gë desnem ()
|-
| Hello
| Barev ()
| Parev ()
|-
| I'm going
| Gnum em ()
| G'ertam (gor) ()
|-
| Come!
| Ari! ()
| Yegur! ()
|-
| I will eat
| Utelu em ()
| Bidi udem ()
|-
| I must do
| Piti/petkʻ ē anem ()
| Bēdk ē ënem ()
|-
| I was going to eat
| Utelu ēi ()
| Bidi udēi ()
|-
| Is this yours?
| Sa kʻonn ē? ()
| Asiga kugt ē? ()
|-
| His grandma
| Nra tatikë ()
| Anor nēnēn / mej maman ()
|-
| Look at that one!
| Dran nayir ()
| Ador nayē / Anor nayē ()
|-
| Have you brought these?
| Du es berel srankʻ? ()
| Asonk tun peraj es? ()
|-
| How are you? I'm fine.
| Inčʻpes es? / Voncʻ es? Lav em ()
| Inčbēs es? Lav em ()
|-
| Did you say it? Say it!
| Du asacʻir (asecʻir)? Asa! ()
| Tun ësir? Ësē! ()
|-
| Have you taken it from us?
| Mezanicʻ es vercʻrel? ()
| Mezmē araj es? ()
|-
| Good morning
| Bari luys ()
| Pari luys ()
|-
| Good evening
| Bari yereko ()
| Pari irigun / Parirgun ()
|-
| Good night
| Bari gišer ()
| Kišer pari ()
|-
| You love me
| Sirum es inj ()
| Inji gë sires ()
|-
| I am Armenian
| Yes hay em ()
| Yes hay em ()
|-
| I missed you
| Karotel em kʻez ()
| Garōdcay kezi ()
|}
Orthography
using the Armenian alphabet.]]
The Armenian alphabet ( or ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that is used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced around AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (ō) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages.
During the 1920s orthography reform in Soviet Armenia, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, whereas the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). This alphabet and associated orthography is used by most Armenian speakers of Armenia and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Neither the alphabet nor the orthography has been adopted by Diaspora Armenians, including Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and all Western Armenian speakers, who keep using the traditional alphabet and spelling.
Vocabulary
Indo-European cognates
Armenian is an Indo-European language, so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.
Due to extensive loaning, only around 1,500 words (G. Jahukyan) are known to have been inherited from Indo-European by the Classical Armenian stage; the rest were lost, a fact that presents a major challenge to endeavors to better understand Proto-Armenian and its place within the family, especially as many of the sound changes along the way from Indo-European to Armenian remain quite difficult to analyze.
This table lists some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English words descended from Old English.
{| class="wikitable"
! Armenian || English|| Latin || Classical and Hellenistic Greek || Persian || Sanskrit || Russian || Old Irish || PIE
|-
| mayr "mother" || mother ( ← OE mōdor)|| māter || μήτηρ mētēr || mâdar || मातृ mātṛ || мать mat' || máthair || "mother"
|-
| hayr "father" || father ( ← OE fæder)|| pater || πατήρ patēr || pedar || पितृ pitṛ || || athair || "father"
|-
| eġbayr "brother" || brother ( ← OE brōþor)|| frāter || φράτηρ phrātēr "brother-in-arms, comrade" || barâdar || भ्रातृ bhrātṛ || брат brat || bráthair || "brother"
|-
| dustr "daughter" || daughter ( ← OE dohtor)|| (Oscan futrei) || θυγάτηρ thugátēr || doxtar || दुहितृ duhitṛ || дочь doč' || der, Dar- "daughter (of)" || "daughter"
|-
| kin "woman, wife" || queen ( ← OE cwēn "queen, woman, wife")|| || γυνή gunē || zan || ग्ना gnā/ जनि jani || жена žena "wife" || ben "woman" || "woman, wife"
|-
| im "my, mine" || my, mine ( ← OE min)|| me-us, -a, -um etc. || ἐμ-ός, -ή, -όν em-ós, -ē, -ón etc. || man,-am || मम mama || мой moy || mo "my, me" || "my, mine"
|-
| anun "name" || name ( ← OE nama)|| nōmen || ὄνομα ónoma || nâm || नामन् nāman || имя '''im'a || ainm || ' "name"
|-
| yotʻ'' ( ← եաւթն "eawtʻn") "seven" ||seven ( ← OE seofon) ||septem || ἑπτά heptá || haft || सप्तन् saptán || семь sem' || secht || "seven"
|-
| utʻ "eight" || eight ( ← OE eahta)|| octō || ὀκτώ óktō || hašt || अष्ट aṣṭa || во́семь vosem' || ocht || "eight"
|-
| inn "nine" || nine ( ← OE nigon)|| novem || ἐννέα ennéa || noh || नवन् navan || де́вять '''dev'at' || noí || ' "nine"
|-
| tas (<տասն "tasn") "ten" ||ten ( ← OE tien) ( ← P.Gmc. *tehun)|| decem || δέκα déka || dah || दश daśa || де́сять 'des'at' || deich || ' "ten"
|-
| ačʻkʻ "eye" || eye ( ← OE ēge)|| oculus || ὀφθαλμός ophthalmós || Avestan 𐬀𐬱𐬌 (aši, “eyes”)|| अक्षि akṣi || око oko (archaic) || || "to see"
|-
| armunk (<*h₂(e)rH-mo-+ -ուկն) "elbow"<br />||arm ( ← OE earm "joined body parts below shoulder")|| armus "shoulder" || ἁρμός harmós "a joint" || arm "arm" || ईर्म īrma "arm" || рамя 'ram'a' "shoulder" (archaic) || || "fit, join (that which is fitted together)"
|-
| cunk "knee" || knee ( ← OE cnēo)|| genū || γόνυ gónu || zânu || जानु jānu || || glún || "knee"
|-
| otkʻ "foot, leg" || foot ( ← OE fōt)|| pēs, pedis || πούς, πόδος poús, pódos || pâ, pây "foot" || पाद् pād "foot" || || (Gaul. ades "feet") || "foot, leg"
|-
| sirt "heart"|| heart ( ← OE heorte)|| cor, cordis || καρδία kardía || del || हृदय hṛdaya || се́рдце serdce || cride || "heart"
|-
| muk "mouse" || mouse ( ← OE mūs'')|| mūs, mūris || μῦς mûs "mouse, muscle" || muš || मूष् mūṣ || мышь myš' || ||*múh₂s "mouse, muscle"
|-
| kov "cow" || cow ( ← OE cū)|| bōs, bovis || βοῦς boûs || gâv || गो go || говядина '''gov'adina "beef" || bó || ' "cow"
|-
| šun "dog" || hound ( ← OE hund "hound, dog")|| canis || κύων kúōn || sag || श्वन् śvan || сука suka "bitch" || cú || "hound, dog"
|-
| amis "month" || moon, month ( ← OE mōnaþ)|| mēnsis || μήν mēn "moon, month" || mâh "moon, month" || मास māsa "moon, month" || месяц 'mes'ac || mí || ' "moon, month"
|-
| amaṙ ( ← Proto-Armenian *sm̥h₂er-m̥ <*s(e)m-eh₂-) "summer" ||summer ( ← OE sumor) || || || hâmin (archaic) ||समा samā "season" || ||sam "summer" ||*semh₂- "summer, hot season"
|-
| ǰerm "warm" || warm ( ← OE wearm)|| formus || θερμός thermós || garm || घर्म gharma "heat" || жарко žarko "hot" || geirid "warm (v)" || "warm"
|-
| luys "light" || light ( ← OE lēoht "brightness"'')|| lūx || λευκός leukós "bright, shining, white" || ruz "day" || रोक roka || луч luč' "beam" || lóch "bright" || "light, brightness"
|-
| hur "flame" || fire ( ← OE fȳr) || (Umbrian pir "fire") || πῦρ pûr "fire" || || || || || "fire"
|-
| heṙu "far" || far ( ← OE feor "to a great distance")|| per "through" || πέρα péra "beyond" || farâ "forward" || परस् paras "beyond" || пере- pere- "through", про- pro- "forth" || íre "further" || "through, across, beyond"
|-
| lvanal "to wash" || flow ( ← OE flōwan) || pluĕre "to rain" || πλύνω plúnō "I wash" || || प्लु plu "to float, swim" || плавать plavat' "swim" || luí "rudder" || "to flow, float, wash"
|-
| utel "to eat" || eat ( ← OE etan)|| edō || ἔδω édō || || अद्मि admi || есть jest' || ithid || "to eat"
|-
| gitem "I know" || wit ( ← OE wit, witan "intelligence, to know")|| vidēre "to see" || οἶδα oîda || vida "knowledge" || विद् vid || видеть videt' "see, understand" || adfet "tells" || "to see"
|-
| get "river" || water ( ← OE wæter)|| (Umbrian utur "water") || ὕδωρ húdōr "water" || bārān باران
"rain"
| उदन् udan "water" || вода voda "water" || uisce "water" || "water"
|-
| gorc "work" || work ( ← OE weorc)|| || ἔργον érgon || ورز varz || || || || "to work"
|-
| mec "big, great" || much ( ← OE mycel "great, big, many")|| magnus || μέγας mégas || meh, mahest || मह maha || много mnogo "many" || maige "great, mighty" || "great"
|-
| čanačʻel ( ← *ծանաչել canačʻel) "to recognize" || know' ( ← OE cnawan)|| nōscere "to learn, recognize" || γιγνώσκω gignōskō "I know" || šenâxtan "to know" || जानाति jānāti "to know" || знать znat' "to know" || ad·gnin "to know" || "to know"
|-
| meṙnel "to die" || murder ( ← OE morþor)|| morī || βροτός brotós "mortal" || mordan "death" || मरति marati || мереть meret' || marb "dead" || "to die"
|-
| miǰin "middle" || mid, middle ( ← OE mid, middel)|| medius || μέσος mésos || miyân || मध्य madhya || меж mež "between" || mide || "mid, middle"
|-
| ayl "other" || else ( ← OE elles "other, otherwise, different")|| alius || ἄλλος állos || || || || aile "other" ||*h₂élyos "other"
|-
| nor "new" || new ( ← OE nīwe)|| novus || νέος néos || now || नव nava || новый novyj || núae || "new"
|-
| duṙ "door" || door ( ← OE dor, duru)|| foris || θύρα thúrā || dar || द्वार dvāra || дверь dver'|| dorus || "door, doorway, gate"
|-
| tun "house" || timber ( ← OE timber "trees used for building material, structure")|| domus || δόμος domos || mān مان
"house" Avestan: dąm 𐬛𐬄𐬨
| दम dama || дом dom || || "house"
|-
| berel "to bring" || bear ( ← OE beran "give birth, carry")|| ferre "to carry" || φέρω phérō || bordan, bar- "to carry" || भरति bharati "to carry" || брать brat' "to take" || beirid "carry" || "to carry"
|}
Sample texts
The following texts are the translations of the Article 1 of UDHR:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!English
!Eastern Armenian
!Transliteration
!Western Armenian
!Transliteration
|-
|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
|Բոլոր մարդիկ ծնվում են ազատ ու հավասար` իրենց արժանապատվությամբ և իրավունքներով: Նրանք օժտված են բանականությամբ ու խղճով, և պարտավոր են միմյանց նկատմամբ վարվել եղբայրության ոգով:
|Bolor mardik c'nvowm en azat ow havasar' irenc arjhanapatvowt'yamb ew iravownqnerov: Nranq o'jhtvac' en banakanowt'yamb ow xghtwov, ew partavor en mimyanc nkatmamb varvel eghbayrowt'yan ogov:
|Բոլոր մարդիկ կը ծնուին ազատ եւ հաւասար իրենց արժանապատուութեամբ եւ իրաւունքներով: Իրենք օժտուած են բանականութեամբ ու խիղճով, եւ պարտաւորուած են միմեանց հանդէպ եղբայրութեան ոգիով վարուիլ:
|Polor martig gy' dz'nowin azad ew hawasar irenc arjhanabadowowt'eamp ew irawownqnerov. Irenq o'jhtowadz' en panaganowt'eamp ow xightwov, ew bardaworowadz' en mimeanc hante'b eghpayrowt'ean oqiov varowil.
|}
See also
* Armenian PowerSpell, electronic text corrector
* Armenian Sign Language
* Auguste Carrière
* Classical Armenian orthography
* European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
* Languages of Armenia
* Language families and languages
* List of Indo-European languages
Notes
Footnotes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*
*
*
* (PhD Thesis)
*
*
*
External links
* [https://haylib.am Haylib - A free library of courses, books, videos and other resources to help you learn Armenian]
* [https://powerspell.am Armenian PowerSpell]
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armenia-iv ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. History, discussion, and the presentation of Iranian influences in Armenian Language over the millennia]
* [http://nayiri.com/ Nayiri.com] (Library of Armenian dictionaries)
* [http://dictionaries.arnet.am/ dictionaries.arnet.am] Collection of Armenian XDXF and Stardict dictionaries
* [https://magaghat.ai/grabar Grabar] (Brief introduction to Classical Armenian also known as Grabar)
* [https://բառարան.հայ բառարան.հայ] – Armenian dictionary
Category:Articles containing video clips
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Category:Syllable-timed languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.144260 |
2218 | Additive synthesis | Additive synthesis is a sound synthesis technique that creates timbre by adding sine waves together.
The timbre of musical instruments can be considered in the light of Fourier theory to consist of multiple harmonic or inharmonic partials or overtones. Each partial is a sine wave of different frequency and amplitude that swells and decays over time due to modulation from an ADSR envelope or low frequency oscillator.
Additive synthesis most directly generates sound by adding the output of multiple sine wave generators. Alternative implementations may use pre-computed wavetables or the inverse fast Fourier transform.
Explanation
The sounds that are heard in everyday life are not characterized by a single frequency. Instead, they consist of a sum of pure sine frequencies, each one at a different amplitude. When humans hear these frequencies simultaneously, we can recognize the sound. This is true for both "non-musical" sounds (e.g. water splashing, leaves rustling, etc.) and for "musical sounds" (e.g. a piano note, a bird's tweet, etc.). This set of parameters (frequencies, their relative amplitudes, and how the relative amplitudes change over time) are encapsulated by the timbre of the sound. Fourier analysis is the technique that is used to determine these exact timbre parameters from an overall sound signal; conversely, the resulting set of frequencies and amplitudes is called the Fourier series of the original sound signal.
In the case of a musical note, the lowest frequency of its timbre is designated as the sound's fundamental frequency. For simplicity, we often say that the note is playing at that fundamental frequency (e.g. "middle C is 261.6 Hz"), even though the sound of that note consists of many other frequencies as well. The set of the remaining frequencies is called the overtones (or the harmonics, if their frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency) of the sound. In other words, the fundamental frequency alone is responsible for the pitch of the note, while the overtones define the timbre of the sound. The overtones of a piano playing middle C will be quite different from the overtones of a violin playing the same note; that's what allows us to differentiate the sounds of the two instruments. There are even subtle differences in timbre between different versions of the same instrument (for example, an upright piano vs. a grand piano).
Additive synthesis aims to exploit this property of sound in order to construct timbre from the ground up. By adding together pure frequencies (sine waves) of varying frequencies and amplitudes, we can precisely define the timbre of the sound that we want to create.
Definitions
Harmonic additive synthesis is closely related to the concept of a Fourier series which is a way of expressing a periodic function as the sum of sinusoidal functions with frequencies equal to integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. These sinusoids are called harmonics, overtones, or generally, partials. In general, a Fourier series contains an infinite number of sinusoidal components, with no upper limit to the frequency of the sinusoidal functions and includes a DC component (one with frequency of 0 Hz). Frequencies outside of the human audible range can be omitted in additive synthesis. As a result, only a finite number of sinusoidal terms with frequencies that lie within the audible range are modeled in additive synthesis.
A waveform or function is said to be periodic if
: <math> y(t) = y(t+P) </math>
for all <math> t </math> and for some period <math> P </math>.
The Fourier series of a periodic function is mathematically expressed as:
: <math> \begin{align}
y(t) &\frac{a_0}{2} + \sum_{k1}^{\infty} \left[ a_k \cos(2 \pi k f_0 t ) - b_k \sin(2 \pi k f_0 t ) \right] \\
&\frac{a_0}{2} + \sum_{k1}^{\infty} r_k \cos\left(2 \pi k f_0 t + \phi_k \right) \\
\end{align} </math>
where
* <math>f_0 = 1/P</math> is the fundamental frequency of the waveform and is equal to the reciprocal of the period,
* <math>a_k r_k \cos(\phi_k) 2 f_0 \int_{0}^P y(t) \cos(2 \pi k f_0 t)\, dt, \quad k \ge 0</math>
* <math>b_k r_k \sin(\phi_k) -2 f_0 \int_{0}^P y(t) \sin(2 \pi k f_0 t)\, dt, \quad k \ge 1</math>
* <math>r_k = \sqrt{a_k^2 + b_k^2}</math> is the amplitude of the <math>k</math>th harmonic,
* <math>\phi_k = \operatorname{atan2}(b_k, a_k)</math> is the phase offset of the <math>k</math>th harmonic. atan2 is the four-quadrant arctangent function,
Being inaudible, the DC component, <math>a_0/2</math>, and all components with frequencies higher than some finite limit, <math>K f_0</math>, are omitted in the following expressions of additive synthesis.
Harmonic form
The simplest harmonic additive synthesis can be mathematically expressed as:
{{NumBlk|:|<math>y(t) \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k \cos\left(2 \pi k f_0 t + \phi_k \right),</math>|}}
where <math>y(t)</math> is the synthesis output, <math>r_k</math>, <math>k f_0</math>, and <math>\phi_k</math> are the amplitude, frequency, and the phase offset, respectively, of the <math>k</math>th harmonic partial of a total of <math>K</math> harmonic partials, and <math>f_0</math> is the fundamental frequency of the waveform and the frequency of the musical note.
Time-dependent amplitudes
{|classwikitable alignright width=420px
|-
|
| <span style="font-size:85%;line-height:130%;">Example of harmonic additive synthesis in which each harmonic has a time-dependent amplitude. The fundamental frequency is 440 Hz.</span>
<span style="font-size:70%;line-height:130%;font-style:italic;">Problems listening to this file? See Media help</span>
|}
More generally, the amplitude of each harmonic can be prescribed as a function of time, <math>r_k(t)</math>, in which case the synthesis output is
{{NumBlk|:|<math>y(t) \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi k f_0 t + \phi_k \right)</math>.|}}
Each envelope <math>r_k(t)\,</math> should vary slowly relative to the frequency spacing between adjacent sinusoids. The bandwidth of <math>r_k(t)</math> should be significantly less than <math>f_0</math>.
Inharmonic form
Additive synthesis can also produce inharmonic sounds (which are aperiodic waveforms) in which the individual overtones need not have frequencies that are integer multiples of some common fundamental frequency. While many conventional musical instruments have harmonic partials (e.g. an oboe), some have inharmonic partials (e.g. bells). Inharmonic additive synthesis can be described as
: <math>y(t) \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi f_k t + \phi_k \right),</math>
where <math>f_k</math> is the constant frequency of <math>k</math>th partial.
{|classwikitable alignright width=420px
|-
|
| <span style="font-size:85%;line-height:130%;">Example of inharmonic additive synthesis in which both the amplitude and frequency of each partial are time-dependent.</span>
<span style="font-size:70%;line-height:130%;font-style:italic;">Problems listening to this file? See Media help</span>
|}
Time-dependent frequencies
In the general case, the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoid is the derivative (with respect to time) of the argument of the sine or cosine function. If this frequency is represented in hertz, rather than in angular frequency form, then this derivative is divided by <math>2 \pi</math>. This is the case whether the partial is harmonic or inharmonic and whether its frequency is constant or time-varying.
In the most general form, the frequency of each non-harmonic partial is a non-negative function of time, <math>f_k(t)</math>, yielding
{{NumBlk|:|<math>y(t) \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi \int_0^t f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right).</math>|}}
Broader definitions
Additive synthesis more broadly may mean sound synthesis techniques that sum simple elements to create more complex timbres, even when the elements are not sine waves. For example, F. Richard Moore listed additive synthesis as one of the "four basic categories" of sound synthesis alongside subtractive synthesis, nonlinear synthesis, and physical modeling.
Implementation methods
Modern-day implementations of additive synthesis are mainly digital. (See section Discrete-time equations for the underlying discrete-time theory)
Oscillator bank synthesis
Additive synthesis can be implemented using a bank of sinusoidal oscillators, one for each partial. -->
Wavetable synthesis
In the case of harmonic, quasi-periodic musical tones, wavetable synthesis can be as general as time-varying additive synthesis, but requires less computation during synthesis. As a result, an efficient implementation of time-varying additive synthesis of harmonic tones can be accomplished by use of wavetable synthesis.
Group additive synthesis
Group additive synthesis is a method to group partials into harmonic groups (having different fundamental frequencies) and synthesize each group separately with wavetable synthesis before mixing the results.
Inverse FFT synthesis
An inverse fast Fourier transform can be used to efficiently synthesize frequencies that evenly divide the transform period or "frame". By careful consideration of the DFT frequency-domain representation it is also possible to efficiently synthesize sinusoids of arbitrary frequencies using a series of overlapping frames and the inverse fast Fourier transform.
Additive analysis/resynthesis
thumb|350px|Sinusoidal analysis/synthesis system for Sinusoidal Modeling (based on )
It is possible to analyze the frequency components of a recorded sound giving a "sum of sinusoids" representation. This representation can be re-synthesized using additive synthesis. One method of decomposing a sound into time varying sinusoidal partials is short-time Fourier transform (STFT)-based McAulay-Quatieri Analysis.
By modifying the sum of sinusoids representation, timbral alterations can be made prior to resynthesis. For example, a harmonic sound could be restructured to sound inharmonic, and vice versa. Sound hybridisation or "morphing" has been implemented by additive resynthesis.
Additive analysis/resynthesis has been employed in a number of techniques including Sinusoidal Modelling, Spectral Modelling Synthesis (SMS), Software that implements additive analysis/resynthesis includes: SPEAR, LEMUR, LORIS, SMSTools, ARSS.
Products
New England Digital Synclavier had a resynthesis feature where samples could be analyzed and converted into "timbre frames" which were part of its additive synthesis engine. Technos acxel, launched in 1987, utilized the additive analysis/resynthesis model, in an FFT implementation.
Also a vocal synthesizer, Vocaloid have been implemented on the basis of additive analysis/resynthesis: its spectral voice model called Excitation plus Resonances (EpR) model is extended based on Spectral Modeling Synthesis (SMS),
and its diphone concatenative synthesis is processed using
spectral peak processing (SPP) technique similar to modified phase-locked vocoder (an improved phase vocoder for formant processing). Using these techniques, spectral components (formants) consisting of purely harmonic partials can be appropriately transformed into desired form for sound modeling, and sequence of short samples (diphones or phonemes) constituting desired phrase, can be smoothly connected by interpolating matched partials and formant peaks, respectively, in the inserted transition region between different samples. (See also Dynamic timbres)
Applications
Musical instruments
Additive synthesis is used in electronic musical instruments. It is the principal sound generation technique used by Eminent organs.
Speech synthesis
In linguistics research, harmonic additive synthesis was used in the 1950s to play back modified and synthetic speech spectrograms. Also the composite sinusoidal modeling (CSM) used on a singing speech synthesis feature on the Yamaha CX5M (1984), is known to use a similar approach which was independently developed during 1966–1979. These methods are characterized by extraction and recomposition of a set of significant spectral peaks corresponding to the several resonance modes occurring in the oral cavity and nasal cavity, in a viewpoint of acoustics. This principle was also utilized on a physical modeling synthesis method, called modal synthesis.
History
Harmonic analysis was discovered by Joseph Fourier, who published an extensive treatise of his research in the context of heat transfer in 1822. The theory found an early application in prediction of tides. Around 1876, The analysis of tide measurements was done using James Thomson's integrating machine. The resulting Fourier coefficients were input into the synthesizer, which then used a system of cords and pulleys to generate and sum harmonic sinusoidal partials for prediction of future tides. In 1910, a similar machine was built for the analysis of periodic waveforms of sound. Helmholtz believed that the psychological perception of tone color is subject to learning, while hearing in the sensory sense is purely physiological. He supported the idea that perception of sound derives from signals from nerve cells of the basilar membrane and that the elastic appendages of these cells are sympathetically vibrated by pure sinusoidal tones of appropriate frequencies. Helmholtz agreed with the finding of Ernst Chladni from 1787 that certain sound sources have inharmonic vibration modes. For harmonic synthesis, Koenig also built a large apparatus based on his wave siren. It was pneumatic and utilized cut-out tonewheels, and was criticized for low purity of its partial tones.
In 1938, with significant new supporting evidence, it was reported on the pages of Popular Science Monthly that the human vocal cords function like a fire siren to produce a harmonic-rich tone, which is then filtered by the vocal tract to produce different vowel tones. By the time, the additive Hammond organ was already on market. Most early electronic organ makers thought it too expensive to manufacture the plurality of oscillators required by additive organs, and began instead to build subtractive ones. In a 1940 Institute of Radio Engineers meeting, the head field engineer of Hammond elaborated on the company's new Novachord as having a "subtractive system" in contrast to the original Hammond organ in which "the final tones were built up by combining sound waves". Alan Douglas used the qualifiers additive and subtractive to describe different types of electronic organs in a 1948 paper presented to the Royal Musical Association. <!--Also, in the 1968 edition of his 1947 book The Electronic Musical Instrument Manual, in the section Production and Mixing of Electrical Oscillations a distinction is made between additive tone-forming and subtractive tone-forming.--> The contemporary wording additive synthesis and subtractive synthesis can be found in his 1957 book The electrical production of music, in which he categorically lists three methods of forming of musical tone-colours, in sections titled Additive synthesis, Subtractive synthesis, and Other forms of combinations.
A typical modern additive synthesizer produces its output as an electrical, analog signal, or as digital audio, such as in the case of software synthesizers, which became popular around year 2000.
Timeline
The following is a timeline of historically and technologically notable analog and digital synthesizers and devices implementing additive synthesis.
{| class"wikitable" width"100%"
! width="50" | Research implementation or publication
! width="50" | Commercially available
! width"100" class"unsortable" | Company or institution
! width"50" class"unsortable" | Synthesizer or synthesis device
! class="unsortable" | Description
! width"85" class"unsortable" | Audio samples
|-
| 1900
| 1906 Implemented sinuosoidal additive synthesis using tonewheels and alternators. Invented by Thaddeus Cahill.
| no known recordings
| 1935
|
| Haskins Laboratories
| Pattern Playback
| A speech synthesis system that controlled amplitudes of harmonic partials by a spectrogram that was either hand-drawn or an analysis result. The partials were generated by a multi-track optical tonewheel.
|
|
| ANS
| An additive synthesizer that played microtonal spectrogram-like scores using multiple multi-track optical tonewheels. Invented by Evgeny Murzin. A similar instrument that utilized electronic oscillators, the Oscillator Bank, and its input device Spectrogram were realized by Hugh Le Caine in 1959.
|
|-
| 1963
|
| MIT
|
| An off-line system for digital spectral analysis and resynthesis of the attack and steady-state portions of musical instrument timbres by David Luce.
|
| University of Illinois
| Harmonic Tone Generator
| An electronic, harmonic additive synthesis system invented by James Beauchamp.
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20131228061841/http://ems.music.uiuc.edu/beaucham/htg_sounds/ samples] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120322191551/http://ems.music.uiuc.edu/beaucham/htg.html info])
|-
| 1974 or earlier
| RMI
| Harmonic Synthesizer
| The first synthesizer product that implemented additive synthesis using digital oscillators.
| [https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-drones 1] [https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-demos 2] [https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-arpeggiator-demo 3] [https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-intermodulation 4]
|-
| 1974
|
| EMS (London)
| Digital Oscillator Bank
| A bank of digital oscillators with arbitrary waveforms, individual frequency and amplitude controls, intended for use in analysis-resynthesis with the digital Analysing Filter Bank (AFB) also constructed at EMS.
|-
| 1976
| 1976
| Fairlight
| Qasar M8
| An all-digital synthesizer that used the fast Fourier transform to create samples from interactively drawn amplitude envelopes of harmonics.
| [http://anerd.com/fairlight/audioarchives/index.htm samples]
|-
| 1977
|
| Bell Labs
| Digital Synthesizer
| A real-time, digital additive synthesizer Also known as: Alles Machine, Alice.
| [http://retiary.org/ls/music/realaudio/ob_sys/05_alles_synth_improv.rm sample] ([http://retiary.org/ls/obsolete_systems/ info])
|-
| 1979
|Kawai
|K5000
|A commercial digital synthesizer workstation capable of polyphonic, digital additive synthesis of up to 128 sinusodial waves, as well as combing PCM waves.
|
|}
Discrete-time equations
In digital implementations of additive synthesis, discrete-time equations are used in place of the continuous-time synthesis equations. A notational convention for discrete-time signals uses brackets i.e. <math>y[n]\,</math> and the argument <math>n\,</math> can only be integer values. If the continuous-time synthesis output <math>y(t)\,</math> is expected to be sufficiently bandlimited; below half the sampling rate or <math>f_\mathrm{s}/2\,</math>, it suffices to directly sample the continuous-time expression to get the discrete synthesis equation. The continuous synthesis output can later be reconstructed from the samples using a digital-to-analog converter. The sampling period is <math>T=1/f_\mathrm{s}\,</math>.
Beginning with (),
: <math>y(t) \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi \int_0^t f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right)</math>
and sampling at discrete times <math> t nT n/f_\mathrm{s} \,</math> results in
:<math> \begin{align}
y[n] & y(nT) \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \int_0^{nT} f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right) \\
& \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \sum_{i=1}^{n} \int_{(i-1)T}^{iT} f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right) \\
& \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \sum_{i=1}^{n} (T f_k[i]) + \phi_k \right) \\
& \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k[n] \cos\left(\frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f_k[i] + \phi_k \right) \\
\end{align} </math>
where
: <math>r_k[n] = r_k(nT) \,</math> is the discrete-time varying amplitude envelope
: <math>f_k[n] = \frac{1}{T} \int_{(n-1)T}^{nT} f_k(t)\ dt \,</math> is the discrete-time backward difference instantaneous frequency.
This is equivalent to
: <math> y[n] \sum_{k1}^{K} r_k[n] \cos\left( \theta_k[n] \right) </math>
where
:<math> \begin{align}
\theta_k[n] &\frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} \sum_{i1}^{n} f_k[i] + \phi_k \\
&= \theta_k[n-1] + \frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} f_k[n] \\
\end{align} </math> for all <math>n>0\,</math><ref name="RodetDepalle_FFTm1"/>
and
: <math> \theta_k[0] \phi_k. \,</math>See also
* Frequency modulation synthesis
* Subtractive synthesis
* Speech synthesis
* Harmonic series (music)
References
External links
* [http://users.ece.gatech.edu/lanterma/synergy/ Digital Keyboards Synergy]
Category:Sound synthesis types | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_synthesis | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.180024 |
2219 | Aircraft carrier | , , helicopter carrier —and escort vessels, 2002]]
'']]
An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and hangar facilities for supporting, arming, deploying and recovering shipborne aircraft. Typically it is the capital ship of a fleet (known as a carrier battle group), as it allows a naval force to project seaborne air power far from homeland without depending on local airfields for staging aircraft operations. Since their inception in the early 20th century, aircraft carriers have evolved from wooden vessels used to deploy individual tethered reconnaissance balloons, to nuclear-powered supercarriers that carry dozens of fighters, strike aircraft, military helicopters, AEW&Cs and other types of aircraft such as UCAVs. While heavier fixed-wing aircraft such as airlifters, gunships and bombers have been launched from aircraft carriers, these aircraft have not landed on a carrier due to flight deck limitations.
The aircraft carrier, along with its onboard aircraft and defensive ancillary weapons, is the largest weapon system ever created. By their tactical prowess, mobility, autonomy and the variety of operational means, aircraft carriers are often the centerpiece of modern naval warfare, and have significant diplomatic influence in deterrence, command of the sea and air supremacy. Since the Second World War, the aircraft carrier has replaced the battleship in the role of flagship of a fleet, and largely transformed naval battles from gunfire to beyond-visual-range air strikes. In addition to tactical aptitudes, it has great strategic advantages in that, by sailing in international waters, it does not need to interfere with any territorial sovereignty and thus does not risk diplomatic complications or conflict escalation due to trespassing, and obviates the need for land use authorizations from third-party countries, reduces the times and transit logistics of aircraft and therefore significantly increases the time of availability on the combat zone.
There is no single definition of an "aircraft carrier", and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, and sometimes as distinct types of aviation-capable ships. Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, RN, former First Sea Lord (head) of the Royal Navy, has said, "To put it simply, countries that aspire to strategic international influence have aircraft carriers." Henry Kissinger, while United States Secretary of State, also said: "An aircraft carrier is 100,000 tons of diplomacy."
As of , there are 50 active aircraft carriers in the world operated by fifteen navies. The United States has 11 large nuclear-powered CATOBAR fleet carriers — each carrying around 80 fighters — the largest in the world, with the total combined deck space over twice that of all other nations combined. In addition, the US Navy has nine amphibious assault ships used primarily as helicopter carriers, although these also each carry up to 20 vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) jetfighters and are similar in size to medium-sized fleet carriers. China, the United Kingdom and India each currently operate two STOBAR/STOVL aircraft carriers with ski-jump flight decks, with China in the process to commission a third carrier with catapult capabilities, and France and Russia each operate a single aircraft carrier with a capacity of 30 to 60 fighters. Italy operates two light V/STOL carriers, while Spain,Turkey and Iran operate one V/STOL aircraft-carrying assault ship. Helicopter carriers are also operated by Japan (4, two of which are being converted to operate V/STOL fighters), France (3), Australia (2, previously also owned 3 light carriers), Egypt (2), South Korea (2), China (3), Thailand (1), Brazil (1) and Iran (1). Future aircraft carriers are under construction or in planning by China, France, India, Italy, Russia, South Korea, Turkey and the United States.
Types of carriers
configuration]]
General features
* Speed is a crucial attribute for aircraft carriers, as they need to be able to be deployed quickly anywhere in the world and have to be fast enough to evade detection and targeting from enemy forces. A high speed also increases the "wind over the deck", boosting the lift available for fixed-wing aircraft to carry fuel and ammunition. To evade nuclear submarines, the carriers should have a speed of more than .
* Aircraft carriers are among the largest types of warships due to their need for ample deck space.
* An aircraft carrier must be able to perform increasingly diverse mission sets. Diplomacy, power projection, quick crisis response force, land attack from the sea, sea base for helicopter and amphibious assault forces, anti-surface warfare (ASUW), defensive counter air (DCA), and humanitarian aid & disaster relief (HADR) are some of the missions the aircraft carrier is expected to accomplish. Traditionally an aircraft carrier is supposed to be one ship that can perform at least power projection and sea control missions.
* An aircraft carrier must be able to efficiently operate an air combat group. This means it should handle fixed-wing jets as well as helicopters. This includes ships designed to support operations of short-takeoff/vertical-landing (STOVL) jets.Basic types
* Aircraft cruiser
* Amphibious assault ship and sub-types
* Anti-submarine warfare carrier
* Balloon carrier and balloon tenders
* Escort carrier
* Fleet carrier
* Flight deck cruiser
* Helicopter carrier
* Light aircraft carrier
* Seaplane tender and seaplane carriers
* Utility carrier: This type was mainly used in the US Navy, in the decade after World War 2 to ferry aircraft.
Some of the types listed here are not strictly defined as aircraft carriers by some sources.By role
fleet carrier, also often referred to as a supercarrier, crossing the Atlantic in 2019]]
A fleet carrier is intended to operate with the main fleet and usually provides an offensive capability. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds. By comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried. Most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet but of smaller size with reduced aircraft capacity.
The Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Kusnetsov was termed a "heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser". This was primarily a legal construct to avoid the limitations of the Montreux Convention preventing 'aircraft carriers' transiting the Turkish Straits between the Soviet Black Sea bases and the Mediterranean Sea. These ships, while sized in the range of large fleet carriers, were designed to deploy alone or with escorts. In addition to supporting fighter aircraft and helicopters, they provide both strong defensive weaponry and heavy offensive missiles equivalent to a guided-missile cruiser.
By configuration
configuration are in service with Italy, Spain, Thailand and the United Kingdom.]]
Aircraft carriers today are usually divided into the following four categories based on the way that aircraft take off and land:
*Catapult-assisted take-off barrier-arrested recovery (CATOBAR): these carriers generally carry the largest, heaviest, and most heavily armed aircraft, although smaller CATOBAR carriers may have other limitations (weight capacity of aircraft elevator, etc.). All CATOBAR carriers in service today are nuclear-powered, as the last conventionally powered CATOBAR carrier USS Kitty Hawk was decommissioned in 2009. Twelve are in service: ten and one fleet carriers in the United States; and the Charles de Gaulle in France.
* Short take-off barrier-arrested recovery (STOBAR): these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads. STOBAR carrier air wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-33 and future Mikoyan MiG-29K wings of are often geared primarily towards air superiority and fleet defense roles rather than strike/power projection tasks, which require heavier payloads (bombs and air-to-ground missiles). Five are in service: two in China, two in India, and one in Russia.
* Short take-off vertical-landing (STOVL): limited to carrying STOVL aircraft. STOVL aircraft, such as the Harrier family and Yakovlev Yak-38 generally have limited payloads, lower performance, and high fuel consumption when compared with conventional fixed-wing aircraft; however, a new generation of STOVL aircraft, currently consisting of the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II, has much improved performance. Fourteen are in service; nine STOVL amphibious assault ships in the US; two carriers each in Italy and the UK; and one STOVL amphibious assault ship in Spain.
* Helicopter carrier: Helicopter carriers have a similar appearance to other aircraft carriers but operate only helicopters – those that mainly operate helicopters but can also operate fixed-wing aircraft are known as STOVL carriers (see above). Seventeen are in service: four in Japan; three in France; two each in Australia, China, Egypt and South Korea; and one each in Brazil and Thailand. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and these were called "commando carriers" by the Royal Navy. Some helicopter carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships, tasked with landing and supporting ground forces on enemy territory.
By size
* Fleet carrier
* Light aircraft carrier
* Escort carrier
Supercarrier
Supercarrier (TV series)}}
in 1939, with Swordfish biplane bombers passing overhead. The British aircraft carrier was involved in the crippling of the German battleship Bismarck in May 1941.]]
The appellation "supercarrier" is not an official designation with any national navy, but a term used predominantly by the media and typically when reporting on larger and more advanced carrier types. It is also used when comparing carriers of various sizes and capabilities, both current and past. It was first used by The New York Times in 1938, in an article about the Royal Navy's , that had a length of , a displacement of 22,000 tons and was designed to carry 72 aircraft. Since then, aircraft carriers have consistently grown in size, both in length and displacement, as well as improved capabilities; in defense, sensors, electronic warfare, propulsion, range, launch and recovery systems, number and types of aircraft carried and number of sorties flown per day.
Both China (Type 003), and the United Kingdom (Queen Elizabeth class) have carriers undergoing trials or in service with full load displacements between 80,000 to 85,000 tonnes and lengths from which are described as "supercarriers". with full load displacements in excess 100,000 tons,}}
Hull type identification symbols
Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers and related types of ship have been used. These include the pennant numbers used by the Royal Navy, Commonwealth countries, and Europe, along with the hull classification symbols used by the US and Canada.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ US hull classification symbols for aircraft carriers and related ship types
! Symbol !! Designation
|-
| CV || Generic aircraft carrier
|-
| CVA || Attack carrier (up to 1975)
|-
| CVB || Large aircraft carrier (retired 1952)
|-
| CVAN || Nuclear-powered attack carrier
|-
| CVE || Escort carrier
|-
| CVHA || Aircraft carrier, Helicopter Assault (retired)
|-
| CVHE || Aircraft carrier, Helicopter, Escort (retired)
|-
| CVV || Aircraft Carrier (Medium) (proposed)
|-
| CVL || Light aircraft carrier
|-
| CVN || Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier
|-
| CVS || Anti-submarine warfare carrier
|-
| CVT || Training Aircraft Carrier
|-
| CVU || Utility carrier (retired)
|-
| LHA || Landing helicopter assault, a type of amphibious assault ship
|-
| LHD || Landing helicopter dock, a type of amphibious assault ship
|-
| LPH || Landing platform helicopter, a type of amphibious assault ship
|}
History
Origins
The 1903 advent of the heavier-than-air fixed-wing airplane with the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, was followed on 14 November 1910, by Eugene Burton Ely's first experimental take-off of a Curtiss Pusher airplane from the deck of a United States Navy ship, the cruiser anchored off Norfolk Navy Base in Virginia. Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss Pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser anchored in San Francisco Bay. On 9 May 1912, the first take off of an airplane from a ship while underway was made by Commander Charles Samson flying a Short Improved S.27 biplane "S.38" of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) from the deck of the Royal Navy's pre-dreadnought battleship , thus providing the first practical demonstration of the aircraft carrier for naval operations at sea. Seaplane tender support ships came next, with the French of 1911.
Early in World War I, the Imperial Japanese Navy ship conducted the world's first carrier-launched air raid: on 6 September 1914, the Wakamiya used its crane to lower Farman seaplanes into the water. The Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser and the Imperial German gunboat Jaguar in Jiaozhou Bay off Qingdao; neither was hit. The first attack using an air-launched torpedo occurred on 2 August, when a torpedo was fired by Flight Commander Charles Edmonds from a Short Type 184 seaplane, launched from the seaplane carrier .
The first carrier-launched airstrike was the Tondern raid in July 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels were launched from the battlecruiser which had been completed as a carrier by replacing her planned forward turret with a flight deck and hangar prior to commissioning. The Camels attacked and damaged the German airbase at Tondern, Germany (modern day Tønder, Denmark), and destroyed two zeppelin airships.
The first landing of an airplane on a moving ship was by Squadron Commander Edwin Harris Dunning, when he landed his Sopwith Pup on HMS Furious in Scapa Flow, Orkney on 2 August 1917. Landing on the forward flight deck required the pilot to approach round the ship's superstructure, a difficult and dangerous manoeuver and Dunning was later killed when his airplane was thrown overboard while attempting another landing on Furious. HMS Furious was modified again when her rear turret was removed and another flight deck added over a second hangar for landing aircraft over the stern. Her funnel and superstructure remained intact however and turbulence from the funnel and superstructure was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden. This experience prompted the development of vessels with a flush deck and produced the first large fleet ships. In 1918, became the world's first carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft.
As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited the construction of new heavy surface combat ships, most early aircraft carriers were conversions of ships that were laid down (or had served) as different ship types: cargo ships, cruisers, battlecruisers, or battleships. These conversions gave rise to the in 1922, the US s (1927), Japanese and , and British (of which Furious was one). Specialist carrier evolution was well underway, with several navies ordering and building warships that were purposefully designed to function as aircraft carriers by the mid-1920s. This resulted in the commissioning of ships such as the Japanese (1922), (1924, although laid down in 1918 before Hōshō), and (1927). During World War II, these ships would become known as fleet carriers.World War II
]]
was built on a battleship hull to carry spare aircraft and ordnance in support of other carriers. En route to complete fitting out it was sunk by an American submarine.]]
The aircraft carrier dramatically changed naval warfare in World War II, because air power was becoming a significant factor in warfare. The advent of aircraft as focal weapons was driven by the superior range, flexibility, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. They had greater range and precision than naval guns, making them highly effective. The versatility of the carrier was demonstrated in November 1940, when launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at their base in Taranto, signalling the beginning of the effective and highly mobile aircraft strikes. This operation in the shallow water harbor incapacitated three of the six anchored battleships at a cost of two torpedo bombers.
World War II in the Pacific Ocean involved clashes between aircraft carrier fleets. The Japanese surprise attack on the American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor naval and air bases on Sunday, 7 December 1941, was a clear illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Concentrating six carriers in a single unit turned naval history about, as no other nation had fielded anything comparable. In the "Doolittle Raid", on 18 April 1942, the US Navy carrier sailed to within of Japan and launched 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers from her deck in a demonstrative retaliatory strike on the mainland, including the capital, Tokyo. However, the vulnerability of carriers compared to traditional capital ships was illustrated by the sinking of by German battleships during the Norwegian campaign in 1940.
This new-found importance of naval aviation forced nations to create a number of carriers, in efforts to provide air superiority cover for every major fleet to ward off enemy aircraft. This extensive usage led to the development and construction of 'light' carriers. Escort aircraft carriers, such as , were sometimes purpose-built but most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide anti-submarine air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Following this concept, light aircraft carriers built by the US, such as (commissioned in 1943), represented a larger, more "militarized" version of the escort carrier. Although with similar complement to escort carriers, they had the advantage of speed from their converted cruiser hulls. The UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier was designed for building quickly by civilian shipyards and with an expected service life of about 3 years. They served the Royal Navy during the war, and the hull design was chosen for nearly all aircraft carrier equipped navies after the war, until the 1980s. Emergencies also spurred the creation or conversion of highly unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships were cargo-carrying merchant ships that could launch (but not retrieve) a single fighter aircraft from a catapult to defend the convoy from long range land-based German aircraft.Postwar era
landing on the French Arromanches in the Tonkin Gulf, 1953]]
Iwo Jima-class helicopter carrier]]
Before World War II, international naval treaties of 1922, 1930, and 1936 limited the size of capital ships, including carriers. Since World War II, aircraft carrier designs have increased in size to accommodate a steady increase in aircraft size. The large, modern of US Navy carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II–era , yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same—a consequence of the steadily increasing size and weight of individual military aircraft over the years. Today's aircraft carriers are so expensive that some nations which operate them risk significant economic and military impact if a carrier is lost.
, 1967]]
Some changes were made after 1945 in carriers:
* The angled flight deck was invented by Royal Navy Captain (later Rear Admiral) Dennis Cambell, as naval aviation jets' higher speeds required carriers be modified to fit their needs. Additionally, the angled flight deck allows for simultaneous launch and recovery.
* Jet blast deflectors became necessary to protect aircraft and handlers from jet blast. The first US Navy carriers to be fitted with them were the wooden-decked s which were adapted to operate jets in the late 1940s. Later versions had to be water-cooled because of increasing engine power.
* Optical landing systems were developed to facilitate the very precise landing angles required by jet aircraft, which have a faster landing speed giving the pilot little time to correct misalignments, or mistakes. The first system was fitted to in 1952.
* Aircraft carrier designs have increased in size to accommodate continuous increase in aircraft size. The 1950s saw US Navy's commission of "supercarriers", designed to operate naval jets, which offered better performance at the expense of bigger size and demanded more ordnance to be carried on-board (fuel, spare parts, electronics, etc.).
* The combination of increased carrier size, speed requirements above , and a requirement to operate at sea for long periods mean that modern large aircraft carriers often use nuclear reactors to create power for propulsion, electricity, catapulting airplanes from aircraft carriers, and a few more minor uses.
Modern navies that operate such aircraft carriers treat them as capital ships of fleets, a role previously held by the galleons, ships-of-the-line and battleships. This change took place during World War II in response to air power becoming a significant factor in warfare, driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance, and along with, carrier designs also increased in size and ability. Some of these larger carriers, dubbed by the media as "supercarriers", displacing 75,000 tons or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Some are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as the and classes, serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers", many have the capability to operate VSTOL aircraft.
The threatening role of aircraft carriers has a place in modern asymmetric warfare, like the gunboat diplomacy of the past. Carriers also facilitate quick and precise projections of overwhelming military power into such local and regional conflicts.
Lacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles. Therefore, an aircraft carrier is generally accompanied by a number of other ships to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, re-supply (Many carriers are self-sufficient and will supply their escorts) and perform other support services, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. The resulting group of ships is often termed a carrier strike group, battle group, carrier group, or carrier battle group.
There is a view among some military pundits that modern anti-ship weapons systems, such as torpedoes and missiles, or even ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads have made aircraft carriers and carrier groups too vulnerable for modern combat.
Carriers can also be vulnerable to diesel-electric submarines like the German U24 of the conventional 206 class which in 2001 "fired" at the Enterprise during the exercise JTFEX 01-2 in the Caribbean Sea by firing flares and taking a photograph through its periscope or the Swedish Gotland which managed the same feat in 2006 during JTFEX 06-2 by penetrating the defensive measures of Carrier Strike Group 7 which was protecting .DescriptionStructure
Carriers are large and long ships, although there is a high degree of variation depending on their intended role and aircraft complement. The size of the carrier has varied over history and among navies, to cater to the various roles that global climates have demanded from naval aviation.
Regardless of size, the ship itself must house their complement of aircraft, with space for launching, storing, and maintaining them. Space is also required for the large crew, supplies (food, munitions, fuel, engineering parts), and propulsion. US aircraft carriers are notable for having nuclear reactors powering their systems and propulsion.
landing on in 1945]]
The top of the carrier is the flight deck, where aircraft are launched and recovered. On the starboard side of this is the island, where the funnel, air-traffic control and the bridge are located.
The constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a given carrier strongly, as they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched. For example, assisted launch mechanisms are used primarily for heavy aircraft, especially those loaded with air-to-ground weapons. CATOBAR is most commonly used on US Navy fleet carriers as it allows the deployment of heavy jets with full load-outs, especially on ground-attack missions. STOVL is used by other navies because it is cheaper to operate and still provides good deployment capability for fighter aircraft.
Due to the busy nature of the flight deck, only 20 or so aircraft may be on it at any one time. A hangar storage several decks below the flight deck is where most aircraft are kept, and aircraft are taken from the lower storage decks to the flight deck through the use of an elevator. The hangar is usually quite large and can take up several decks of vertical space.
Munitions are commonly stored on the lower decks because they are highly explosive. Usually this is below the waterline so that the area can be flooded in case of emergency.
Flight deck
launches aboard ]]
As "runways at sea", aircraft carriers have a flat-top flight deck, which launches and recovers aircraft. Aircraft launch forward, into the wind, and are recovered from astern. The flight deck is where the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway are found. Creating such a surface at sea poses constraints on the carrier. For example, the size of the vessel is a fundamental limitation on runway length. This affects take-off procedure, as a shorter runway length of the deck requires that aircraft accelerate more quickly to gain lift. This either requires a thrust boost, a vertical component to its velocity, or a reduced take-off load (to lower mass). The differing types of deck configuration, as above, influence the structure of the flight deck. The form of launch assistance a carrier provides is strongly related to the types of aircraft embarked and the design of the carrier itself.
There are two main philosophies to keep the deck short: add thrust to the aircraft, such as using a Catapult Assisted Take-Off (CATO-); and changing the direction of the airplanes' thrust, as in Vertical and/or Short Take-Off (V/STO-). Each method has advantages and disadvantages of its own:
* Catapult Assisted Take-Off Barrier Arrested Recovery (CATOBAR): A steam- or electric-powered catapult is connected to the aircraft, and is used to accelerate conventional aircraft to a safe flying speed. By the end of the catapult stroke, the aircraft is airborne and further propulsion is provided by its own engines. This is the most expensive method as it requires complex machinery to be installed under the flight deck, but allows for even heavily loaded aircraft to take off.
* Short Take-Off Barrier Arrested Recovery (STOBAR) depends on increasing the net lift on the aircraft. Aircraft do not require catapult assistance for take off; instead on nearly all ships of this type an upwards vector is provided by a ski-jump at the forward end of the flight deck, often combined with thrust vectoring by the aircraft. Alternatively, by reducing the fuel and weapon load, an aircraft is able to reach faster speeds and generate more upwards lift and launch without a ski-jump or catapult.
* Short Take-Off Vertical-Landing (STOVL): On aircraft carriers, non-catapult-assisted, fixed-wing short takeoffs are accomplished with the use of thrust vectoring, which may also be used in conjunction with a runway "ski-jump". Use of STOVL tends to allow aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, while still only requiring a short runway. The most famous examples are the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and the BAe Sea Harrier. Although technically VTOL aircraft, they are operationally STOVL aircraft due to the extra weight carried at take-off for fuel and armaments. The same is true of the Lockheed F-35B Lightning II, which demonstrated VTOL capability in test flights but is operationally STOVL or in the case of UK uses "shipborne rolling vertical landing".
* Vertical Take-Off and Landing (VTOL): Certain aircraft are specifically designed for the purpose of using very high degrees of thrust vectoring (e.g. if the thrust to weight-force ratio is greater than 1, it can take off vertically), but are usually slower than conventionally propelled aircraft due to the additional weight from associated systems.
On the recovery side of the flight deck, the adaptation to the aircraft load-out is mirrored. Non-VTOL or conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own, and almost all carriers using them must have arrested-recovery systems (-BAR, e.g. CATOBAR or STOBAR) to recover their aircraft. Aircraft that are landing extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring themselves to a stop in a short distance. Post-World War II Royal Navy research on safer CATOBAR recovery eventually led to universal adoption of a landing area angled off axis to allow aircraft who missed the arresting wires to "bolt" and safely return to flight for another landing attempt rather than crashing into aircraft on the forward deck.
If the aircraft are VTOL-capable or helicopters, they do not need to decelerate and hence there is no such need. The arrested-recovery system has used an angled deck since the 1950s because, in case the aircraft does not catch the arresting wire, the short deck allows easier take off by reducing the number of objects between the aircraft and the end of the runway. It also has the advantage of separating the recovery operation area from the launch area. Helicopters and aircraft capable of vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) usually recover by coming abreast of the carrier on the port side and then using their hover capability to move over the flight deck and land vertically without the need for arresting gear.
Staff and deck operations
Carriers steam at speed, up to into the wind during flight deck operations to increase wind speed over the deck to a safe minimum. This increase in effective wind speed provides a higher launch airspeed for aircraft at the end of the catapult stroke or ski-jump, as well as making recovery safer by reducing the difference between the relative speeds of the aircraft and ship.
Since the early 1950s on conventional carriers it has been the practice to recover aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship. The primary function of this angled deck is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a bolter, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked forward. The angled deck allows the installation of one or two "waist" catapults in addition to the two bow cats. An angled deck also improves launch and recovery cycle flexibility with the option of simultaneous launching and recovery of aircraft.
Conventional ("tailhook") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, radio call sign 'paddles') to monitor the aircraft's approach, visually gauge glideslope, attitude, and airspeed, and transmit that data to the pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as the optical landing system have provided information on proper glide slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to approaching pilots by radio.
Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the shooters, the handler, and the air boss. Shooters are naval aviators or naval flight officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery. The "air boss" (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called primary or the tower) and has the overall responsibility for controlling launch, recovery and "those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet". The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff.
To facilitate working on the flight deck of a US aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. There are at least seven different colors worn by flight deck personnel for modern United States Navy carrier air operations. Carrier operations of other nations use similar color schemes.
Deck structures
The superstructure of a carrier (such as the bridge, flight control tower) are concentrated in a relatively small area called an island, a feature pioneered on in 1923. While the island is usually built on the starboard side of the flight deck, the Japanese aircraft carriers and had their islands built on the port side. Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island. The flush deck configuration proved to have significant drawbacks, primary of which was management of the exhaust from the power plant. Fumes coming across the deck were a major issue in . In addition, lack of an island meant difficulties managing the flight deck, performing air traffic control, a lack of radar housing placements and problems with navigating and controlling the ship itself.
Another deck structure that can be seen is a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was first developed to help launch short take off vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft take off at far higher weights than is possible with a vertical or rolling takeoff on flat decks. Originally developed by the Royal Navy, it since has been adopted by many navies for smaller carriers. A ski-jump ramp works by converting some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity and is sometimes combined with the aiming of jet thrust partly downward. This allows heavily loaded and fueled aircraft a few more precious seconds to attain sufficient air velocity and lift to sustain normal flight. Without a ski-jump, launching fully-loaded and fueled aircraft such as the Harrier would not be possible on a smaller flat deck ship before either stalling out or crashing directly into the sea.
Although STOVL aircraft are capable of taking off vertically from a spot on the deck, using the ramp and a running start is far more fuel efficient and permits a heavier launch weight. As catapults are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for complex steam or electromagnetic launching equipment. Vertical landing aircraft also remove the need for arresting cables and related hardware. Russian, Chinese, and Indian carriers include a ski-jump ramp for launching lightly loaded conventional fighter aircraft but recover using traditional carrier arresting cables and a tailhook on their aircraft.
The disadvantage of the ski-jump is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range); heavily laden aircraft cannot launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or assistance from a catapult or JATO rocket. For example, the Russian Sukhoi Su-33 is only able to launch from the carrier with a minimal armament and fuel load. Another disadvantage is on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are also present, such as on a US landing helicopter dock or landing helicopter assault amphibious assault ship. A ski jump is not included as this would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas; this flat deck limits the loading of Harriers but is somewhat mitigated by the longer rolling start provided by a long flight deck compared to many STOVL carriers.
National fleets
List of aircraft carriers by country|List of aircraft carriers in service}}
thumb|upright=1.5|
The US Navy has the largest fleet of carriers in the world, with eleven supercarriers in service as of 2024. China and India each have two STOBAR carriers in service. The UK has two STOVL carriers in service. The navies of France and Russia each operate a single medium-sized carrier. The US also has nine similarly sized Amphibious Warfare Ships. There are five small light carriers in use capable of operating both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters; Japan and Italy each operate two, and Spain one.
Additionally there are nineteen small carriers which only operate helicopters serving the navies of Australia (2), Brazil (1), China (2), Egypt (2), France (3), Japan (4), South Korea (2), Thailand (1), Turkey (1), and Iran (1).Algeria
;Current
Kalaat Béni Abbès (L-474) is an amphibious transport dock of the Algerian National Navy with two deck-landing spots for helicopters.Australia
;Current
The Royal Australian Navy operates two s. The two-ship class, based on the Spanish vessel and built by Navantia and BAE Systems Australia, represents the largest ships ever built for the Royal Australian Navy.
underwent sea trials in late 2013 and was commissioned in 2014. Her sister ship, , was commissioned in December 2015. The Australian ships retain the ski-ramp from the Juan Carlos I design, although the RAN has not acquired carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.
Brazil
;Current
In December 2017, the Brazilian Navy confirmed the purchase of for (GBP) £84.6 million (equivalent to R$359.5M and US$113.2M) and renamed her . The ship was decommissioned from Royal Navy service in March 2018. The Brazilian Navy commissioned the carrier on 29 June 2018 in the United Kingdom. After undertaking a period of maintenance in the UK, the ship travelled to its new home port, Arsenal de Marinha do Rio de Janeiro (AMRJ) to be fully operational by 2020. The ship displaces 21,578 tonnes, is long and has a range of .
Before leaving HMNB Devonport for her new homeport in Rio's AMRJ, Atlântico underwent operational sea training under the Royal Navy's Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST) program.
On 12 November 2020, Atlântico was redesignated "NAM", for "multipurpose aircraft carrier" (), from "PHM", for "multipurpose helicopter carrier" (), to reflect the ship's capability to operate with fixed-wing medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicles as well as crewed tiltrotor VTOL aircraft.
China
]]
;Current
2 STOBAR carriers:
* (60,900 tons) was originally built as the uncompleted Soviet carrier Varyag and was later purchased as a hulk from Ukraine in 1998 on the pretext of commercial use as a floating casino, then towed to China for rebuild and completion. Liaoning was commissioned on 25 September 2012 and began service for testing and training. In November 2012, Liaoning launched and recovered Shenyang J-15 naval fighter aircraft for the first time. After a refit in January 2019, she was assigned to the North Sea Fleet, a change from her previous role as a training ship.
* (60,000–70,000 tons) was launched on 26 April 2017, the first to be built domestically based on an improved Kuznetsov-class design. Shandong started sea trials on 23 April 2018, and entered service in December 2019.
1 CATOBAR carrier:
* (80,000 tons) is a conventionally powered CATOBAR carrier that was under construction between 2015 and 2016 before being completed in June 2022. She is being fitted out as of 2022 and will commence service in 2023–2024.
3 LHD amphibious assault ships
*A Type 075 LHD, was commissioned on 23 April 2021 at the South Sea Fleet naval base in Sanya. A second ship, Guangxi, was commissioned on 26 December 2021 and a third ship, Anhui, was commissioned in October 2022.
;Future
China has had a long-term plan to operate six large aircraft carriers with two carriers per fleet.
China is planning a class of eight LHD vessels, the Type 075 (NATO reporting name Yushen-class landing helicopter assault). This is a class of amphibious assault ship under construction by the Hudong–Zhonghua Shipbuilding company. and will likely support launching unmanned combat aerial vehicles.Egypt
;Current
Egypt signed a contract with French shipbuilder DCNS to buy two helicopter carriers for approximately 950 million euros. The two ships were originally to be sold to Russia, but the deal was cancelled by France due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2014.
On 2 June 2016, Egypt received the first of two helicopter carriers acquired in October 2015, the landing helicopter dock . The flag transfer ceremony took place in the presence of Egyptian and French Navies' chiefs of staff, chairman and chief executive officers of both DCNS and STX France, and senior Egyptian and French officials. On 16 September 2016, DCNS delivered the second of two helicopter carriers, the landing helicopter dock which also participated in a joint military exercise with the French Navy before arriving at her home port of Alexandria.France
]]
;Current
The French Navy operates the 42,000-tonne nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, . Commissioned in 2001, she is the flagship of the French Navy. The ship carries a complement of Dassault Rafale M and E-2C Hawkeye aircraft, EC725 Caracal and AS532 Cougar helicopters for combat search and rescue, as well as modern electronics and Aster missiles. She is a CATOBAR-type carrier that uses two 75 m C13-3 steam catapults of a shorter version of the catapult system installed on the US carriers, one catapult at the bow and one across the front of the landing area. In addition, the French Navy operates three s.
;Future
In October 2018, the French Ministry of Defence began an 18-month €40 million study for the replacement of the sometime after 2030. In December 2020, President Macron announced that construction of the next generation carrier would begin in around 2025 with sea trials to start in about 2036. The carrier is planned to have a displacement of around 75,000 tons and to carry about 32 next-generation fighters, two to three E-2D Advanced Hawkeyes and a yet-to-be-determined number of unmanned carrier air vehicles.
India
]]
;Current
2 STOBAR carriers:
, 45,400 tonnes, modified Kiev class. The carrier was purchased by India on 20 January 2004 after years of negotiations at a final price of $2.35 billion (). The ship successfully completed her sea trials in July 2013 and aviation trials in September 2013. She was formally commissioned on 16 November 2013 at a ceremony held at Severodvinsk, Russia.
, also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 1 (IAC-1) a 45,000-tonne, aircraft carrier whose keel was laid in 2009. The new carrier will operate MiG-29K and naval HAL Tejas aircraft. The ship was launched in 2013, sea-trials began in August 2021 and was commissioned on 2 September 2022.
;Future
India has plans for a third carrier, , also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 2 (IAC-2) with a displacement of over 65,000 tonnes and is planned with a CATOBAR system to launch and recover heavier aircraft.
India has also issued a request for information (RFI) to procure four Landing helicopter dock displacing 30,000–40,000 tons with a capacity to operate 12 medium lift special ops and two heavy lift helicopters and troops for amphibious operations.Italy
;Current
1 STOVL carrier:
* : 30,000-tonne Italian STOVL carrier designed and built with secondary amphibious assault facilities, commissioned in 2008.
;Future
Italy plans to replace the now decommissioned aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi, as well as one of the landing helicopter docks, with a new amphibious assault ship, to be named . The ship will be significantly larger than her predecessors with a displacement of 38,000 tonnes at full load. Trieste is to carry the F-35B Joint Strike Fighter. Meanwhile, Giuseppe Garibaldi will be transferred to Italian Space Operation Command for use as a satellite launch platform.
Iran
IRIS Shahid Bagheri is a drone carrier. She was built in two years and is equipped with a drone fueling station, a floatplane and a helicopter, short and medium-range air defense systems, intelligence equipment, and a flight control tower. Other features include the ability to carry and use various types of drones, guided subsurfaces, the ability to identify various types of electronic signals - electronic warfare - full signet, long-range surface-to-surface cannons and weapons, long-range surface-to-surface cruise missiles, the ability to deal with various types of small aircraft and air defense missiles, and is equipped with a runway 180 meters long. Its main drone is IAIO Qaher-313.Japan
at sea]]
;Current
* 2 s – , 19,500-tonne (27,000 tonnes full load) STOVL carrier Izumo was launched August 2013 and commissioned March 2015. Izumos sister ship, Kaga, was commissioned in 2017.
In December 2018, the Japanese Cabinet gave approval to convert both Izumo-class destroyers into aircraft carriers for F-35B STOVL operations. The conversion of Izumo was underway as of mid-2020. The modification of maritime escort vessels is to "increase operational flexibility" and enhance Pacific air defense, the Japanese defense ministry's position is "We are not creating carrier air wings or carrier air squadrons" similar to the US Navy. The Japanese STOVL F-35s, when delivered, will be operated by the Japan Air Self Defense Force from land bases; according to the 2020 Japanese Defense Ministry white paper the STOVL model was chosen for the JASDF due the lack of appropriately long runways to support air superiority capability across all of Japanese airspace. Japan has requested that the USMC deploy STOVL F-35s and crews aboard the Izumo-class ships "for cooperation and advice on how to operate the fighter on the deck of the modified ships".
* 2 s – 19,000-tonne (full load) anti-submarine warfare carriers with enhanced command-and-control capabilities allowing them to serve as fleet flagships.
Qatar
;Current
* Qatari amphibious transport dock Al Fulk
Russia
;Current
1 STOBAR carrier: Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov: 55,000-tonne STOBAR aircraft carrier. Launched in 1985 as Tbilisi, renamed and operational from 1995. Without catapults she can launch and recover lightly fueled naval fighters for air defense or anti-ship missions but not heavy conventional bombing strikes. Officially designated an aircraft carrying cruiser, she is unique in carrying a heavy cruiser's complement of defensive weapons and large P-700 Granit offensive missiles. The P-700 systems will be removed in the coming refit to enlarge her below decks aviation facilities as well as upgrading her defensive systems.
The ship has been out of service and in repairs since 2018. The current projection is that repairs will be completed and the ship will be transferred back to the Russian Navy sometime in 2024, however this may be pushed back to 2025 if issues arise during overhaul and testing.
;Future
The Russian government has been considering the potential replacement of Admiral Kuznetsov for some time and has considered the Shtorm-class aircraft carrier as a possible option. This carrier will be a hybrid of CATOBAR and STOBAR, given the fact that she uses both systems of launching aircraft. The carrier is expected to cost As of 2020, the project had not yet been approved and, given the financial costs, it was unclear whether it would be made a priority over other elements of Russian naval modernization.
A class of 2 LHD, Project 23900 is planned and an official keel laying ceremony for the project happened on 20 July 2020.
South Korea
]]
;Current
Two 18,860-tonne full deck amphibious assault ships with hospital and well deck and facilities to serve as fleet flagships.
;Future
South Korea has set tentative plans for procuring two light aircraft carriers by 2033, which would help make the ROKN a blue water navy. In December 2020, details of South Korea's planned carrier program (CVX) were finalized. A vessel of about 40,000 tons is envisaged carrying about 20 F-35B fighters as well as future maritime attack helicopters. Service entry had been anticipated in the early 2030s. The program has encountered opposition in the National Assembly. In November 2021, the National Defense Committee of the National Assembly reduced the program's requested budget of 7.2 billion KRW and to just 500 million KRW (about $400K USD), effectively putting the project on hold, at least temporarily. However, on 3 December 2021 the full budget of 7.2 billion won was passed by the National Assembly.Spain
]]
;Current
: a 27,000-tonne, specially designed multipurpose strategic projection ship which can operate as an amphibious assault ship and as an aircraft carrier. Juan Carlos I has full facilities for both functions including a ski jump for STOVL operations, is equipped with the AV-8B Harrier II attack aircraft. She also features a well deck and a vehicle storage area which can be used as additional hangar space. The vessel was launched in 2008 and commissioned on 30 September 2010.
Thailand
]]
;Current
1 offshore helicopter support ship: helicopter carrier: 11,400-tonne STOVL carrier based on Spanish design. Commissioned in 1997. The AV-8S Matador/Harrier STOVL fighter wing, mostly inoperable by 1999, was retired from service without replacement in 2006. As of 2010, the ship is used for helicopter operations and for disaster relief.
Turkey
at the Bosporus strait during the naval parade for celebrating the centenary of the Turkish Republic on 29 October 2023]]
;Current
is a 27,079-tonne amphibious assault ship (LHD) (outfitted as drone carrier) of the Turkish Navy that can be configured as a 24,660-tonne V/STOL aircraft carrier. Construction began on 30 April 2016 by Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. at their Istanbul shipyard. TCG Anadolu was commissioned with a ceremony on 10 April 2023. The construction of a sister ship, to be named TCG Trakya, is currently being planned by the Turkish Navy.
The Sikorsky S-70B Seahawk and the Bell AH-1 SuperCobra are the two main types of helicopters used on TCG Anadolu, with the occasional use of CH-47F Chinook helicopters of the Turkish Army during military exercises and operations. The AH-1W Super Cobras will eventually be complemented and replaced by the TAI T929 ATAK 2.
The jet-powered, low-observable drone Bayraktar MIUS Kızılelma and the MALE UAV Bayraktar TB3 are two UCAVs that are specifically designed and manufactured by Baykar Technologies to be used on TCG Anadolu. The maiden flight of TAI Anka-3 (also part of Project MIUS), a jet-powered, flying wing type UCAV with stealth technology, was successfully completed on 28 December 2023.
On 19 November 2024, Baykar Bayraktar TB3 UCAV successfully took-off from the flight deck of TCG Anadolu and landed on the ship. It was the first time a fixed-wing unmanned aircraft of this size and class had successfully landed on a short-runway landing helicopter dock, without the use of an arresting gear. named the MUGEM-class.
On 15 February 2024, the Design and Projects Office of the Turkish Navy announced that it will be a STOBAR aircraft carrier with an overall length of , The first MUGEM-class aircraft carrier is being built at the Istanbul Naval Shipyard. Queen Elizabeth-class STOVL carriers which operate the F-35 Lightning II. was commissioned in December 2017 and in December 2019.
Queen Elizabeth undertook her first operational deployment in 2021. Each Queen Elizabeth-class ship is able to operate around 40 aircraft during peacetime operations and is thought to be able to carry up to 72 at maximum capacity. As of the end of April 2020, 18 F-35B aircraft had been delivered to the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. "Full operating capability" for the UK's carrier strike capability had been planned for 2023 (two squadrons or 24 jets operating from one carrier). The longer-term aim remains for the ability to conduct a wide range of air operations and support amphibious operations worldwide from both carriers by 2026.United States
;Current
11 CATOBAR carriers, all nuclear-powered:
*: ten 101,000-tonne, fleet carriers, the first of which was commissioned in 1975. A Nimitz-class carrier is powered by two nuclear reactors providing steam to four steam turbines.
*, one 100,000-tonne, fleet carrier. The lead of the class came into service in 2017, with another nine planned to replace the aging Nimitz-class ships.
Nine amphibious assault ships carrying vehicles, Marine fighters, attack and transport helicopters, and landing craft with STOVL fighters for Close Air Support (CAS) and Combat Air Patrol (CAP):
* : a class of 45,000-tonne amphibious assault ships, although the first two ships in this class, (Flight 0) do not have well decks, all subsequent ships (Flight I) are to have well decks. Two ships are currently in service out of a planned 11 ships. Ships of this class can have a secondary mission as a light aircraft carrier with 20 AV-8B Harrier II, and in the future the F-35B Lightning II aircraft after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit.
* : a class of 41,000-tonne amphibious assault ships, members of this class have been used in wartime in their secondary mission as light carriers with 20 to 25 AV-8Bs after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit. Seven ship currently in service of an original eight, with one lost to fire.
;Future
The current US fleet of Nimitz-class carriers will be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the . It is expected that the ships will be more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to maintain and operate the vessels. The main new features are implementation of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) (which replaces the old steam catapults) and unmanned aerial vehicles. In terms of future carrier developments, Congress has discussed the possibility of accelerating the phasing-out of one or more Nimitz-class carriers, postponing or canceling the procurement of CVN-81 and CVN-82, or modifying the purchase contract.
Following the deactivation of in December 2012, the US fleet comprised 10 fleet carriers, but that number increased back to 11 with the commissioning of Gerald R. Ford in July 2017. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on 24 July 2007, recommended seven or eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the 100,000-tonne Gerald R. Ford-class carrier (estimated service 2017) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000-tonne s, which are able to deploy squadrons of F-35Bs. The first of this class, , is now in active service with another, , and 9 more are planned.
In a report to Congress in February 2018, the Navy stated it intends to maintain a "12 CVN force" as part of its 30-year acquisition plan.
Aircraft carriers in preservation
Current museum carriers
A few aircraft carriers have been preserved as museum ships. They are:
* in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
* in New York City
* in Alameda, California
* in Corpus Christi, Texas
* in San Diego, California
* in Tianjin, China
* in Nantong, China
Former museum carriers
* was moored as a museum in Mumbai from 2001 to 2012, but was never able to find an industrial partner and was closed that year. She was scrapped in 2014.
* was acquired for preservation by the Cabot Museum Foundation and moored in New Orleans from 1989 to 1997, but due to the Cabot Museum Foundation's failure to repay the U.S. Coast Guard over $1 million for removal of hazardous materials and fees associated with its docking, it was seized by the U.S. Marshals in 1999 and auctioned off to Sabe Marine Salvage. Scrapping of the ship began in November 2000. Planned but cancelled museum carriers * had a preservation campaign to bring her to the West Coast of the United States as the world's first amphibious assault ship museum. However, at RIMPAC 2024, on 9 July 2024, the Tarawa was sunk alongside as SINKEXs.
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Future museum carriers empty ad unused section -->
See also
* Airborne aircraft carrier
* Aviation-capable naval vessel
* Carrier-based aircraft
* Drone carrier
* Lily and Clover
* Merchant aircraft carrier
* Mobile offshore base
* Project Habakkuk
* Seadrome
* Submarine aircraft carrier
* Unsinkable aircraft carrier
Related lists
* List of active French Navy ships
* List of active Italian Navy ships
* List of active Spanish aircraft carriers
* List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy
* List of aircraft carriers
* List of aircraft carriers by configuration
* List of aircraft carriers in service
* List of aircraft carriers of Germany
* List of aircraft carriers of Russia and the Soviet Union
* List of aircraft carriers of the Indian Navy
* List of aircraft carriers of the Japanese Navy
* List of aircraft carriers of the People's Liberation Army Navy (China)
* List of aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy
* List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
* List of aircraft carriers of World War II
* List of amphibious warfare ships
* List of carrier-based aircraft
* List of current ships of the Royal Canadian Navy
* List of escort carriers of the Royal Navy
* List of escort carriers of the United States Navy
* List of seaplane carriers of the Royal Navy
* List of sunken aircraft carriers
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Ader, Clement. Military Aviation, 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, 2003, .
* Chesneau, Roger. Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Naval Institute Press, 1984.
* Francillon, René J, Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, 1988, .
*
*
* Melhorn, Charles M. Two-Block Fox: The Rise of the Aircraft Carrier, 1911–1929. Naval Institute Press, 1974.
* Nordeen, Lon, Air Warfare in the Missile Age, 1985, .
* Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and its Influence on World Events, 1901–2006. (two vols.) Potomac Books, 2006.
*
* Wadle, Ryan David. United States navy fleet problems and the development of carrier aviation, 1929–1933. PhD dissertation Texas A&M University, 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150526133111/http://repository.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/2658/etd-tamu-2005B-HIST-Wadle.pdf online].
External links
* – technical training film from the Royal Navy
Category:Ship types
Category:Articles containing video clips | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.267891 |
2221 | Apicomplexa | The Apicomplexa (also called Apicomplexia; single: apicomplexan) are organisms of a large phylum of mainly parasitic alveolates. Most possess a unique form of organelle structure that comprises a type of non-photosynthetic plastid called an apicoplastwith an apical complex membrane. The organelle's apical shape (e.g., see Ceratium furca) is an adaptation that the apicomplexan applies in penetrating a host cell.
The Apicomplexa are unicellular and spore-forming. Most are obligate endoparasites of animals, except Nephromyces, a symbiont in marine animals, originally classified as a chytrid fungus, and the Chromerida, some of which are photosynthetic partners of corals. Motile structures such as flagella or pseudopods are present only in certain gamete stages.
The Apicomplexa are a diverse group that includes organisms such as the coccidia, gregarines, piroplasms, haemogregarines, and plasmodia.
Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include:
* Babesiosis (Babesia)
* Malaria (Plasmodium)
* Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum)
* Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora cayetanensis)
* Cystoisosporiasis (Cystoisospora belli)
* Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)
The name Apicomplexa derives from two Latin words—apex (top) and complexus (infolds)—for the set of organelles in the sporozoite. The Apicomplexa comprise the bulk of what used to be called the Sporozoa, a group of parasitic protozoans, in general without flagella, cilia, or pseudopods. Most of the Apicomplexa are motile, however, with a gliding mechanism that uses adhesions and small static myosin motors. The other main lines of this obsolete grouping were the Ascetosporea (a group of Rhizaria), the Myxozoa (highly derived cnidarian animals), and the Microsporidia (derived from fungi). Sometimes, the name Sporozoa is taken as a synonym for the Apicomplexa, or occasionally as a subset.
Description
The phylum Apicomplexa contains all eukaryotes with a group of structures and organelles collectively termed the apical complex<!--helpfully redirects here, so don't link it-->. This complex consists of structural components and secretory organelles required for invasion of host cells during the parasitic stages of the Apicomplexan life cycle.
Other features common to this phylum are a lack of cilia, sexual reproduction, use of micropores for feeding, and the production of oocysts containing sporozoites as the infective form.
Transposons appear to be rare in this phylum, but have been identified in the genera Ascogregarina and Eimeria.
The apical complex includes vesicles called rhoptries and micronemes, which open at the anterior of the cell. These secrete enzymes that allow the parasite to enter other cells. The tip is surrounded by a band of microtubules, called the polar ring, and among the Conoidasida is also a funnel of tubulin proteins called the conoid. Over the rest of the cell, except for a diminished mouth called the micropore, the membrane is supported by vesicles called alveoli, forming a semirigid pellicle.
The presence of alveoli and other traits place the Apicomplexa among a group called the alveolates. Several related flagellates, such as Perkinsus and Colpodella, have structures similar to the polar ring and were formerly included here, but most appear to be closer relatives of the dinoflagellates. They are probably similar to the common ancestor of the two groups.SubgroupsWithin this phylum are four groups — coccidians, gregarines, haemosporidians (or haematozoans, including in addition piroplasms), and marosporidians. The coccidians and haematozoans appear to be relatively closely related.Gregarines
The gregarines are generally parasites of annelids, arthropods, and molluscs. They are often found in the guts of their hosts, but may invade the other tissues. In the typical gregarine lifecycle, a trophozoite develops within a host cell into a schizont. This then divides into a number of merozoites by schizogony. The merozoites are released by lysing the host cell, which in turn invade other cells. At some point in the apicomplexan lifecycle, gametocytes are formed. These are released by lysis of the host cells, which group together. Each gametocyte forms multiple gametes. The gametes fuse with another to form oocysts. The oocysts leave the host to be taken up by a new host.
Coccidians
(Coccidia) parasites]]
In general, coccidians are parasites of vertebrates. Like gregarines, they are commonly parasites of the epithelial cells of the gut, but may infect other tissues.
The coccidian lifecycle involves merogony, gametogony, and sporogony. While similar to that of the gregarines it differs in zygote formation. Some trophozoites enlarge and become macrogamete, whereas others divide repeatedly to form microgametes (anisogamy). The microgametes are motile and must reach the macrogamete to fertilize it. The fertilized macrogamete forms a zygote that in its turn forms an oocyst that is normally released from the body. Syzygy, when it occurs, involves markedly anisogamous gametes. The lifecycle is typically haploid, with the only diploid stage occurring in the zygote, which is normally short-lived.
The main difference between the coccidians and the gregarines is in the gamonts. In the coccidia, these are small, intracellular, and without epimerites or mucrons. In the gregarines, these are large, extracellular, and possess epimerites or mucrons. A second difference between the coccidia and the gregarines also lies in the gamonts. In the coccidians, a single gamont becomes a macrogametocyte, whereas in the gregarines, the gamonts give rise to multiple gametocytes.
Haemosporidia
(Haemosporidia) parasite among human red blood cells]]
The Haemosporidia have more complex lifecycles that alternate between an arthropod and a vertebrate host. The trophozoite parasitises erythrocytes or other tissues in the vertebrate host. Microgametes and macrogametes are always found in the blood. The gametes are taken up by the insect vector during a blood meal. The microgametes migrate within the gut of the insect vector and fuse with the macrogametes. The fertilized macrogamete now becomes an ookinete, which penetrates the body of the vector. The ookinete then transforms into an oocyst and divides initially by meiosis and then by mitosis (haplontic lifecycle) to give rise to the sporozoites. The sporozoites escape from the oocyst and migrate within the body of the vector to the salivary glands where they are injected into the new vertebrate host when the insect vector feeds again.MarosporidaThe class Marosporida <small>Mathur, Kristmundsson, Gestal, Freeman, and Keeling 2020</small> is a newly recognized lineage of apicomplexans that is sister to the Coccidia and Hematozoa. It is defined as a phylogenetic clade containing Aggregata octopiana <small>Frenzel 1885</small>, Merocystis kathae <small>Dakin, 1911</small> (both Aggregatidae, originally coccidians), Rhytidocystis sp. 1 and Rhytidocystis sp. 2 <small>Janouškovec et al. 2019</small> (Rhytidocystidae <small>Levine, 1979</small>, originally coccidians, Agamococcidiorida), and Margolisiella islandica <small>Kristmundsson et al. 2011</small> (closely related to Rhytidocystidae). Marosporida infect marine invertebrates. Members of this clade retain plastid genomes and the canonical apicomplexan plastid metabolism. However, marosporidians have the most reduced apicoplast genomes sequenced to date, lack canonical plastidial RNA polymerase and so provide new insights into reductive organelle evolution.Ecology and distribution
, transmission electron microscopy]]
Many of the apicomplexan parasites are important pathogens of humans and domestic animals. In contrast to bacterial pathogens, these apicomplexan parasites are eukaryotic and share many metabolic pathways with their animal hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms an apicomplexan parasite is also likely to harm its human host. At present, no effective vaccines are available for most diseases caused by these parasites. Biomedical research on these parasites is challenging because it is often difficult, if not impossible, to maintain live parasite cultures in the laboratory and to genetically manipulate these organisms. In recent years, several of the apicomplexan species have been selected for genome sequencing. The availability of genome sequences provides a new opportunity for scientists to learn more about the evolution and biochemical capacity of these parasites. The predominant source of this genomic information is the EuPathDB family of websites, which currently provides specialised services for Plasmodium species (PlasmoDB), coccidians (ToxoDB), piroplasms (PiroplasmaDB), and Cryptosporidium species (CryptoDB). One possible target for drugs is the plastid, and in fact existing drugs such as tetracyclines, which are effective against apicomplexans, seem to operate against the plastid.
Many Coccidiomorpha have an intermediate host, as well as a primary host, and the evolution of hosts proceeded in different ways and at different times in these groups. For some coccidiomorphs, the original host has become the intermediate host, whereas in others it has become the definitive host. In the genera Aggregata, Atoxoplasma, Cystoisospora, Schellackia, and Toxoplasma, the original is now definitive, whereas in Akiba, Babesiosoma, Babesia, Haemogregarina, Haemoproteus, Hepatozoon, Karyolysus, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Sarcocystis, and Theileria, the original hosts are now intermediate.
Similar strategies to increase the likelihood of transmission have evolved in multiple genera. Polyenergid oocysts and tissue cysts are found in representatives of the orders Protococcidiorida and Eimeriida. Hypnozoites are found in Karyolysus lacerate and most species of Plasmodium; transovarial transmission of parasites occurs in lifecycles of Karyolysus and Babesia''.
Horizontal gene transfer appears to have occurred early on in this phylum's evolution with the transfer of a histone H4 lysine 20 (H4K20) modifier, KMT5A (Set8), from an animal host to the ancestor of apicomplexans. A second gene—H3K36 methyltransferase (Ashr3 in plants)—may have also been horizontally transferred.
The older taxon Sporozoa, included in Protozoa, was created by Leuckart in 1879 and adopted by Bütschli in 1880. Through history, it grouped with the current Apicomplexa many unrelated groups. For example, Kudo (1954) included in the Sporozoa species of the Ascetosporea (Rhizaria), Microsporidia (Fungi), Myxozoa (Animalia), and Helicosporidium (Chlorophyta), while Zierdt (1978) included the genus Blastocystis (Stramenopiles). Dermocystidium was also thought to be sporozoan. Not all of these groups had spores, but all were parasitic. although some authors still use it as a synonym for the Apicomplexa. More recently, other groups were excluded from Apicomplexa, e.g., Perkinsus and Colpodella (now in Protalveolata).
The field of classifying Apicomplexa is in flux and classification has changed throughout the years since it was formally named in 1970.Jacques Euzéby (1988)Jacques Euzéby in 1988 created a new class Haemosporidiasina by merging subclass Piroplasmasina and suborder Haemospororina.
* Subclass Gregarinasina (the gregarines)
* Subclass Coccidiasina
** Suborder Adeleorina (the adeleorins)
** Suborder Eimeriorina (the eimeriorins)
* Subclass Haemosporidiasina
** Order Achromatorida
** Order Chromatorida
The division into Achromatorida and Chromatorida, although proposed on morphological grounds, may have a biological basis, as the ability to store haemozoin appears to have evolved only once.Roberts and Janovy (1996)Roberts and Janovy in 1996 divided the phylum into the following subclasses and suborders (omitting classes and orders):
* Subclass Gregarinasina (the gregarines)
* Subclass Coccidiasina
** Suborder Adeleorina (the adeleorins)
** Suborder Eimeriorina (the eimeriorins)
** Suborder Haemospororina (the haemospororins)
* Subclass Piroplasmasina (the piroplasms)
These form the following five taxonomic groups:
# The gregarines are, in general, one-host parasites of invertebrates.
# The adeleorins are one-host parasites of invertebrates or vertebrates, or two-host parasites that alternately infect haematophagous (blood-feeding) invertebrates and the blood of vertebrates.
# The eimeriorins are a diverse group that includes one host species of invertebrates, two-host species of invertebrates, one-host species of vertebrates and two-host species of vertebrates. The eimeriorins are frequently called the coccidia. This term is often used to include the adeleorins.
# Haemospororins, often known as the malaria parasites, are two-host Apicomplexa that parasitize blood-feeding dipteran flies and the blood of various tetrapod vertebrates.
# Piroplasms where all the species included are two-host parasites infecting ticks and vertebrates.
Perkins (2000)
Perkins et al. proposed the following scheme. It is outdated as the Perkinsidae have since been recognised as a sister group to the dinoflagellates rather that the Apicomplexia:
* Class Aconoidasida
*: Conoid present only in the ookinete of some species
::*Order Haemospororida
:::Macrogamete and microgamete develop separately. Syzygy does not occur. Ookinete has a conoid. Sporozoites have three walls. Heteroxenous: alternates between vertebrate host (in which merogony occurs) and invertebrate host (in which sporogony occurs). Usually blood parasites, transmitted by blood-sucking insects.
::*Order Piroplasmorida
* Class Conoidasida
** Subclass Gregarinasina
*** Order Archigregarinorida
*** Order Eugregarinorida
**** Suborder Adeleorina
**** Suborder Eimeriorina
*** Order Neogregarinorida
** Subclass Coccidiasina
*** Order Agamococcidiorida
*** Order Eucoccidiorida
*** Order Ixorheorida
*** Order Protococcidiorida
* Class Perkinsasida
::*Order Perkinsorida
:::*Family Perkinsidae
The name Protospiromonadida has been proposed for the common ancestor of the Gregarinomorpha and Coccidiomorpha.
Another group of organisms that belong in this taxon are the corallicolids. These are found in coral reef gastric cavities. Their relationship to the others in this phylum has yet to be established.
Another genus has been identified - Nephromyces - which appears to be a sister taxon to the Hematozoa. This genus is found in the renal sac of molgulid ascidian tunicates. Evolution
Members of this phylum, except for the photosynthetic chromerids, are parasitic and evolved from a free-living ancestor. This lifestyle is presumed to have evolved at the time of the divergence of dinoflagellates and apicomplexans. Further evolution of this phylum has been estimated to have occurred about . The oldest extant clade is thought to be the archigregarines. The Haemosporidia and the Piroplasma appear to be sister clades, and are more closely related to the coccidians than to the gregarines. Marosporida is a sister group to Coccidiomorphea.
See also
*Centrocone
References
External links
*
*
Category:Alveolata phyla
Category:Endoparasites | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apicomplexa | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.299589 |
2222 | Argentine cuisine | (grill)]]
Argentine cuisine is described as a blending of cultures, from the Indigenous peoples of Argentina who focused on ingredients such as humita, potatoes, cassava, peppers, tomatoes, beans, and yerba mate, to Mediterranean influences brought by the Spanish during the colonial period. This was complemented by the significant influx of Italian and Spanish immigrants to Argentina during the 19th and 20th centuries, who incorporated plenty of their food customs and dishes such as pizzas, pasta and Spanish tortillas.
Beef is a main part of the Argentine diet due to its vast production in the country's plains. In fact, Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged per capita, approaching per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged in 2007.
Beyond asado (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes.
The great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.
Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating.
The Argentinian native people could be divided in three groups based on their main modality of acquiring food:
* Hunters and gatherers who inhabited the Patagonia, Pampa, and Chaco regions.
* Farmers in the northwestern, Cuyo, and Cordoba's mountain regions who mostly grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes. These groups had great influence from Andean-Incan tradition.
* Farmers in the Mesopotamia plains who belonged to the guaraní culture.
At this time, Italian cuisine began to really become a part of the cuisine. The neighborhood of La Boca, Buenos Aires, was the first big Italian hub, and from here plenty of traditionally Italian ingredients and eating habits expanded across the country. Different kinds of pastas such as long noodles or tallarines, gnocchi, ravioli, and cannelloni filled with ricotta cheese became popular along with pizza, fainá (Argentinian version of the traditional Italian farinata), and milanesas. Different ways of preparing dishes were also adopted from Italian immigrants. These included the preparation of ice cream, fish, and shellfish. Spanish immigrants also left their mark, popularizing eating dry nuts, tomato sauce, pesto, olives, and olive oil. Additionally, deli stores started to incorporate traditional Iberian hams and sausages and great varieties of cheeses yet these were more limited. They were also mainly responsible for the massive diffusion of wine consumption, among some other habits. This occurred at the same time that other global products began arriving to Argentina such as saffron, cod, different varieties of beans, chickpeas, additional spices, chocolates, and tea. Variations of empanadas both inside and outside of Argentina include the empanada gallega (Galician empanada), a large round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel (caballa in Spanish).
Vegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes.
Italian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. Fideos (noodles), tallarines (fettuccine and tagliatelle), ñoquis (gnocchi) are traditionally served on the 29th day of the month, ravioles, and canelones (cannelloni) can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses. Other Italian staples are polenta, tarta pascualina, and pastafrola.
In Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and torta galesa, which is rather like torta negra.
A fosforito is a ham and cheese sandwich using puff pastry as the bread. Sandwiches de miga are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered English bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal.
A sweet paste, dulce de leche is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. In terms of sweets, Alfajores are another key staple. These are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and dulce de leche'' or a fruit paste. The "policeman's" or "truck driver's" sweet is cheese with quince paste or dulce de membrillo. Dulce de batata is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the Martín Fierro's sweet. Additionally, ice cream shops or heladerias are a big boom especially in the city of Buenos Aires. Argentinian ice cream comes in plenty of flavors (from fruits to cheesecake and even duce de leche flavors) and has a special smoothness as it follows a recipe very similar to that of Italian gelato.
Apples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports.
A traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called mate (in Spanish, mate, with the accent on the first syllable [MAH-teh]). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk.
The mate (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with yerba mate, the dried leaves and twigs of the Ilex paraguariensis. The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a bombilla. Mate can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel.
Hot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the mate is refilled. The mate is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the yerba is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one mate to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final gracias (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough.
Drinking mate together is an important social ritual. Mate cocido is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste.
Other typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced.
Ingredients
Argentine cuisine uses locally-grown cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, as well as meat.
Meat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. Certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing.
The vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a highly developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, dulce de leche and yogurts. Some of the cheeses from Argentina are reggianito, sardo, provoleta and cremoso. Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices. Mesopotamia
, the northeastern region's best-known contribution to Argentine cuisine.]]
The humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Misiones and Formosa is another area heavily influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside.
Widely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region's dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for Asado and empanadas. As well, mbeyú, chipá avatí, sopa paraguaya, sopa correntina, chipa solo or chipá con carne, el quibebé, el borí borí, chipá guasú o pastel de choclo, mbaipy, chipá mbocá o chipá caburé and some other similar meals that have as basis:manioc, corn, cheese and, sometimes, some meat.. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and pastel/Carta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the north of this region.
The principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water but, driven by the region's high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré.
Patagonia
The large southern region of Patagonia is made up of the provinces Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. This area also includes the Antarctica and Islas del Atlántico Sur. (or southern atlantic islands). Their most typical food ingredients include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers and the products of the sheep that are widely farmed there.
Marine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers.
'' cakes and other regional favorites in a San Martín de los Andes, Neuquén shop.]]
The many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams.
The Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region.
Mutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region's meat-based dishes. Also typical of the southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant.
Patagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning "hot stone"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150 cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil.
Alcoholic beverages
Though wine (vino) has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer (cerveza; the Italian birra is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires (el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta.
The local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million litres in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 litres per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer have supported the existence of related events, for example, beer festivals called Oktoberfests or "Fiestas de la Cerveza" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich's Oktoberfest, and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick's Day (Día de San Patricio), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.
The consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of elaboraciones, whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lowers economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line "creole" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional).
Other widely consumed spirits are aguardiente (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as caña quemada ("burnt cane") or, simply, 'caña<nowiki/>' ("cane"). A folkloric note about caña quemada: until 21 June it is traditional to drink caña quemada with ruda macho (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. Caña competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin ("ginebra"—as in the Dutch kind of gin.)
The bitter spirit Fernet, and particularly the Italian brand Fernet-Branca, is highly popular in Argentina. (A study in 2017 found that Argentines consume more than 75% of all fernet produced globally.) Fernet is most commonly enjoyed as a mixed drink with Coca-Cola. Given Fernet's qualities as a digestive aid, it is a common choice for an after-dinner digestif.
There are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavoured alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example, those flavoured with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, dulce de leche. The Hesperidina is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter chitronchelo or (in Italian) citronella, based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata).
Non-alcoholic specialties
, one of the many coffeehouses in Buenos Aires. The consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually).]]
. Medialunas (croissants), café en jarrito (a double espresso coffee) and a little glass of mineral water.]]
Argentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both "families" are mixed; the for example, is mate mixed with caña or gin). Among these, mate has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption. Mate is also one of the top exports from Argentina, as it is valued all over the world.
The fact that mate is so prevalent in the Southern Cone, however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually).
<gallery class"center" caption"" widths"220px" heights"160px">
File:Picadacordobesa.JPG|A picada, the Italian-influenced between-meals standby
</gallery>
Eating habits
Breakfast typically is small and consists of coffee (or mate) and pastry. In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, Rosario or Cordoba, most towns close for lunchtime. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal and siesta. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. Argentines often have a light evening snack (called a "merienda" – typically a coffee or mate and a pastry) and it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night, or even later on weekends.
See also
* Argentine pizza
* Cheese in Argentina
* Italian cuisine
* Spanish cuisine
* Uruguayan cuisine
References
External links
* [http://www.saltshaker.net SaltShaker] – Blog on Buenos Aires "food, drink, and life".
* [http://www.pickupthefork.com Pick Up the Fork] – Guide to Buenos Aires' food, restaurant and bar scene
* [http://www.idlewords.com/2006/04/argentina_on_two_steaks_a_day.htm Argentina on two steaks a day]
Category:South American cuisine
Category:Latin American cuisine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine_cuisine | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.326734 |
2224 | April 8 | Events
Pre-1600
* 217 – Roman emperor Caracalla is assassinated and is succeeded by his Praetorian Guard prefect, Marcus Opellius Macrinus.
* 876 – The Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul saves Baghdad from the Saffarids.
*1139 – Roger II of Sicily is excommunicated by Innocent II for supporting Anacletus II as pope for seven years, even though Roger had already publicly recognized Innocent's claim to the papacy.
*1232 – Mongol–Jin War: The Mongols begin their siege on Kaifeng, the capital of the Jin dynasty.
*1250 – Seventh Crusade: Ayyubids of Egypt capture King Louis IX of France in the Battle of Fariskur.
*1271 – In Syria, sultan Baibars conquers the Krak des Chevaliers.
1601–1900
*1605 – The city of Oulu, Finland, is founded by Charles IX of Sweden.
*1730 – Shearith Israel, the first synagogue in continental North America, is dedicated.
*1812 – Czar Alexander I, the Russian Emperor and the Grand Duke of Finland, officially announces the transfer of the status of the Finnish capital from Turku to Helsinki.
*1820 – The Venus de Milo is discovered on the Aegean island of Milos.
*1832 – Black Hawk War: Around 300 United States 6th Infantry troops leave St. Louis, Missouri to fight the Sauk Native Americans.
*1866 – Austro-Prussian War: Italy and Prussia sign a secret alliance against the Austrian Empire.
*1886 – William Ewart Gladstone introduces the first Irish Home Rule Bill into the British House of Commons.
*1895 – In ''Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. the Supreme Court of the United States declares unapportioned income tax to be unconstitutional.1901–present*1904 – The French Third Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland sign the Entente cordiale''.
*1940 – The Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party elects Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal as General Secretary, marking the beginning of his 44-year-long tenure as de facto leader of Mongolia.
*1974 – Hank Aaron passes Babe Ruth as the all-time leader in career home runs by hitting his 715th home run off of Al Downing at Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium.
* 1993 – The Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on mission STS-56.
* 2002 – The Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on mission STS-110, carrying the S0 truss to the International Space Station. Astronaut Jerry L. Ross also becomes the first person to fly on seven spaceflights.
*2005 – A solar eclipse occurs, visible over areas of the Pacific Ocean and Latin American countries such as Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela.
*2010 – U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev sign the New START Treaty.
*2014 – Windows XP reaches its standard End Of Life and is no longer supported.
*2020 – Bernie Sanders ends his presidential campaign, leaving Joe Biden as the Democratic Party's nominee.
*2024 – Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024: A total solar eclipse takes place at the Moon's ascending node, visible across North America.
Births
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1320 – Peter I of Portugal (d. 1367)
*1408 – Jadwiga of Lithuania, Polish princess (d. 1431)
*1435 – John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford, English noble (d. 1461)
*1533 – Claudio Merulo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1604)
*1536 – Barbara of Hesse (d. 1597)
*1541 – Michele Mercati, Italian physician and archaeologist (d. 1593)
*1580 – William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, English noble, courtier and patron of the arts (d. 1630)
*1596 – Juan van der Hamen, Spanish artist (d. 1631)
1601–1900
*1605 – Philip IV of Spain (d. 1665)
* 1605 – Mary Stuart, English-Scottish princess (d. 1607)
*1641 – Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney, English general and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1704)
*1692 – Giuseppe Tartini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1770)
*1726 – Lewis Morris, American judge and politician (d. 1798)
*1732 – David Rittenhouse, American astronomer and mathematician (d. 1796)
*1761 – William Joseph Chaminade, French priest, founded the Society of Mary (d. 1850)
*1770 – John Thomas Campbell, Irish-Australian banker and politician (d. 1830)
*1798 – Dionysios Solomos, Greek poet and author (d. 1857)
*1818 – Christian IX of Denmark (d. 1906)
* 1818 – August Wilhelm von Hofmann, German chemist and academic (d. 1892)
*1826 – Pancha Carrasco, Costa Rican soldier (d. 1890)
*1827 – Ramón Emeterio Betances, Puerto Rican ophthalmologist, journalist, and politician (d. 1898)
*1842 – Elizabeth Bacon Custer, American author and educator (d. 1933)
*1859 – Edmund Husserl, German Jewish-Austrian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1938)
*1864 – Carlos Deltour, French rower and rugby player (d. 1920)
*1867 – Allen Butler Talcott, American painter and educator (d. 1908)
*1869 – Harvey Cushing, American surgeon and academic (d. 1939)
*1871 – Clarence Hudson White, American photographer and educator (d. 1925)
*1874 – Manuel Díaz, Cuban fencer (d. 1929)
* 1874 – Stanisław Taczak, Polish general (d. 1960)
*1875 – Albert I of Belgium (d. 1934)
*1882 (O.S. 27 March) – Dmytro Doroshenko, Lithuanian-Ukrainian historian and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine and Prime Minister of Ukraine (d. 1951)
*1883 – R. P. Keigwin, English cricketer and academic (d. 1972)
* 1883 – Julius Seljamaa, Estonian journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Estonia (d. 1936)
*1885 – Dimitrios Levidis, Greek-French soldier, composer, and educator (d. 1951)
*1886 – Margaret Ayer Barnes, American author and playwright (d. 1967)
*1888 – Dennis Chávez, American journalist and politician (d. 1962)
*1889 – Adrian Boult, English conductor (d. 1983)
*1892 – Richard Neutra, Austrian-American architect, designer of the Los Angeles County Hall of Records (d. 1970)
* 1892 – Mary Pickford, Canadian-American actress, producer, screenwriter and co-founder of United Artists (d. 1979)
*1896 – Yip Harburg, American composer (d. 1981)
*1900 – Marie Byles, Australian solicitor (d. 1979)1901–present
*1902 – Andrew Irvine, English mountaineer and explorer (d. 1924)
* 1902 – Maria Maksakova Sr., Russian soprano (d. 1974)
*1904 – John Hicks, English economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
* 1904 – Hirsch Jacobs, American horse trainer (d. 1970)
*1905 – Joachim Büchner, German sprinter and graphic designer (d. 1978)
* 1905 – Helen Joseph, English-South African activist (d. 1992)
* 1905 – Erwin Keller, German field hockey player (d. 1971)
*1906 – Raoul Jobin, Canadian tenor and educator (d. 1974)
*1908 – Hugo Fregonese, Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 1987)
*1909 – John Fante, American author and screenwriter (d. 1983)
*1910 – George Musso, American football player and police officer (d. 2000)
*1911 – Melvin Calvin, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
* 1911 – Emil Cioran, Romanian-French philosopher and academic (d. 1995)
*1912 – Alois Brunner, Austrian-German SS officer (d. 2001 or 2010)
* 1912 – Sonja Henie, Norwegian-American figure skater and actress (d. 1969)
*1914 – María Félix, Yaqui/Basque-Mexican actress (d. 2002)
*1915 – Ivan Supek, Croatian physicist, philosopher and writer (d. 2007)
*1917 – Winifred Asprey, American mathematician and computer scientist (d. 2007)
* 1917 – Lloyd Bott, Australian public servant (d. 2004)
* 1917 – Hubertus Ernst, Dutch bishop (d. 2017)
* 1917 – Grigori Kuzmin, Russian-Estonian astronomer (d. 1988)
*1918 – Betty Ford, American wife of Gerald Ford, 40th First Lady of the United States (d. 2011)
* 1918 – Glendon Swarthout, American author and academic (d. 1992)
*1919 – Ian Smith, Zimbabwean lieutenant and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Rhodesia (d. 2007)
*1921 – Franco Corelli, Italian tenor and actor (d. 2003)
*1920 – Carmen McRae, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actress (d. 1994)
* 1921 – Jan Novák, Czech composer (d. 1984)
* 1921 – Herman van Raalte, Dutch footballer (d. 2013)
*1923 – George Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 2003)
* 1923 – Edward Mulhare, Irish-American actor (d. 1997)
*1924 – Frédéric Back, German-Canadian animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
* 1924 – Anthony Farrar-Hockley, English general and historian (d. 2006)
* 1924 – Kumar Gandharva, Hindustani classical singer (d. 1992)
* 1924 – Sara Northrup Hollister, American occultist (d. 1997)
*1926 – Henry N. Cobb, American architect and academic, co-founded Pei Cobb Freed & Partners (d. 2020)
* 1926 – Shecky Greene, American comedian (d. 2023)
* 1926 – Jürgen Moltmann, German theologian and academic (d. 2024)
*1927 – Tilly Armstrong, English author (d. 2010)
* 1927 – Ollie Mitchell, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 2013)
*1928 – Fred Ebb, American lyricist (d. 2004)
*1929 – Jacques Brel, Belgian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1978)
* 1929 – Renzo De Felice, Italian historian and author (d. 1996)
*1930 – Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma (d. 2010)
*1931 – John Gavin, American actor and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Mexico (d. 2018)
*1931 – Jack Le Goff, French equestrian (d. 2009)
*1932 – Iskandar of Johor (d. 2010)
* 1933 – James Lockhart, American scholar of colonial Latin America, especially Nahua peoples (d. 2014)
*1934 – Kisho Kurokawa, Japanese architect, designed the Nakagin Capsule Tower and Singapore Flyer (d. 2007)
*1935 – Oscar Zeta Acosta, American lawyer and politician (d. 1974)
* 1935 – Albert Bustamante, American soldier, educator, and politician (d. 2021)
*1937 – Tony Barton, English footballer and manager (d. 1993)
* 1937 – Seymour Hersh, American journalist and author
* 1937 – Momo Kapor, Serbian author and painter (d. 2010)
*1938 – Kofi Annan, Ghanaian economist and diplomat, 7th Secretary-General of the United Nations (d. 2018)
* 1938 – John Hamm, Canadian physician and politician, 25th Premier of Nova Scotia
* 1938 – Mary W. Gray, American mathematician, statistician, and lawyer
*1939 – Manolis Angelopoulos, Greek singer, composer and songwriter (d. 1989)
* 1939 – John Arbuthnott, Scottish microbiologist and academic (d. 2023)
* 1939 – Trina Schart Hyman, American author and illustrator (d. 2004)
* 1939 – Martin J. Schreiber, American politician, 39th Governor of Wisconsin
*1940 – John Havlicek, American basketball player (d. 2019)
*1941 – Vivienne Westwood, English fashion designer (d. 2022)
*1942 – Tony Banks, Baron Stratford, Northern Irish politician, Minister for Sport and the Olympics (d. 2006)
* 1942 – Roger Chapman, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1942 – Douglas Trumbull, American director, producer, and special effects artist (d. 2022)
*1943 – Michael Bennett, American dancer, choreographer, and director (d. 1987)
* 1943 – Miller Farr, American football player (d. 2023)
* 1943 – James Herbert, English author and illustrator (d. 2013)
* 1943 – Chris Orr, English painter and illustrator
*1944 – Hywel Bennett, Welsh actor (d. 2017)
* 1944 – Odd Nerdrum, Swedish-Norwegian painter and illustrator
*1945 – Derrick Walker, Scottish businessman
* 1945 – Jang Yong, South Korean actor
*1946 – Catfish Hunter, American baseball player (d. 1999)
* 1946 – Tim Thomerson, American actor and producer
*1947 – Tom DeLay, American lawyer and politician
* 1947 – Steve Howe, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer
* 1947 – Pascal Lamy, French businessman and politician, European Commissioner for Trade
* 1947 – Larry Norman, American singer-songwriter, and producer (d. 2008)
*1948 – Barbara Young, Baroness Young of Old Scone, Scottish academic and politician
*1949 – K. C. Kamalasabayson, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 39th Attorney General of Sri Lanka (d. 2007)
* 1949 – John Madden, English director and producer
* 1949 – Brenda Russell, African-American-Canadian singer-songwriter and keyboard player
* 1949 – John Scott, English sociologist and academic
*1950 – Grzegorz Lato, Polish footballer and coach
*1951 – Gerd Andres, German politician
* 1951 – Geir Haarde, Icelandic economist, journalist, and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Iceland
* 1951 – Mel Schacher, American bass player
* 1951 – Joan Sebastian, Mexican singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)
* 1951 – Phil Schaap, American jazz disc jockey and historian (d. 2021)
*1952 – Ahmet Piriştina, Turkish politician (d. 2004)
*1954 – Gary Carter, American baseball player and coach (d. 2012)
* 1954 – Princess Lalla Amina of Morocco (d. 2012)
* 1954 – G.V. Loganathan, Indian-American engineer and academic (d. 2007)
*1955 – Gerrie Coetzee, South African boxer (d. 2023)
* 1955 – Ron Johnson, American businessman and politician
* 1955 – Barbara Kingsolver, American novelist, essayist and poet
* 1955 – David Wu, Taiwanese-American lawyer and politician
*1956 – Michael Benton, Scottish-English paleontologist and academic
* 1956 – Christine Boisson, French actress
* 1956 – Roman Dragoun, Czech singer-songwriter and keyboard player
*1958 – Detlef Bruckhoff, German footballer
* 1958 – Tom Petranoff, American javelin thrower and coach
*1959 – Alain Bondue, French cyclist
*1960 – John Schneider, American actor and country singer
*1961 – Richard Hatch, American reality contestant
* 1961 – Brian McDermott, English footballer and manager
*1962 – Paddy Lowe, English engineer
* 1962 – Izzy Stradlin, American guitarist and songwriter
*1963 – Tine Asmundsen, Norwegian bassist
* 1963 – Julian Lennon, English singer-songwriter
* 1963 – Dean Norris, American actor
* 1963 – Terry Porter, American basketball player and coach
* 1963 – Donita Sparks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1963 – Alec Stewart, English cricketer
*1964 – Biz Markie, American rapper, producer, and actor (d. 2021)
* 1964 – John McGinlay, Scottish footballer and manager
*1965 – Steven Blaney, Canadian businessman and politician, 5th Canadian Minister of Public Safety
* 1965 – Michael Jones, New Zealand rugby player and coach
*1966 – Iveta Bartošová, Czech singer and actress (d. 2014)
* 1966 – Mark Blundell, English race car driver
* 1966 – Andy Currier, English rugby league player
* 1966 – Charlotte Dawson, New Zealand-Australian television host (d. 2014)
* 1966 – Dalton Grant, English high jumper
* 1966 – Mazinho, Brazilian footballer, coach, and manager
* 1966 – Harri Rovanperä, Finnish race car driver
* 1966 – Evripidis Stylianidis, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister for the Interior
* 1966 – Robin Wright, American actress, director, producer
*1967 – Kenny Benjamin, Antiguan cricketer
*1968 – Patricia Arquette, American actress and director
* 1968 – Patricia Girard, French runner and hurdler
* 1968 – Tracy Grammer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1971 – Darren Jessee, American singer-songwriter and drummer
*1972 – Paul Gray, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2010)
* 1972 – Sergei Magnitsky, Russian lawyer and accountant (d. 2009)
*1973 – Khaled Badra, Tunisian footballer
* 1973 – Emma Caulfield, American actress
* 1973 – Christof May, German theologian
*1974 – Toutai Kefu, Tongan-Australian rugby player
* 1974 – Chris Kyle, American sniper and memoirist (d. 2013)
* 1974 – Nnedi Okorafor, Nigerian-American author and educator
* 1974 – Nayden Todorov, Bulgarian conductor and culture minister
*1975 – Anouk, Dutch singer
* 1975 – Francesco Flachi, Italian footballer
* 1975 – Timo Pérez, Dominican-American baseball player
* 1975 – Funda Arar, Turkish singer
*1977 – Ana de la Reguera, Mexican actress
* 1977 – Mehran Ghassemi, Iranian journalist and author (d. 2008)
* 1977 – Mark Spencer, American computer programmer and engineer
*1978 – Daigo, Japanese singer-songwriter, actor, and voice actor
* 1978 – Bernt Haas, Austrian-Swiss footballer
* 1978 – Rachel Roberts, Canadian model and actress
* 1978 – Jocelyn Robichaud, Canadian tennis player and coach
* 1978 – Evans Rutto, Kenyan runner
*1979 – Alexi Laiho, Finnish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020)
* 1979 – Amit Trivedi, Indian singer-songwriter
*1980 – Manuel Ortega, Austrian singer
* 1980 – Katee Sackhoff, American actress
* 1980 – Mariko Seyama, Japanese announcer, photographer, and model
*1981 – Frédérick Bousquet, French swimmer
* 1981 – Taylor Kitsch, Canadian actor and model
* 1981 – Ofer Shechter, Israeli model, actor, and screenwriter
*1982 – Gennady Golovkin, Kazakhstani boxer
* 1982 – Brett White, Australian rugby league player
* 1982 – Allu Arjun, Indian actor
*1983 – Tatyana Petrova Arkhipova, Russian runner
*1984 – Michelle Donelan, British politician
* 1984 – Ezra Koenig, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1984 – Pablo Portillo, Mexican singer and actor
* 1984 – Taran Noah Smith, American actor
*1985 – Patrick Schliwa, German rugby player
* 1985 – Yemane Tsegay, Ethiopian runner
*1986 – Igor Akinfeev, Russian footballer
* 1986 – Félix Hernández, Venezuelan baseball player
* 1986 – Carlos Santana, Dominican baseball player
*1987 – Royston Drenthe, Dutch footballer
* 1987 – Jeremy Hellickson, American baseball player
* 1987 – Elton John, Trinidadian footballer
* 1987 – Sam Rapira, New Zealand rugby league player
*1988 – Jenni Asserholt, Swedish ice hockey player
*1989 – Matty Healy, English singer-songwriter and producer
*1990 – Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer (d. 2017)
*1992 – Jeff McNeil, American baseball player
*1993 – Viktor Arvidsson, Swedish ice hockey player
*1993 – TBJZL, English YouTuber
*1994 – Josh Chudleigh, Australian rugby league player
*1995 – Cedi Osman, Turkish professional basketball player
*1996 – Anna Korakaki, Greek Olympic shooter
*1997 – Kim Woo-jin, South Korean singer
* 1997 – Saygrace, Australian singer and songwriter
* 1997 – Roquan Smith, American football player
* 1997 – Arno Verschueren, Belgian footballer
* 1998 – Lavinia Valbonesi, Ecuadorian nutritionist, businesswoman and First Lady of Ecuador
*1999 – CeeDee Lamb, American football player
*2002 – Jamie Drysdale, Canadian ice hockey player
* 2002 – Viktória Forster, Slovak track and field athlete
* 2002 – Skai Jackson, American actress
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 217 – Caracalla, Roman emperor (b. 188)
* 622 – Shōtoku, Japanese prince (b. 572)
* 632 – Charibert II, Frankish king (b. 607)
* 894 – Adalelm, Frankish nobleman
* 944 – Wang Yanxi, Chinese emperor
* 956 – Gilbert, Frankish nobleman
* 967 – Mu'izz al-Dawla, Buyid emir (b. 915)
*1143 – John II Komnenos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1087)
*1150 – Gertrude of Babenberg, duchess of Bohemia (b. 1118)
*1321 – Thomas of Tolentino, Italian-Franciscan missionary (b. c. 1255)
*1338 – Stephen Gravesend, bishop of London
*1364 – John II, French king (b. 1319)
*1450 – Sejong the Great, Korean king (b. 1397)
*1461 – Georg von Peuerbach, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1423)
*1492 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian ruler (b. 1449)
*1551 – Oda Nobuhide, Japanese warlord (b. 1510)
*1586 – Martin Chemnitz, Lutheran theologian and reformer (b. 1522)
1601–1900
*1608 – Magdalen Dacre, English noble (b. 1538)
*1612 – Anne Catherine of Brandenburg (b. 1575)
*1691 – Carlo Rainaldi, Italian architect, designed the Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto (b. 1611)
*1697 – Niels Juel, Norwegian-Danish admiral (b. 1629)
*1704 – Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist and philologist (b. 1624)
* 1704 – Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney, English colonel and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1641)
*1709 – Wolfgang Dietrich of Castell-Remlingen, German nobleman (b. 1641)
*1725 – John Wise, American minister (b. 1652)
*1735 – Francis II Rákóczi, Hungarian prince (b. 1676)
*1848 – Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (b. 1797)
*1860 – István Széchenyi, Hungarian statesman and reformer (b. 1791)
*1861 – Elisha Otis, American businessman, founded the Otis Elevator Company (b. 1811)
*1870 – Charles Auguste de Bériot, Belgian violinist and composer (b. 1802)
*1877 – Bernardino António Gomes, Portuguese physician and naturalist (b. 1806)
*1894 – Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1838)
1901–present
*1906 – Auguste Deter, German woman, first person diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease (b. 1850)
*1919 – Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist, academic, and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1848)
*1920 – Charles Griffes, American pianist and composer (b. 1884)
*1931 – Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish poet Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864)
*1936 – Róbert Bárány, Austrian physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1876)
* 1936 – Božena Benešová, Czech poet and novelist (b. 1873)
*1941 – Marcel Prévost, French novelist and playwright (b. 1862)
*1942 – Kostas Skarvelis, Greek guitarist and composer (b. 1880)
*1947 – Olaf Frydenlund, Norwegian target shooter (b. 1862)
*1950 – Vaslav Nijinsky, Polish dancer and choreographer (b. 1890)
*1959 – Marios Makrionitis, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Athens (b. 1913)
*1961 – Joseph Carrodus, Australian public servant (b. 1885)
*1962 – Juan Belmonte, Spanish bullfighter (b. 1892)
*1965 – Lars Hanson, Swedish actor (b. 1886)
*1969 – Zinaida Aksentyeva, Ukrainian astronomer (b. 1900)
*1973 – Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1881)
*1974 – James Charles McGuigan, Canadian cardinal (b. 1894)
*1979 – Breece D'J Pancake, American short story writer (b. 1952)
*1981 – Omar Bradley, American general (b. 1893)
*1983 – Isamu Kosugi, Japanese actor and director (b. 1904)
*1984 – Pyotr Kapitsa, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1894)
*1985 – John Frederick Coots, American pianist and composer (b. 1897)
*1990 – Ryan White, American activist, inspired the Ryan White Care Act (b. 1971)
*1991 – Per Ohlin, Swedish musician (b. 1969)
*1992 – Daniel Bovet, Swiss-Italian pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1907)
*1993 – Marian Anderson, American operatic singer (b. 1897)
*1994 – François Rozet, French-Canadian actor (b. 1899)
*1996 – Ben Johnson, American actor and stuntman (b. 1918)
* 1996 – León Klimovsky, Argentinian-Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1906)
* 1996 – Mick Young, Australian politician (b. 1936)
*1997 – Laura Nyro, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1947)
*2000 – František Šťastný, Czech motorcycle racer (b. 1927)
* 2000 – Claire Trevor, American actress (b. 1910)
*2002 – María Félix, Mexican actress (b. 1914)
* 2002 – Harvey Quaytman, American painter (b. 1937)
*2004 – Werner Schumacher, German actor (b. 1921)
*2005 – Onna White, Canadian choreographer and dancer (b. 1922)
*2006 – Gerard Reve, Dutch author and poet (b. 1923)
*2007 – Sol LeWitt, American painter and sculptor (b. 1928)
*2008 – Kazuo Shiraga, Japanese painter (b. 1924)
*2009 – Richard de Mille, American Scientologist, author, investigative journalist, and psychologist (b. 1922)
* 2009 – Piotr Morawski, Polish mountaineer (b. 1976)
*2010 – Antony Flew, English philosopher and academic (b. 1923)
* 2010 – Malcolm McLaren, English singer-songwriter (b. 1946)
* 2010 – Teddy Scholten, Dutch singer (b. 1926)
*2011 – Hedda Sterne, Romanian-American painter and photographer (b. 1910)
*2012 – Blair Kiel, American football player and coach (b. 1961)
* 2012 – Jack Tramiel, Polish-American businessman, founded Commodore International (b. 1928)
* 2012 – Janusz K. Zawodny, Polish-American soldier, historian, and political scientist (b. 1921)
*2013 – Mikhail Beketov, Russian journalist (b. 1958)
* 2013 – Annette Funicello, American actress and singer (b. 1942)
* 2013 – Sara Montiel, Spanish-Mexican actress and singer (b. 1928)
* 2013 – José Luis Sampedro, Spanish economist and author (b. 1917)
* 2013 – Margaret Thatcher, English politician, first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1925)
*2014 – Emmanuel III Delly, Iraqi patriarch (b. 1927)
* 2014 – Karlheinz Deschner, German author and activist (b. 1924)
* 2014 – Ivan Mercep, New Zealand architect, designed the Te Papa Tongarewa Museum (b. 1930)
*2015 – Jayakanthan, Indian journalist and author (b. 1934)
* 2015 – Rayson Huang, Hong Kong chemist and academic (b. 1920)
* 2015 – Sergei Lashchenko, Ukrainian kick-boxer (b. 1987)
* 2015 – David Laventhol, American journalist and publisher (b. 1933)
* 2015 – Jean-Claude Turcotte, Canadian cardinal (b. 1936)
*2019 – Josine Ianco-Starrels, Romanian-born American art curator (b. 1926)
*2020 – Rick May, American-Canadian voice actor (b. 1940)
* 2020 – Abdul Momin Imambari, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar (b. 1930)
*2022 – Mimi Reinhardt, Jewish Austrian secretary (b. 1915)
*2024 – Keith Barnes, Welsh-Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1934)
* 2024 – Peter Higgs, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1929)
* 2024 – Ralph Puckett, American Army officer, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1926)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Buddha's Birthday, also known as Hana Matsuri, "Flower Festival" (Japan)
* Christian feast day:
** Anne Ayres (Episcopal Church (USA))
** Constantina
** Julie Billiart of Namur
** Perpetuus
** Walter of Pontoise
** William Augustus Muhlenberg (Episcopal Church (USA))
** April 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Earliest day on which Fast and Prayer Day can fall, while April 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Friday in April (Liberia)
* International Romani Day
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/8 Historical Events on April 8]
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_8 | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.381216 |
2226 | Ad hominem | , short for , refers to several types of arguments that are usually fallacious. Often currently this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion often using a totally irrelevant, but often highly charged attribute of the opponent's character or background. The most common form of this fallacy is "A" makes a claim of "fact", to which "B" asserts that "A" has a personal trait, quality or physical attribute that is repugnant thereby going off-topic, and hence "B" concludes that "A" has their "fact" wrongwithout ever addressing the point of the debate.
Other uses of the term are more traditional, referring to arguments tailored to fit a particular audience, and may be encountered in specialized philosophical usage. These typically refer to the dialectical strategy of using the target's own beliefs and arguments against them, while not agreeing with the validity of those beliefs and arguments. arguments were first studied in ancient Greece; John Locke revived the examination of arguments in the 17th century.
A common misconception is that an attack is synonymous with an insult. This is not true, although some arguments may be insulting by the person receiving the argument.
History
<!--Ancient history-->
(384–322 BC) is credited with raising the distinction between personal and logical arguments.]]
The various types of arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, in his work Sophistical Refutations, detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. His description was somewhat different from the modern understanding, referring to a class of sophistry that applies an ambiguously worded question about people to a specific person. The proper refutation, he wrote, is not to debate the attributes of the person () but to address the original ambiguity. Many examples of ancient non-fallacious arguments are preserved in the works of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus. In these arguments, the concepts and assumptions of the opponents are used as part of a dialectical strategy against them to demonstrate the unsoundness of their own arguments and assumptions. In this way, the arguments are to the person (), but without attacking the properties of the individuals making the arguments. This kind of argument is also known as "argument from commitment".
<!--Modern era-->
Italian Galileo Galilei and British philosopher John Locke also examined the argument from commitment, a form of the argument, meaning examining an argument on the basis of whether it stands true to the principles of the person carrying the argument. In the mid-19th century, the modern understanding of the term started to take shape, with the broad definition given by English logician Richard Whately. According to Whately, arguments were "addressed to the peculiar circumstances, character, avowed opinions, or past conduct of the individual".
<!--Hablin and contemporary-->
Over time, the term acquired a different meaning; by the beginning of the 20th century, it was linked to a logical fallacy, in which a debater, instead of disproving an argument, attacked their opponent. This approach was also popularized in philosophical textbooks of the mid-20th century, and it was challenged by Australian philosopher Charles Leonard Hamblin in the second half of the 20th century. In a detailed work, he suggested that the inclusion of a statement against a person in an argument does not necessarily make it a fallacious argument since that particular phrase is not a premise that leads to a conclusion. While Hablin's criticism was not widely accepted, Canadian philosopher Douglas N. Walton examined the fallaciousness of the argument even further. Nowadays, except within specialized philosophical usaɡe, use of the term signifies a straight attack at the character and ethos of a person, in an attempt to refute their argument.
Terminology
The Latin phrase stands for 'argument against the person'. here means 'against' but could also mean 'to' or 'towards'.
The terms and have been used specifically when the person receiving the criticism is female but the term (accusative of ) was gender-neutral in Latin. Types of ad hominem arguments
Fallacious reasoning is categorized among informal fallacies, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance.
fallacies can be separated into various types, such as , circumstantial , guilt by association, and abusive . All of them are similar to the general scheme of argument, that is instead of dealing with the essence of someone's argument or trying to refute it, the interlocutor is attacking the character of the proponent of the argument and concluding that it is a sufficient reason to drop the initial argument. Tu quoque
Tu quoque}}
(literally 'you also') is a response to an argument that itself goes .
appears as:
* A makes a claim a.
* B attacks the character of A by claiming they hold negative property x.
* A defends themself by attacking B, saying they also hold the same property x.
An example given by professor George Wrisley to illustrate the above is:
<blockquote>A businessman and a politician are giving a lecture at a university about how good his company is and how nicely the system works. A student asks him "Is it true that you and your company are selling weapons to third world rulers who use those arms against their own people?" and the businessman replies "Is it true that your university gets funding by the same company that you are claiming is selling guns to those countries? You are not a white dove either". The student's accusation is not fallacious, as it is relevant to the narrative the businessman is trying to project. On the other hand, the businessman's attack on the student (that is, the student being inconsistent) is irrelevant to the opening narrative. So the businessman's response is fallacious.</blockquote>
Canadian philosopher Christopher Tindale approaches somewhat different the fallacy. According to Tindale, a fallacy appears when a response to an argument is made on the history of the arguer. This argument is also invalid because it does not disprove the premise; if the premise is true, then source A may be a hypocrite or even changed their mind, but this does not make the statement less credible from a logical perspective. A common example, given by Tindale, is when a doctor advises a patient to lose weight, but the patient argues that there is no need for him to go on a diet because the doctor is also overweight. Circumstantial
Circumstantial ' points out that someone is in circumstances (for instance, their job, wealth, property, or relations) such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. As with other types of the argument, the circumstantial could be fallacious or not. It could be fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument invalid; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source). But it also may be a sound argument, if the premises are correct and the bias is relevant to the argument.
A simple example is: a father may tell his daughter not to start smoking because she will damage her health, and she may point out that he is or was a smoker. This does not alter the fact that smoking might cause various diseases. Her father's inconsistency is not a proper reason to reject his claim.
Douglas N. Walton, philosopher and pundit on informal fallacies, argues that a circumstantial argument can be non-fallacious. This could be the case when someone (A) attacks the personality of another person (B), making an argument (a) while the personality of B is relevant to argument a, i.e. B talks as an authority figure. To illustrate this reasoning, Walton gives the example of a witness at a trial: if he had been caught lying and cheating in his own life, should the jury take his word for granted? No, according to Walton. Guilt by association
Guilt by association, that is accusing an arguer because of his alleged connection with a discredited person or group, can sometimes also be a type of fallacy when the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument.
This form of the argument is as follows:
# Individual S makes claim C.
# Individual S is also associated with Group G, who has an unfavorable reputation
# Therefore, individual S and his views are questionable.
Academic Leigh Kolb gives as an example that the 2008 US vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin attacked Barack Obama for having worked with Bill Ayers, who had been a leader in the Weather Underground terrorist group in the 1960s. Despite Obama denouncing every act of terrorism, his opponents still associated him with terrorism.
Guilt by association is frequently found in social and political debates. It also appears after major events (such as scandals and terrorism) linked to a specific group. Kolb cites the peak of attacks against Muslims in the US after the September 11 attacks. Abusive ad hominem
Abusive argument (or direct ) is associated with an attack to the character of the person carrying an argument. This kind of argument, besides usually being fallacious, is also counterproductive, as a proper dialogue is hard to achieve after such an attack.
Key issues in examining an argument to determine whether it is an fallacy or not are whether the accusation against the person stands true or not, and whether the accusation is relevant to the argument. An example is a dialogue at the court, where the attorney cross-examines an eyewitness, bringing to light the fact that the witness was convicted in the past for lying. If the attorney's conclusion is that the witness is lying, that would be wrong. But if his argument would be that the witness should not be trusted, that would not be a fallacy. Argument from commitment An argument from commitment is a type of valid argument that employs, as a dialectical strategy, the exclusive use of the beliefs, convictions, and assumptions of those holding the position being argued against, i.e., arguments constructed on the basis of what other people hold to be true. This usage is generally only encountered in specialist philosophical usage or in pre-20th century usages. This type of argument is also known as the argument (Latin for 'from what has been conceded already').
Use in debates
fallacies are considered to be uncivil and do not help creating a constructive atmosphere for dialogue to flourish. An attack is an attack on the character of the target who tends to feel the necessity to defend himself or herself from the accusation of being hypocritical. Walton has noted that it is so powerful of an argument that it is employed in many political debates. Since it is associated with negativity and dirty tricks, it has gained a bad fame, of being always fallacious.
Author Eithan Orkibi, having studied Israeli politics prior to elections, described two other forms of attacks that are common during election periods. They both depend on the collective memory shared by both proponents and the audience. The first is the "precedent ", according to which the previous history of someone means that they do not fit for the office. It goes like this: "My opponent was (allegedly) wrong in the past, therefore he is wrong now". The second one is a behavioral : "my opponent was not decent in his arguments in the past, so he is not now either". These kinds of attacks are based on the inability of the audience to have a clear view of the amount of false statements by both parts of the debate. Criticism as a fallacy Walton has argued that reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words.
The philosopher Charles Taylor has argued that reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the apodictic reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism. See also
* "And you are lynching Negroes"
* Argument from authority
* Appeal to emotion
* Appeal to motive
* The Art of Being Right
* Character assassination
* Dogpiling (Internet)
*
* Fair game (Scientology)
* Fake news
* False equivalence
* Fundamental attribution error
* Gaslighting
* Godwin's law
* Hostile witness
* List of fallacies
* Negative campaigning
* Poisoning the well
* Presumption of guilt
* Race card
* Red herring
* Reputation
* Shooting the messenger
* Smear campaign
* Straw man
* Tone policing
* Whataboutism
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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External links
*
* [http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/person.html Argumentum Ad Hominem]
* [https://fallacycheck.com/fallacy/ad%20hominem Ad hominem] at Fallacy Check, with [https://fallacycheck.com/analyses/ad%20hominem examples]
Category:Genetic fallacies
Category:Informal fallacies
Category:Latin logical phrases
Category:Latin words and phrases
Category:Propaganda techniques
Category:Rhetoric | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hominem | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.398977 |
2230 | Analysis of algorithms | thumb|For looking up a given entry in a given ordered list, both the binary and the linear search algorithm (which ignores ordering) can be used. The analysis of the former and the latter algorithm shows that it takes at most and check steps, respectively, for a list of size . In the depicted example list of size 33, searching for "Morin, Arthur" takes 5 and 28 steps with binary (shown in ) and linear () search, respectively.
thumb|Graphs of functions commonly used in the analysis of algorithms, showing the number of operations versus input size for each function
In computer science, the analysis of algorithms is the process of finding the computational complexity of algorithms—the amount of time, storage, or other resources needed to execute them. Usually, this involves determining a function that relates the size of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its space complexity). An algorithm is said to be efficient when this function's values are small, or grow slowly compared to a growth in the size of the input. Different inputs of the same size may cause the algorithm to have different behavior, so best, worst and average case descriptions might all be of practical interest. When not otherwise specified, the function describing the performance of an algorithm is usually an upper bound, determined from the worst case inputs to the algorithm.
The term "analysis of algorithms" was coined by Donald Knuth. Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader computational complexity theory, which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into reasonable directions of search for efficient algorithms.
In theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in the asymptotic sense, i.e., to estimate the complexity function for arbitrarily large input. Big O notation, Big-omega notation and Big-theta notation are used to this end. For instance, binary search is said to run in a number of steps proportional to the logarithm of the size of the sorted list being searched, or in , colloquially "in logarithmic time". Usually asymptotic estimates are used because different implementations of the same algorithm may differ in efficiency. However the efficiencies of any two "reasonable" implementations of a given algorithm are related by a constant multiplicative factor called a hidden constant.
Exact (not asymptotic) measures of efficiency can sometimes be computed but they usually require certain assumptions concerning the particular implementation of the algorithm, called a model of computation. A model of computation may be defined in terms of an abstract computer, e.g. Turing machine, and/or by postulating that certain operations are executed in unit time.
For example, if the sorted list to which we apply binary search has elements, and we can guarantee that each lookup of an element in the list can be done in unit time, then at most time units are needed to return an answer.
Cost models
Time efficiency estimates depend on what we define to be a step. For the analysis to correspond usefully to the actual run-time, the time required to perform a step must be guaranteed to be bounded above by a constant. One must be careful here; for instance, some analyses count an addition of two numbers as one step. This assumption may not be warranted in certain contexts. For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, the time required by a single addition can no longer be assumed to be constant.
Two cost models are generally used:
the uniform cost model, also called unit-cost model (and similar variations), assigns a constant cost to every machine operation, regardless of the size of the numbers involved
the logarithmic cost model, also called logarithmic-cost measurement (and similar variations), assigns a cost to every machine operation proportional to the number of bits involved
The latter is more cumbersome to use, so it is only employed when necessary, for example in the analysis of arbitrary-precision arithmetic algorithms, like those used in cryptography.
A key point which is often overlooked is that published lower bounds for problems are often given for a model of computation that is more restricted than the set of operations that you could use in practice and therefore there are algorithms that are faster than what would naively be thought possible.
Run-time analysis
Run-time analysis is a theoretical classification that estimates and anticipates the increase in running time (or run-time or execution time) of an algorithm as its input size (usually denoted as ) increases. Run-time efficiency is a topic of great interest in computer science: A program can take seconds, hours, or even years to finish executing, depending on which algorithm it implements. While software profiling techniques can be used to measure an algorithm's run-time in practice, they cannot provide timing data for all infinitely many possible inputs; the latter can only be achieved by the theoretical methods of run-time analysis.
Shortcomings of empirical metrics
Since algorithms are platform-independent (i.e. a given algorithm can be implemented in an arbitrary programming language on an arbitrary computer running an arbitrary operating system), there are additional significant drawbacks to using an empirical approach to gauge the comparative performance of a given set of algorithms.
Take as an example a program that looks up a specific entry in a sorted list of size n. Suppose this program were implemented on Computer A, a state-of-the-art machine, using a linear search algorithm, and on Computer B, a much slower machine, using a binary search algorithm. Benchmark testing on the two computers running their respective programs might look something like the following:
n (list size) Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds) Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds) 16 8 100,000 63 32 150,000 250 125 200,000 1,000 500 250,000
Based on these metrics, it would be easy to jump to the conclusion that Computer A is running an algorithm that is far superior in efficiency to that of Computer B. However, if the size of the input-list is increased to a sufficient number, that conclusion is dramatically demonstrated to be in error:
n (list size) Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds) Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds) 16 8 100,000 63 32 150,000 250 125 200,000 1,000 500 250,000 ... ... ... 1,000,000 500,000 500,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 550,000 16,000,000 8,000,000 600,000 ... ... ... 63,072 × 1012 31,536 × 1012 ns,or 1 year 1,375,000 ns,or 1.375 milliseconds
Computer A, running the linear search program, exhibits a linear growth rate. The program's run-time is directly proportional to its input size. Doubling the input size doubles the run-time, quadrupling the input size quadruples the run-time, and so forth. On the other hand, Computer B, running the binary search program, exhibits a logarithmic growth rate. Quadrupling the input size only increases the run-time by a constant amount (in this example, 50,000 ns). Even though Computer A is ostensibly a faster machine, Computer B will inevitably surpass Computer A in run-time because it is running an algorithm with a much slower growth rate.
Orders of growth
Informally, an algorithm can be said to exhibit a growth rate on the order of a mathematical function if beyond a certain input size , the function times a positive constant provides an upper bound or limit for the run-time of that algorithm. In other words, for a given input size greater than some 0 and a constant , the run-time of that algorithm will never be larger than . This concept is frequently expressed using Big O notation. For example, since the run-time of insertion sort grows quadratically as its input size increases, insertion sort can be said to be of order .
Big O notation is a convenient way to express the worst-case scenario for a given algorithm, although it can also be used to express the average-case — for example, the worst-case scenario for quicksort is , but the average-case run-time is .
Empirical orders of growth
Assuming the run-time follows power rule, , the coefficient can be found by taking empirical measurements of run-time } at some problem-size points }, and calculating so that . In other words, this measures the slope of the empirical line on the log–log plot of run-time vs. input size, at some size point. If the order of growth indeed follows the power rule (and so the line on the log–log plot is indeed a straight line), the empirical value of will stay constant at different ranges, and if not, it will change (and the line is a curved line)—but still could serve for comparison of any two given algorithms as to their empirical local orders of growth behaviour. Applied to the above table:
n (list size) Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds) Local order of growth(n^_) Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds) Local order of growth(n^_) 15 7 100,000 65 32 1.04 150,000 0.28 250 125 1.01 200,000 0.21 1,000 500 1.00 250,000 0.16 ... ... ... 1,000,000 500,000 1.00 500,000 0.10 4,000,000 2,000,000 1.00 550,000 0.07 16,000,000 8,000,000 1.00 600,000 0.06 ... ... ...
It is clearly seen that the first algorithm exhibits a linear order of growth indeed following the power rule. The empirical values for the second one are diminishing rapidly, suggesting it follows another rule of growth and in any case has much lower local orders of growth (and improving further still), empirically, than the first one.
Evaluating run-time complexity
The run-time complexity for the worst-case scenario of a given algorithm can sometimes be evaluated by examining the structure of the algorithm and making some simplifying assumptions. Consider the following pseudocode:
1 get a positive integer n from input
2 if n > 10
3 print "This might take a while..."
4 for i = 1 to n
5 for j = 1 to i
6 print i * j
7 print "Done!"
A given computer will take a discrete amount of time to execute each of the instructions involved with carrying out this algorithm. Say that the actions carried out in step 1 are considered to consume time at most T1, step 2 uses time at most T2, and so forth.
In the algorithm above, steps 1, 2 and 7 will only be run once. For a worst-case evaluation, it should be assumed that step 3 will be run as well. Thus the total amount of time to run steps 1–3 and step 7 is:
T_1 + T_2 + T_3 + T_7. \,
The loops in steps 4, 5 and 6 are trickier to evaluate. The outer loop test in step 4 will execute ( n + 1 )
times, which will consume T4( n + 1 ) time. The inner loop, on the other hand, is governed by the value of j, which iterates from 1 to i. On the first pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 1: The inner loop makes one pass, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 2T5 time. During the next pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 2: the inner loop makes two passes, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes 2T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 3T5 time.
Altogether, the total time required to run the inner loop body can be expressed as an arithmetic progression:
T_6 + 2T_6 + 3T_6 + \cdots + (n-1) T_6 + n T_6
which can be factored as
\left[ 1 + 2 + 3 + \cdots + (n-1) + n \right] T_6 = \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + n) \right] T_6
The total time required to run the inner loop test can be evaluated similarly:
\begin{align}
& 2T_5 + 3T_5 + 4T_5 + \cdots + (n-1) T_5 + n T_5 + (n + 1) T_5\\
= {} &T_5 + 2T_5 + 3T_5 + 4T_5 + \cdots + (n-1)T_5 + nT_5 + (n+1)T_5 - T_5
\end{align}
which can be factored as
\begin{align}
& T_5 \left[ 1+2+3+\cdots + (n-1) + n + (n + 1) \right] - T_5 \\
{}& \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + n) \right] T_5 + (n + 1)T_5 - T_5 \\{}& \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + n) \right] T_5 + n T_5 \\
={}& \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + 3n) \right] T_5
\end{align}
Therefore, the total run-time for this algorithm is:
f(n) = T_1 + T_2 + T_3 + T_7 + (n + 1)T_4 + \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + n) \right] T_6 + \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2+3n) \right] T_5
which reduces to
f(n) = \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + n) \right] T_6 + \left[ \frac{1}{2} (n^2 + 3n) \right] T_5 + (n + 1)T_4 + T_1 + T_2 + T_3 + T_7
As a rule-of-thumb, one can assume that the highest-order term in any given function dominates its rate of growth and thus defines its run-time order. In this example, n2 is the highest-order term, so one can conclude that . Formally this can be proven as follows:
A more elegant approach to analyzing this algorithm would be to declare that [T1..T7] are all equal to one unit of time, in a system of units chosen so that one unit is greater than or equal to the actual times for these steps. This would mean that the algorithm's run-time breaks down as follows:
Growth rate analysis of other resources
The methodology of run-time analysis can also be utilized for predicting other growth rates, such as consumption of memory space. As an example, consider the following pseudocode which manages and reallocates memory usage by a program based on the size of a file which that program manages:
while file is still open:
let n = size of file
for every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size
double the amount of memory reserved
In this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order . This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources.
Relevance
Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of an inefficient algorithm can significantly impact system performance. In time-sensitive applications, an algorithm taking too long to run can render its results outdated or useless. An inefficient algorithm can also end up requiring an uneconomical amount of computing power or storage in order to run, again rendering it practically useless.
Constant factors
Analysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 232 4 GiB (greater if segmented memory is used) and on 64-bit machines 264 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.
This interpretation is primarily useful for functions that grow extremely slowly: (binary) iterated logarithm (log*) is less than 5 for all practical data (265536 bits); (binary) log-log (log log n) is less than 6 for virtually all practical data (264 bits); and binary log (log n) is less than 64 for virtually all practical data (264 bits). An algorithm with non-constant complexity may nonetheless be more efficient than an algorithm with constant complexity on practical data if the overhead of the constant time algorithm results in a larger constant factor, e.g., one may have K > k \log \log n so long as K/k > 6 and n .
For large data linear or quadratic factors cannot be ignored, but for small data an asymptotically inefficient algorithm may be more efficient. This is particularly used in hybrid algorithms, like Timsort, which use an asymptotically efficient algorithm (here merge sort, with time complexity n \log n), but switch to an asymptotically inefficient algorithm (here insertion sort, with time complexity n^2) for small data, as the simpler algorithm is faster on small data.
See also
Amortized analysis
Analysis of parallel algorithms
Asymptotic computational complexity
Best, worst and average case
Big O notation
Computational complexity theory
Master theorem (analysis of algorithms)
NP-Complete
Numerical analysis
Polynomial time
Program optimization
Profiling (computer programming)
Scalability
Smoothed analysis
Termination analysis — the subproblem of checking whether a program will terminate at all
Time complexity — includes table of orders of growth for common algorithms
Information-based complexity
Notes
References
External links
Category:Computational complexity theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.436151 |
2233 | Ælle of Sussex | | reignc. 477 – c. 514?
| successorCissa? The chronicle goes on to report a victory in 491, at present day Pevensey, where the battle ended with the Saxons slaughtering their opponents to the last man.
Ælle was the first king recorded by the 8th century chronicler Bede to have held "imperium", or overlordship, over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the late 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (around four hundred years after his time) Ælle is recorded as being the first bretwalda, or "Britain-ruler", though there is no evidence that this was a contemporary title. Ælle's death is not recorded and although he may have been the founder of a South Saxon dynasty, there is no firm evidence linking him with later South Saxon rulers. The 12th-century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon produced an enhanced version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that included 514 as the date of Ælle's death, but this is not secure. Historical context
's 1611 "Saxon Heptarchy"]]
Historians are divided on the detail of Ælle's life and existence as it was during the least-documented period in English history of the last two millennia.
By the early 5th century, Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years. Amongst the enemies of Roman Britain were the Picts of central and northern Scotland, and the Gaels known as Scoti, who were raiders from Ireland. Also vexatious were the Saxons, the name Roman writers gave to the peoples who lived in the northern part of what is now Germany and the southern part of the Jutland peninsula. Saxon raids on the southern and eastern shores of England had been sufficiently alarming by the late 3rd century for the Romans to build the Saxon Shore forts, and subsequently to establish the role of the Count of the Saxon Shore to command the defence against these incursions. Roman control of Britain finally ended in the early part of the 5th century; the date usually given as marking the end of Roman Britain is 410, when the Emperor Honorius sent letters to the British, urging them to look to their own defence. Britain had been repeatedly stripped of troops to support usurpers' claims to the Roman empire, and after 410 the Roman armies never returned.
Sources for events after this date are extremely scarce, but a tradition, reported as early as the mid-6th century by a British priest named Gildas, records that the British sent for help against the barbarians to Aetius, a Roman consul, probably in the late 440s. No help came. Subsequently, a British leader named Vortigern is supposed to have invited continental mercenaries to help fight the Picts who were attacking from the north. The leaders, whose names are recorded as Hengest and Horsa, rebelled, and a long period of warfare ensued. The invaders—Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians—gained control of parts of England, but lost a major battle at Mons Badonicus (the location of which is not known). Some authors have speculated that Ælle may have led the Saxon forces at this battle, while others reject the idea out of hand.
The British thus gained a respite, and peace lasted at least until the time Gildas was writing: that is, for perhaps forty or fifty years, from around the end of the 5th century until midway through the sixth. Shortly after Gildas's time, the Anglo-Saxon advance was resumed, and by the late 6th century nearly all of southern England was under the control of the continental invaders.Early sourcesand does not mention Ælle.]]There are two early sources that mention Ælle by name. The earliest is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a history of the English church written in 731 by Bede, a Northumbrian monk. Bede mentions Ælle as one of the Anglo-Saxon kings who exercised what he calls "imperium" over "all the provinces south of the river Humber"; "imperium" is usually translated as "overlordship". Bede gives a list of seven kings who held "imperium", and Ælle is the first of them. The other information Bede gives is that Ælle was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king, Æthelberht, as "the first to enter the kingdom of heaven". The terms 'British' and 'Welsh' were used interchangeably, as 'Welsh' is the Saxon word meaning 'foreigner', and was applied to all the native Romano-British of the era.
Three of the places named may be identified:
#"Cymen's shore" ("Cymenes ora" in the original) is believed to be located at what is now a series of rocks and ledges, in the English Channel off Selsey Bill, on the south coast, known as the Owers. It has been suggested that Ower is derived from the word ora that is found only in placenames where Jutish and West Saxon dialects were in operation (mainly in southern England). It is possible that the stretch of low ground along the coast from Southampton to Bognor was called Ora, "the shore", and that district names were used by the various coastal settlements, Cymens ora being one of them. Some believe Andredes cester may have been an imperial stronghold somewhere else as Henry of Huntingdon described the place as a fortified city and gave a very full account of the siege which is inconsistent with the geography of ancient Pevensey and little archaeological evidence of sustained settlement there. Also, in his "Britannia", William Camden suggests that it could be Newenden, Kent.
The Chronicle mentions Ælle once more under the year 827, where he is listed as the first of the eight "bretwaldas", or "Britain-rulers". The list consists of Bede's original seven, plus Egbert of Wessex. There has been much scholarly debate over just what it meant to be a "bretwalda", and the extent of Ælle's actual power in southern England is an open question. It is also noteworthy that there is a long gap between Ælle and the second king on Bede's list, Ceawlin of Wessex, whose reign began in the late 6th century; this may indicate a period in which Anglo-Saxon dominance was interrupted in some way. Charters are documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen, and which would be witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land. They are one of the key documentary sources for Anglo-Saxon history, but no original charters survive from earlier than 679.
There are other early writers whose works can shed light on Ælle's time, though they do not mention either him or his kingdom. Gildas's description of the state of Britain in his time is useful for understanding the ebb and flow of the Anglo-Saxon incursions. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, writing not long after Gildas, adds to the meagre sources on population movement by including a chapter on England in one of his works. He records that the peoples of Britain—he names the English, the British, and the Frisians—were so numerous that they were migrating to the kingdom of the Franks in great numbers every year, although this is probably a reference to Britons emigrating to Armorica to escape the Anglo-Saxons. They subsequently gave their name to the area they settled as Brittany, or la petite Bretagne (lit., "little Britain"). Evidence from place names in Sussex The early dates given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the colonization of Sussex are supported by an analysis of the place names of the region. The strongest evidence comes from place names that end in "-ing", such as Worthing and Angmering. These are known to derive from an earlier form ending in "-ingas". "Hastings" for example, derives from "Hæstingas" which may mean "the followers or dependents of a person named Hæsta", although others suggest the heavily Romanised region may have had names of Gallo-Roman origin derived from "-ienses". From west of Selsey Bill to east of Pevensey can be found the densest concentration of these names anywhere in Britain. There are a total of about forty-five place names in Sussex of this form, but personal names either were not associated with these places or fell out of use. }} The names of the founders, in other origin legends, seem to have British or Latin roots not Old English. It is likely that the foundation stories were actually known before the 9th century, but the annalists manipulated them to provide a common origin for the new regime. The origin stories purported that the British were defeated and replaced by invading Anglo-Saxons arriving in small ships. These stories were largely believed right up to the 19th century, but are now regarded as myths. Reign If the dates given by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are accurate to within half a century, then Ælle's reign lies in the middle of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, and prior to the final conquest of the Britons. It also seems consistent with the dates given to assume that Ælle's battles predate Mons Badonicus.This in turn would explain the long gap, of fifty or more years, in the succession of the "bretwaldas": if the peace gained by the Britons did indeed hold till the second half of the 6th century, it is not to be expected that an Anglo-Saxon leader should have anything resembling overlordship of England during that time. The idea of a pause in the Anglo-Saxon advance is also supported by the account in Procopius of 6th century migration from Britain to the kingdom of the Franks. It seems likely that something at that time was interrupting the general flow of the Anglo-Saxons from the continent to Britain.
The dates for Ælle's battles are also reasonably consistent with what is known of events in the kingdom of the Franks at that time. Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom during the 480s and afterwards, and the Franks' ability to exercise power along the southern coast of the English channel may have diverted Saxon adventurers to England rather than the continent. The battles listed in the Chronicle are compatible with a conquest of Sussex from west to east, against British resistance stiff enough to last fourteen years.
The historian Guy Halsall argues that as Ælle immediately preceded a sequence of three contemporaries from the late sixth-century in Bede's original list (Ceawlin of Wessex, Æthelberht of Kent, and Rædwald of East Anglia), it is far more likely that Ælle dates to the mid sixth century, and that the Chronicle has moved his dates back a century in order to provide a foundation myth for Sussex which puts it chronologically and geographically between the origins of the kingdoms of Kent and Wessex.
Death and burial
Ælle's death is not recorded by the Chronicle, which gives no information about him, or his sons, or the South Saxons until 675, when the South Saxon king Æthelwalh was baptized. If Ælle died within the borders of his own kingdom then it may well have been that he was buried on Highdown Hill with his weapons and ornaments in the usual mode of burial among the South Saxons.<ref name"InSaxonSx"/> Highdown Hill is the traditional burial-place of the kings of Sussex.<ref name"InSaxonSx"/> See also *Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain Notes References Primary sources *
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Category:510s deaths
Category:6th-century English monarchs
Category:5th-century English monarchs
Category:Anglo-Saxon warriors
Category:Founding monarchs
Category:Anglo-Saxon people whose existence is disputed
Category:South Saxon monarchs
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death uncertain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ælle_of_Sussex | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.447834 |
2234 | Atari | | currentowner = Atari SA (2001–present)
| country = United States (Atari), France (Atari SA)
| introduced
| markets = Video gaming
| previousowners =
* Hasbro Interactive (1998–2001)
}}
| website =
|logo_size130|logo_captionOne of the variants of the Atari "Fuji" logo}}
Atari () is a brand name that has been owned by several entities since its inception in 1972. It is currently owned by French holding company Atari SA (formerly Infogrames) and its focus is on "video games, consumer hardware, licensing and blockchain". The original Atari, Inc., founded in Sunnyvale, California, United States in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was a pioneer in arcade games, home video game consoles, and home computers. The company's products, such as Pong and the Atari 2600, helped define the electronic entertainment industry from the 1970s to the mid-1980s.
In 1984, as a result of the video game crash of 1983, the assets of the home console and computer divisions of the original Atari Inc. were sold off to Jack Tramiel's Tramel Technology Ltd., which then renamed itself to Atari Corporation, while the remaining part of Atari, Inc. was renamed Atari Games Inc. In early 1985, Warner established a new corporation jointly with Namco subsequently named Atari Games Corporation, which took control of Atari's coin-operated games division. The rights to Atari, Inc.'s game properties were shared between the two companies: Atari Corporation receiving the trademarks and the home rights, while Atari Games receiving the rights to use the logo and brand name with appended text "Games" on arcade products. In 1996, Atari Corporation reverse-merged with disk-drive manufacturer JT Storage (JTS) and effectively perished. In 1998, Hasbro Interactive, part of the toy company Hasbro, acquired all Atari Corporation–related properties from JTS, as part of a subsidiary which it then renamed to Atari Interactive. Meanwhile, Atari Games was acquired by Midway Games in 1996, and effectively retired the Atari name on arcades by 2000 to avoid public confusion with Hasbro's Atari home releases.
Infogrames Entertainment (IESA) – precursor of the present-day Atari SA – became the new owner of the Atari brand after buying Hasbro Interactive in 2001, renaming it Infogrames Interactive, which intermittently published Atari-branded home titles. In 2003, it renamed the division Atari Interactive. Another IESA division called Infogrames Inc., which was founded as GT Interactive, changed its name to Atari, Inc. the same year, licensing the Atari name and logo from its fellow subsidiary. In 2008, IESA completed its acquisition of Atari, Inc.'s outstanding stock, making it a wholly owned subsidiary. IESA renamed itself Atari SA in 2009 which remains the status quo. It sought bankruptcy protection under French law in 2013. On the other hand, Atari's post-1984 arcade titles are the property of Warner Bros. Games since receiving the assets following Midway's bankruptcy in 2009.
History
Logotype
The name comes from the Japanese term atari, used while playing the ancient board game Go. The word atari means "to hit a target" in Japanese; in Go, it indicates a situation where a player will be able to capture one or more stones of the opponent in the next move.
The Atari logo was designed by George Opperman, who was Atari's first in-house graphic designer, and drawn by Evelyn Seto. The design is known as "Fuji" for its resemblance to the Japanese mountain, although the logo's origins are unrelated to it. Opperman designed the logo intending for the silhouette to look like the letter A as in Atari and for its three "prongs" to resemble players and the midline of the "court" in the company's first hit game, Pong.Atari Inc. (1972–1984)
In 1971, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney founded a small engineering company, Syzygy Engineering, that designed Computer Space, the world's first commercially available arcade video game, for Nutting Associates. On June 27, 1972, the two incorporated Atari, Inc. and soon hired Al Alcorn as their first design engineer. Bushnell asked Alcorn to produce an arcade version of the Magnavox Odyssey's Tennis game, which would be named Pong. Before Atari's incorporation, Bushnell considered various terms from the game Go, eventually choosing atari, referencing a position in the game when a group of stones is imminently in danger of being taken by one's opponent. Atari was incorporated in the state of California on June 27, 1972.
, which was sold from 1979 to 1986]]
In 1973, Atari secretly spawned a competitor called Kee Games, headed by Nolan's next-door neighbor Joe Keenan, to circumvent pinball distributors' insistence on exclusive distribution deals; both Atari and Kee could market nearly the same game to different distributors, each getting an "exclusive" deal. Joe Keenan's management of the subsidiary led to his appointment as president of Atari when Kee was absorbed into the company in 1974.
(1982)]]
In 1975, Atari's Grass Valley, California subsidiary Cyan Engineering started the development of a flexible console that was capable of playing the four existing Atari games. The result was the Atari Video Computer System, or VCS (later renamed 2600 when the 5200 was released). The introductory price of $199 () included a console, two joysticks, a pair of paddles, and the Combat game cartridge. Bushnell knew he had another potential hit on his hands but bringing the machine to market would be extremely expensive. Looking for outside investors, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976 for $28 million. Nolan continued to have disagreements with Warner Management over the direction of the company, the discontinuation of the pinball division, and most importantly, the notion of discontinuing the 2600. In December 1978, Bushnell was fired as chairman and co-CEO following an argument with Manny Gerard. He decided to leave the company rather than take an advisory role.
(1986)]]
The development of a successor to the 2600 started as soon as it shipped. The original team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years; it then set forth to build the most powerful machine possible within that time frame. Mid-way into their effort the home computer revolution took off, leading to the addition of a keyboard and features to produce the Atari 800 and its smaller sibling, the 400. The new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. From this platform Atari released their next-generation game console in 1982, the Atari 5200. It was unsuccessful due to incompatibility with the 2600 game library, a small quantity of dedicated games, and notoriously unreliable controllers. Porting arcade games to home systems with inferior hardware was difficult. The ported version of Pac-Man for Atari 2600 omitted many of the visual features of the original to compensate for the lack of ROM space and the hardware struggled when multiple ghosts appeared on the screen creating a flickering effect.
Under Warner and Atari's chairman and CEO, Raymond Kassar, the company achieved its greatest success, selling millions of 2600s and computers. At its peak, Atari accounted for a third of Warner's annual income and was the fastest-growing company in US history at the time. It ran into problems in the early 1980s. Faced with fierce competition and price wars in the game console and home computer markets, Atari was never able to duplicate the success of the 2600.
These problems were followed by the video game crash of 1983, with losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for its troubled division. In 1983, Ray Kassar resigned. Financial problems continued to mount and Kassar's successor, James J. Morgan, had less than a year in which to tackle the company's problems. He began a massive restructuring of the company and worked with Warner Communications in May 1984 to create "NATCO" (an acronym for New Atari Company). NATCO further streamlined the company's facilities, personnel, and spending. Unknown to James Morgan and the senior management of Atari, Warner had been in talks with Tramel Technology to buy assets pertaining to Atari's consumer electronics and home computer businesses. Negotiating until close to midnight on July 1, 1984, Jack Tramiel completed the asset purchase for $240 million in promissory notes and stocks. Warner gained a 20% stake in Tramel Technology, which was renamed Atari Corporation. Warner also sold the Ataritel division to Mitsubishi.Atari Corporation (1984–1996)
(1985)]]
Under Tramiel's ownership, Atari Corp. used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development on a 16/32-bit computer system, the Atari ST. ("ST" stands for "sixteen/thirty-two", referring to the machines' 16-bit bus and 32-bit processor core.) In April 1985, they released an update to the 8-bit computer line, the Atari 65XE, the first in the Atari XE series. June 1985 saw the release of the Atari 130XE; Atari User Groups received early sneak-preview samples of the new Atari 520ST's, and major retailer shipments hit store shelves in September 1985 of Atari's new 32-bit Atari ST computers. In 1986, Atari launched two consoles designed under Warner — the Atari 2600jr and the Atari 7800 console (which saw limited release in 1984). Atari rebounded, earning a $25 million profit that year.
(1989)]]
In 1987, Atari acquired the Federated Group for $67.3 million, securing shelf space in over 60 stores in California, Arizona, Texas and Kansas at a time when major American electronics outlets were reluctant to carry Atari-branded computers, and two-thirds of Atari's PC production was sold in Europe. The Federated Group (not related to Federated Department Stores) was sold to Silo in 1989.
In 1988, the company unveiled the 1040STF and the Mega ST with a bit image manipulator chip, and launched its first parallel computer. The ATW-800 Transputer was based on the Inmos T800 CPU, which had a 32/64-bit architecture, ran at 15 million instructions per second (MIPS) and housed a Charity videochip that supported 16 million colors. The company continued to experiment with parallel computing aiming at B2B customers and graphic designers, but the transputer line failed to achieve commercial success.
(1989)]]
In 1989, Atari released the Atari Lynx, the first ever handheld console with a color display and a backlit screen, to much fanfare. A shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season, and the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's Game Boy, which, despite only having a black and white display, was cheaper, had better battery life and had much higher availability. Tramiel emphasized computers over game consoles, but Atari's proprietary computer architecture and operating system fell victim to the success of the Wintel platform while the game market revived. In 1989, Atari Corp. sued Nintendo for $250 million, alleging it had an illegal monopoly. Atari eventually lost the case when it was rejected by a US district court in 1992.
In 1991, Atari released its PCs ABC386SXII and ABC386DXII based on Intel's i386 chip.
(1993)]]
In 1993, Atari positioned its Jaguar as the only 64-bit interactive media entertainment system available, but it sold poorly. It would be the last home console to be produced by Atari and the last to be produced by an American manufacturer until Microsoft's introduction of the Xbox in 2001.
By 1996, a series of successful lawsuits had left Atari with millions of dollars in the bank, but the failure of the Lynx and Jaguar left Atari without a product to sell. Tramiel and his family also wanted out of the business. The result was a rapid succession of changes in ownership. In July 1996, Atari merged with JTS Inc., a short-lived maker of hard disk drives, to form JTS Corp. Atari's role in the new company largely became that of holder for the Atari properties and minor support, and consequently the name largely disappeared from the market. Video game magazines reported it as Atari exiting the video game business.
Atari Games Corporation (1985–1999)
After the asset sale to Tramel Technology, Atari was renamed Atari Games, Inc. In 1985, Warner established a new corporation called AT Games, Inc. with Namco, which purchased a controlling interest in the new venture. Warner then transferred the coin-operated games division of Atari Games, Inc. to AT Games, Inc., which renamed itself Atari Games Corporation. Warner renamed Atari Games, Inc. to Atari Holdings, which continued as a nonoperating subsidiary until 1992. In 1987, Namco sold 33% of its shares to a group of employees led by then-president Hideyuki Nakajima. He had been the president of Atari Games since 1985. Atari Ireland was a subsidiary of Atari Games that manufactured their games for the European market.
Atari Games continued to manufacture arcade games and units, and starting in 1988, also sold cartridges for the Nintendo Entertainment System under the Tengen brand name, including a version of Tetris. The companies exchanged a number of lawsuits in the late 1980s related to disputes over the rights to Tetris and Tengen's circumvention of Nintendo's lockout chip, which prevented third parties from creating unauthorized games. The suit finally reached a settlement in 1994, with Atari Games paying Nintendo cash damages and the use of several patent licenses.
In April 1996, after an unsuccessful bid by Atari cofounder Nolan Bushnell, the company was sold to WMS Industries, owners of the Williams, Bally, and Midway arcade brands, which restored the use of the Atari Games name. On November 19, 1999, Atari Games Corporation was renamed Midway Games West Inc., resulting in the Atari Games name no longer being used, with San Francisco Rush 2049 being the final Atari-branded arcade release.Hasbro Interactive (1998–2000)
On March 13, 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million. This transaction primarily involved the brand and intellectual property, which now fell under the Atari Interactive division of Hasbro Interactive. Two years after Atari's "death",
The brand name changed hands again in December 2000 when French software publisher Infogrames took over Hasbro Interactive.Infogrames and Atari SA (2001–present)
]]
In October 2001, Infogrames Entertainment SA (IESA, now Atari SA) announced that it was "reinventing" the Atari brand with the launch of three new games featuring a prominent Atari branding on their boxarts: Splashdown, MX Rider and TransWorld Surf. Infogrames used Atari as a brand name for games aimed at 18–34 year olds. Other Infogrames games under the Atari name included V-Rally 3, Neverwinter Nights, Stuntman and Enter the Matrix.
On May 8, 2003, IESA had its majority-owned but discrete US subsidiary Infogrames, Inc. officially renamed Atari, Inc., renamed its European operations to Atari Europe but kept the original name of the main company Infogrames Entertainment. The original Atari holdings division purchased from Hasbro, originally Hasbro Interactive and later Infogrames Interactive, was renamed Atari Interactive.
Atari, Inc. buyout and name change to Atari SA
On March 6, 2008, IESA made an offer to Atari, Inc. to buy out all remaining public shares for a value of $1.68 per share, or $11 million total. The offer would make IESA sole owner of Atari, Inc., thus making it a privately held company. On April 30, 2008, Atari, Inc. announced its intentions to accept Infogrames' buyout offer and to merge with Infogrames. On October 8, 2008, IESA completed its acquisition of Atari, Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary.
On December 9, 2008, Atari announced that it had acquired Cryptic Studios, an MMORPG developer. Namco Bandai purchased a 34% stake in Atari Europe on May 14, 2009, paving the way for its acquisition from IESA. Atari had significant financial issues for several years prior, with losses in the tens of millions since 2005. In May 2009, Infogrames Entertainment SA, the parent company of Atari, and Atari Interactive, announced it would change its name to Atari SA. In April 2010, Atari SA board member and former CEO David Gardner resigned. Original Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell joined the board as a representative for Blubay holdings. As of March 31, 2011, the board of directors consisted of Frank Dangeard, Jim Wilson, Tom Virden, Gene Davis and Alexandra Fichelson. All three Ataris emerged from bankruptcy one year later and the entering of the social casino gaming industry with Atari Casino. Frederic Chesnais, who now heads all three companies, stated that their entire operations consist of a staff of 10 people.
Chesnais era (2013–2021)
On June 22, 2014, Atari announced a new corporate strategy that would include a focus on "new audiences", specifically "LGBT, social casinos, real-money gambling, and YouTube".
On June 8, 2017, a short teaser video was released, promoting a new product; and the following week Chesnais confirmed the company was developing a new game console – the hardware was stated to be based on PC technology, and still under development. In mid July 2017 an Atari press release confirmed the existence of the aforementioned new hardware, referred to as the "Ataribox". The box design was derived from early Atari designs (e.g. 2600) with a ribbed top surface, and a rise at the back of the console; two versions were announced: one with a traditional wood veneer front, and the other with a glass front. Connectivity options were revealed, including HDMI, USB (x4), and SD card – the console was said to support both classic and current games. Also, according to an official company statement of June 22, 2017, the product was to be initially launched via a crowdfunding campaign in order to minimize any financial risk to the parent company.
]]
On September 26, 2017, Atari sent out a press release about the new "Atari VCS", which confirmed more details about the console. It runs a Linux operating system, with full access to the underlying OS, but it has a custom interface designed for the TV.
On January 27, 2020, Atari announced a deal with GSD Group to build Atari Hotels, with the first breaking ground in Phoenix in mid-2020. Additional hotels were also planned in Las Vegas, Denver, Chicago, Austin, Seattle, San Francisco, and San Jose. The company plans to make the hotel experience immersive and accessible to all ages. Hotels are planned to include virtual and augmented reality technologies.
On December 16, 2020, Atari shipped the first units of the Atari VCS exclusive to backers of the systems crowdfunding campaign. Atari urged the backers to give feedback on the system so that the company could make changes to improve the product on its official launch. The consoles only ship to North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
In 2020, Atari launched its decentralized cryptocurrency Atari Token in equal partnership with the ICICB Group. Atari Group announced in March 2020 that it granted ICICB a non-exclusive license to run a cryptocurrency online casino on Atari's website, based on the Atari Token. The group partnering with Atari opened a new company in Gibraltar called Atari Chain LTD. In March 2021, Atari extended its partnership with ICICB Group for the development of Atari branded hotels, and the first hotels will be constructed at selected locations outside the United States, with Dubai, Gibraltar and Spain. Rosen era (2021–present) In late 2021, Wade Rosen became the new CEO of Atari. Unlike his predecessor, Rosen's strategy for Atari is a re-focus on retro gaming and Atari's classic franchises.
On 18 April 2022, Atari announced the termination of all license agreements with ICICB Group and its subsidiaries ("ICICB"). The license agreements between Atari and ICICB, including the Atari Chain Limited license (the "Joint Venture") and the related licenses including hotel and casino licenses, have been terminated effective 18 April 2022. ICICB is not authorized to represent Atari or its brands in any manner.
In March 2024, Atari announced that it will work with coin-op manufacturer Alan-1 to bring Atari Recharged titles on arcades. This would mark the return of the Atari brand in the arcade space after 25 years, when San Francisco Rush 2049 was released.
See also
* Golden age of arcade video games
* History of video games
Notes
References
External links
* [https://atari.com Atari official site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19991111030208/http://gtinteractive.com Former Atari brand's official global site]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com The Atari History Museum] – Atari historical archive site
* [http://www.atarimania.com The biggest Atari Archive] – Atari software archive site
* [http://www.ataritimes.com Atari Times] , supporting all Atari consoles
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/article.php?showarticle70 Atari On Film] – List of Atari products in films
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com The Dot Eaters: classic video game history] – Comprehensive history of video games, extensive info on Atari offerings and history
Category:MTV Video Music Award winners
Category:1972 establishments in California
Category:American brands
Category:French brands
Category:Video game publishing brands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.474277 |
2235 | Afghans | (Dari)<br /> (Pashto)
| image = Map of the Afghan Diaspora in the World.svg
| caption = Map of the Afghan diaspora:
| population 53 million
| total_source = estimate
| popplace Diaspora:<br/> 9,085,784+
| region1 =
| pop1 = (2023)
| ref1
| region2 =
| pop2 = 1,285,754 (2022)
| ref2
| region3 =
| pop3 = 425,000 (2022)
| ref3
| region4 =
| pop4 = 300,000 (2022)
| ref4
| region5 =
| pop5 = 300,000 (2012)
| ref5
| region6 =
| pop6 = 150,000 (2017)
| ref6
| region7 =
| pop7 = 129,323 (2021)
| ref7
| region8 =
| pop8 = 125,305 (2022)
| ref8
| region9 =
| pop9 = 124,830 (2023)
| ref9
| region10 =
| pop10 = 79,000 (2019)
| ref10
| region11 =
| pop11 = 67,738 (2023)
| ref11
| region12 =
| pop12 = 59,797 (2021)
| ref12
| region13 =
| pop13 = 51,830 (2021)
| ref13
| region14 =
| pop14 = 21,456 (2021)
| ref14
| region15 =
| pop15 = 20,000 (2001)
| ref15
| region16 =
| pop16 = 18,018 (2017)
| ref16
| region17 =
| pop17 = 15,806 (2021)
| ref17
| region18 =
| pop18 = 44,918 (2023)
| ref18
| region19 =
| pop19 = 14,523 (2021)
| ref19
| region21 =
| pop21 = 11,121–12,096 (2021)
| ref21
| region22 =
| pop22 = 24,823 (2022)
| ref22
| region23 =
| pop23 = 10,000 (2017)
| ref23
| region24 =
| pop24 = 10,000 (2012)
| ref24
| region25 =
| pop25 = 7,629 (2021)
| ref25
| region26 =
| pop26 = 6,775 (2021)
| ref26
| region27 =
| pop27 = 6,181 (2024)
| ref27 =
| region28 =
| pop28 = 4,000 (2012)
| ref28
| region29 =
| pop29 = 3,509 (2020)
| ref29
| region30 =
| pop30 = 3,414 (2013)
| ref30
| region31 =
| pop31 = 2,661 (2021)
| ref31
| region32 =
| pop32 = 2,500+ (2021)
| ref32
| region33 =
| pop33 = 2,384 (2020)
| ref33
| region34 =
| pop34 = 2,000 (2002)
| ref34
| languages = Pashto, Dari and other languages of Afghanistan
| religions = Predominantly: Islam<br /><br /> Minority: Hinduism, Sikhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Baháʼí Faith
| related_groups = Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks
| poptime | region35
| pop35 = 1,200 (2019)
| ref35
| region36 =
| pop36 = 300–2,500 (2018)
| ref36
| region37 =
| pop37 = 883
| ref37
}}
Afghans (; ) are the citizens and nationals of Afghanistan, as well as their descendants in the Afghan diaspora. The country is made up of various ethnic groups, of which Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks are the largest. The three main languages spoken among the Afghan people are Dari, Pashto, and Uzbek. Historically, the term "Afghan" was a Pashtun ethnonym, but later came to refer to all people in the country, regardless of their ethnicity.
Etymology
The earliest mention of the name Afghan (Abgân) is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE, In the 4th century, the word "Afghans/Afghana" (αβγανανο) as reference to the Pashtun people is mentioned in the Bactrian documents found in Northern Afghanistan. The word 'Afghan' is of Persian origin and refers to the Pashtun people. Some scholars suggest that the word "Afghan" is derived from the words awajan/apajan in Avestan and ava-Han/apa-Han in Sanskrit, which means "killing, striking, throwing and resisting, or defending." Under the Sasanians, and possibly the Parthian Empire, the word was used to refer to men of a certain Persian sect. In the past, several scholars sought a connection with "horse", Skt.aśva-, Av.aspa-, i.e. the Aśvaka or Aśvakayana, the name of the Aśvakan or Assakan, the ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush region. Some have theorized that the name of the Aśvakan or Assakan has been preserved in that of the modern Pashtun, with the name Afghan being derived from Asvakan.
As an adjective, the word Afghan also means "of or relating to Afghanistan or its people, language or culture". According to the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan, all Afghans citizens are equal in rights and obligations before the law. The fourth article of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, which was valid until 2021, states that citizens of Afghanistan consist of Pashtun, Tajik, Uzbek, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashayi, Nuristani, Aimaq, Arab, Kyrgyz, Qizilbash, Gurjar, Brahui, and members of other ethnicities. There are political disputes regarding this: there are members of the non-Pashtun ethnicities of Afghanistan that reject the term Afghan being applied to them, and there are Pashtuns in Pakistan that wish to have the term Afghan applied to them.Usage as an ethnonymThe pre-nation state, historical ethnonym Afghan was used to refer to a member of the Pashtun ethnic group. Due to the changing political nature of the state, the meaning has changed, and the term has shifted to refer to the national identity of people from Afghanistan of all ethnicities.
From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afḡhān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Pashtō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Pashtūn. The equation Afghans Pashtūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Pashtūn tribal confederation has maintained its hegemony in the country, numerically and politically.
Variations
The term Afghani refers to the unit of Afghan currency. The term is also often used in the English language (and appears in some dictionaries) for a person or thing related to Afghanistan, although some have expressed the opinion that this usage is incorrect. The reason for this usage might be because the term "Afghani" (افغانی) is in fact a valid demonym for Afghans in the overall Persian language, whereas "Afghan" is derived from Pashto. Thus, "Afghan" is the anglicized form of "Afghani" when translating from Dari Persian, but not from Pashto. Another variant is Afghanese, which has been seldom used in place of Afghan.Ethnicities
Afghans come from various ethnic backgrounds. The largest ethnic groups are Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks, who make up approximately 95% of the population of Afghanistan. They are of diverse origins including of Iranic, Turkic or Mongolic ethnolinguistic roots.Religions
, popularly known as the Blue Mosque, in Mazar-i-Sharif, Balkh Province, Afghanistan, April 3, 2012.]]
The Afghan people of all ethnicities are predominantly and traditionally followers of Islam, of whom around 90% are of Sunni and 10% the Shia branch. Other religious minorities include the Afghan Hindus, Afghan Sikhs, Afghan Zoroastrians, Afghan Jews and Afghan Christians.
Culture
Afghan culture has existed for over three millennia, dating back to the time of the Achaemenid Empire in 500 BCE. Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between regions with each of the 34 provinces having its own unique distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country. Afghanistan's culture is historically linked to nearby Persia, including both countries following the Islamic religion, the Solar Hijri calendar and speaking similar languages, this is due to Iran and Afghanistan being culturally close to each other for thousands of years.
See also
* Demographics of Afghanistan
* Afghan (ethnonym)
* Name of Afghanistan
* Afghan diaspora
References
Sources
* External links
*
* [http://www.hotrecentnews.com/en/tag/afghan Afghan News]
*
Category:Exonyms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghans | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.492539 |
2236 | Acadia University | ), you will conquer"
| established =
| type = Public university
| former_names = Queen's College (1838–1841)<br />Acadia College (1841–1891)
| campus =
| free_label = Tagline
| free = Like Nowhere Else
| endowment = $109.4 million
| city = Wolfville
| state = Nova Scotia
| country = Canada
| coordinates
| students 4,542
| undergrad = 4,024
| postgrad = 518
| doctoral | administrative_staff 211 full-time, 37 part-time
| president = Jeffrey J. Hennessy
| chancellor = Bruce Galloway
| colours = Red and Blue
| mascot | sports_nickname Axemen and Axewomen
| athletics_affiliations = U Sports – AUS
| religious_affiliation = Currently non-denominational; initially founded by Baptists
| academic_affiliations = AUCC, IAU, CUSID, CBIE, CUP, Maple League of Universities
| logo = Acadia University Wordmark 2014.svg
| website =
}}
Acadia University is a public, predominantly undergraduate university located in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada, with some graduate programs at the master's level and one at the doctoral level. The enabling legislation consists of the Acadia University Act and the Amended Acadia University Act 2000.
The Wolfville Campus houses Acadia University Archives and the Acadia University Art Gallery. Acadia offers over 200 degree combinations in the faculties of arts, pure and applied science, professional studies, and theology. The student-faculty ratio is 15:1 and the average class size is 28. Open Acadia offers correspondence and distance education courses. Acadia does have Botanical Gardens known as the Harriet Irving Gardens. These gardens feature plants and trees native to the Acadian forest region.
History
Acadia began as an extension of Horton Academy in 1828, which was founded in Horton, Nova Scotia, by Baptists from Nova Scotia and Queen's College in 1838, who will be gathered into the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries). It was designed to prepare men for the ministry and to supply education for lay members.
In 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen's College (named for Queen Victoria). The college began with 21 students in January 1839. The name "Queen's College" was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed "Acadia College" in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an Acadian settlement. Acadia College awarded its first degrees in 1843 and became Acadia University in 1891,
Charles Osborne Wickenden, an architect, and J.C. Dumaresq designed the Central Building, Acadia College, 1878–79.
Clara Belle Marshall, from Mount Hanley, Nova Scotia, became the first woman to graduate from Acadia University in 1879.
In 1891, there were changes in the Act of Incorporation. designed by Cobb in the Georgian style, and built by James Reid of Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, which was opened in 1915 as Horton Academy. Today, Horton Hall is the home of the Department of Psychology and Research and Graduate Studies. In 1967 Emmerson Hall was converted to classrooms and offices for the School of Education. It is a registered Heritage Property. .]]
Unveiled on 16 August 1963, a wooden and metal organ in Manning Chapel, Acadia University, is dedicated to Acadia University's war dead of the First and Second World Wars and the Korean War. A book of remembrance in Manning Chapel, Acadia University was unveiled on 1 March 1998 through the efforts of the Wolfville Historical Society.
In 1966, it terminated its affiliation with the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries). The denomination maintains nine seats on the university's Board of Governors.
Acadia is a laureate of Washington's Smithsonian Institution and a part of the permanent research collection of the National Museum of American History. Acadia is also the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award.
Faculty strikes
Acadia University's Board of Governors and members of the Acadia University Faculty Association (AUFA) have ratified a new collective agreement covering the period 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2014. The faculty of Acadia University have been on strike three times in the history of the institution. The first was 24 February to 12 March 2004. The second was 15 October to 5 November 2007. The second strike was resolved after the province's labour minister, Mark Parent, appointed a mediator, on 1 November, to facilitate an agreement. The third strike began on 1 February 2022 and ended 1 March 2022 with both sides agreeing to binding arbitration.Academics
Rankings
In ''Maclean's'' 2023 Guide to Canadian Universities, Acadia was ranked fifth in the publication's "primarily undergraduate" Canadian university category, tied with Bishop's University. It is the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award.
In addition, Acadia University received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing. In 2001, it achieved high rankings in the annual ''Maclean's'' University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum.
In September 2008, Acadia moved to a student-owned notebook computer version of the Acadia Advantage, now named Acadia Advantage 2.0.
The new Agri-Technology Access Centre in the Innovation Pavilion provides companies and industry organizations with access to specialized technology, lab space, subject-matter expertise and commercialization support services. It also enables Acadia to advance its applied research strength in a priority sector – agriculture – and expand its technology transfer and commercialization activities. The Science Complex renewal project was supported by an investment of $15.98 million by the Federal and Provincial governments.Athletics
Acadia's sports teams are called the Axemen and Axewomen. They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of U Sports.
Men's and women's varsity teams that have won more conference and national championships than any other institution in Atlantic University Sport. Routinely, more than one-third of Acadia's varsity athletes also achieve Academic All-Canadian designation through Canadian Interuniversity Sport by maintaining a minimum average of 80 per cent.
In September 2006, Acadia University announced its partnership with the Wolfville Tritons Swim Club and the Acadia Masters Swim Club to form the Acadia Swim Club and return competitive swimming to the university after a 14-year hiatus. On 26 September 2008, the university announced its intention to return swimming to a varsity status in September 2009.
Fight song
Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: Stand Up and Cheer, the Acadia University fight song. According to 'Songs of Acadia College' (Wolfville, NS 1902–3, 1907), the songs include: 'Acadia Centennial Song' (1938); 'The Acadia Clan Song'; 'Alma Mater - Acadia;' 'Alma Mater Acadia' (1938) and 'Alma Mater Song.'SymbolsIn 1974, Acadia was granted a coat of arms designed by the College of Arms in London, England. The coat of arms is two-tone, with the school's official colours, garnet and blue, on the shield. The axes represent the school's origins in a rural setting, and the determination of its founders who cleared the land and built the school on donated items and labour. The open books represent the intellectual pursuits of a university, and the wolves heads are a whimsical representation of the university's location in Wolfville. "In pulvere vinces" (In dust you conquer) is the motto.
The university seal depicts the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena in front of the first college hall.
The university also uses a stylized "A" as a logo for its sports teams.
Notable among a number of fight songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: the Acadia University alma mater set to the tune of "Annie Lisle". The lyrics are:
Historic buildings
Seminary House, also known as just "Sem", is a Second Empire style-building constructed in 1878 as a home for women attending the university. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1997 as Canada's oldest facility associated with the higher education of women. The building now serves as a co-ed residence, and Whitman House on campus now serves as the women's only residence.
Carnegie Hall, built in 1909, is a large, two-storey, Neo-classical brick building. It was designated under the provincial Heritage Property Act in 1989 as its construction in 1909 signified Acadia's evolution from classical college to liberal university.
The War Memorial House (more generally known as Barrax or Rax), which is a residence, and War Memorial Gymnasium are landmark buildings on the campus of Acadia University. The Memorial Hall and Gymnasium honours students who had enlisted and died in the First World War, and in the Second World War. Two granite shafts, which are part of the War Memorial Gymnasium complex at Acadia University, are dedicated to the university's war dead. The War Memorial House is dedicated to the war dead from Acadia University during the Second World War.Student lifeAt Acadia University, students have access to the Student Union Building which serves as a hub for students and houses many Student Union organizations. The building houses The Axe Lounge, a convenience store, an information desk, two food outlets, and the Sexual Health Resource Centre. The university press, The Athenaeum is a member of CUP.Student governmentAll students are represented by the Acadia Students' Union.ResidencesApproximately 1500 students live on-campus in 11 residences:
* Chase Court
* Chipman House
* Christofor Hall
* Crowell Tower (13 Story High-rise)
* 55 University Avenue (formerly known as Cutten House, it was temporarily renamed in late 2024 until a new name could be decided. Cutten House was named in honour of a university president who had been in support of segregation and eugenics)
* Dennis House - First floor houses student health services
* Eaton House
* Roy Jodrey Hall
* Seminary House - Also houses the School of Education in lower level
* War Memorial (Barrax) House
* Whitman House (Tully) - All female residence
* Willett House (former residence)People
List of presidents and vice chancellors
* John Pryor, 1846–1850
* John Cramp, 1851–1853 (and 1856–1869)
* Edmund Crawley, 1853–1856
* John Cramp, 1856–1869
* Artemas Wyman Sawyer, 1869–1896
* Thomas Trotter, 1897–1906
* W.B. Hutchinson, 1907–1909
* George Barton Cutten, 1910–1922
* Frederic Patterson, 1923–1948
* Watson Kirkconnell, 1948–1964
* James Beveridge, 1964–1978
* Allan Sinclair, 1978–1981
* James Perkin, 1981–1993
* Kelvin Ogilvie, 1993–2004
* Gail Dinter-Gottlieb, 2004–2008
* Tom Herman (Acting President), 2008–2009
* Ray Ivany, 2009 – 2017
* Peter J Ricketts, 2017 - 2023
* Jeffrey J Hennessy, 2023
List of chancellors
*Alex Colville, 1981–1991
* William Feindel, 1991–1996
* Arthur Irving, 1996–2010
* Libby Burnham, 2011–2018
* Bruce Galloway, 2018–2024
* Nancy McCain, 2024–present
Notable alumni
* Edgar Archibald, scientist and politician
* Norman Atkins, Canadian senator
* Solomon Adeniyi Babalola - Nigerian Baptist missionary/evangelist, Church Pastor, Church Administrator, Denominational Leader, and Theological Educator
* Ron Barkhouse, MLA for Lunenburg East (Horton Academy)
* Gordon Lockhart Bennett, Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island
* Arthur Bourns, President of McMaster University
* Libby Burnham, lawyer, Chancellor of Acadia University
* Bob Cameron, football player
* Dalton Camp, journalist, politician and political strategist
* M. Elizabeth Cannon, University of Calgary President & Vice-Chancellor
* Lillian Chase, physician
* Paul Corkum, physicist and F.R.S.
* John Wallace de Beque Farris, Canadian senator
* Mark Day, actor
* Michael Dick, CBC-TV journalist
* Charles Aubrey Eaton (1868–1953), clergyman and politician <!-- who served in the United States House of Representatives, representing the from 1925 to 1933, and the from 1933 to 1953. not required - this is simply a hyperlinked list-->
* William Feindel, neurosurgeon
* Dale Frail, astronomer
* Rob Ramsay, actor
* Alexandra Fuller, writer
* Gary Graham, musician, choral conductor
* Matthew Green, Member of Parliament
* Milton Fowler Gregg, VC laureate, politician
* Robbie Harrison, Nova Scotian politician and educator
* Richard Hatfield, Premier of New Brunswick
* Charles Brenton Huggins, Nobel Laureate
* Kenneth Colin Irving, industrialist
* Robert Irving, industrialist
* Ron James, comedian
* Lorie Kane, LPGA golfer
* Gerald Keddy, Member of Parliament
* Joanne Kelly, actress
* Mary Knickle, composer, lyricist, musician
* Kenneth Komoski, educator
* David H. Levy, astronomer
* Peter MacKay, lawyer, Canadian Minister of National Defense
* Henry Poole MacKeen, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia
* Paul Masotti, football player
* Harrison McCain, industrialist
* Donald Oliver, Canadian senator
* Rev. William Pearly Oliver, black minister and educator
* Henry Nicholas Paint (1830–1921), member of Parliament, merchant, landowner,
* Freeman Patterson, photographer, writer
* Robert Pope, visual artist author
* Keith R. Porter, cell biologist
* Heather Rankin, singer-songwriter, member of The Rankin Family
* Perry F. Rockwood, radio evangelist
* Erin Roger, scientist
* Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University
* Roger Tomlinson (1933–2014), geographer and "The Father of GIS"
* Rev. William A. White, black minister and missionary
* Lance Woolaver, playwright
See also
* Acadia Divinity College
* Canadian government scientific research organizations
* Canadian industrial research and development organizations
* Canadian Interuniversity Sport
* Canadian university scientific research organizations
* Higher education in Nova Scotia
* List of universities in Nova Scotia
* List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia
* Shad (Summer Program)
References
Further reading
* Longley, R. S. Acadia University, 1838–1938. Wolfville, N.S.: Acadia University, 1939.
External links
*
Category:Education in Kings County, Nova Scotia
Category:Universities and colleges established in 1838
Category:Buildings and structures in Kings County, Nova Scotia
Category:1838 establishments in Nova Scotia
Category:Maple League | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadia_University | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.529251 |
2237 | Steel-string acoustic guitar | thumb|Fingerpicking a steel-string guitar
thumb|A C.F. Martin Eric Clapton model
thumb|Fender DG-41SCE
thumb|Epiphone PR-5E VS
The steel-string acoustic guitar is a modern form of guitar that descends from the gut-strung Romantic guitar, but is strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. Like the modern classical guitar, it is often referred to simply as an acoustic guitar, or sometimes as a folk guitar.
The most common type is often called a flat top guitar, to distinguish it from the more specialized archtop guitar and other variations.
The standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings (scordatura), such as open G (D-G-D-G-B-D), open D (D-A-D-F-A-D), drop D (D-A-D-G-B-E), or D-A-D-G-A-D (particularly in Irish traditional music).
Construction
Steel-string guitars vary in construction and materials. Different woods and approach to bracing affect the instrument's timbre or tone. While there is little scientific evidence, many players and luthiers believe a well-made guitar's tone improves over time. They theorize that a decrease in the content of hemicellulose, crystallization of cellulose, and changes to lignin over time all result in its wood gaining better resonating properties.
Types
Steel-string acoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several body types, varying in size, depth, and proportion. In general, the guitar's soundbox can be thought of as composed of two mating chambers: the upper bouts (a bout being the rounded corner of an instrument body) on the neck end of the body, and lower bouts (on the bridge end). These meet at the waist, or the narrowest part of the body face near the soundhole. The proportion and overall size of these two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and "native sound" of a particular body style – the larger the body, the louder the volume.
The parlor, 00, double-O, or grand concert body type is the major body style most directly derived from the classical guitar. It has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size, making it very comfortable to play but lacking in volume projection relative to the larger types. Its smaller size makes it suitable for younger or smaller-framed players. It is well-suited to smaller rooms. Martin's 00-xxx series and Taylor's x12 series are common examples.
The grand auditorium guitar, sometimes called the 000 or the triple-O is very similar in design to the grand concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many 000-style guitars also have a convex back to increase the physical volume of the soundbox without making it deeper at the edges, which would affect comfort and playability. The result is a very balanced tone, comparable to the 00 but with greater volume and dynamic range and slightly more low-end response, making this body style very popular. Eric Clapton's signature Martin, for example, is of this style. Martin's 000-xxx series and Taylor's x14 series are well-known examples of the grand auditorium style.
The dreadnought is a large-bodied guitar which incorporates a deeper soundbox, but a smaller and less-pronounced upper bout than most styles. Its size and power gave rise to its name, taken from the most formidable class of warship at the time of its creation in the early 20th century. The style was designed by C. F. Martin & Company. to produce a deeper sound than "classic"-style guitars, with very resonant bass. Its body's combination of compact profile with a deep sound has since been copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier, making it the most popular body type. Martin's "D" series guitars, such as the highly prized D-28, are classic examples of the dreadnought.
The jumbo body type is bigger again than a grand auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deep tone similar to a dreadnought's. It was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought, Foremost for making steel-string guitar tops are Sitka spruce, the most common, and Alpine and Adirondack spruce. The back and sides of a particular guitar are typically made of the same wood; Brazilian rosewood, East Indian rosewood, and Honduras mahogany are traditional choices, however, maple has been prized for the figuring that can be seen when it is cut in a certain way (such as flame and quilt patterns). A common non-traditional wood gaining popularity is sapele, which is tonally similar to mahogany but slightly lighter in color and possessing a deep grain structure that is visually appealing.
Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional tonewoods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternative species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with red cedar or mahogany tops, or with spruce variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is basswood. Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use nato wood, which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as plastic or graphite. Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and some high-end luthiers produce all-carbon-fiber guitars.
Assembly
The steel-string acoustic guitar evolved from the gut-string Romantic guitar, and because steel strings have higher tension, heavier construction is required overall. One innovation is a metal bar called a truss rod, which is incorporated into the neck to strengthen it and provide adjustable counter-tension to the stress of the strings. Typically, a steel-string acoustic guitar is built with a larger soundbox than a standard classical guitar. A critical structural and tonal component of an acoustic guitar is the bracing, a systems of struts glued to the inside of the back and top. Steel-string guitars use different bracing systems from classical guitars, typically using X-bracing instead of fan bracing. (Another simpler system, called ladder bracing, where the braces are all placed across the width of the instrument, is used on all types of flat-top guitars on the back.) Innovations in bracing design have emerged, notably the A-brace developed by British luthier Roger Bucknall of Fylde Guitars.
Most luthiers and experienced players agree that a good solid top (as opposed to laminated or plywood) is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar. Solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives, commonly found in mid-level guitars (in the range of US$300–$1000).
From the 1960s through the 1980s, "by far the most significant developments in the design and construction of acoustic guitars" were made by the Ovation Guitar Company. It introduced a composite roundback bowl, which replaced the square back and sides of traditional guitars; because of its engineering design, Ovation guitars could be amplified without producing the obnoxious feedback that had plagued acoustic guitars before. Ovation also pioneered with electronics, such as pickup systems and electronic tuners.
Amplification
A steel-string guitar can be using any of three techniques:
a microphone, possibly clipped to the guitar body;
a detachable pickup, often straddling the soundhole and using the same magnetic principle as a traditional electric guitar; or
a transducer built into the body.
The last type of guitar is commonly called an acoustic-electric guitar as it can be played either "unplugged" as an acoustic, or plugged in as an electric. The most common type is a piezoelectric pickup, which is composed of a thin sandwich of quartz crystal. When compressed, the crystal produces a small electric current, so when placed under the bridge saddle, the vibrations of the strings through the saddle, and of the body of the instrument, are converted to a weak electrical signal. This signal is often sent to a pre-amplifier, which increases the signal strength and normally incorporates an equalizer. The output of the preamplifier then goes to a separate amplifier system similar to that for an electric guitar.
Several manufacturers produce specialised acoustic guitar amplifiers, which are designed to give undistorted and full-range reproduction.
Music and players
Until the 1960s, the predominant forms of music played on the flat-top, steel-string guitar remained relatively stable and included acoustic blues, country, bluegrass, folk, and several genres of rock. The concept of playing solo steel-string guitar in a concert setting was introduced in the early 1960s by such performers as Davey Graham and John Fahey, who used country blues fingerpicking techniques to compose original compositions with structures somewhat like European classical music. Fahey contemporary Robbie Basho added elements of Indian classical music and Leo Kottke used a Faheyesque approach to make the first solo steel-string guitar "hit" record.
Steel-string guitars are also important in the world of flatpicking, as utilized by such artists as Clarence White, Tony Rice, Bryan Sutton, Doc Watson and David Grier. Luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar for these players. These flat-top, steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like fingerpicking and less for chordal accompaniment (strumming). Some luthiers have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing.
Many other luthiers attempt to recreate the guitars of the "Golden Era" of C.F. Martin & Co. This was started by Roy Noble, who built the guitar played by Clarence White from 1968 to 1972, and was followed by Bill Collings, Marty Lanham, Dana Bourgeois, Randy Lucas, Lynn Dudenbostel and Wayne Henderson, a few of the luthiers building guitars today inspired by vintage Martins, the pre–World War II models in particular. As prices for vintage Martins continue to rise exponentially, upscale guitar enthusiasts have demanded faithful recreations and luthiers are working to fill that demand.
See also
Guitar
List of guitar manufacturers
Dingulator
Strumming
References
Category:Acoustic guitars
Category:American musical instruments
Category:Rhythm section | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel-string_acoustic_guitar | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.540303 |
2238 | Antipope John XXIII | Baldassarre Cossa (died 22 December 1419) was Pisan antipope as John XXIII (1410–1415) during the Western Schism. The Catholic Church today regards him as an antipope in opposition to Pope Gregory XII, whom it recognizes as the rightful successor of Saint Peter. John XXIII was also an opponent of Benedict XIII, who was recognized by the French clergy and monarchy as the legitimate pope.
Historically, the Annuario Pontificio recognized John XXIII the legitimate successor of Saint Peter. However, the Western Schism was reinterpreted when Pope John XXIII chose to reuse the ordinal XXIII, which is now reflected in modern editions of the Annuario Pontificio. John XXIII is now considered to be an antipope and Gregory XII's reign is recognized to have extended until 1415.
Cossa was born in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1403, he served as a papal legate in Romagna. He participated in the Council of Pisa in 1408, which sought to end the Western Schism with the election of a third alternative pope. In 1410, he succeeded Antipope Alexander V, taking the name John XXIII. At the instigation of King Sigismund of Germany, John XXIII called the Council of Constance of 1413, which deposed both John XXIII and Benedict XIII, accepted Gregory XII's resignation, and elected Pope Martin V to replace them, thus ending the schism. John XXIII was tried for various crimes, though later accounts question the veracity of those accusations. Towards the end of his life, Cossa restored his relationship with the Church and was made Cardinal Bishop of Frascati by Pope Martin V.
Early life
Baldassarre Cossa was born on the island of Procida in the Kingdom of Naples, the son of Giovanni Cossa, lord of Procida. Initially he followed a military career, taking part in the Angevin-Neapolitan war. His two brothers were sentenced to death for piracy by Ladislaus of Naples.
He studied law at the University of Bologna and obtained doctorates in both civil and canon law. Probably at the prompting of his family, in 1392 he entered the service of Pope Boniface IX, first working in Bologna and then in Rome. (The Western Schism had begun in 1378, and there were two competing popes at the time, one in Avignon supported by France and Spain, and one in Rome, supported by most of Italy, Germany and England.) In 1386 he is listed as canon of the cathedral of Bologna. In 1396, he became archdeacon in Bologna. He became Cardinal deacon of Saint Eustachius in 1402 and Papal legate in Romagna in 1403. Johann Peter Kirsch describes Cossa as "utterly worldly-minded, ambitious, crafty, unscrupulous, and immoral, a good soldier but no churchman". At this time Cossa also had some links with local robber bands, which were often used to intimidate his rivals and attack carriages. These connections added to his influence and power in the region. Role in the Western Schism Council of Pisa Cardinal Cossa was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, withdrew their allegiance from Pope Gregory XII, stating that he had broken his solemn oath not to create new cardinals without consulting them in advance. In company with those cardinals who had been following Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, they convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became a leading figure. The aim of the council was to end the schism; to this end they deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected a new pope Alexander V in 1409. John XXIII made the Medici Bank the bank of the papacy, contributing considerably to the family's wealth and prestige.
The main enemy of John was Ladislaus of Naples, who protected Gregory XII in Rome. Following his election as pope, John spent a year in Bologna and then joined forces with Louis II of Anjou to march against Ladislaus. An initial victory proved short-lived and Ladislaus retook Rome in May 1413, forcing John to flee to Florence.
Flight from the Council of Constance
In March, John escaped from Constance disguised as a postman.
Deposition
During his absence, John was deposed by the council, and upon his return he was tried for heresy, simony, schism and immorality, and found guilty on all counts. The 18th century historian Edward Gibbon wrote, "The more scandalous charges were suppressed; the vicar of Christ was accused only of piracy, rape, sodomy, murder and incest." John was given over to Ludwig III, Elector Palatine, who imprisoned him for several months in Heidelberg and Mannheim.
The last remaining claimant in Avignon, Benedict XIII, refused to resign and was excommunicated. Martin V was elected as new pope in 1417.
Death and burial
]]
Cossa was freed in 1418 after a heavy ransom was paid by the Medici.
The 1932 thriller Safe Custody by Dornford Yates, references John. Listing the members of an objectionable family, a character in the story says, "Then we come to his nephew—a promising lad of fifteen. He lies, steals, smells, assaults the servants and abuses any animal which he is satisfied will not retaliate. If Gibbon may be believed, Pope John the Twenty-third as a stripling must have resembled him".
In 1983, American political satirist and novelist Richard Condon wrote A Trembling Upon Rome, a novel of historical fiction about the life of Baldassare Cossa.
Russian writer Dmitry Balashov wrote the novel Baltazar Kossa () about Antipope John XXIII.
Numbering issues
He should not be confused with Pope John XXIII of the twentieth century. When Angelo Roncalli was elected pope in 1958, there was some confusion as to whether he would be John XXIII or John XXIV; he then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. There was no John XX, since that number was skipped due to an error by Medieval Pope John XXI; this is why Gibbon refers to the antipope John as John XXII.
See also
* Papal selection before 1059
* Papal conclave (since 1274)
References
Sources
*
* Further reading *
}}
Category:1300s births
Category:1419 deaths
Category:Popes who abdicated
Category:People from the Metropolitan City of Naples
Category:Antipopes
Category:Cardinal-bishops of Frascati
Category:Cardinal-nephews
Category:Deans of the College of Cardinals
Category:15th-century antipopes
Category:14th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_John_XXIII | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.551142 |
2241 | Antonio Salieri | | birth_place = Legnago, Republic of Venice
| death_date
| death_place = Vienna, Austrian Empire
| works = List of compositions
| signature = Antonio Salieri signature.svg
}}
Antonio Salieri , , .}} (18 August 17507 May 1825) was an Italian composer and teacher of the classical period. He was born in Legnago, south of Verona, in the Republic of Venice, and spent his adult life and career as a subject of the Habsburg monarchy.
Salieri was a pivotal figure in the development of late 18th-century opera. As a student of Florian Leopold Gassmann, and a protégé of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Salieri was a cosmopolitan composer who wrote operas in three languages. Salieri helped to develop and shape many of the features of operatic compositional vocabulary, and his music was a powerful influence on contemporary composers.
Appointed the director of the Italian opera by the Habsburg court, a post he held from 1774 until 1792, Salieri dominated Italian-language opera in Vienna. During his career, he also spent time writing works for opera houses in Paris, Rome, and Venice, and his dramatic works were widely performed throughout Europe during his lifetime. As the Austrian imperial Kapellmeister from 1788 to 1824, he was responsible for music at the court chapel and attached school. Even as his works dropped from performance, and he wrote no new operas after 1804, he still remained one of the most important and sought-after teachers of his generation, and his influence was felt in every aspect of Vienna's musical life. Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, Ludwig van Beethoven, Anton Eberl, Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart were among the most famous of his pupils.
Salieri's music slowly disappeared from the repertoire between 1800 and 1868 and was rarely heard after that period until the revival of his fame in the late 20th century. This revival was due to the fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979) and its 1984 film version. The death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1791 at the age of 35 was followed by rumors that he and Salieri had been bitter rivals, and that Salieri had poisoned the younger composer; however, this has been disproved because the symptoms displayed by Mozart's illness did not indicate poisoning and it is likely that they were, at least, mutually respectful peers. Salieri was greatly affected by the widespread public belief that he had contributed to Mozart's death, which he vehemently denied and contributed to his nervous breakdowns in later life.
Life and career
Early life (1750–1770)
Antonio Salieri was born on August 18, 1750, to Antonio Salieri and his wife, Anna Maria. Salieri started his musical studies in his native town of Legnago; he was first taught at home by his older brother Francesco Salieri (a former student of the violinist and composer Giuseppe Tartini), and he received further lessons from the organist of the Legnago Cathedral, Giuseppe Simoni, a pupil of Padre Giovanni Battista Martini. Salieri remembered little from his childhood in later years except for passions for sugar, reading, and music. He twice ran away from home without permission to hear his elder brother play violin concertos in neighboring churches on festival days and he recounted being chastised by his father after failing to greet a local priest with proper respect. Salieri responded to the reprimand by saying the priest's organ playing displeased him because it was in an inappropriately theatrical style. Sometime between 1763 and 1764, both of Salieri's parents died, and he was briefly taken in by an anonymous brother, a monk in Padua, and then for unknown reasons in 1765 or 1766, he became the ward of a Venetian nobleman named Giovanni Mocenigo (which Giovanni is at this time unknown), a member of the powerful and well connected Mocenigo family. which Salieri translated during each Latin lesson. As a result, Salieri continued to live with Gassmann even after Gassmann's marriage, an arrangement that lasted until the year of Gassmann's death and Salieri's own marriage in 1774. Few of Salieri's compositions have survived from this early period. In his old age Salieri hinted that these works were either purposely destroyed or had been lost, with the exception of a few works for the church. Among these sacred works there survives a Mass in C major written without a "Gloria" and in the antique a cappella style (presumably for one of the church's penitential seasons) and dated 2 August 1767. A complete opera composed in 1769 (presumably as a culminating study) La vestal (The Vestal Virgin) has also been lost.
Beginning in 1766 Gassmann introduced Salieri to the daily chamber music performances held during Emperor Joseph II's evening meal. Salieri quickly impressed the Emperor, and Gassmann was instructed to bring his pupil as often as he wished. This was the beginning of a relationship between monarch and musician that lasted until Joseph's death in 1790. Salieri met Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known as Metastasio, and Christoph Willibald Gluck during this period at the Sunday morning salons held at the home of the Martinez family. Metastasio had an apartment there and participated in the weekly gatherings. Over the next several years Metastasio gave Salieri informal instruction in prosody and the declamation of Italian poetry, and Gluck became an informal advisor, friend, and confidante. It was toward the end of this extended period of study that Gassmann was called away on a new opera commission and a gap in the theater's program allowed for Salieri to make his debut as a composer of a completely original opera buffa. Salieri's first full opera was composed during the winter and carnival season of 1770; Le donne letterate and was based on Molière's Les Femmes Savantes (The Learned Ladies) with a libretto by , a dancer in the court ballet and a brother of the composer Luigi Boccherini. The modest success of this opera launched Salieri's 34-year operatic career as a composer of over 35 original dramas.Early Viennese period and operas (1770–1778)Following the modest success of Le donne letterate Salieri received new commissions for writing two additional operas in 1770, both with libretti by Giovanni Boccherini. The first, a pastoral opera, ''L'amore innocente (Innocent Love''), was a light-hearted comedy set in the Austrian mountains. The second was based on an episode from Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote – Don Chisciotte alle nozze di Gamace (Don Quixote at the Marriage of Camacho). In these first works, drawn mostly from the traditions of mid-century opera buffa, Salieri showed a penchant for experimentation and for mixing the established characteristics of specific operatic genres. Don Chisciotte was a mix of ballet and , and the lead female roles in ''L'amore innocente were designed to contrast and highlight the different traditions of operatic writing for soprano, even borrowing stylistic flourishes from opera seria in the use of coloratura in what was a short pastoral comedy more in keeping with a Roman Intermezzo. The mixing and pushing against the boundaries of established operatic genres was a continuing hallmark of Salieri's own personal style, and in his choice of material for the plot (as in his first opera), he manifested a lifelong interest in subjects drawn from classic drama and literature.
Salieri's first great success was in the realm of serious opera. Commissioned for an unknown occasion, Salieri's Armida was based on Torquato Tasso's epic poem La Gerusalemme liberata (Jerusalem Delivered); it premiered on 2 June 1771. Armida is a tale of love and duty in conflict and is saturated in magic. The opera is set during the First Crusade and features a dramatic mix of ballet, aria, ensemble, and choral writing, combining theatricality, scenic splendor, and high emotionalism. The work clearly followed in Gluck's footsteps and embraced his reform of serious opera beginning with Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste. The libretto to Armida was by Marco Coltellini, the house poet for the imperial theaters. While Salieri followed the precepts set forth by Gluck and his librettist Ranieri de' Calzabigi in the preface to Alceste, Salieri also drew on some musical ideas from the more traditional opera seria and even , creating a new synthesis in the process. Armida was translated into German and widely performed, especially in the northern German states, where it helped to establish Salieri's reputation as an important and innovative modern composer. It was also the first opera to receive a serious preparation in a piano and vocal reduction by in 1783.
Armida was soon followed by Salieri's first truly popular success, a commedia per musica in the style of Carlo Goldoni La Fiera di Venezia (The Fair of Venice). La Fiera was written for Carnival in 1772 and premiered on 29 January. Here Salieri returned to his collaboration with the young Giovanni Boccherini, who crafted an original plot. La Fiera featured characters singing in three languages, a bustling portrayal of the Ascension-tide Fair and Carnival in Venice, and large and lengthy ensembles and choruses. It also included an innovative scene that combined a series of on-stage dances with singing from both solo protagonists and the chorus. This was a pattern imitated by later composers, most famously and successfully by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Don Giovanni. Salieri also wrote several bravura arias for a soprano playing the part of a middle-class character that combined coloratura and concertante woodwind solos, another innovation for comic opera that was widely imitated.
Salieri's next two operas were not particular or lasting successes. La secchia rapita (The Stolen Bucket) is a parody of the high flown and emotive arias found in Metastasian opera seria. It also contains innovative orchestrations, including the first known use of three tympani. Again a classic of Renaissance literature was the basis of the libretto by Boccherini, in this case, a comic mock-epic by Tassoni, in which a war between Modena and Bologna follows the theft of a bucket. This uneven work was followed by a popular comedic success (The Mistress of the Inn), an adaptation of the classic and popular spoken stage comedy La locandiera by Carlo Goldoni, with the libretto prepared by Domenico Poggi.
The majority of Salieri's modest number of instrumental works also date from this time. Salieri's instrumental works have been judged by various critics and scholars to lack the inspiration and innovation found in his writing for the stage. These orchestral works are mainly in the Galant style, and although they show some development toward the late classical, they reflect a general weakness in comparison to his operatic works of the same and later periods. These works were written for mostly unknown occasions and artists. They include two concertos for pianoforte, one in C major and one in B flat major (both 1773); a concerto for organ in C Major in two movements (the middle movement is missing from the autograph score, or perhaps, it was an improvised organ solo) (also 1773); and two concertante works: a concerto for oboe, violin and cello in D major (1770), and a flute and oboe concerto in C major (1774). These works are among the most frequently recorded of Salieri's compositions.
Upon Gassmann's death on 21 January, most likely due to complications from an accident with a carriage some years earlier, Salieri succeeded him as assistant director of the Italian opera in early 1774. On 10 October 1775 Salieri married Therese Helferstorfer, the daughter of a recently deceased financier and official of the court treasury. Sacred music was not a high priority for the composer during this stage of his career, but he did compose an Alleluia for chorus and orchestra in 1774.
During the next three years, Salieri was primarily concerned with rehearsing and conducting the Italian opera company in Vienna and with teaching. His three complete operas written during this time show the development of his compositional skills, but included no great success, either commercially or artistically. His most important compositions during this period were a symphony in D major, performed in the summer of 1776, and the oratorio La Passione di Gesù Cristo with a text by Metastasio, performed during Advent of 1776.
After the financial collapse of the Italian opera company in 1777 due to financial mismanagement, Joseph II decided to end the performance of Italian opera, French-spoken drama, and ballet. Instead, the two court-owned theaters would be reopened under new management, and partly subsidized by the Imperial Court, as a new National Theater. The re-launched theaters would promote German-language plays and musical productions that reflected Austrian (or as Joseph II would have said) German values, traditions, and outlook. The Italian company was therefore replaced by a German-language Singspiel troupe. Joseph and his supporters of Imperial reform wanted to encourage pan-national pride that would unite his multi-lingual and ethnic subjects under one common language and hoped to save a considerable amount of money in the process. Beginning in 1778 the Emperor wished to have new works, in German, composed by his own subjects and brought on the stage with clear Imperial support. This in effect left Salieri's role as assistant court composer in a much-reduced position. Salieri also had never truly mastered the German language, and he now felt no longer competent to continue as an assistant opera director. A further blow to his career was when the spoken drama and musical Singspiel were placed on an equal footing. For the young composer, there would be few, if any, new compositional commissions to receive from the court. Salieri was left with few financial options and he began casting about for new opportunities.
Italian tour (1778–1780)
In 1778 Gluck turned down an offer to compose the inaugural opera for La Scala in Milan. Upon the suggestion of Joseph II and with the approval of Gluck, Salieri was offered the commission, which he gratefully accepted. Joseph II granted Salieri permission to take a year-long leave of absence (later extended), enabling him to write for La Scala and to undertake a tour of Italy. Salieri's Italian tour of 1778–80 began with the production of Europa riconosciuta (Europa Recognized) for La Scala (revived in 2004 for the same opera house's re-opening following extensive renovations). From Milan, Salieri included stops in Venice and Rome before returning to Milan. During this tour, he wrote three new comic operas and he collaborated with Giacomo Rust on one opera, (The Talisman). Of his Italian works one, ''La Scuola de' gelosi (The School for Jealousy), a witty study of amorous intrigue and emotion, proved a popular and lasting international success.Middle Viennese period and Parisian operas (1780–1788)Upon his return at imperial behest to Vienna in 1780, Salieri wrote one German Singspiel, Der Rauchfangkehrer (The Chimney Sweep''), which premiered in 1781. Salieri's Chimney Sweep and Mozart's work for the same company in 1782, Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio), were the only two major successes to emerge from the German Singspiel experiment, and only Mozart's opera survived on the stage beyond the close of the 18th century. In 1783 the Italian opera company was revived with singers partly chosen and vetted by Salieri during his Italian tour; the new season opened with a slightly re-worked version of Salieri's recent success ''La Scuola de' gelosi. Salieri then returned to his rounds of rehearsing, composition, and teaching. However, his time at home in Vienna quickly ended when an opportunity to write an opera for Paris arose, again through the patronage of Gluck. Salieri traveled abroad to fulfill an important commission.
The opera Les Danaïdes (The Danaids) is a five-act tragédie lyrique. The plot was based on an ancient Greek legend that had been the basis for the first play in a trilogy by Aeschylus, entitled The Suppliants. The original commission that reached Salieri in 1783–84 was to assist Gluck in finishing a work for Paris that had been all but completed; in reality, Gluck had failed to notate any of the scores for the new opera and gave the entire project over to his young friend. Gluck feared that the Parisian critics would denounce the opera by a young composer known mostly for comic pieces and so the opera was originally billed in the press as being a new work by Gluck with some assistance from Salieri, then shortly before the premiere of the opera the Parisian press reported that the work was to be partly by Gluck and partly by Salieri, and finally, after popular and critical success on stage, the opera was acknowledged in a letter to the public by Gluck as being wholly by the young Salieri. Les Danaïdes was received with great acclaim and its popularity with audiences and critics alike produced several further requests for new works for Paris audiences by Salieri. Les Danaïdes followed in the tradition of reform that Gluck had begun in the 1760s and that Salieri had emulated in his earlier opera Armida''. Salieri's first French opera contained scenes of great solemnity and festivity, but overshadowing it all was darkness and revenge. The opera depicted politically motivated murder, filial duty and love in conflict, tyrannicide, and finally eternal damnation. The opera, with its dark overture, lavish choral writing, many ballet scenes, and electrifying finale depicting a glimpse of hellish torture, kept the opera on the stage in Paris for over forty years. A young Hector Berlioz recorded the deep impression this work made on him in his Mémoires.
Upon returning to Vienna following his success in Paris, Salieri met and befriended Lorenzo Da Ponte and had his first professional encounters with Mozart. Da Ponte wrote his first opera libretto for Salieri, ''Il ricco d'un giorno (A Rich Man for a Day) in 1784, which was not a success. Salieri next turned to Giambattista Casti as a librettist; a more successful set of collaborations flowed from this pairing. In the meantime, Da Ponte began working with Mozart on Le Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro). In 1785 Salieri produced one of his greatest works with the text by Casti, La grotta di Trofonio (The Cave of Trophonius), the first published in full score by Artaria. Shortly after this success, Joseph II had Mozart and Salieri each contribute a one-act opera and/or Singspiel for production at a banquet in 1786. Salieri collaborated with Casti to produce a parody of the relationship between poet and composer in Prima la musica e poi le parole (First the music and then the words). This short work also highlighted the typical backstage antics of two high-flown sopranos. Salieri then returned to Paris for the premiere of his tragédie Lyrique Les Horaces (The Horatii), which proved a failure, which was more than made up for with his next Parisian opera Tarare, with a libretto by Beaumarchais. This was intended to be the of reform opera, a completely new synthesis of poetry and music that was an 18th-century anticipation of the ideals of Richard Wagner. Salieri also created a sacred cantata Le Judgment dernier (The Last Judgement). The success of his opera Tarare'' was such that it was soon translated into Italian at Joseph II's behest by Lorenzo Da Ponte as ''Axur, re d'Ormus (Axur, King of Hormuz) and staged at the royal wedding of Franz II in 1788.
Late Viennese operas (1788–1804)
In 1788 Salieri returned to Vienna, where he remained for the rest of his life. In that year he became Kapellmeister of the Imperial Chapel upon the death of Giuseppe Bonno; as Kapellmeister he conducted the music and musical school connected with the chapel until shortly before his death, being officially retired from the post in 1824.
His Italian adaptation of Tarare, Axur proved to be his greatest international success. Axur was widely produced throughout Europe and it even reached South America with the exiled royal house of Portugal in 1824. Axur'' and his other new compositions completed by 1792 marked the height of Salieri's popularity and his influence. Just as his apogee of fame was being reached abroad, his influence in Vienna began to diminish with the death of Joseph II in 1790. Joseph's death deprived Salieri of his greatest patron and protector. During this period of imperial change in Vienna and revolutionary ferment in France, Salieri composed two additional extremely innovative musical dramas to libretti by Giovanni Casti. Due, however, to their satiric and overtly liberal political inclinations, both operas were seen as unsuitable for public performance in the politically reactive cultures of Leopold II and later Francis II. This resulted in two of his most original operas being consigned to his desk drawer, namely ''Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari (Kublai Grand Kahn of Tartary) a satire on the autocracy and court intrigues at the court of the Russian Tsarina, Catherine the Great, and Catilina, a semi-comic/semi-tragic account of the Catiline conspiracy that attempted to overthrow the Roman republic during the consulship of Cicero. These operas were composed in 1787 and 1792 respectively. Two other operas of little success and long-term importance were composed in 1789, and one great popular success La cifra (The Cipher'').
As Salieri's political position became insecure he retired as director of the Italian opera in 1792. He continued to write new operas per imperial contract until 1804 when he voluntarily withdrew from the stage. Of his late works for the stage only two works gained wide popular esteem during his life, Palmira, regina di Persia (Palmira, Queen of Persia) (1795) and (Caesar on Pharmacusa), both drawing on the heroic and exotic success established with Axur. His late opera based on William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, Falstaff ossia Le tre burle (Falstaff, or the three tricks) (1799) has found a wider audience in modern times than its original reception promised. His last opera was a German-language Singspiel (The Negroes), a melodrama set in colonial Virginia with a text by Georg Friedrich Treitschke (the author of the libretto for Beethoven's Fidelio); it was performed in 1804 and was a complete failure.
Life after opera (1804–1825)
When Salieri retired from the stage, he recognized that artistic styles had changed and he felt that he no longer had the creative capacity to adapt or the emotional desire to continue. Also as Salieri aged, he moved slowly away from his more liberal political stances as he saw the enlightened reform of Joseph II's reign, and the hoped-for reforms of the French revolution, replaced with more radical revolutionary ideas. As the political situation threatened and eventually overwhelmed Austria, which was repeatedly crushed by French political forces, Salieri's first and most important biographer Ignaz von Mosel described the emotional effect that this political, social, and cultural upheaval had on the composer. Mosel noted that these radical changes, especially the invasion and defeat of Austria, and the occupation of Vienna intertwined with the personal losses that struck Salieri in the same period, led to his withdrawal from operatic work. Related to this Mosel quotes the aged composer concerning the radical changes in musical taste that were underway in the age of Beethoven, "From that period [circa 1800] I realized that musical taste was gradually changing in a manner completely contrary to that of my own times. Eccentricity and confusion of genres replaced reasoned and masterful simplicity."
As his teaching and work with the imperial chapel continued, his duties required the composition of a large number of sacred works, and in his last years, it was almost exclusively in religious works and teaching that Salieri occupied himself. Among his compositions written for the chapel were two complete sets of vespers, many graduals, offertories, and four orchestral masses. During this period he lost his only son in 1805 and his wife in 1807.
Salieri continued to conduct publicly, including the performance on 18 March 1808 of Haydn's The Creation during which Haydn collapsed, and several premieres by Beethoven including the 1st and 2nd Piano Concertos and ''Wellington's Victory. He also continued to help administer several charities and organize their musical events.
His remaining secular works in this late period fall into three categories: first, large-scale cantatas and one oratorio Habsburg written on patriotic themes or in response to the international political situation, pedagogical works written to aid his students in voice, and finally simple songs, rounds or canons written for home entertainment; many with original poetry by the composer. He also composed one large-scale instrumental work in 1815 intended as a study in late classical orchestration: Twenty-Six Variations for the Orchestra on a Theme called La Folia di Spagna. The theme is likely folk-derived and is known as La Folía''. This simple melodic and harmonic progression had served as an inspiration for many baroque composers and would be used by later romantic and post-romantic composers. Salieri's setting is a brooding work in the minor key, which rarely moves far from the original melodic material, its main interest lies in the deft and varied handling of orchestral colors. La Folia was the most monumental set of orchestral variations before Brahms' Variations on a Theme by Haydn.
His teaching of budding young musicians continued, and among his pupils in composition (usually vocal) were Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonio Casimir Cartellieri, Franz Liszt and Franz Schubert. He also instructed many prominent singers throughout his career, including Caterina Canzi. All but the wealthiest of his pupils received their lessons for free, a tribute to the kindness Gassmann had shown Salieri as a penniless orphan.
In November 1823 Salieri attempted suicide. He was committed to medical care and suffered dementia for the last year and a half of his life. He died in Vienna on 7 May 1825, aged 74 and was buried in the Matzleinsdorfer Friedhof on 10 May. At his memorial service on 22 June 1825, his own Requiem in C minor – composed in 1804 – was performed for the first time. His remains were later transferred to the Zentralfriedhof. His monument is adorned by a poem written by Joseph Weigl, one of his pupils:
<poem lang"de" style"float:left;">Ruh sanft! Vom Staub entblößt,
Wird Dir die Ewigkeit erblühen.
Ruh sanft! In ew'gen Harmonien
Ist nun Dein Geist gelöst.
Er sprach sich aus in zaubervollen Tönen,
Jetzt schwebt er hin zum unvergänglich Schönen.</poem>
<poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;">Rest in peace! Uncovered by dust
Eternity shall bloom for you.
Rest in peace! In eternal harmonies
Your spirit now is set free.
He expressed himself in enchanting notes,
Now he is floating to everlasting beauty.</poem>
Works
Opera
During his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of opera, but also of chamber and sacred music. Among the most successful of his 37 operas staged during his lifetime were Armida (1771), La fiera di Venezia (1772), ''La scuola de' gelosi (1778), Der Rauchfangkehrer (1781), Les Danaïdes'' (1784), which was first presented as a work of Gluck's, La grotta di Trofonio (1785), Tarare (1787) (Tarare was reworked and revised several times as was Les Danaïdes), ''Axur, re d'Ormus (1788), La cifra (1789), Palmira, regina di Persia (1795), Il mondo alla rovescia (1795), Falstaff (1799), and Cesare in Farmacusa'' (1800).
Sacred works
Salieri's earliest surviving work is a Mass in C major. He would write four major orchestral masses, a requiem, and many offertories, graduals, vesper settings, and sacred cantatas and oratorios. Much of his sacred music dates from after his appointment as Hofkapellmeister in 1788.
Instrumental works
His small instrumental output includes two piano concerti, a concerto for organ written in 1773, a concerto for flute, oboe and orchestra (1774), a triple concerto for oboe, violin and cello, and a set of twenty-six variations on "La folia di Spagna" (1815).
Relationship with Mozart
In the 1780s, while Mozart lived and worked in Vienna, he and his father Leopold wrote in their letters that several "cabals" of Italians led by Salieri were actively putting obstacles in the way of Mozart's obtaining certain posts or staging his operas. For example, Mozart wrote in December 1781 to his father that "the only one who counts in the Emperor's eyes is Salieri". Their letters suggest that both Mozart and his father, being Austrians who resented the special place that Italian composers had in the courts of the Austrian nobility, blamed the Italians in general and Salieri in particular for all of Mozart's difficulties in establishing himself in Vienna. Mozart wrote to his father in May 1783 about Salieri and Da Ponte, the court poet: "You know those Italian gentlemen; they are very nice to your face! Enough, we all know about them. And if Da Ponte is in league with Salieri, I'll never get a text from him, and I would love to show him what I can really do with an Italian opera." In July 1783, he again wrote to his father of "a trick of Salieri's", one of several letters in which Mozart accused Salieri of trickery.
Decades after Mozart's death, a rumor began to circulate that Mozart had been poisoned by Salieri. This rumor has been attributed by some to a rivalry between the German and the Italian schools of music. Carl Maria von Weber, a relative of Mozart by marriage whom Wagner has characterized as the most German of German composers, is said to have refused to join the Ludlamshöhle (Ludlam's cave), a social club of which Salieri was a member, and avoided having anything to do with him. These rumors then made their way into popular culture. Albert Lortzing's Singspiel Szenen aus Mozarts Leben LoWV28 (1832) and the popular 1984 film Amadeus uses the cliché of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career.
Ironically, Salieri's music was much more in the tradition of Gluck and Gassmann than of the Italians like Giovanni Paisiello or Domenico Cimarosa. In 1772, Empress Maria Theresa commented on her preference for Italian composers over Germans like Gassmann, Salieri, or Gluck. While Italian by birth, Salieri had lived in imperial Vienna for almost 60 years and was regarded by such people as the music critic Friedrich Rochlitz as a German composer.
The biographer Alexander Wheelock Thayer believes that Mozart's rivalry with Salieri could have originated with an incident in 1781, when Mozart applied to be the music teacher of Princess Elisabeth of Württemberg, and Salieri was selected instead because of his reputation as a singing teacher. The following year Mozart once again failed to be selected as the princess's piano teacher. "Salieri and his tribe will move heaven and earth to put it down", Leopold Mozart wrote to his daughter Nannerl. But at the time of the premiere of Figaro, Salieri was busy with his new French opera Les Horaces. In addition, when Da Ponte was in Prague preparing the production of Mozart's setting of his Don Giovanni, the poet was ordered back to Vienna for a royal wedding at which Salieri's ''Axur, re d'Ormus'' would be performed. Mozart was not pleased by this.
The rivalry between Salieri and Mozart became publicly visible as well as audible during the opera composition competition held by Emperor Joseph II in 1786 in the Orangery at Schönbrunn. Mozart was considered the loser of this competition. Mozart's 1791 opera The Magic Flute echoes that competition because the Papageno–Papagena duet is similar to the Cucuzza cavatina in Salieri's Prima la musica e poi le parole. The Magic Flute also echoes Salieri's music in that Papageno's whistle is based on a motif borrowed from Salieri's Concerto for Clavicembalo in B-flat major.
However, there is also evidence attesting to Mozart and Salieri sometimes appearing to support each other's work. For example, when Salieri was appointed Kapellmeister in 1788, he chose to revive Figaro instead of introducing a new opera of his own, and when he attended the coronation festivities for Leopold II in 1790, Salieri had no fewer than three Mozart masses in his luggage. Salieri and Mozart even jointly composed a cantata for voice and piano, Per la ricuperata salute di Ofelia, which celebrated the return to the stage of the singer Nancy Storace. This work, although it had been printed by Artaria in 1785, was considered lost until 10 January 2016, when the Schwäbische Zeitung reported on the discovery by musicologist and composer Timo Jouko Herrmann of a copy of its text and music while doing research on Antonio Salieri in the collections of the Czech Museum of Music. Mozart's Davide penitente (1785), his Piano Concerto KV 482 (1785), the Clarinet Quintet (1789) and the 40th Symphony (1788) had been premiered on the suggestion of Salieri, who supposedly conducted a performance of it in 1791. In his last surviving letter from 14 October 1791, Mozart told his wife that he had picked up Salieri and Caterina Cavalieri in his carriage and driven them both to the opera; about Salieri's attendance at his opera The Magic Flute, speaking enthusiastically: "He heard and saw with all his attention, and from the overture, to the last choir there was not a piece that didn't elicit a 'Bravo!' or 'Bello!' out of him [...]."
Salieri, along with Mozart's protégé Johann Nepomuk Hummel educated Mozart's younger son Franz Xaver Mozart, who was born about four months before his father's death.LegacySalieri and his music were largely forgotten from the 19th century until the late 20th century. This revival was due to the dramatic and highly fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979), which was given its greatest exposure in its 1984 film version, directed by Miloš Forman. His music today has regained some modest popularity via recordings. It is also the subject of increasing academic study, and a small number of his operas have returned to the stage. In addition, there is now a Salieri Opera Festival sponsored by the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and dedicated to rediscovering his work and those of his contemporaries. It is developing as an annual autumn event in his native town of Legnago, where a theatre has been renamed in his honor.Modern performances of Salieri's work
In 2003, mezzo-soprano Cecilia Bartoli released The Salieri Album, a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Patrice Michaels sang a number of his arias on the CD ''Divas of Mozart's Day. In 2008, another female opera star, Diana Damrau, released a CD with seven Salieri coloratura arias. Since 2000, there have also been complete recordings issued or re-issued of the operas Axur Re d'Ormus, Falstaff, Les Danaïdes, La Locandiera, La grotta di Trofonio, Prima la musica e poi le parole and . Salieri has yet to fully re-enter the general repertory, but performances of his works are progressively becoming more regular.
His operas Falstaff (1995 production from the Schwetzingen Festival) and Tarare (1987 production, also from the Schwetzingen Festival) have been released on DVD. In 2004, the opera Europa riconosciuta was staged in Milan for the reopening of La Scala in Milan, with soprano Diana Damrau in the title role. This production was also broadcast on television.
In November 2009, Il mondo alla rovescia was given its first staging in modern times at the Teatro Salieri in Legnago in a co-production between the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and the Fondazione Arena di Verona for the Salieri Opera Festival.
From 2009 to 2011 Antonio Giarola directed the Festival. From 2009 to 2012 Antonio Giarola also directed the Varietas Delectat'', a contemporary dance show inspired by the music of Antonio Salieri.
On 14 November 2011 in Graz, Austria, the hometown of the librettist Leopold Auenbrugger, Salieri's Der Rauchfangkehrer was given its first modern production. In July 2014 there was another modern production of this Salieri opera. This time it was the Pinchgut Opera of Sydney, Australia, performing it as The Chimneysweep. The Sydney Morning Herald referred to it as the discovery of "a long-forgotten treasure".Use of music by Salieri in filmsSalieri has even begun to attract some attention from Hollywood. In 2001, his triple concerto was used in the soundtrack of The Last Castle, featuring Robert Redford and James Gandolfini. It is a story that builds on the rivalry between a meticulous but untested officer (Gandolfini) serving as the warden of a military prison and an imprisoned but much admired and highly decorated general (Redford). The Salieri piece is used as the warden's theme music, seemingly to invoke the image of jealousy of the inferior for his superior. In 2006, the movie Copying Beethoven referred to Salieri in a more positive light. In this movie, a young female music student hired by Beethoven to copy out his Ninth Symphony is staying at a monastery. The abbess tries to discourage her from working with the irreverent Beethoven. She notes that she too once had dreams, having come to Vienna to study opera singing with Salieri. The 2008 film Iron Man used the Larghetto movement from Salieri's Piano Concerto in C major. The scene where Obadiah Stane, the archrival of Tony Stark, the wealthy industrialist turned Iron Man, tells Tony that he is being ousted from his company by the board, Obadiah plays the opening few bars of the Salieri concerto on a piano in Stark's suite.
Fictional treatments
Salieri's life, and especially his relationship with Mozart, has been the subject of many stories, in a variety of media.
*Within a few years of Salieri's death in 1825, Alexander Pushkin wrote his "little tragedy" Mozart and Salieri (1831), as a dramatic study of the sin of envy.
*In 1898, Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov adapted Pushkin's play, Mozart and Salieri (1831), as an opera of the same name.
*A hugely popular yet heavily fictionalized perpetuation of the story came in Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus (1979) and its Oscar-winning 1984 film adaptation directed by Miloš Forman. Salieri was portrayed in the award-winning play at London's National Theatre by Paul Scofield, on Broadway by Ian McKellen, and in the film by F. Murray Abraham (who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for the part). Abraham depicts Salieri as a Machiavellian, Iago-esque character, who uses his connections to keep Mozart as the underdog and slowly destroy Mozart's career.
*Salieri's supposed hatred for Mozart is also alluded to in a spoof opera titled A Little Nightmare Music (1982), by P. D. Q. Bach. In the opera, Salieri attempts to poison an anachronistic Shaffer but is bumped by a "clumsy oaf", which causes him to inadvertently poison Mozart instead and spill wine on his favorite coat.
*Patrick Stewart played Salieri in the 1985 production The Mozart Inquest.
*Florent Mothe portrays Salieri in the French musical ''Mozart, l'opéra rock'' (2009).
* C. Ian Kyer's first work of fiction is the historical novel Damaging Winds: Rumours that Salieri Murdered Mozart Swirl in the Vienna of Beethoven and Schubert (2013). Kyer was the co-author, with Bruce Salvatore, of the singspiel Setting the Record Straight: Mozart and Salieri Redux, first performed by the Adler Fellows of the San Francisco Opera Center in April 2016 under the direction of Erin Neff.
*The HBO period drama telemovie, Virtuoso (2015), directed by Alan Ball, is largely centred around the early life of Salieri.
*Antonio Salieri, alongside Mozart, appears as a playable Avenger-class servant in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order.
Notes, references, sources
Notes
References
Cited sources
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* Further reading
* Rudolph Angermüller, Antonio Salieri 3 Vol. (München 1971–74)
* Rudolph Angermüller, Antonio Salieri. Fatti e Documenti (Legnago 1985)
* A. Della Corte, ''Un italiano all'estero: Antonio Salieri (Torino 1936)
* V. Della Croce/F. Blanchetti, Il caso Salieri (Torino 1994)
* , Catalogo tematico delle opere teatrali di Antonio Salieri, Lim, Lucca 2005, (Gli strumenti della ricerca musicale, collana della Società Italiana di Musicologia), p. CLVIII, 957. .
*Biggi Parodi, Elena, "Preliminary observations on the «Ballo primo» of «Europa riconosciuta» by Antonio Salieri: Milan, The Scala Theatre, 1778, «Recercare», XVI 2004 (giugno 2005), pp. 263–303. .
*Biggi Parodi, Elena, "Mozart und Salieri – ein unvermeidlicher Konflikt," in Mozart, Experiment Aufklärung, in Wien des Ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. Herbert Lachmayer, essays for Mozart exhibition, pp. 495–501. (Da Ponte Institut Wien, Katje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern, 2006). .
* Biggi Parodi, Elena, "Il Fastaff, o sia le tre burle di Salieri: osservazioni preliminari" in Quaderni di musicologia dell'Università degli studi Verona, Francesco Bissoli and Elisa Grossato, editors. vol. 2, II, pp. 119–138 (Verona, 2008).
*
* Herrmann, Timo Jouko, Antonio Salieri und seine deutschsprachigen Werke für das Musiktheater (Leipzig 2015) .
* Kyer, C. Ian, "Salieri as Portrayed in the Arts", (2012) 24 Intellectual Property Journal, 179–194.
* I. F. Edler v. Mosel, Über das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri (Vienna 1827)
* Salieri, Antonio. La Passione di Gesù Cristo, critical edition by Elena Biggi Parodi, Suvini Zerboni, Milano 2000, XLIV, 222 pages.
External links
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* [http://www.teatrosalieri.it/ Teatro Salieri], Legnago, Italy
* [http://radio.nac-cna.ca/podcast/NACOcast/NACOcast_20110115.mp3 Podcast interview] about Salieri, National Arts Centre, Ottawa
* [http://radio.nac-cna.ca/podcast/NACOcast/NACOcast_20130408.mp3 Second podcast interview] about Salieri, National Arts Centre, Ottawa
* Kyer, C. Ian, [http://radio.nac-cna.ca/podcast/NACOcast/NACOcast_Salieri-DamagingWinds.pdf Damaging Winds''], 2013 novel about Salieri, 279 pp., incl. historical notes, further reading list, suggested listening list
Category:1750 births
Category:1825 deaths
Category:18th-century Italian classical composers
Category:18th-century Italian composers
Category:18th-century Italian male musicians
Category:19th-century Italian classical composers
Category:19th-century Italian male musicians
Category:Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
Category:Italian classical composers of church music
Category:Catholic liturgical composers
Category:Composers from Vienna
Category:Italian Classical-period composers
Category:Italian emigrants to Austria
Category:Italian opera composers
Category:Italian Roman Catholics
Category:Italian Romantic composers
Category:Italian male opera composers
Category:People from Legnago
Category:Pupils of Christoph Willibald Gluck | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Salieri | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.576993 |
2244 | Cobble Hill Tunnel | | locmapin = New York City#New York#USA
| built = 1844
| architect = Asa Stebbins
| architecture = Roman, Italianate, Queen Anne
| added = September 7, 1989
| refnum 89001388
}}
The Cobble Hill Tunnel (also known as the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel) is an abandoned Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) tunnel beneath Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, New York City, running through the neighborhoods of Downtown Brooklyn and Cobble Hill. When open, it ran for about between Columbia Street and Boerum Place. It is the oldest railway tunnel beneath a city street in North America that was fully devoted to rail. was completed through Prospect Hill, one of the highest points on the East Side of Manhattan, between 92nd and 95th Streets, in 1837. In addition, the Park Avenue Tunnel between 33rd and 40th Streets in Manhattan, was opened in 1834.}} It is also deemed the oldest subway tunnel in the world by the Guinness Book of World Records.
Construction and operation
Originally built as an open cut, construction began in May 1844, and opened for use on December 3, 1844, but was not completely finished until mid-1845. It was built mainly to satisfy public demand for creation of a grade-separated right of way for the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later Long Island Rail Road) on its way to the South Ferry at the foot of Atlantic Street (later Atlantic Avenue), where passengers could catch ferries to Manhattan. The construction of the cut also lowered the LIRR's grade through Cobble Hill. Around five years after opening the cut was roofed over, converting it into a tunnel. As originally built, the cut was wide and long. Once roofed over, the interior height of the newly created tunnel was .
In exchange for building the cut, the City of Brooklyn granted the B&J permission to operate its steam locomotives on Atlantic Street west of Fifth Avenue (then Parmentier's Garden/Gowanus Lane), all the way to Brooklyn's South Ferry (the present location of Brooklyn's Pier 7). Prior to the cut being built, the LIRR's western terminus was Atlantic Street at Clinton Street. Train cars were hauled by teams of horses along Atlantic Street from Clinton Street to Parmentier's Garden, where steam locomotives were attached. While the cut was being built, the railroad operated to a temporary terminal at Pacific Street and Henry Street.
The Cobble Hill Tunnel was part of the first rail link between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts. The railroad connected Lower Manhattan via the South Ferry to Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island; a ferry connected Greenport to Stonington, Connecticut, where a rail link continued to Boston. This avoided some difficult construction of bridges over the rivers of southern Connecticut. In 1848, the New York and New Haven Railroad Line was completed through Connecticut, providing a direct, faster rail connection from New York City to Boston. The Cobble Hill Tunnel and the Long Island Railroad remained the primary means of access to most of central Long Island from Manhattan and New York City.
The ends of the tunnel were sealed in the fall of 1861. The similar Murray Hill Tunnel on the New York and Harlem Railroad was built as an open cut around 1836, roofed over around the 1850s, and is now in use for automobile traffic.
Closure controversy
In 1861, the New York State Legislature voted to ban railroad locomotives from within the limits of the City of Brooklyn. A tax assessment was ordered on all property owners along Atlantic Street (today Atlantic Avenue), to defray the costs of the closure. It was undisclosed at the time that New York State Governor John A. King was a major shareholder in the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later the Long Island Rail Road) and therefore had a conflict of interest and stood to benefit by the compensation payments to the railroad from the tax assessment. Dormancy Walt Whitman wrote of the tunnel:
<blockquote>The old tunnel, that used to lie there under ground, a passage of Acheron-like solemnity and darkness, now all closed and filled up, and soon to be utterly forgotten, with all its reminiscences; however, there will, for a few years yet be many dear ones, to not a few Brooklynites, New Yorkers, and promiscuous crowds besides. For it was here you started to go down the island, in summer. For years, it was confidently counted on that this spot, and the railroad of which it was the terminus, were going to prove the permanent seat of business and wealth that belong to such enterprises. But its glory, after enduring in great splendor for a season, has now vanished—at least its Long Island Railroad glory has. The tunnel: dark as the grave, cold, damp, and silent. How beautiful look earth and heaven again, as we emerge from the gloom! It might not be unprofitable, now and then, to send us mortals—the dissatisfied ones, at least, and that's a large proportion—into some tunnel of several days' journey. We'd perhaps grumble less, afterward, at God's handiwork.</blockquote>
In March 1916, the Bureau of Investigation suspected German terrorists were making bombs in the tunnel, and broke through the roof of the tunnel with jackhammers. They found nothing, installed an electric light, and resealed it. In the 1920s, it was rumored to be used for both mushroom growing and bootleg whiskey stills, even though there was no access into the main portion of the tunnel. It became an object of local folklore and legend. In 1936, the New York City Police Department unsuccessfully attempted to enter the tunnel, in order to look for the body of a hoodlum supposedly buried there. In 1941, it was rumored to have been inspected by the federal Works Progress Administration to determine its structural strength, but there is no evidence of this. A few years later, it was once again rumored to have been opened, this time by the FBI, in an unsuccessful search for spies; however, there is no evidence of this. During the late 1950s, it was sought by two rail historians, George Horn and Martin Schachne, but they did not gain access to the tunnel itself. Rediscovery Having fallen from public notice, the tunnel was rediscovered in 1980 by then 20-year-old Bob Diamond (born Robert Stephen Turin; October 6, 1959August 21, 2021), who entered from a manhole he located at Atlantic Avenue and Court Street, crawled a distance of underground through a filled-in section of tunnel less than high, and located the bulkhead wall that sealed off the main portion of the tunnel. With the assistance of a Brooklyn Union Gas Company engineering crew, he then broke through the massive concrete bulkhead wall, which is several feet thick. Diamond thereby opened access to the main portion of the tunnel, and began to popularize the tunnel as an antiquity. He led tours of its interior when the Department of Transportation terminated his contract, citing safety concerns. The tunnel has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.
The History Channel series Cities of the Underworld ran a segment ("New York's Secret Societies") on the tunnel in 2008. See also
* Beach Pneumatic Transit
* Brooklyn Historic Railway Association
* Park Avenue main line, another railroad line in New York City that may have contained the oldest rail tunnels in the U.S.
* Track 61 (New York City)
* National Register of Historic Places listings in Kings County, New York
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
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* [http://www.arrts-arrchives.com/tunnel.html The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (Arrt's Arrchives)]
Category:Transportation buildings and structures in Brooklyn
Category:Long Island Rail Road
Category:Railway tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places
Category:Bridges and tunnels of the Long Island Rail Road
Category:Railroad tunnels in New York City
Category:History of transportation in New York City
Category:National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Category:Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Category:Tunnels completed in 1844
Category:Cobble Hill, Brooklyn
Category:National Register of Historic Places in Brooklyn
Category:Proposed buildings and structures in New York City
Category:Railway buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Category:1844 establishments in New York (state) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobble_Hill_Tunnel | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.585030 |
2245 | Annapolis Valley | | subdivision_type2 = Counties
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| population_note | population_total 129306
| population_density_km2 = 15.5
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| population_density_urban_sq_mi | population_blank1_title Change <small>2016–21</small>
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The Annapolis Valley is a valley and region in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. It is located in the western part of the Nova Scotia peninsula, formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the Bay of Fundy. Statistics Canada defines the Annapolis Valley as an economic region, composed of Annapolis County, Kings County, and Hants County.
Geography
The valley measures approximately in length from Annapolis Royal and the Annapolis Basin in the west to Wolfville and the Minas Basin in the east, spanning the counties of Digby, Annapolis and Kings.
Some also include the western part of Hants County, including the towns of Hantsport and Windsor even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the Avon River valley.
The steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises over in elevation near Lawrencetown. The granitic South Mountain rises to a somewhat higher elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province's South Shore.
The shelter provided by these two mountainous ridges has produced a microclimate which provides relatively mild temperatures for the region and, coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops. Particularly famous for its apple crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.
Within the valley itself are two major rivers, the Annapolis River which flows west from Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into Annapolis Basin, and the Cornwallis River which flows east from Caribou Bog into Minas Basin. The North Mountain ridge forms the north side of the Annapolis Valley. Also flowing east, in two smaller valleys north of the Cornwallis River, are the Canard River and the Habitant River, both of which also flow into the Minas Basin.
History
in Valleyview Provincial Park, north of Bridgetown]]
Long settled by the Mi'kmaq nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the Habitation at Port-Royal, near modern-day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605. From there, the Acadians spread throughout the Valley, in various communities, building dykes to claim the tidal lands along the Annapolis and Cornwallis Rivers. They continued throughout the Annapolis Valley until the British-ordered expulsion of Acadians in 1755 which is memorialized at Grand-Pré in the eastern part of the valley. New England Planters moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by Loyalist refugees of the American Revolutionary War, as well as foreign Protestants. These were followed by significant numbers of freed Africans in the War of 1812, Irish immigrants in the mid-19th century and Dutch immigrants after World War II. Agriculture in the Annapolis valley boomed in the late 19th century with the arrival of the Windsor and Annapolis Railway, later the Dominion Atlantic Railway, which developed large export markets for Annapolis Valley apples.
The Annapolis Valley Regional Library was established in 1949. It was the first regional library system in Nova Scotia.
Economy
, where Annapolis River widens to form the Annapolis Basin]]
]]
The Valley has traditionally been built on a diversified agricultural industry, with a wide range of output ranging from livestock to fruit trees and berries. The last quarter-century has also seen the development of a wine industry, with such notable wineries as Gaspereau Vineyards winning national and international awards for their produce.
Today, the Valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by Acadia University in Wolfville, and the Nova Scotia Community College campuses located in Kentville, Middleton, Lawrencetown, and Digby.
Michelin has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in Waterville and the Department of National Defence has its largest air force base in Atlantic Canada located at CFB Greenwood along with an important training facility at Camp Aldershot, near Kentville.
Tourism is also an important industry and the Annapolis Valley is known for its scenic farmland, although today some is threatened with suburban development in the eastern end, and a great deal has been abandoned. The valley also struggles with pollution from farm runoffs and residential sewers in its two major rivers, the Annapolis River and the Cornwallis River. The Annapolis Valley additionally has become home to the majority of Nova Scotia wineries, located in either the Gaspereau Valley or in the Canning, Grand Pré, or Bear River areas.
The Valley is home to the annual Apple Blossom Festival, held in late spring. In July is the annual Steer Bar-B-Que in Kingston, and Heart of the Valley Festival in Middleton. August sees Mud Creek Days in Wolfville and the Annapolis Valley Exhibition in Lawrencetown. Bridgetown's Cider Festival comes in mid-September. The Canadian Deep Roots Music Festival is held each year at the end of September in Wolfville, a community-based festival, supported by both the Town of Wolfville and Acadia University and built by over 100 volunteers, and on in-kind and financial support from virtually all sectors of the Valley community. Late October sees Wolfville and Kings County play host to Devour! The Food Film Fest, an annual international film festival celebrating all things culinary. Farmers markets in Annapolis Royal, Bridgetown, Middleton, Kentville, Kingsport, Berwick and Wolfville bring a produce and other goods to the public every week. In the fall, there is the Pumpkin People in Kentville.
Communities
Communities in the Valley from west to east include:
*Digby
*Cornwallis
*Annapolis Royal
*Bridgetown
*Lawrencetown
*Middleton
*Greenwood
*Kingston
*Auburn
*Aylesford
*Berwick
*Waterville
*Cambridge
*Coldbrook
*Kentville
*New Minas
*Canning
*Wolfville
*Grand-Pré
*Glooscap
*Hantsport
*Mount Denson
*Falmouth
*Windsor
*Mount Uniacke
*Rawdon
*East Hants
*Nine Mile River
*Elmsdale
*Milford
Notable residents
*William Hall (1827–1904), the first Black person, first Nova Scotian, and the third Canadian to receive the Victoria Cross
*Benjamin Jackson (1835–1915), Black Nova Scotian sailor, farmer, and decorated veteran of the American Civil War
References
External links
*[http://www.valleytourism.ca/ Annapolis Valley Tourism]
Category:Valleys of Nova Scotia
Category:Wine regions of Canada
Category:Geographic regions of Nova Scotia
Category:Alcohol in Nova Scotia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapolis_Valley | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.592258 |
2246 | Analgesic | }}
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| Consumer_Reports= analgesics
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An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in some instances eliminate, sensation, although analgesia and anesthesia are neurophysiologically overlapping and thus various drugs have both analgesic and anesthetic effects.
Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: For neuropathic pain, recent research has suggested that classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants may be considered as an alternative.
Various analgesics, such as many NSAIDs, are available over the counter in most countries, whereas various others are prescription drugs owing to the substantial risks and high chances of overdose, misuse, and addiction in the absence of medical supervision.
Etymology
The word analgesic derives from Greek an- (, "without"), álgos (, "pain"), and -ikos (, forming adjectives). Such drugs were usually known as "anodynes" before the 20th century.
Classification
Analgesics are typically classified based on their mechanism of action.
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Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and fever. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously. Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses.NSAIDs
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviated to NSAIDs), are a drug class that groups together drugs that decrease pain and lower fever, and, in higher doses, decrease inflammation. The most prominent members of this group of drugs—aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, and diclofenac are all available over the counter in most countries.
COX-2 inhibitors
These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least two different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib, celecoxib, and etoricoxib) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular.
After widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increase the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average. This led to the withdrawal of rofecoxib and valdecoxib, and warnings on others. Etoricoxib seems relatively safe, with the risk of thrombotic events similar to that of non-coxib NSAID diclofenac. Tramadol is structurally closer to venlafaxine than to codeine and delivers analgesia by not only delivering "opioid-like" effects (through mild agonism of the mu receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Tapentadol, with some structural similarities to tramadol, presents what is believed to be a novel drug working through two (and possibly three) different modes of action in the fashion of both a traditional opioid and as an SNRI. The effects of serotonin and norepinephrine on pain, while not completely understood, have had causal links established and drugs in the SNRI class are commonly used in conjunction with opioids (especially tapentadol and tramadol) with greater success in pain relief.
Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol), but opioid-tolerant individuals usually have higher dose ceilings than patients without tolerance.
Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course of antiemetics such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose, macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.
When used appropriately, opioids and other central analgesics are safe and effective; however, risks such as addiction and the body's becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect. When safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness against tolerance, which may be of particular concern regarding patients with chronic pain and requiring an analgesic over long periods. Opioid tolerance is often addressed with opioid rotation therapy in which a patient is routinely switched between two or more non-cross-tolerant opioid medications in order to prevent exceeding safe dosages in the attempt to achieve an adequate analgesic effect.
Opioid tolerance should not be confused with opioid-induced hyperalgesia. The symptoms of these two conditions can appear very similar but the mechanism of action is different. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia is when exposure to opioids increases the sensation of pain (hyperalgesia) and can even make non-painful stimuli painful (allodynia).
Alcohol
Alcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances.
Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder. There is evidence suggesting that cannabis can be used to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms, with some trials indicating improved relief of neuropathic pain over opioids.
Combinations
Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for people with allergies.
While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combating pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion that arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.
Alternative medicine
There is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo. The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.
Flupirtine is a centrally acting K<sup>+</sup> channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It was used in Europe for moderate to strong pain, as well as its migraine-treating and muscle-relaxant properties. It has no significant anticholinergic properties, and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin, or histamine receptors. It is not addictive, and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in some cases.
Ziconotide, a blocker of potent N-type voltage-gated calcium channels, is administered intrathecally for the relief of severe, usually cancer-related pain.
Adjuvants
Certain drugs that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer antidepressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.
Adjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include orphenadrine, mexiletine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin.
Dextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of and reverse tolerance to opioids, as well as to exert additional analgesia by acting upon NMDA receptors, as does ketamine. Some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action.
The anticonvulsant carbamazepine is used to treat neuropathic pain. Similarly, the gabapentinoids gabapentin and pregabalin are prescribed for neuropathic pain, and phenibut is available without prescription. Gabapentinoids work as α<sub>2</sub>δ-subunit blockers of voltage-gated calcium channels, and tend to have other mechanisms of action as well. Gabapentinoids are all anticonvulsants, which are most commonly used for neuropathic pain, as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation originating from the nervous system. Other uses Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel (The labeling for topical diclofenac has been updated to warn about drug-induced hepatotoxicity.); capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. In February 2007 the FDA notified consumers and healthcare professionals of the potential hazards of topical anesthetics entering the bloodstream when applied in large doses to the skin without medical supervision. These topical anesthetics contain anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, and prilocaine in a cream, ointment, or gel.UsesTopical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provide pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions. List of drugs with comparison {| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%"
|+ <big>Comparison of different analgesics</big>
|-
! Generic name (INN)
! Physicochemistry
! Mechanism of action
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| <big>Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</big>
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Unselective agents
|-
| Aceclofenac || Comes in betadex salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in many organic solvents; degrades on contact with light; phenylacetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || Oral (PO.) || Protein binding > 99%; half-life 4 hours; metabolised to diclofenac (minor); excretion urine (67%). || As per diclofenac. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Acemetacin || Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in certain organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. Chemically related to indometacin || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Slightly metabolised to indometacin. || Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and lower back pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Amfenac || No available data. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || No data. || Pain and inflammation. || As diclofenac.
|-
| Aminophenazone || Related to phenylbutazone. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Not available. || Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. || Agranulocytosis and cancer.
|-
| Ampiroxicam || Related to piroxicam. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || No data. || Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. || Photosensitivity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs.
|-
| Amtolmetin guacil || Prodrug to tolmetin. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || No data. || As per diclofenac. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Aspirin || Comes in free form, aluminium and lysine salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 300); highly soluble (1 in 5) in alcohol; degrades on contact with air. Salicylate. || Irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2; hence inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. || PO, IM, IV, rectal || Bioavailability 80–100%; protein binding 25–95% (inversely dependent on plasma concentration); half life 2–3 hours, 15–30 hours (higher doses); excretion 80–100%. || Blood thinning; mild-to-moderate pain; fever; rheumatic fever; migraine; rheumatoid arthritis; Kawasaki's disease || GI bleeds; ulcers; Reye syndrome; nephrotoxicity; blood dyscrasias (rarely); Stevens–Johnson syndrome (uncommon/rare)
|-
| Azapropazone || Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform, soluble in ethanol; phenylbutazone. || As per diclofenac. || PO, rectal. || No data available. || Rheumatoid arthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Bendazac || Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. Chemically related to indometacin. || As per acetametacin. || Topical, ophthalmologic. || N/A || Skin conditions (such as contact dermatitis) and cataracts. || Hepatotoxicity reported.
|-
| Benorilate || Aspirin-paracetamol ester. Practically insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in ethanol and methanol, soluble in acetone and chloroform. || As per aspirin and paracetamol. || PO. || Unavailable. || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft-tissue rheumatism; mild-moderate pain and fever. || As per aspirin and paracetamol.
|-
| Benzydamine || Comes in free acid form; freely soluble in water. || As per diclofenac. || Topical, PO, rectal, spray and vaginal. || No data available. || Musculoskeletal disorders; soft-tissue disorders; sore throat. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Bromfenac || Comes in free acid form; phenylacetic acid derivative. || Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. || Ophthalmologic. || N/A || Postoperative pain and inflammation. || Corneal ulceration.
|-
| Bufexamac || Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in a few organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. || Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. || Topical. || No data. || Skin disorders. || Skin conditions, such as contact dermatitis.
|-
| Carbasalate|| Comes in calcium salt form; fairly soluble in water. || Is metabolised to aspirin and urea. As per aspirin. || Oral. || No data. || Used for thromboembolic disorders. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Clonixin || Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. || Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. || PO, IM, IV, rectal. || No data. || Pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Dexibuprofen || D-isomer of ibuprofen. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Bioavailability ?; protein binding 99%; metabolism hepatic via carboxylation and hydroxylation; half-life 1.8–3.5 hours; excretion Urine (90%). || Osteoarthritis; mild-moderate pain and menstrual pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Diclofenac || Comes in sodium, potassium and diethylamine (topically used as a gel) salt forms; sparingly soluble in water but soluble in ethanol. Unstable in the presence of light and air. Indole acetic acid derivative. || Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. || PO and topical. || Bioavailability 50–60%; protein binding 99–99.8%; hepatic metabolism; half-life 1.2–2 hours; excretion urine (50–70%), faeces (30–35%) || Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; inflammatory pain (e.g. period pain); local pain/inflammation (as a gel); actinic keratoses; heavy menstrual bleeding || As per aspirin, except without Reye syndrome and with the following additions: myocardial infarctions, strokes and hypertension. More prone to causing these AEs compared to the other non-selective NSAIDs.
|-
| Diethylamine salicylate|| Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with light and iron. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A. || Rheumatic and musculoskeletal pain. || As per bufexamac.
|-
| Diflunisal || Comes in free acid and arginine salt forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with light. || As per diclofenac. || PO, IM, IV. || Bioavailability 80–100%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.11 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 8–12 hours; excretion urine (90%), faeces (<5%). || Pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Epirizole || Comes in free form. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Not available. || Rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Ethenzamide || Comes in free form; salicylate. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Not available. || Musculoskeletal pain; fever. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Etofenamate || Liquid; practically insoluble in water, miscible with ethyl acetate and methanol. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || Not available. || Musculoskeletal, joint and soft-tissue disorders. || As per bufexamac.
|-
| Felbinac || Comes in free and diisopropanolamine salt forms; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in methanol. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A || Musculoskeletal pain and soft tissue injuries. || As per bufexamac.
|-
| Fenbufen || Comes as free acid; fairly insoluble in most solvents (including water); propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 10–17 hours. || As per diclofenac. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Fenoprofen || Comes in calcium salt; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform and fairly soluble in alcohol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Bioavailability ?; protein binding 99%; hepatic metabolism; excretion urine, faeces. || Pain; rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Fentiazac || Comes in free form and calcium salt; acetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || No data. || As per diclofenac. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Fepradinol|| Comes in free acid and hydrochloride salt forms. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A || Local inflammatory response. || As per bufexamac.
|-
| Feprazone || Comes in free acid and piperazine salt forms. Phenylbutazone. || As per diclofenac. || PO, Rectal, topical. || Not available. || As per diclofenac. || As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).
|-
| Floctafenine || Comes in free acid form; anthranilic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || Oral. || Extensively metabolised by the liver; half-life 8 hours; excretion urinary and biliary. || Short-term relief from pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Flufenamic acid || Comes in free acid form and aluminium salt form; anthranilic acid. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A || Soft tissue inflammation and pain. || As per bufexamac.
|-
| Flurbiprofen || Comes in sodium salt and free acid forms; fairly insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO, IM, IV, ophthalmologic. || Bioavailability 96% (oral); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.12 L/kg; excretion urine (70%). || Ophthalmologic: Vernal keratoconjunctivitis; postoperative ocular swelling; herpetic stromal keratitis, excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy; ocular gingivitis. Systemic use: rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. || Pain; fever; inflammatory illness; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; heavy menstrual bleeding; patent ductus arteriosus. || As per diclofenac, except with lower risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and hypertension.
|-
| Imidazole salicylate || Comes in free form. Salicylate. || As per diclofenac. || PO, rectal, topical. || Not available. || Muscular and rheumatic pain. || As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).
|-
| Indometacin || Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and most solvents; sensitive to degradation by light. Acetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO, IV, rectal || Bioavailability 100% (oral); protein binding 90%; hepatic metabolism; excretion urine (60%), faeces (33%). || Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; period pain; patent ductus arteriosus. || Bioavailability > 92% (oral), 70–90% (rectal); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 1.5–2 hours (oral), 2.2 hours (rectal), 2 hours (intravenous). || Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and superficial sporting injuries (topical use). || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Ketorolac || Comes in the trometamol salt form; highly soluble in water. Degrades in the presence of light. Acetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO, IM, IV, intranasal, tromethamine and ophthalmologic. || Bioavailability of IM formulation 100%; protein binding 99%; hepatic metabolism mostly via glucoronic acid conjugation and p-hydroxylation; half-life 5–6 hours; excretion urine (91.4%), faeces (6.1%). || Mild-moderate postoperative pain; acute migraine; inflammation of the eye due to cataract surgery or allergic seasonal conjunctivitis; prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular oedema. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Lornoxicam || Hydrochloride salt form used; oxicam derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding 99%; volume of distribution 0.2 L/kg; half-life 3–5 hours; excretion faeces (51%), urine (42%). || Acute and chronic pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Loxoprofen || Comes in sodium salt form. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A || Local inflammation and pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Magnesium salicylate || Comes in free form; soluble in water and ethanol; salicylate. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Not available. || As per diclofenac. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Meclofenamic acid || Comes in free acid and sodium salt form, sodium salt is the form used in human medicine; practically insoluble in water (free acid) and freely soluble in water (sodium salt); sensitive to degradation by air and light. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding > 99%; half-life 2–4 hours; hepatically metabolised via oxidation, hydroxylation, dehalogenation and conjugation with glucuronic acid; excretion urine, faeces (20–30%). || Inflammatory pain and heavy menstrual bleeding. || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Naproxen || Comes in free acid and sodium form; practically insoluble in water in free form, freely soluble in water (sodium salt), fairly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades on contact with air and light. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Bioavailability ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution 10% of bodyweight; half-life 12–15 hours; excretion urine (95%), faeces (<3%). || Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; juvenile idiopathic arthritis; inflammatory pain; heavy menstrual bleeding. || As per diclofenac. less prone to causing thrombotic events compared to other non-selective NSAIDs. || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Oxyphenbutazone || Comes in free form. Phenylbutazone. || As per diclofenac. || PO, Ophthalmologic. || Unavailable. || Ophthalmologic: Episcleritis. Systemic (now seldom used due to adverse effects): ankylosing spondylitis; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. || As per bromfenac. For systemic use haematological side effects such as aplastic anaemia; agranulocytosis; leucopenia; neutropenia; etc.
|-
| Phenazone || No data. || As per diclofenac. || PO, otolaryngologic. || Protein binding < 10%; half-life 12 hours; hepatic metabolised; excretion urine (primary), faeces. || Acute otitis media. || Nephrotoxicity and haematologic toxicity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs.
|-
| Phenylbutazone || Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light and air. || As per diclofenac. || PO, rectal, topical. || No data available. || Ankylosing spondylitis; acute gout; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || Haematologic toxicity (including agranulocytosis, aplastic anaemia) and AEs typical of NSAIDs.
|-
| Piketoprofen || Comes in free form. || As per diclofenac. || Topical. || N/A. || Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders. || As per other topical NSAIDs.
|-
| Piroxicam || Comes in free acid and betadex salt forms; practically insoluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol; degrades on contact with air and light. Enolic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO, topical. || Protein binding 99%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life 36–45 hours; excretion urine, faeces. || Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and sports injuries (topical use). || Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Sodium salicylate || Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with air and light; salicylate. || As per diclofenac. || PO, IV, topical. || No data. || Pain, fever and rheumatic conditions. || Cardiac problems; otherwise As per diclofenac.
|-
| Sulindac || Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and hexane, very slightly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades upon contact with light. Acetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO, rectal. || Bioavailability 90%; protein binding 93% (sulindac), 98% (active metabolite); hepatic metabolism; excretion urine (50%), faeces (25%). || Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; inflammatory pain. || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft tissue injury. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tetridamine|| No data. || As per diclofenac. || Vaginal. || No data. || Vaginitis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tiaprofenic acid || Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water but freely soluble in most organic solvents; propionic acid derivative; degrades upon contact with light. Propionic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 2–4 hours. || Ankylosing spondylitis; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; fibrosis; capsulitis; soft-tissue disorders. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tiaramide|| No data. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || No data. || Pain; inflammation. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tinoridine|| No data. || As per diclofenac. || No data. || No data. || Pain; inflammation. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tolfenamic acid || Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water; degrades upon contact with light; anthranilic acid. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding 99%; half-life 2 hours; hepatically metabolised; excretion = urine (90%), faeces. || Migraine; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; dysmenorrhoea. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Tolmetin || Comes in sodium salt form; freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, freely soluble in methanol. Acetic acid derivative. || As per diclofenac. || PO. || Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 7–10 L; half-life 1 hour; excretion urine (90%). || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Ufenamate || No data. || No data. || Topical. || No data. || Inflammatory skin disorders. || As per other topical NSAIDs.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| COX-2 selective inhibitors
|-
| Celecoxib || Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, fairly soluble in organic solvents. Degrades on contact with light and moisture. Sulfonamide. || Selective COX-2 inhibitor. || PO. || Protein binding 97%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; faeces (57%), urine (27%). || Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; pain due to dysmenorrhoea or injury. || As per non-selective NSAIDs. More prone to causing thrombotic events than most of them, however, except diclofenac.
|-
| Etodolac || Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone and dehydrated alcohol. Acetic acid derivative. || As per celecoxib. || PO. || Bioavailability ?; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.41 L/kg; half-life 6–7 hours; excretion urine (73%). || Rheumatoid arthritis, including juvenile idiopathic arthritis; osteoarthritis; acute pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Etoricoxib || Comes in free form; sulfonamide. || As per celecoxib. || PO. || Bioavailability 100%; protein binding 91.4%; volume of distribution 120 L; half-life 22 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion urine (70%), faeces (20%). || Acute pain; gout; osteoarthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Lumiracoxib† || Comes in free form; acetic acid derivative. || As per celecoxib. || PO. || Bioavailability 74%; protein binding > 98%; extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life 3–6 hours; excretion Urine (50%), faeces (50%). || Osteoarthritis. || As above, plus hepatotoxicity.
|-
| Meloxicam || Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and in most organic solvents; oxicam derivative. || As per celecoxib. || PO, rectal. || Bioavailability 89%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution 0.1–0.2 L/kg; half-life 22–24 hours; extensive hepatic metabolism; excretion urine (45%), faeces (47%). || Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Nimesulide || Comes in free and betadex form; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in acetone. || As per celecoxib. || PO, rectal, topical. || Unavailable. || Acute pain; dysmenorrhoea; sprains (topical); tendinitis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Parecoxib || Comes in sodium salt form; sulfonamide. || As per celecoxib. || IM, IV. || Plasma binding 98%; volume of distribution 55 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP3A4; half-life 8 hours; excretion urine (70%). || Postoperative pain. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Rofecoxib† || Comes in free form; sulfonamide. || As per celecoxib. || PO. || Bioavailability 93%; protein binding 87%; hepatic metabolism; half-life 17 hours. || Acute pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. || As per diclofenac.
|-
| Valdecoxib† || Comes in free form; sulfonamide. || As per celecoxib. || PO. || Bioavailability 83%; protein binding 98%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4 and CYP2C9; half-life 8.11 hours; excretion urine (90%). || Pain from dysmenorrhoea; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. || As above and also potentially fatal skin reactions (e.g. toxic epidermal necrolysis).
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| <big>Opioids</big>
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Those with a morphine skeleton
|-
| Buprenorphine || Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, methanol and acetone; degrades upon contact with light. || Partial agonist at the mu opioid receptor; agonist at delta opioid receptor; antagonist at kappa opioid receptor. || Sublingual, transdermal, IM, IV, intranasal, epidural, SC. || Bioavailability 79% (sublingual); protein binding 96%: volume of distribution 97–187 L/kg; half-life 20–36 hours; excretion urine, faeces. || Opioid dependence, moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine, respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.
|-
| Codeine || Comes in free form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and phosphate salts; soluble in boiling water (free form), freely soluble in ethanol (free form), soluble/freely soluble in water (salt forms); sensitive to degradation by light. Methoxy analogue of morphine. || Metabolised to morphine, which activates the opioid receptors. || PO, IM, IV. || Extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2D6, to morphine; half-life 3–4 hours; excretion urine (86%). || Mild-moderate pain, often in combination with paracetamol or ibuprofen. || Constipation, dependence, sedation, itching, nausea, vomiting and respiratory depression.
|-
| Diamorphine || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Diacetyl derivative of morphine. || Rapidly hydrolysed to 6-acetylmorphine and then to morphine after crossing the blood-brain barrier which in turn activates the opioid receptors in the CNS. || IM, intrathecal, intranasal, PO, IV, SC. || Extensively metabolised to morphine with 6-acetylmorphine as a possible intermediate. Mostly excreted in urine. || Severe pain (including labour pain); cough due to terminal lung cancer; angina; left ventricular failure. || As per codeine. Higher potential for abuse compared to other opioids due to its rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier.
|-
| Dihydrocodeine || Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, phosphate, polistirex, thiocyanate, tartrate, bitartrate and hydrogen tartrate salt forms; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in organic solvents (hydrogen tartrate salt); degrades upon contact with air and light. || Opioid receptor agonist. || IM, IV, PO, SC. || Bioavailability 20%; extensive hepatic metabolism, partly via CYP2D6 to dihydromorphine and CYP3A4 to nordihydrocodeine; half-life 3.5 –5 hours; excretion = urine. || Moderate-severe pain; usually in combination with paracetamol and/or aspirin. || As per codeine.
|-
| Ethylmorphine || Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, camphorate and camsilate salt forms; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. || Opioid receptor ligand. || PO. || No data. || Cough suppressant. || As per codeine.
|-
| Hydrocodone || Comes in hydrochloride/tartrate salt form; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light/air. || Opioid receptor ligand. || PO. || Protein binding 19%; extensively hepatically metabolised, mostly via CYP3A4, but via CYP2D6 to a lesser extent to hydromorphone; half-life 8 hours; excretion urine. || Chronic pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Hydromorphone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light or temperatures outside 15 °C and 35 °C. || Opioid receptor agonist. || IM, IV, PO, SC. || Bioavailability 50–62% (oral); protein binding 8–19%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life 2–3 hours; excretion urine. || Moderate-severe pain; cough. || As per codeine.
|-
| Morphine || Comes in freebase form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and tartrate salt forms; soluble in water; degrades in the presence of light. || Opioid receptor agonist (μ, δ, κ). || IM, intrathecal, PO, IV, SC, rectal. || Protein binding 35%; extensive hepatic metabolism, with some metabolism occur in the gut after oral administration; half-life 2 hours; excretion = urine (90%). || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Nicomorphine || Dinicotinic acid ester derivative of morphine. || As per morphine. || IM, IV, PO, rectal, SC. || No available data. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Oxycodone || Comes in freebase, hydrochloride and terephthalate salt forms; freely soluble in water and practically insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air. || Opioid receptor agonist. || PO. || Bioavailability 60–87%; protein binding 45%; volume of distribution 2.6 L/kg; extensively metabolised in the liver via CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent via CYP2D6 to oxymorphone; half-life 2–4 hours; excretion urine (83%). || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Oxymorphone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; fairly soluble in water (1 in 4), practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air, light and temperatures outside 15 °C to 30 °C. || As per morphine. || PO, IM, SC. || Bioavailability 10% (oral); protein binding 10–12%; volume of distribution 1.94–4.22 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 7–9 hours, 9–11 hours (XR); excretion urine, faeces. || Postoperative analgesia/anaesthesia; moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Morphinans
|-
| Butorphanol || Comes in tartrate salt form; sparingly soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air and at temperatures outside the range of 15 °C and 30 °C. || Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor partial agonist. || IM, IV, intranasal. || Bioavailability 60–70% (intranasal); protein binding 80%; volume of distribution 487 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via hydroxylation; excretion urine (mostly); half-life 4.6 hours. || Moderate-severe pain, including labour pain. || As above, but with a higher propensity for causing hallucinations and delusions. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.
|-
| Levorphanol || Comes in tartrate salt form; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 50) and fairly insoluble in ethanol, chloroform and ether; unstable outside of 15 °C and 30 °C; phenanthrene derivative. || Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist; SNRI. || PO, IM, IV, SC. || Protein binding 40%; extensive first-pass metabolism; half-life 12–16 hours, 30 hours (repeated dosing). || Acute/chronic pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Nalbuphine || Comes primarily as its hydrochloride salt. || Full agonist at kappa opioid receptors, partial agonist/antagonist at the mu opioid receptors. || Pain; anaesthesia supplement; opioid-induced pruritus. || As per codeine. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Benzomorphans
|-
| Dezocine || No data available. || Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist. || IM, IV. || Volume of distribution 9–12 L/kg; half-life 2.2–2.7 hours. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Eptazocine || Comes as hydrobromide salt. || As per morphine. || IM, SC. || No data. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Pentazocine || Comes in free, hydrochloride and lactate salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1:30 or less), more soluble in ethanol and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. || Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor antagonist/partial agonist. || IM, IV, SC. || Bioavailability 60–70%; protein binding 60%; hepatic metabolism; half-life 2–3 hours; excretion urine (primary), faeces. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine. Respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Phenylpiperidines
|-
| Anileridine || Comes in free, hydrochloride and phosphate forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, ether and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. || Mu opioid receptor agonist. || IM, IV. || No data. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per codeine.
|-
| Ketobemidone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and fairly insoluble in dichloromethane. || Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. || PO, IM, IV, rectal. || Bioavailability 34% (oral), 44% (rectal); half-life 2–3.5 hours. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per other opioids.
|-
| Pethidine || Comes in hydrochloride form; very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in ether, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. || Mu opioid receptor agonist with some serotonergic effects. || IM, IV, PO, SC. || Bioavailability 50–60%; protein binding 65–75%; hepatic metabolism; half-life 2.5–4 hours; excretion urine (primarily). || Moderate-severe pain. || As per other opioids; and seizures, anxiety, mood changes and serotonin syndrome.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Open-chain opioids
|-
| Dextromoramide || Comes in tartrate salt and free forms; soluble in water (tartrate salt). || Mu opioid. || IM, IV, PO, rectal. || No data available. || Severe pain. || As per other opioids.
|-
| Dextropropoxyphene || Comes in free form, hydrochloride and napsilate salt forms; very soluble in water (HCl), practically insoluble in water (napsilate); degrades upon contact with light and air. || Mu opioid. || PO. || Protein binding 80%; hepatic metabolism; half-life 6–12 hours, 30–36 hours (active metabolite). || Mild-moderate pain. || As per other opioids, plus ECG changes.
|-
| Dipipanone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; practically insoluble in water and ether, soluble in acetone and ethanol. || Mu opioid. || PO, often in combination with cyclizine. || Half-life 20 hours. || Moderate-severe pain. || Less sedating than morphine, otherwise as per morphine.
|-
| Levacetylmethadol† || Comes in hydrochloride salt form. || As above plus nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist. || PO. || Protein binding 80%; half-life 2.6 days. || Opioid dependence. || As per other opioids, plus ventricular rhythm disorders.
|-
| Levomethadone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. || Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. || PO. || No data. || As per methadone. || As per methadone.
|-
| Meptazinol || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol, fairly insoluble in acetone; unstable at temperatures greater than 25 °C. || Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist, partial agonist at mu-1 receptor; cholinergic actions exist. || IM, IV, PO. || Bioavailability 8.69% (oral); protein binding 27.1%; half-life 2 hours; excretion urine. || Moderate-severe pain; perioperative analgesia; renal colic. || As per pentazocine.
|-
| Methadone || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light and outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C. || Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. || IM, IV, PO, SC. || Bioavailability 36–100% (mean: 70–80%); protein binding 81–97% (mean: 87%); volume of distribution 1.9-8 L/kg (mean: 4 L/kg); hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and to a lesser extent: CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 & CYP2C8; half-life 5–130 hours (mean: 20–35 hours); excretion urine (20–50%), faeces. || Opioid addiction; chronic pain. || As per other opioids, plus QT interval prolongation.
|-
| Piritramide || Comes in free or tartrate salt forms. || Mu opioid. || IM, IV, SC. || No data available. || Severe pain. || As per other opioids.
|-
| Tapentadol || Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms. || Mu opioid and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. || PO. || Bioavailability 32%; protein binding 20%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6; excretion urine (70%), faeces; half-life 4 hours. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per other opioids; less likely to cause nausea, vomiting and constipation.
|-
| Tilidine || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and dichloromethane; degrades upon contact with light. || Mu opioid metabolite, nortilidine. || PO. || No data. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per other opioids.
|-
| Tramadol || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water and methanol, insoluble in acetone; degrades at temperatures less than 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. || Mu opioid (mostly via its active metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol) and SNRI. || IM, IV, PO, rectal. || Bioavailability 70–75% (oral), 100% (IM); protein binding 20%; hepatic metabolism, via CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; half-life 6 hours; excretion urine, faeces. || Moderate-severe pain. || As per other opioids but with less respiratory depression and constipation. Psychiatric AEs reported. Serotonin syndrome possible if used in conjunction with other serotonergics.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| Anilidopiperidines
|-
| Alfentanil || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in ethanol, water, methanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. || Mu opioid. || Epidural, IM, IV, intrathecally. || Protein binding 90%; volume of distribution small; half-life 1–2 hours; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; excretion urine. || Procedural anaesthesia. || As per other opioids. Very sedating.
|-
| Fentanyl || Comes in free, hydrochloride salt, citrate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (free form), soluble in water (citrate salt form), freely soluble in ethanol and methanol; degrades outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. || Mu opioid. || Buccal, epidermal, IM, IV, intrathecal, intranasal, SC, sublingual. || Bioavailability 50% (buccal), 89% (intranasal); protein binding 80%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; half-life 219 min; excretion urine (primary), faeces. || Moderate-severe pain (including labour pain); adjunct to anaesthesia. || As with other opioids, with less nausea, vomiting, constipation and itching and more sedation.
|-
| Remifentanil || Comes in hydrochloride salt. || Mu opioid. || IV. || Protein binding 70%; hydrolysed by blood and tissue esterases; half-life 20 min; excretion = urine (95%). || Anaesthesia maintenance. || As with fentanyl.
|-
| Sufentanil || Comes in free and citrate salt forms; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol; degrades upon contact with light and temperatures outside 15 °C and 30 °C. || Mu opioid. || Epidural, IV, intrathecal, transdermal. || Protein binding 90%; half-life 2.5 hours; excretion = urine (80%). || Adjunct to anaesthesia and moderate-severe pain. || As with fentanyl.
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align:center;"| <big>Other analgesics</big>
|-
| Acetanilide || No data. || Paracetamol prodrug. || PO. || No data. || Pain; fever. || Cancer; AEs of paracetamol.
|-
| Amitriptyline || Comes in free form and in hydrochloride and embonate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (embonate salt), freely soluble in water (HCl); degrades upon contact with light. || SNRI. || PO. || Hepatic metabolism, via CYP2C19, CYP3A4; active metabolite, nortriptyline; half-life 9–27 hours; excretion urine (18%), faeces. || Neuropathic pain; nocturnal enuresis; major depression; migraine prophylaxis; urinary urge incontinence. || Sedation, anticholinergic effects, weight gain, orthostatic hypotension, sinus tachycardia, sexual dysfunction, tremor, dizziness, sweating, agitation, insomnia, anxiety, confusion.
|-
| Dronabinol || Comes in free form; degrades upon contact with light. || Cannabinoid receptor partial agonist. || PO. || Bioavailability 10–20%; protein binding 90–99%; volume of distribution 10 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 25–36 hours, 44–59 hours (metabolites); excretion faeces (50%), urine (15%). || Refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; anorexia; neuropathic pain. || Dizziness, euphoria, paranoia, somnolence, abnormal thinking, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, depression, hallucinations, hypotension, special difficulties, emotional lability, tremors, flushing, etc.
|-
| Duloxetine || Comes in hydrochloride salt form; slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in methanol; degrades upon contact with light. || SNRI. || PO. || Protein binding > 90%; volume of distribution 3.4 L/kg; hepatic metabolism, via CYP2D6, CYP1A2; half-life 12 hours; excretion urine (70%), faeces (20%). || Major depression; generalised anxiety disorder; neuropathic pain. || Anticholinergic effects, GI effects, yawning, sweating, dizziness, weakness, sexual dysfunction, somnolence, insomnia, headache, tremor, decreased appetite.
|-
| Flupirtine || Comes as maleate salt. Chemically related to retigabine. || Potassium channel (Kv7) opener. || PO, rectal. || Bioavailability 90% (oral), 72.5% (rectal); protein binding 80%; volume of distribution 154 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life 6.5 hours; excretion urine (72%). || Pain; fibromyalgia; Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. || Drowsiness, dizziness, heartburn, dry mouth, fatigue and nausea.
|-
| Gabapentin || Comes in free and enacarbil salt forms; fairly insoluble in ethanol, dichoromethane, fairly soluble in water. || Binds to the α2δ-1 subunit of voltage gated calcium ion channels in the spinal cord. May also modulate NMDA receptors and protein kinase C. || PO. || Half-life = 5–7 hours. || Neuropathic pain; epilepsy. || Fatigue, sedation, dizziness, ataxia, tremor, diplopia, nystagmus, amblyopia, amnesia, abnormal thinking, hypertension, vasodilation, peripheral oedema, dry mouth, weight gain and rash.
|-
| Milnacipran || No data. || SNRI. || PO. || Bioavailability 85–90%; protein binding 13%: volume of distribution 400 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life 6–8 hours (L-isomer), 8–10 hours (D-isomer); excretion urine (55%). || Fibromyalgia. || As per duloxetine, plus hypertension.
|-
| Nabiximols || Contains cannabidiol and dronabinol in roughly equal concentrations. || As per dronabinol. || Buccal spray. || Not available. || Neuropathic pain and spasticity as part of MS. || As per dronabinol.
|-
| Nefopam || Comes in a hydrochloride salt form. Chemically related to orphenadrine. || Unknown; serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. || PO, IM. || Protein binding 73%; half-life 4 hours; excretion urine, faeces (8%). || Analgesia, especially postoperative; hiccups. || Has antimuscarinic and sympathomimetic effects.
|-
| Paracetamol || Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with moisture, air and light. || Multiple; inhibits prostaglandin synthesis in the CNS, an active metabolite, AM404, is an anandamide reuptake inhibitor. || PO, IV, IM, rectal. || Protein binding 10–25%; volume of distribution 1 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life 1–3 hours; excretion urine. || Analgesia and fever reduction. || Hepatotoxicity; hypersensitivity reactions (rare), including Stevens–Johnson syndrome; hypotension (rare; IV).
|-
| Phenacetin || No data. || Prodrug to paracetamol. || PO. || No data. || Analgesia and fever reduction. || Haematologic, nephrotoxicity, cancer and paracetamol AEs.
|-
| Pregabalin || Comes in free form. || As per gabapentin. || PO. || Bioavailability 90%; half-life 6.3 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion urine (90%). || Neuropathic pain; anxiety; epilepsy. || As per gabapentin.
|-
| Propacetamol || Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with moisture. || Prodrug to paracetamol. || IM, IV. || No data available. || Analgesia and fever reduction. || As per paracetamol.
|-
| Ziconotide || Peptide. || N-type calcium-channel blocker. || Intrathecal. || Protein binding 50%; half-life 2.9–6.5 hours; excretion urine (<1%). || Chronic pain. || CNS toxicity (abnormal gait, abnormal vision, memory problems, etc.); GI effects.
See also
* Audioanalgesia
* Electroanalgesia
* Pain management
* Patient-controlled analgesia
* Pain in babies
* Congenital analgesia (insensitivity to pain)
References
Citations
Sources
* |page=90 }}.
* |page=79 }}.
Category:Pain
Category:Opioids
Category:Agnosia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analgesic | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.682194 |
2250 | Abiotic stress | Abiotic stress is the negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment. The non-living variable must influence the environment beyond its normal range of variation to adversely affect the population performance or individual physiology of the organism in a significant way.
Whereas a biotic stress would include living disturbances such as fungi or harmful insects, abiotic stress factors, or stressors, are naturally occurring, often intangible and inanimate factors such as intense sunlight, temperature or wind that may cause harm to the plants and animals in the area affected. Abiotic stress is essentially unavoidable. Abiotic stress affects animals, but plants are especially dependent, if not solely dependent, on environmental factors, so it is particularly constraining. Abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide. Research has also shown that abiotic stressors are at their most harmful when they occur together, in combinations of abiotic stress factors.
Examples
Abiotic stress comes in many forms. The most common of the stressors are the easiest for people to identify, but there are many other, less recognizable abiotic stress factors which affect environments constantly.
The most basic stressors include:
High winds
Other natural disasters, such as tornadoes and wildfires.
Lesser-known stressors generally occur on a smaller scale. They include: poor edaphic conditions like rock content and pH levels, high radiation, compaction, contamination, and other, highly specific conditions like rapid rehydration during seed germination.
Benefits
One example of a situation where abiotic stress plays a constructive role in an ecosystem is in natural wildfires. While they can be a human safety hazard, it is productive for these ecosystems to burn out every once in a while so that new organisms can begin to grow and thrive. Even though it is healthy for an ecosystem, a wildfire can still be considered an abiotic stressor, because it puts an obvious stress on individual organisms within the area. Every tree that is scorched and each bird nest that is devoured is a sign of the abiotic stress. On the larger scale, though, natural wildfires are positive manifestations of abiotic stress.
What also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress, is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way. While a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area, if there is rice there, it will thrive in the wet conditions. Another example of this is in phytoplankton and zooplankton. The same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms. They act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins, but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively, while the thermophilic zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature. The two may be living in the same environment, but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms.
Detriments
One of the detriments concerning abiotic stress involves farming. It has been claimed by one study that abiotic stress causes the most crop loss of any other factor and that most major crops are reduced in their yield by more than 50% from their potential yield.
Because abiotic stress is widely considered a detrimental effect, the research on this branch of the issue is extensive. For more information on the harmful effects of abiotic stress, see the sections below on plants and animals.
In plants
A plant's first line of defense against abiotic stress is in its roots. If the soil holding the plant is healthy and biologically diverse, the plant will have a higher chance of surviving stressful conditions.
One of the primary responses to abiotic stress such as high salinity is the disruption of the Na+/K+ ratio in the cytoplasm of the plant cell. High concentrations of Na+, for example, can decrease the capacity for the plant to take up water and also alter enzyme and transporter functions. Evolved adaptations to efficiently restore cellular ion homeostasis have led to a wide variety of stress tolerant plants.
Facilitation, or the positive interactions between different species of plants, is an intricate web of association in a natural environment. It is how plants work together. In areas of high stress, the level of facilitation is especially high as well. This could possibly be because the plants need a stronger network to survive in a harsher environment, so their interactions between species, such as cross-pollination or mutualistic actions, become more common to cope with the severity of their habitat.
Plants also adapt very differently from one another, even from a plant living in the same area. When a group of different plant species was prompted by a variety of different stress signals, such as drought or cold, each plant responded uniquely. Hardly any of the responses were similar, even though the plants had become accustomed to exactly the same home environment. An example of plants that adapt to serpentine soil are Metallophytes, or hyperaccumulators, as they are known for their ability to absorbed heavy metals using the root-to-shoot translocation (which it will absorb into shoots rather than the plant itself). They're also extinguished for their ability to absorb toxic substances from heavy metals.
Chemical priming has been proposed to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in crop plants. In this method, which is analogous to vaccination, stress-inducing chemical agents are introduced to the plant in brief doses so that the plant begins preparing defense mechanisms. Thus, when the abiotic stress occurs, the plant has already prepared defense mechanisms that can be activated faster and increase tolerance. Prior exposure to tolerable doses of biotic stresses such as phloem-feeding insect infestation have also been shown to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in plant
Impact on food production
Abiotic stress mostly affects plants used in agriculture. Some examples of adverse conditions (which may be caused by climate change) are high or low temperatures, drought, salinity, and toxins.
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a classic example. Rice is a staple food throughout the world, especially in China and India. Rice plants can undergo different types of abiotic stresses, like drought and high salinity. These stress conditions adversely affect rice production. Genetic diversity has been studied among several rice varieties with different genotypes, using molecular markers.
Chickpea production is affected by drought. Chickpeas are one of the most important foods in the world.
Maize crops can be affected by high temperature and drought, leading to the loss of maize crops due to poor plant development. More specifically, the phenomenon threatens 19.5% of the world's irrigated agricultural land and 2.1% of the world's non-irrigated (dry-land) agricultural lands. High soil salinity content can be harmful to plants because water-soluble salts can alter osmotic potential gradients and consequently inhibit many cellular functions. For example, high soil salinity content can inhibit the process of photosynthesis by limiting a plant's water uptake; high levels of water-soluble salts in the soil can decrease the osmotic potential of the soil and consequently decrease the difference in water potential between the soil and the plant's roots, thereby limiting electron flow from H2O to P680 in Photosystem II's reaction center.
Over generations, many plants have mutated and built different mechanisms to counter salinity effects.
Phosphate starvation in plants
Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient required for plant growth and development, but it is present only in limited quantities in most of the world's soil. Plants use P mainly in the form of soluble inorganic phosphates (PO4−−−) but are subject to abiotic stress when there is not enough soluble PO4−−− in the soil. Phosphorus forms insoluble complexes with Ca and Mg in alkaline soils and with Al and Fe in acidic soils that make the phosphorus unavailable for plant roots. When there is limited bioavailable P in the soil, plants show extensive symptoms of abiotic stress, such as short primary roots and more lateral roots and root hairs to make more surface available for phosphate absorption, exudation of organic acids and phosphatase to release phosphates from complex P–containing molecules and make it available for growing plants' organs. It has been shown that PHR1, a MYB-related transcription factor, is a master regulator of P-starvation response in plants. PHR1 also has been shown to regulate extensive remodeling of lipids and metabolites during phosphorus limitation stress
Drought stress
Drought stress, defined as naturally occurring water deficit, is a main cause of crop losses in agriculture. This is because water is essential for many fundamental processes in plant growth. It has become especially important in recent years to find a way to combat drought stress. A decrease in precipitation and consequent increase in drought are extremely likely in the future due to an increase in global warming. By understanding the mechanisms of both AQPs and the hormone ABA, scientists will be better able to produce drought-resistant plants in the future.
A study by Tombesi et al., found that plants which had previously been exposed to drought were able to minimize water loss and decrease water use. They found that plants which were exposed to drought conditions actually changed the way they regulated their stomata and what they called "hydraulic safety margin" so as to decrease the vulnerability of the plant. By changing the regulation of stomata and subsequently the transpiration, plants were able to function better when less water was available.
In endangered species
Biodiversity is determined by many things, and one of them is abiotic stress. If an environment is highly stressful, biodiversity tends to be low. If abiotic stress does not have a strong presence in an area, the biodiversity will be much higher.
This idea leads into the understanding of how abiotic stress and endangered species are related. It has been observed through a variety of environments that as the level of abiotic stress increases, the number of species decreases. This means that species are more likely to become population threatened, endangered, and even extinct, when and where abiotic stress is especially harsh.
See also
Ecophysiology
References
Category:Stress (biological and psychological)
Category:Biodiversity
Category:Habitat
Category:Agriculture
Category:Botany | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic_stress | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.700720 |
2251 | Accusative case | In grammar, the accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: "me", "him", "her", "us", "whom", and "them". For example, the pronoun she, as the subject of a clause, is in the nominative case ("She wrote a book"); but if the pronoun is instead the object of the verb, it is in the accusative case and she becomes her ("Fred greeted her"). For compound direct objects, it would be, e.g., "Fred invited her and me to the party".
The accusative case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions. It is usually combined with the nominative case (for example in Latin).
The English term, "accusative", derives from the Latin , which, in turn, is a translation of the Greek . The word can also mean "causative", and that might have derived from the Greeks, but the sense of the Roman translation has endured and is used in some other modern languages as the grammatical term for this case, for example in Russian ().
The accusative case is typical of early Indo-European languages and still exists in some of them (including Albanian, Armenian, Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, German, Nepali, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian), in the Finno-Ugric languages (such as Finnish and Hungarian), in all Turkic languages, in Dravidian languages like Malayalam and Tamil, and in Semitic languages (such as Arabic). Some Balto-Finnic languages, such as Finnish, have two cases for objects, the accusative and the partitive case. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both do the accusative function, but the accusative object is telic, while the partitive is not.
Modern English almost entirely lacks declension in its nouns; pronouns, however, have an understood case usage, as in them, her, him and whom, which merges the accusative and dative functions, and originates in old Germanic dative forms (see Declension in English).
Example
In the sentence The man sees the dog, the dog'' is the direct object of the verb "to see". In English, which has mostly lost grammatical cases, the definite article and noun – "the dog" – remain the same noun form without number agreement in the noun either as subject or object, though an artifact of it is in the verb and has number agreement, which changes to "sees". One can also correctly use "the dog" as the subject of a sentence: "The dog sees the cat."
In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes with gender agreement. For example, in German, "the dog" is . This is the form in the nominative case, used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German – (The man sees the dog). In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from to in the accusative case.
In Nepali, "Rama sees Shyama" would be translated as The same sentence in Sanskrit would be .
Latin
The accusative case in Latin has minor differences from the accusative case in Proto-Indo-European.
Nouns in the accusative case () can be used:
* as a direct object;
* to qualify duration of time, e.g., , "for many years"; , "for 200 years"; this is known as the accusative of duration of time,
* to qualify direction towards which e.g., , "homewards"; , "to Rome" with no preposition needed; this is known as the accusative of place to which, and is equivalent to the lative case found in some other languages.
* as the subject of an indirect statement with the verb as an infinitive, (e.g. , "He said that I had been cruel"; in later Latin works, such as the Vulgate, such a phrasing is replaced by and a regularly ordered sentence, having the subject in the nominative and the verb in the indicative mood, e.g., ).
* with case-specific prepositions such as (through), (to/toward), and (across);
* in exclamations, such as , "wretched me" (spoken by Circe to Ulysses in Ovid's );
*to qualify purpose, e.g., , "for the purpose of departing"; , "for the purpose of weakening [or, effeminating] the spirit".
For the accusative endings, see Latin declensions.
German
The accusative case is used for the direct object in a sentence. The masculine forms for German articles, e.g., "the", "a/an", "my", etc., change in the accusative case: they always end in -en. The feminine, neutral and plural forms do not change.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural
|-
| Definite article (the)
|
|
|
|
|-
| Indefinite article (a/an)
|
|
|
|
|}
For example, (dog) is a masculine () word, so the article changes when used in the accusative case:
*. (lit., I have a dog.) In the sentence, "a dog" is in the accusative case as it is the second idea (the object) of the sentence.
Some German pronouns also change in the accusative case.
The accusative case is also used after particular German prepositions. These include , , , , , , after which the accusative case is always used, and , , , , , , , , which can govern either the accusative or the dative. The latter prepositions take the accusative when motion or action is specified (being done into/onto the space), but take the dative when location is specified (being done in/on that space). These prepositions are also used in conjunction with certain verbs, in which case it is the verb in question which governs whether the accusative or dative should be used.
Adjective endings also change in the accusative case. Another factor that determines the endings of adjectives is whether the adjective is being used after a definite article (the), after an indefinite article (a/an) or without any article before the adjective (many green apples).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural
|-
| Definite article
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" |
|
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| Indefinite article
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| No article
|
|}
In German, the accusative case is also used for some adverbial expressions, mostly temporal ones, as in (This evening I'm staying at home), where is marked as accusative, although not a direct object.
Russian
In Russian, accusative is used not only to display the direct object of an action, but also to indicate the destination or goal of motion. It is also used with some prepositions. The prepositions and can both take accusative in situations where they are indicating the goal of a motion.
In the masculine, Russian also distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns with regard to the accusative; only the animates carry a marker in this case.
The PIE accusative case has nearly eroded in Russian, merging with the genitive or the nominative in most declensions. Only singular first-declension nouns (ending in , , or ) have a distinct accusative (, , or ).
Finnish
According to the traditional Finnish grammar, the accusative case is used for a total object, while the partitive case is used for a partial object. The accusative is identical to either the nominative case or the genitive case, except for personal pronouns and the personal interrogative pronoun /, which have a special accusative form ending in .
The major new Finnish grammar, , deviates from the traditional classification to limit the accusative case to the special case of personal pronouns and /. This grammar considers other total objects as being in the nominative or genitive case.
Hungarian
The accusative case is assigned to the direct object in a sentence in Hungarian. The accusative marker is always , often preceded by a linking vowel to facilitate pronunciation.
*
*
*
*
*
Every personal pronoun has an accusative form.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|+
!colspan2 rowspan2|
!colspan=2|English
!colspan=2|Hungarian
|-
!Nominative
!Accusative
!Nominative
!Accusative
|-
!colspan=2|1st person singular
|I
|me
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|2nd person singular
|colspan=2|you
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|3rd person singular
!Person
|he/she/they
|him/her/them
|rowspan=2|
|
|-
!Object
|colspan=2|it
|
|-
!colspan=2|1st person plural
|we
|us
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|2nd person plural
|colspan=2 |you
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|3rd person plural
!Person
|rowspan=2|they
|rowspan=2|them
|rowspan=2|
|
|-
!Object
|
|}
For the Hungarian 1st and 2nd person singular accusative forms, the pronoun can often be dropped if it is clear from the context who the speaker is referring to.
Semitic languages
Accusative case marking existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. It is preserved today in many Semitic languages as Modern Standard Arabic, Hebrew and Ge'ez.
Accusative in Akkadian
:Nominative: (a/the man)
:Accusative: (I trust a/the man)
Accusative in Arabic
The accusative case is called in Arabic () and it has many other uses in addition to marking the object of a verb.
Accusative in Hebrew
}}
}}
In Hebrew, if the object of the sentence is a pronoun (e.g., I, you, s/he) and the transitive verb requires a direct object, the word is combined with the pronoun into an object pronoun.
The combined words are:
* me:
* you (singular): (M); (F)
* him:
* her:
* we:
* you (plural): (M); (F)
* them: (M); (F)
Japanese
In Japanese, cases are marked by placing particles after nouns. The accusative case is marked with (, pronounced ). Korean
In Korean, the accusative case is marked with or . The postpositions depend on a word's last syllable. For example:
*나는 게임을 했다.
*나는 숙제를 했다.
Turkish
In Turkish, cases are marked with suffixes. The accusative case is marked with the suffixes , depending on vowel harmony. If a word ends in a vowel, is added before the suffix as a buffer consonant.
The accusative is only used if the direct object of a sentence is definite. If it is indefinite, the nominative case is used. For example:
:{|
|-
| || || (nominative case)
|-
| || || (nominative case, indefinite direct object)
|-
| || || (accusative case, definite direct object)
|}
Malayalam
In Malayalam, the accusative inflection is achieved using the suffix /-e/. Example: /raman/ → /ramane/. The sandhi also play a role here depending on the ending of the noun. Example: /maram/ → /maratte/ where /tt/ replaces /m/ when /e/ is suffixed. See also
*Morphosyntactic alignment
*Nota accusativi
References
Further reading
*
*
Category:Grammatical cases | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative_case | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.741683 |
2257 | Apostolic succession | of Deodatus; (1580–1630)]]
Apostolic succession is the method whereby the ministry of the Christian Church is considered by some Christian denominations to be derived from the apostles by a continuous succession, which has usually been associated with a claim that the succession is through a series of bishops. Those of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Scandinavian Lutheran, Anglican, Moravian, Hussite, and Old Catholic traditions maintain that a bishop's orders are neither regular nor valid without consecration through apostolic succession. These traditions do not always consider the episcopal consecrations of all of the other traditions as valid.
This series was seen originally as that of the bishops of a particular see founded by one or more of the apostles. According to historian Justo L. González, apostolic succession is generally understood today as meaning a series of bishops, regardless of see, each consecrated by other bishops, themselves consecrated similarly in a succession going back to the apostles.
Those who hold for the importance of apostolic succession via episcopal laying on of hands appeal to the New Testament which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession, from Paul to Timothy and Titus, for example. They appeal as well to other documents of the early Church, especially the Epistle of Clement. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles appointed bishops as successors and directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church, up to AD 431, before it was divided into the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.
Some Christians, including many Protestants, deny the need for this type of continuity and severely question the historical claims involved; Anglican academic Eric G. Jay comments that the account given of the emergence of the episcopate in Chapter III of the dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium (1964) "is very sketchy, and many ambiguities in the early history of the Christian ministry are passed over". Definitions
Michael Ramsey, an English Anglican bishop and the Archbishop of Canterbury (1961–1974), described three meanings of "apostolic succession":
# One bishop succeeding another in the same see meant that there was a continuity of teaching: "while the Church as a whole is the vessel into which the truth is poured, the Bishops are an important organ in carrying out this task".
# The bishops were also successors of the apostles in that "the they performed of preaching, governing and ordaining were the same as the Apostles had performed".
# It is also used to signify that "grace is transmitted from the Apostles by each generation of bishops through the imposition of hands".
He adds that this last has been controversial in that it has been claimed that this aspect of the doctrine is not found before the time of Augustine of Hippo, while others allege that it is implicit in the Church of the second and third centuries.
In its 1982 statement on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches stated that "the primary manifestation of apostolic succession is to be found in the apostolic tradition of the Church as a whole. ... Under the particular historical circumstances of the growing Church in the early centuries, the succession of bishops became one of the ways, together with the transmission of the Gospel and the life of the community, in which the apostolic tradition of the Church was expressed." It spoke of episcopal succession as something that churches that do not have bishops can see "as a sign, though not a guarantee, of the continuity and unity of the Church" and that all churches can see "as a sign of the apostolicity of the life of the whole church".
The Porvoo Common Statement (1996), agreed to by the Anglican churches of the British Isles and most of the Lutheran churches of Scandinavia and the Baltic, echoed the Munich (1982) and Finland (1988) statements of the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church
Some Anglicans, in addition to other Protestants, held that apostolic succession "may also be understood as a continuity in doctrinal teaching from the time of the apostles to the present". For example, the British Methodist Conference locates the "true continuity" with the Church of past ages in "the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission".
The teaching of the Second Vatican Council on apostolic succession has been summed up as follows:
In the early FathersAccording to International Theological Commission (ITC), conflicts could not always be avoided between individuals among the New Testament communities; Paul appealed to his apostolic authority when there was a disagreement about the Gospel or principles of Christian life. How the development of apostolic government proceeded is difficult to say accurately because of the paucity of relevant documents. ITC says that the apostles or their closest assistants or their successors directed the local colleges of episkopoi and presbyteroi by the end of the first century; while by the beginning of the second century the figure of a single bishop, as the head of the communities, appears explicitly in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch ( 35-107).}}
Ramsey says that the doctrine was formulated in the second century in the first of the three senses given by him, originally as a response to Gnostic claims of having received secret teaching from Christ or the apostles; it emphasised the public manner in which the apostles had passed on authentic teaching to those whom they entrusted with the care of the churches they founded and that these in turn had passed it on to their successors. Ramsey argues that only later was it given a different meaning, a process in which Augustine (Bishop of Hippo Regis, 395–430) played a part by emphasising the idea of "the link from consecrator to consecrated whereby the grace of order was handed on".
Writing in about AD 94, Clement of Rome states that the apostles appointed successors to continue their work where they had planted churches and for these in their turn to do the same because they foresaw the risk of discord: "Our Apostles, too, by the instruction of our Lord Jesus Christ, knew that strife would arise concerning the dignity of a bishop; and on this account, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the above-mentioned as bishops and deacons: and then gave a rule of succession, in order that, when they had fallen asleep, other men, who had been approved, might succeed to their ministry." According to Anglican Eric G. Jay, the interpretation of his writing is disputed, but it is clear that he supports some sort of approved continuation of the ministry exercised by the apostles which in its turn was derived from Christ. and they produced succession lists to back this up. That this succession depended on the fact of ordination to a vacant see and the status of those who administered the ordination is seldom commented on. Woollcombe also states that no one questioned the apostolicity of the See of Alexandria despite the fact that its popes were consecrated by the college of presbyters up till the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325. then he ordained Annianus as his successor bishop (2nd Pope) as told by Eusebius.
James F. Puglisi, director of Centro Pro Unione, made a conclusion about Irenaeus' writings: "the terms episkopos and presbyteros are interchangeable, but the term episkopos [bishop] is applied to the person who is established in every Church by the apostles and their successors". According to Eric G. Jay, Irenaeus also refers to a succession of presbyters who preserve the tradition "which originates from the apostles" and later goes on to speak of their having "an infallible gift of truth" [charisma veritatis certum]. Jay comments that this is sometimes seen as an early reference to the idea of the transmission of grace through the apostolic succession which in later centuries was understood as being specifically transmitted through the laying on of hands by a bishop within the apostolic succession (the "pipeline theory"). He warns that this is open to the grave objection that it makes grace a (quasi)material commodity and represents an almost mechanical method of imparting what is by definition a free gift. He adds that the idea cannot be squeezed out of Irenaeus' words.|Tertullian}}
Writing a little later, Tertullian makes the same main point but adds expressly that recently founded churches (such as his own in Carthage) could be considered apostolic if they had "derived the tradition of faith and the seeds of doctrine" from an apostolic church. His disciple, Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage 248–58) appeals to the same fundamental principle of election to a vacant see in the aftermath of the Decian Persecution when denying the legitimacy of his rigorist rival in Carthage and that of the anti-pope Novatian in Rome.
The emphasis is now on legitimating Cyprian's episcopal ministry as a whole and specifically his exclusive right to administer discipline to the lapsed rather than on the content of what is taught.As transmission of graceFor the adherents of this understanding of apostolic succession, grace is transmitted during episcopal consecrations (the ordination of bishops) by the laying on of hands of bishops previously consecrated within the apostolic succession. They hold that this lineage of ordination derives from the Twelve Apostles, thus making the Church the continuation of the early Apostolic Christian community. They see it as one of four elements that define the true Church of Jesus Christ, and legitimize the ministry of its clergy, since only a bishop within the succession can perform valid ordinations and only bishops and presbyters (priests) ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession can validly celebrate (or "confect") several of the other sacraments, including the Eucharist, reconciliation of penitents, confirmation and anointing of the sick. Everett Ferguson argued that Hippolytus, in Apostolic Tradition 9, is the first known source to state that only bishops have the authority to ordain; and normally at least three bishops were required to ordain another bishop. Cyprian also asserts that "if any one is not with the bishop, he is not in the church".
This position was stated by John Henry Newman, before his conversion from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, in Tracts for the Times:
<blockquote>We [priests of the Church of England] have been born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God. The Lord Jesus Christ gave His Spirit to His Apostles; they in turn laid their hands on those who should succeed them; and these again on others; and so the sacred gift has been handed down to our present bishops, who have appointed us as their assistants, and in some sense representatives. ... we must necessarily consider none to be ordained who have not been ordained.</blockquote>
Ferguson, in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, says that example of James and the elders (presbyters) of the Jerusalem Church (Acts 21:18) may have provided a model for the development of 'monepiscopacy', in which James' position has figured conspicuously in modern theories about the rise of the monepiscopacy.
Raymond E. Brown also states that by the early second century, as written in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch, in the threefold structure of the single bishop, plural presbyters, and plural deacons, the celebration of the Eucharist is assigned to the bishop alone; the bishop may delegate others when he goes away. At the Last Supper, Jesus says to those present, who were or included the Twelve Apostles, "Do this in remembrance of me," Brown presumes that the Twelve were remembered as presiding at the Eucharist. But they could scarcely have been present at all the Eucharists of the first century, and no information in New Testament whether a person was regularly assigned to do this task and, if so, who that person was. After all the Church regulated and regularized the celebration of the Eucharist, as that was an inevitable establishment if communities were to be provided regularly with the 'bread of life', since it could not rely on gratuitous provision. Michael Ramsey argued it is not clearly found in the writings of the Fathers before Augustine in the fourth century and there were attempts to read it back as implicit in earlier writers.
For example, C. K. Barrett points out that the Pastoral Epistles are concerned that ministers of the generation of Timothy and Titus should pass on the doctrine they had received to the third generation. According to Barrett, teaching and preaching are "the main, almost the only, activities of ministry". He argues that in Clement of Rome ministerial activity is liturgical: the undifferentiated 'presbyter-bishops' are to "make offerings to the Lord at the right time and in the right places" something which is simply not defined by the evangelists. He mentions the change in the use of sacrificial language as a more significant still: for Paul the Eucharist is a receiving of gifts from God, the Christian sacrifice is the offering of one's body.
Moving on to Ignatius of Antioch, Barrett states that a sharp distinction is found between 'presbyter' and 'bishop': the latter now stands out as "an isolated figure" who is to be obeyed and without whom it is not lawful to baptise or hold a love-feast.
Similar objections are voiced by Harvey A.E. who comments that there is a "strong and ancient tradition" that the presence of an ordained man is necessary for the celebration of the Eucharist. But, according to him, there is "certainly no evidence for this view in the New Testament" and in the case of Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch the implication is not that it be celebrated by anyone else, but that it not. Harvey says in the third century this "concern for propriety" begins to be displaced by the concept of 'power' to do so which means that in the absence of such a man it is "literally impossible" for a Eucharist to be celebrated.
Apostolicity as doctrinal and related continuity
Some Protestant denominations, not including Scandinavian Lutherans, Anglicans and Moravians, deny the need of maintaining episcopal continuity with the early Church, holding that the role of the apostles was that, having been chosen directly by Jesus as witnesses of his resurrection, they were to be the "special instruments of the Holy Spirit in founding and building up the Church". Anglican theologian E. A. Litton argues that the Church is "built upon 'the foundation of the Prophets and Apostles', but a foundation does not repeat itself"; therefore he says that when the apostles died, they were replaced by their writings. Then he continued:
<blockquote>"it does not guarantee the continuity and faithfulness of the Church. A purely historical or mechanical succession of ministers, bishops or pastors would not mean ipso facto true apostolic succession in the church, Reformed tradition, following authentic Catholic tradition, distinguishes four realities which make up the true apostolic succession, symbolized, but not absolutely guaranteed, by ministerial succession." At the same time Thurian argued that the realities form a "composite faithfulness" and are (i) "perseverance in the apostolic doctrine"; (ii) "the will to proclaim God's word"; (iii) "communion in the fundamental continuity of the Church, the Body of Christ, the faithful celebration of Baptism and the Eucharist"; (iv) "succession in the laying on of hands, the sign of ministerial continuity". While the Lutheran-Catholic dialogue distinguished between apostolic succession in faith (in substantive meaning) and apostolic succession as ministerial succession of bishops, it agreed that "succession in the sense of the succession of ministers must be seen within the succession of the whole church in the apostolic faith". include:
* the Roman Catholic Church
* the Eastern Orthodox Church
* the Oriental Orthodox Churches
* the Church of the East
* the Moravian Church
* the Anglican Communion
* many Lutheran churches
* Old Catholics and other Independent Catholics (those incorporating the term "Catholic")
* some churches in the Convergence Movement
Those Lutheran churches, as well as the Anglican Communion and other Anglican denominations , that claim apostolic succession exclusively practice episcopal ordination. While some Anglicans claim it for their communion, their views are often nuanced and there is widespread reluctance to 'unchurch' Christian bodies which lack it. After the English Reformation, Anglicanism "followed the major continental Reformers in their doctrine of the true church, identifiable by the authentic ministry of word and sacrament, in their rejection of the jurisdiction of the pope, and in their alliance with the civil authority ('the magistrate')". The Church of England historically recognized as true churches the Continental Reformed Churches, participating in the Synod of Dort in 1618–1619. The Orthodox generally recognize Roman Catholic clerical orders as being of apostolic lineage, but have a different concept of the apostolic succession as it exists outside the canonical borders of the Eastern Orthodox Church, extending the term only to bishops who have maintained communion, received ordination from a line of apostolic bishops, and preserved the catholic faith once delivered through the apostles and handed down as holy tradition. The lack of apostolic succession through bishops is the primary basis on which Protestant denominations (barring some like Lutherans and Anglicans) are not called churches, in the proper sense, by the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, the latter referring to them as "ecclesial communities" in the official documents of the Second Vatican Council.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also claims apostolic succession. According to Latter-day Saint tradition, in 1829, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the priesthood from a visit from heaven of John the Baptist, conferring the Aaronic priesthood, followed by Jesus' Apostles, Peter, James, and John, conferring the Melchizedek priesthood. After its establishment, each subsequent prophet and leader of the church have received the authority passed down by the laying on of hands, or through apostolic succession.
Apostolic founders
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An early understanding of apostolic succession is represented by the traditional beliefs of various churches, as organised around important episcopal sees, to have been founded by specific apostles. On the basis of these traditions, the churches hold they have inherited specific authority, doctrines or practices on the authority of their founding apostle(s), which is understood to be continued by the bishops of the apostolic throne of the church that each founded and whose original leader he was. Thus:
* The See of Rome, the head see of the Catholic Church, states that it was founded by Simon Peter (traditionally called "Prince of the Apostles" and "Chief of the Apostles") and Paul the Apostle. Although Peter also founded the See of Antioch, the See of Rome claims the full authority of Peter (who, according to Catholic doctrine, was the visible head of the church and the sole chief of the Apostles) exclusively for itself, because Peter died as the Bishop of Rome, and not of another see.
* The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the primary patriarchate of the Eastern Orthodox Church, states that Apostle Andrew (elder brother of Simon Peter) was its founder.
* Each Patriarchate of Alexandria (the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Catholic Church, and the Coptic Orthodox Church) states that it was founded by Mark the Evangelist.
* Each Patriarchate of Antioch (the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Maronite Church, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, and the Syriac Catholic Church) states that it was founded by Simon Peter.
* The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem states that it was founded by James the Just.
* Each Armenian Church (the Armenian Apostolic Church, based at Etchmiadzin, and the Armenian Catholic Church, whose patriarchal see is Cilicia but is based at Beirut) states that it was founded by the Apostles Bartholomew and Jude Thaddeus.
* The following bodies state they were founded by the Apostle Thomas: the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church, originating in or around Mesopotamia, and churches based in Kerala, India having Syriac roots and generically known as the Saint Thomas Christians: the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.
* The Orthodox Tewahedo churches (the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) state that they were founded by Philip the Evangelist and Mark the Evangelist.
* The Orthodox Church of Georgia states that the Apostles Andrew and Simon the Zealot were its founders.
* The Orthodox Church of Cyprus, based at Nova Justiniana (Erdek), states that it was founded by the Apostles Paul and Barnabas.
*The Bulgarian Orthodox Church states that it has a connection with Andrew the Apostle.
* The Russian Orthodox Church states that it has a connection with the Apostle Andrew, who is said to have visited the area where the city of Kyiv later arose.
{| class"wikitable" sortable width"auto" style="text-align: center"
|+ Apostolic founders
|-
! Church !! Andrew !! Simon Peter !! Paul !! Barnabas !! Philip !! Mark !! Simon !! Thomas !! James !! Jude Thaddeus !! Bartholomew !! Notes
|-
| Latin Church || || x || x || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople || x || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria || || || || || || x || || || || || || via Alexandria
|-
| Coptic Catholic Church || || || || || || x || || || || || || via Alexandria
|-
| Coptic Orthodox Church || || || || || || x || || || || || || via Alexandria
|-
| Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch || || x || || || || || || || || || || via Antioch
|-
| Syriac Orthodox Church || || x || || || || || || || || || || via Antioch
|-
| Maronite Church|| || x || || || || || || || || || || via Antioch
|-
| Melkite Greek Catholic Church || || x || || || || || || || || || || via Antioch
|-
| Syriac Catholic Church || || x || || || || || || || || || || via Antioch
|-
| Armenian Apostolic Church || || || || || || || || || || x|| x ||
|-
| Armenian Catholic Church || || || || || || || || || || x || x ||
|-
| Syro-Malabar Catholic Church || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Syro-Malankara Catholic Church || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Jacobite Syrian Christian Church || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Assyrian Church of the East || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Ancient Church of the East || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
| Chaldean Catholic Church || || || || || || || || x || || || ||
|-
|| Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem || || || || || || || || || x || || ||
|-
| Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church || || || || || x || x || || || || || ||
|-
| Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church || || || || || x || x || || || || || ||
|-
| Orthodox Church of Georgia || x || || || || || || x || || || || ||
|-
| Orthodox Church of Cyprus || || || x || x || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Bulgarian Orthodox Church || x || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| Russian Orthodox Church || x || || || || || || || || || || || via Kyiv
|-
| Orthodox Church of Ukraine || x || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
|}
Teachings
Teachings on the nature of apostolic succession vary depending on the ecclesiastic body, especially within various Protestant denominations. Christians of the Catholic Church, Church of the East, Oriental Orthodox, and the Eastern Orthodox Church teach apostolic succession. Among the previously mentioned churches opinions vary as to the validity of succession within Old Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Moravian communities.
Catholic Church
In Catholic theology, the doctrine of apostolic succession is that the apostolic tradition – including apostolic teaching, preaching, and authority – is handed down from the college of apostles to the college of bishops through the laying on of hands, as a permanent office in the Church. Historically, this has been understood as a succession in office, a succession of valid ordinations, or a succession of the entire college. It is understood as a sign and guarantee that the Church, both local and universal, is in diachronic continuity with the apostles; a necessary but insufficient guarantor thereof.
Papal primacy is different though related to apostolic succession as described here. The Catholic Church has traditionally claimed a unique leadership role for the Apostle Peter, believed to have been named by Jesus as head of the Apostles and as a focus of their unity, who became the first Bishop of Rome, and whose successors inherited the role and accordingly became the leaders of the worldwide Church as well. Even so, Catholicism acknowledges the papacy is built on apostolic succession, not the other way around. As such, apostolic succession is a foundational doctrine of authority in the Catholic Church.}} Peter was succeeded by Linus, Linus by Clement, Clement by Anacletus, Anacletus by Evaristus..." The Catholic position is summarised this way: "The Lord says to Peter: 'I say to you,' he says, 'that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell will not overcome it ....' On him [Peter] he builds the Church, and to him he gives the command to feed the sheep, and although he assigns a like power to all the apostles, yet he founded a single chair [cathedra], and he established by his own authority a source and an intrinsic reason for that unity.... If someone [today] does not hold fast to this unity of Peter, can he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he [should] desert the chair of Peter upon whom the Church was built, can he still be confident that he is in the Church?"
Catholicism holds that Christ entrusted the Apostles with the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the "deposit of faith". The experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal tradition handed down from the time of the apostles and the written portion, which is Scripture. The apostles then passed on this office and authority by ordaining bishops to follow after them.
Catholic theology holds that the apostolic succession affects the power and authority to administer the sacraments except for baptism and matrimony. Baptism may be administered by anyone and matrimony by the couple to each other. Authority to so administer such sacraments is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, a rite by which a priest is ordained. Ordination can be conferred only by bishop. The bishop must be from an unbroken line of bishops stemming from the original apostles selected by Jesus Christ. Thus, apostolic succession is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments.}}
In the Catholic Church, Pope Leo XIII stated in his 1896 bull Apostolicae curae that the Catholic Church believes specifically that Anglican orders were to be considered "absolutely null and utterly void".
His argument was as follows. First, the ordination rite of Edward VI had removed the language of a sacrificial priesthood. Ordinations using this new rite occurred for over a century and, because the restoration of the language of "priesthood" a century later in the ordination rite "was introduced too late, as a century had already elapsed since the adoption of the Edwardine Ordinal ... the Hierarchy had become extinct, there remained no power of ordaining." With this extinction of validly ordained bishops in England, "the true Sacrament of Order as instituted by Christ lapsed, and with it the hierarchical succession." As a result, the pope's final judgment was that Anglican ordinations going forward were to be considered "absolutely null and utterly void". Anglican clergy were from then on to be ordained as Catholic priests upon entry into the Catholic Church. They argued that if the Anglican orders were invalid, then the Roman orders were as well since the Pope based his case on the fact that the Anglican ordinals used did not contain certain essential elements but these were not found in the early Roman rites either.
rejected Anglican arguments for apostolic succession in his bull Apostolicae curae.]]
It is Catholic doctrine that the teaching of Apostolicae curae is a truth to be "held definitively, but are not able to be declared as divinely revealed", as stated in a commentary by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Cardinal Basil Hume explained the conditional character of his ordination of Graham Leonard, former Anglican bishop of the Diocese of London, to the priesthood in the following way: "While firmly restating the judgement of Apostolicae Curae that Anglican ordination is invalid, the Catholic Church takes account of the involvement, in some Anglican episcopal ordinations, of bishops of the Old Catholic Church of the Union of Utrecht who are validly ordained. In particular and probably rare cases the authorities in Rome may judge that there is a 'prudent doubt' concerning the invalidity of priestly ordination received by an individual Anglican minister ordained in this line of succession."
At the same time, he stated: "Since the church must be in no doubt of the validity of the sacraments celebrated for the Roman Catholic community, it must ask all who are chosen to exercise the priesthood in the Catholic Church to accept sacramental ordination in order to fulfill their ministry and be integrated into the apostolic succession." since from the 1930s Old Catholic bishops (the validity of whose orders the Vatican has never questioned) have acted as co-consecrators in the ordination of Anglican bishops. This view has not yet been considered formally by the Holy See, but after Anglican Bishop Graham Leonard converted to Catholicism, he was only reordained in 1994 because of the presence of Old Catholic bishops at his ordination.
The question of the validity of Anglican orders has been further complicated by the Anglican ordination of women. In a document it published in July 1998, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated that the Catholic Church's declaration on the invalidity of Anglican ordinations is a teaching that the church has definitively propounded and that therefore every Catholic is required to give "firm and definitive assent" to this matter.Eastern OrthodoxWhile Eastern Orthodox sources often refer to the bishops as "successors of the apostles" under the influence of Scholastic theology, strict Orthodox ecclesiology and theology hold that all legitimate bishops are properly successors of Peter. This also means that presbyters (or "priests") are successors of the apostles. As a result, Eastern Orthodox theology makes a distinction between a geographical or historical succession and proper ontological or ecclesiological succession. Hence, the bishops of Rome and Antioch can be considered successors of Peter in a historical sense on account of Peter's presence in the early community. This does not imply that these bishops are more successors of Peter than all others in an ontological sense.
The Eastern Orthodox have often permitted non-Eastern Orthodox clergy to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy as a matter of pastoral necessity and economia. Priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy from Oriental Orthodoxy and Catholicism have usually been received by "vesting" and have been allowed to function immediately within Eastern Orthodoxy as priests. Recognition of Catholic orders by the Russian Orthodox Church was stipulated in 1667 by the Synod of Moscow,
For example, Fr. John Morris of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, states that "Apostolic Succession is not merely a historical pedigree, but also requires Apostolic Faith. This is because Apostolic Succession is not the private possession of a bishop, but is the attribute of a local Church. A bishop who goes in schism or is cast out of office due to heresy does not take his Apostolic Succession with him as a private possession." The validity of a priest's ordination is decided by each autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church.
In 1922 the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople recognised Anglican orders as valid, holding that they carry "the same validity as the Roman, Old Catholic and Armenian churches possess". In the encyclical "From the Oecumenical Patriarch to the Presidents of the Particular Eastern Orthodox churches", Meletius IV of Constantinople, the Ecumenical Patriarch, wrote: "That the Orthodox theologians who have scientifically examined the question have almost unanimously come to the same conclusions and have declared themselves as accepting the validity of Anglican Orders." Following this declaration, in 1923, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, as well as the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus agreed by "provisionally acceding that Anglican priests should not be re-ordained if they became Orthodox";
Succeeding judgements have been more conflicting. The Eastern Orthodox churches require a totality of common teaching to recognise orders and in this broader view find ambiguities in Anglican teaching and practice problematic. Accordingly, in some parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican clergy who convert to Orthodoxy are reordained, rather than vested.
There are also historic instances of canonically disputed or unrecognized clergy being recognized and/or received into the Eastern Orthodox churches without need for conditional ordination (e.g., Joseph Zuk of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA, Alexander Turner of the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate, and Christopher Contogeorge of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, and Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria). Oriental Orthodox Churches The Armenian Apostolic Church, which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognises Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification.Lutheran churchesLutherans universally believe that "no one should publicly teach in the Church or administer the Sacraments unless he be regularly called". The Lutheran churches in Scandinavia, and those established in other parts of the world as a result of Scandinavian Lutheran missionary activity (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya), practice episcopal succession in which the bishop whose holy orders can be traced back for centuries performs ordinations. On the other hand, certain Lutheran theologians, such as Arthur Carl Piepkorn, have held to the conception of a succession of presbyters in contradistinction to a succession of bishops. German Lutheran churches and their subsequent offspring in the United States practice succession of presbyters in which another priest is the one who confers the priesthood onto another. This low view results from the Prussian state-ordered union with Reformed (Calvinist) churches in 1817.
Lutheran claims to apostolic succession
is ordained as archbishop of the Church of Sweden, 1914.]]
In Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Lutheran churches participating in the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania), as well as non-Porvoo membership Lutheran churches in the region (including those of Latvia, and Russia), and the confessional Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses, believe that they ordain their bishops in apostolic succession in lines stemming from the original apostles.
create a new church. As a national church, the Church of Sweden succeeded in bringing together medieval Swedish tradition with the rediscovery of the gospel which the Reformation brought with it. Archbishop Söderblom included the historic episcopate in the tradition-transmitting elements. The Church of Sweden was, according to Söderblom, in an even higher degree than the Anglican Church a via media. —Together in Mission and Ministry: The Porvoo Common Statement}}
The Lutheran Church of Finland was at that time one with the Church of Sweden and so holds the same view regarding the see of Åbo/Turku.
In 2001, Francis Aloysius Sullivan wrote: "To my knowledge, the Catholic Church has never officially expressed its judgement on the validity of orders as they have been handed down by episcopal succession in these two national Lutheran churches." In 2007, the Holy See declared: "Christian Communities born out of the Reformation of the sixteenth century [...] do not enjoy apostolic succession in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constitutive element of the Church." This statement speaks of the Protestant movement as a whole, not specifically of the Lutheran churches in Sweden and Finland. The 2010 report from the Roman Catholic – Lutheran Dialogue Group for Sweden and Finland, Justification in the Life of the Church, states: "The Evangelical-Lutheran churches in Sweden and Finland [...] believe that they are part of an unbroken apostolic chain of succession. The Catholic Church does however question how the ecclesiastical break in the 16th century has affected the apostolicity of the churches of the Reformation and thus the apostolicity of their ministry." Emil Anton interprets this report as saying that the Catholic Church does not deny or approve the apostolic succession directly, but will continue with further inquiries about the matter.
Negotiated at Järvenpää, Finland, and inaugurated with a celebration of the Eucharist at Porvoo Cathedral in 1992, the Porvoo Communion agreement of unity includes the mutual recognition of the traditional apostolic succession among the following churches:
* Lutheran churches: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland, Church of Norway, Church of Sweden, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania, Church of Denmark, The Lutheran Church in Great Britain observer: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia.
* Anglican Communion: Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Church of England, the Church in Wales, the Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church, and the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church.
At least one of the Scandinavian Lutheran churches in the Porvoo Communion of churches, the Church of Denmark has bishops, but strictly speaking they were not in the historic apostolic succession prior to their entry into the Porvoo Communion, since their episcopate and holy orders derived from Johannes Bugenhagen, who was a pastor, not a bishop. In 2010, the Church of Denmark joined the Porvoo Communion of churches, after a process of mutual consecrations of bishops had led to the introduction of historic apostolic succession. The Lutheran Church in Great Britain also joined the Porvoo Agreement, in 2014.
In Scandinavia, where High Church Lutheranism and Pietist Lutheranism has been highly influential, the Evangelical Lutheran Mission Diocese of Finland, Mission Province of the Church of Sweden, and the Evangelical Lutheran Diocese of Norway entered into schism with their national churches due to "the secularization of the national/state churches in their respective countries involving matters of both Christian doctrine and ethics"; these have altar and pulpit fellowship through the Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses and are members of the confessional International Lutheran Council with their bishops having lines of apostolic succession from other traditional Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya.
Similarly, in the High Church Lutheranism of Germany, some religious brotherhoods such as Hochkirchliche St. Johannes-Bruderschaft and Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar have managed to arrange for their own bishop to be re-ordained in apostolic succession. The members of these brotherhoods do not form into separate ecclesia.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, North America's largest Lutheran body, gained apostolic succession through Lutheran bishops in the historic episcopate; this allowed for full communion with the Episcopal Church in 2000, upon the signing of Called to Common Mission. By this document the full communion between the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Episcopal Church was established. As such, "all episcopal installations in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America take place with the participation of bishops in the apostolic succession." The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is headed by a presiding bishop who is elected by the churchwide assembly for a six-year term.
The Evangelical Catholic Church, a Lutheran denomination of Evangelical Catholic churchmanship based in North America, taught:}}
A number of Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Catholic and High Church Lutheran churchmanship based in the United States of America possess apostolic succession, with lineage generally being from the Independent Catholic churches. These include:
* The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) were some of the earliest Lutherans in America. They have autonomous and congregationally oriented ministries and consecrate male and female deacons, priests and bishops in apostolic succession with the laying on of hands during celebration of Word and Sacrament.
* The Lutheran Church - International is another North American Lutheran church that possesses and teaches the doctrine of apostolic succession.
* The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church recovered the apostolic succession from Old Catholic and Independent Catholic churches, and adopted a strict episcopal polity. All of its clergy have been ordained (or re-ordained) into the historic apostolic succession. This Church was formed in 1997, with its headquarters in Kansas City, Missouri.
* The Lutheran Orthodox Church, founded in 2004 traces its historic lineage of apostolic succession through Lutheran, Anglican, and Old Catholic lines.
Indifference to the issue
Many German Lutherans appear to demur on this issue, which may be sourced in the church governance views of Martin Luther. Luther's reform movement usually did not abrogate the ecclesiastic office of bishop. An important historical context to explicate the difference regarding apostolic succession among between the Scandinavian Lutheran churches and the German Lutheran churches is the Prussian Union of 1817, whereby the civil government directed the Lutheran churches in Prussia to merge with non-Lutheran Reformed Churches in Prussia. The Reformed (Calvinist) churches generally oppose on principle the traditional doctrine of ecclesiastic Apostolic Succession, e.g., not usually even recognising the church office of bishop.
Later in the 19th century, other Lutheran and Reformed congregations merged to form united church bodies in some of the other 39 states of the German Confederation, e.g., in Anhalt, Baden, Bremen, Hesse and Nassau, Hesse-Kassel and Waldeck, and the Palatinate. Yet the partial nature of this list also serves to show that in Germany there remained many Lutherans who never united with the Reformed.
Other Lutheran churches are indifferent as a matter of doctrine regarding this particular issue of ecclesiastical governance. In America, the conservative Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) places its church authority in the congregation rather than in the bishop, and ordinations are typically performed by another pastor, although its founder, C. F. W. Walther, while establishing congregational polity for the LCMS, considered polity (a church's form of government) to be a matter of adiaphora (something indifferent).
Anglican Communion
as the first Anglican bishop in the Americas]]
The Anglican Communion "has never officially endorsed any one particular theory of the origin of the historic episcopate, its exact relation to the apostolate, and the sense in which it should be thought of as God given, and in fact tolerates a wide variety of views on these points".<!-- According to The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology, The Anglican Communion "retained episcopacy, believing it to be not merely an administrative expedient of contingent historical origin but an essential part of the church as founded by Christ".--> Its claim to apostolic succession is rooted in the Church of England's evolution as part of the Western Church. Apostolic succession is viewed not so much as conveyed mechanically through an unbroken chain of the laying-on of hands, but as expressing continuity with the unbroken chain of commitment, beliefs and mission starting with the first apostles; and as hence emphasising the enduring yet evolving nature of the Church.
When Henry VIII broke away from the jurisdiction of Rome in 1533/4, the English Church () claimed the episcopal polity and apostolic succession inherent in its Catholic past. Reformed theology gained a certain foothold, and under his successor, Edward VI what had been an administrative schism – as the Church under Henry was separated from Rome but remained essentially Catholic in its theology and practice – became a reformation under the guiding hand of Thomas Cranmer. American Episcopal theologian Richard A. Norris argues that the "foreign Reformed [Presbyterian] churches" were genuine ones despite the lack of apostolic succession because they had been abandoned by their bishops at the Reformation.
In very different ways both James II and William III of England made it plain that the Church of England could no longer count on the 'godly prince' to maintain its identity and traditions and the 'High Church' clergy of the time began to look to the idea of apostolic succession as a basis for the church's life. For William Beveridge (Bishop of St Asaph, 1704–8) the importance of this lay in the fact that Christ himself is "continually present at such imposition of hands; thereby transferring the same Spirit, which He had first breathed into His Apostles, upon others successively after them",
In 1833, before his conversion to Catholicism, Newman wrote about the apostolic succession: "We must necessarily consider none to be ordained who has not been ordained". After quoting this, Michael Ramsey continues: "With romantic enthusiasm, the Tractarians propagated this doctrine. In doing so they involved themselves in some misunderstandings of history and in some confusion of theology". He explained that they ascribed to early Anglican authors a far more exclusive version of the doctrine than was the case. They blurred the distinction between succession in office (Irenaeus) and succession in consecration (Augustine). They spoke of apostolic succession as the channel of grace in a way that failed to do justice to His gracious activity within all the dispensations of the New Covenant. The Bishop of London refused to ordain Methodist priests and deacons in the British American colonies.|John Wesley|1745}}
Some scholars argue that in 1763, Greek Orthodox bishop Erasmus of the Diocese of Arcadia, who was visiting London at the time, consecrated John Wesley a bishop, and ordained several Methodist lay preachers as priests, including John Jones. According to these arguments, Wesley could not openly announce his episcopal consecration without incurring the penalty of the Præmunire Act. In light of Wesley's alleged episcopal consecration, the Methodist Church could lay claim on apostolic succession, as understood in the traditional sense. Since John Wesley "ordained and sent forth every Methodist preacher in his day, who preached and baptized and ordained, and since every Methodist preacher who has ever been ordained as a Methodist was ordained in this direct 'succession' from Wesley, then the Methodist Church teaches that it has all the direct merits coming from apostolic succession, if any such there be."
Most Methodists view apostolic succession outside its high church sense. This is because Wesley believed that the offices of bishop and presbyter constituted one order, citing an ancient opinion from the Church of Alexandria; John Wesley thus argued that for two centuries the succession of bishops in the Church of Alexandria, which was founded by Mark the Evangelist, was preserved through ordination by presbyters alone and was considered valid by that ancient Church.
Since the Bishop of London refused to ordain ministers in the British American colonies, operating under the ancient Alexandrian habitude, ordained Thomas Coke a superintendent, although Coke embraced the title bishop.
Today, the United Methodist Church follows this ancient Alexandrian practice as bishops are elected from the presbyterate: the Discipline of the Methodist Church, in ¶303, affirms that "ordination to this ministry is a gift from God to the Church. In ordination, the Church affirms and continues the apostolic ministry through persons empowered by the Holy Spirit." It also uses sacred scripture in support of this practice, namely, 1 Timothy 4:14, which states:
The Methodist Church also buttresses this argument with the leg of sacred tradition of the Wesleyan Quadrilateral by citing the Church Fathers, many of whom concur with this view.
In addition to the aforementioned arguments – or perhaps instead of them – in 1937 the annual Conference of the British Methodist Church located the "true continuity" with the Church of past ages in "the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission;..." [through a long chain which goes back to] "the first disciples in the company of the Lord Himself ... This is our doctrine of apostolic succession" [which neither depends on, nor is secured by,] "an official succession of ministers, whether bishops or presbyters, from apostolic times, but rather by fidelity to apostolic truth".
In June 2014, the Church of Ireland, a province of the Anglican Communion, extended its lines of apostolic succession into the Methodist Church in Ireland, as "the Archbishop of Dublin and Bishop of Down and Dromore took part in the installation of the new President of the Methodist Church of Ireland, the Rev. Peter Murray." In May 2014, the "Church of Ireland's General Synod approved an agreement signed with the Methodist Church that provided for the interchangeability of clergy, allowing an ordained minister of either church to come under the discipline and oversight of the other." The Moravian Church claims apostolic succession as a legacy of the old Unity of the Brethren. In order to preserve the succession, three Bohemian Brethren were consecrated bishops by Bishop Stephen of Austria, a Waldensian bishop who had been ordained by a Catholic bishop in 1434. These three consecrated bishops returned to Litice in Bohemia and then ordained other brothers, thereby preserving the historic episcopate. It states that ministerial succession is conferred by elders through the laying on of hands, in accordance with Timothy 4:14.
The Church of North India, Church of Pakistan and Church of South India are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches and the clergy of these three united Protestant churches possess lines of apostolic succession, according to the Anglican understanding of this doctrine, through the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC), which finished merging with these three in the 1970s.
Many other Pentecostal Christians teach that "the sole guarantor of apostolic faith, which includes apostolic life, is the Holy Spirit." In addressing the Church of God General Assembly, Ambrose Jessup Tomlinson stated that "Although we do not claim a line of succession from the holy apostles, we do believe we are following in their example."
Latter Day Saint movement
Denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement preach the necessity of apostolic succession and claim it through the process of restoration. According to their teaching, a period of universal apostasy followed the death of the Twelve Apostles. Without apostles or prophets left on the earth with the legitimate Priesthood Authority, many of the true teachings and practices of Christianity were lost. Eventually these were restored to the prophet Joseph Smith and various others in a series of divine conferrals and ordinations by angelic men who had held this authority during their lifetimes (see this partial list of restoration events). As it relates to apostolic succession, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery said that the apostles Peter, James, and John appeared to them in 1829 and conferred upon them the Melchizedek Priesthood and with it "the keys of the kingdom, and of the dispensation of the fullness of times".
For the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination in the Latter-day Saint movement, Apostolic Succession involves the leadership of the church being established through the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Each time the President of the Church dies, the most senior apostle, who is designated as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, is set apart as the new church president.
Criticism
Some Protestants, particularly those in the Calvinist tradition, deny the doctrine of apostolic succession, believing that it is neither taught in Scripture nor necessary for Christian teaching, life, and practice. Accordingly, these Protestants strip the notion of apostolic succession from the definition of "apostolic" or "apostolicity". For them, to be apostolic is simply to be in submission to the teachings of the original twelve apostles as recorded in Scripture. This doctrinal stance reflects the Protestant view of authority, embodied in the doctrine known as Sola Scriptura.
Among the first who rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession was John Calvin. He said that the episcopacy was inadequate to address corruption, doctrinal or otherwise, and that this inadequacy justified the intervention of the church of lay people.
Some Protestants feel that such claims of apostolic succession are proven false by the differences in traditions and doctrines between these churches: Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox consider both the Church of the East and the Oriental Orthodox churches to be heretical, having been anathematized in the early ecumenical councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) respectively. Churches that claim apostolic succession in ministry distinguish this from doctrinal orthodoxy, holding that "it is possible to have valid orders coming down from the apostles, and yet not to have a continuous spiritual history coming down from the apostles".
All Christians who have a genuine relationship with God through and in Christ are part of the "true Church", according to evangelical Protestant theology, notwithstanding condemnation of the Catholic Church by some Protestants. The propriety of the Church as a temporal institution deriving its legitimacy from apostolic succession is greatly diminished under this theological view.
Certain parts of Confessional Lutheranism
Parts of Confessional Lutheranism have retained apostolic succession, such as the Mission Province (Missionsprovinsen), Evangelical Lutheran Church of Ingria and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya, for example (see Lutheran churches); these are members of the International Lutheran Council.
Certain other Confessional Lutheran churches including Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) and Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod (LCMS) reject Apostolic Succession as a biblical doctrine. These churches teach that the Bible contains no evidence showing that the office must be conveyed by laying-on of hands and no Biblical command that it must be by a special class of bishops. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod teaches that there is no evidence the Popes have historic succession from Peter other than their own claim that it is so.
The Wisconsin Synod acknowledges:
or Anglicans it must be mediated through the correct bishops. Rome does not recognize as legitimate even the ordinations done by bishops in historic succession as in the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. Only through bishops connected to the pope is the historic succession legitimate in their eyes."}}
However, the Synod states that there are a number of major problems with this Roman Catholic view on apostolic succession:
WELS holds that it's their custom that ordination of pastors is by other pastors, and that neither the Bible nor the Lutheran confessions make this the only divinely mandated way of entering the pastoral ministry: "It is the call of the church that is the essential element, more specifically, the call of Christ through the church."<ref nameWELS-DCM/>See also
* Baptist successionism
* Episcopi vagantes
* Lineage (Buddhism), A similar practice in Buddhist tradition
* List of bishops
* New Apostolic Church
* Pope Linus
* Valid but illicit
References
Further reading
*
*
External links
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Against Heresies, Online-text], Irenaeus, Against Heresies
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01648b.htm Apostolicity] in the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061009081150/http://www.catholic-pages.com/pope/hahn.asp Discussion of the Papacy] by Scott Hahn
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903091451/http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/mreview/1870/A_%201878_%20Was%20Wesley%20Ordained%20Bishop%20by%20Erasmus_%2088-111.htm "Was Wesley Ordained By Bishop Erasmus?" The Methodist Quarterly Review (1878)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080504105638/http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession by The Reverend Dr. Gregory S. Neal]
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Ecclesiology
Category:Episcopacy in Anglicanism
Category:Episcopacy in the Catholic Church
Category:Episcopacy in Eastern Orthodoxy
Category:Succession | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_succession | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.808794 |
2268 | Chemistry of ascorbic acid | -Ascorbic acid
| ImageFile = L-Ascorbic acid.svg
| ImageClass = skin-invert-image
| ImageFile1 = Ascorbic-acid-from-xtal-1997-3D-balls.png
| IUPACName = (5R)-[(1S)-1,2-Dihydroxyethyl]-3,4-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one
| OtherNames = -threo-Hex-2-enono-1,4-lactone}}
|Section1=
| UNII = PQ6CK8PD0R
| SMILES1 C([C@@H]([C@@H]1C(C(C(=O)O1)O)O)O)O
| CASNo = 50-81-7
| ChEMBL_Ref =
| ChEMBL = 196
| CASNo_Ref =
| EINECS = 200-066-2
| ChemSpiderID_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID = 10189562
| PubChem = 5785
| KEGG_Ref =
| KEGG = D00018
| ChEBI_Ref =
| ChEBI = 29073
| StdInChI_Ref =
| StdInChI = 1S/C6H8O6/c7-1-2(8)5-3(9)4(10)6(11)12-5/h2,5,7-10H,1H2/t2-,5+/m0/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref =
| StdInChIKey = CIWBSHSKHKDKBQ-JLAZNSOCSA-N
| SMILES OC1C(OC(O)C1O)[C@@H](O)CO
}}
|Section2=g/cm<sup>3</sup>
| MeltingPtC = 190 to 192
| MeltingPt_notes = decomposes
| Solubility = 330g/L
| Solubility1 = 20g/L
| Solvent1 = ethanol
| Solubility2 = 10g/L
| Solvent2 = glycerol
| Solubility3 = 50g/L
| Solvent3 = propylene glycol
| SolubleOther = Insoluble in diethyl ether, chloroform, benzene, petroleum ether, oils, fats
| pKa = 4.10 (first), 11.6 (second)
}}
|Section6=,
}}
|Section7=g/kg (oral, rat)
}}
}}
Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with formula , originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves freely in water to give mildly acidic solutions. It is a mild reducing agent.
Ascorbic acid exists as two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers), commonly denoted "" (for "levo") and "" (for "dextro"). The isomer is the one most often encountered: it occurs naturally in many foods, and is one form ("vitamer") of vitamin C, an essential nutrient for humans and many animals. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, formerly a major disease of sailors in long sea voyages. It is used as a food additive and a dietary supplement for its antioxidant properties. The "" form (erythorbic acid) can be made by chemical synthesis, but has no significant biological role.
History
<!--Please try to restrict this section to the history of the chemistry of the compound. The medical aspects belong more properly to the scurvy and vitamin C articles.-->
The antiscorbutic properties of certain foods were demonstrated in the 18th century by James Lind. In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich discovered that the antiscorbutic factor was a water-soluble chemical substance, distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. Between 1928 and 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a candidate for this substance, which he called "hexuronic acid", first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. In 1932 Charles Glen King confirmed that it was indeed the antiscorbutic factor.
In 1933, sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, working with samples of "hexuronic acid" that Szent-Györgyi had isolated from paprika and sent him in the previous year, deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of the compound, and in 1934 reported its first synthesis. In reference to the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi proposed to rename it "a-scorbic acid" for the compound, and later specifically -ascorbic acid. Because of their work, in 1937 two Nobel Prizes: in Chemistry and in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Haworth and Szent-Györgyi, respectively.
Chemical properties
Acidity
Ascorbic acid is a furan-based lactone of 2-ketogluconic acid. It contains an adjacent enediol adjacent to the carbonyl. This −C(OH)C(OH)−C(O)− structural pattern is characteristic of reductones, and increases the acidity of one of the enol hydroxyl groups. The deprotonated conjugate base is the ascorbate anion, which is stabilized by electron delocalization that results from resonance between two forms:
:
For this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups.
Salts
The ascorbate anion forms salts, such as sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, and potassium ascorbate.
Esters
Ascorbic acid can also react with organic acids as an alcohol forming esters such as ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate.
Nucleophilic attack
Nucleophilic attack of ascorbic acid on a proton results in a 1,3-diketone:
:
Oxidation
</div><!--Using cropped image until we can generate a new one-->|alignright|caption=Dehydroascorbate}}
The ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant, typically reacting with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical.
Reactive oxygen species are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. The oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage.
Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble and, thus, cannot protect fats from oxidation: For this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as antioxidant food additives. Sodium-dependent active transport process enables absorption of Ascorbic acid from the intestine.
Ascorbate readily donates a hydrogen atom to free radicals, forming the radical anion semidehydroascorbate (also known as monodehydroascorbate), a resonance-stabilized semitrione:
:
Loss of an electron from semidehydroascorbate to produce the 1,2,3-tricarbonyl pseudodehydroascorbate is thermodynamically disfavored, which helps prevent propagation of free radical chain reactions such as autoxidation:
Other reactions
It creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids at 90 °C.
It is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation, though because a crude extract of animal liver is used, it is unclear which reaction catalyzed by which enzyme is being helped here. For known roles in enzymatic reactions, see .
Because it reduces iron(III) and chelates iron ions, it enhances the oral absorption of non-heme iron. This property also applies to its enantiomer.Conversion to oxalateIn 1958, it was discovered that ascorbic acid can be converted to oxalate, a key component of calcium oxalate kidney stones. The process begins with the formation of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) from the ascorbyl radical. While DHA can be recycled back to ascorbic acid, a portion irreversibly degrades to 2,3-diketogulonic acid (DKG), which then breaks down to both oxalate and the sugars L-erythrulose and threosone. Research conducted in the 1960s suggested ascorbic acid could substantially contribute to urinary oxalate content (possibly over 40%), but these estimates have been questioned due to methodological limitations. Subsequent large cohort studies have yielded conflicting results regarding the link between vitamin C intake and kidney stone formation. The overall clinical significance of ascorbic acid consumption to kidney stone risk, however, remains inconclusive, although several studies have suggested a potential association, especially with high-dose supplementation in men.UsesFood additiveThe main use of -ascorbic acid and its salts is as food additives, mostly to combat oxidation and prevent discoloration of the product during storage. It is approved for this purpose in the EU with E number E300, the US, Australia, and New Zealand.
The "" enantiomer (erythorbic acid) shares all of the non-biological chemical properties with the more common enantiomer. As a result, it is an equally effective food antioxidant, and is also approved in processed foods.
Dietary supplement
Another major use of -ascorbic acid is as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Its deficiency over a prolonged period of time could cause scurvy, which is characterized by fatigue, widespread weakness in connective tissues and capillary fragility. It affects multiple organ systems due to its role in the biochemical reactions of connective tissue synthesis.
Niche, non-food uses
* Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a preservative.
* In fluorescence microscopy and related fluorescence-based techniques, ascorbic acid can be used as an antioxidant to increase fluorescent signal and chemically retard dye photobleaching.
* It is also commonly used to remove dissolved metal stains, such as iron, from fiberglass swimming pool surfaces.
* In plastic manufacturing, ascorbic acid can be used to assemble molecular chains more quickly and with less waste than traditional synthesis methods.
* Heroin users are known to use ascorbic acid as a means to convert heroin base to a water-soluble salt so that it can be injected.
* As justified by its reaction with iodine, it is used to negate the effects of iodine tablets in water purification. It reacts with the sterilized water, removing the taste, color, and smell of the iodine. This is why it is often sold as a second set of tablets in most sporting goods stores as Potable Aqua-Neutralizing Tablets, along with the potassium iodide tablets.
*Intravenous high-dose ascorbate is being used as a chemotherapeutic and biological response modifying agent. It is undergoing clinical trials.
* It is sometimes used as a urinary acidifier to enhance the antiseptic effect of methenamine.SynthesisNatural biosynthesis of vitamin C occurs through various processes in many plants and animals.Industrial preparation
]]
Seventy percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China.
A biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s but further developed in the 1990s, bypassing acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant Erwinia, among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry in China, which supplies 70% of the world's ascorbic acid. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation.
Determination
The traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is by titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed.
The popular iodometry approach uses iodine in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration.
As an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator.
This iodometric method has been revised to exploit the reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the potassium iodide solution produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of the process is determined by potentiometric titration like Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law.
Another alternative uses N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as the oxidizing agent in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. The NBS first oxidizes the ascorbic acid; when the latter is exhausted, the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch.
See also
* Colour retention agent
* Erythorbic acid: a diastereomer of ascorbic acid.
* Mineral ascorbates: salts of ascorbic acid
* Acids in wine
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/ascorbic.htm IPCS Poisons Information Monograph (PIM) 046]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120117014447/http://www.bruker-axs.de/fileadmin/user_upload/SMART_X2S_Structure_Gallery/Structures/vitc_1006.html Interactive 3D-structure of vitamin C] with details on the x-ray structure
Category:Organic acids
Category:Antioxidants
Category:Dietary antioxidants
Category:Coenzymes
Category:Corrosion inhibitors
Category:Furanones
Category:Vitamers
Category:Vitamin C
Category:Biomolecules
Category:3-Hydroxypropenals | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry_of_ascorbic_acid | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.829284 |
2273 | AFC Ajax | Ajax}}
| ground = Johan Cruyff Arena
| capacity 55,865
| owner = AFC Ajax N.V. ()
| chrtitle = CEO
| chairman = Menno Geelen (interim)
| manager = Francesco Farioli
| mgrtitle = Head coach
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Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax (), also known as AFC Ajax, Ajax Amsterdam, or commonly Ajax, is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam, that plays in the , the top tier in Dutch football. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) is the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 36 and 20 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the since the league's inception in 1956, and along with and , it is one of the country's "big three" clubs.
Ajax was one of the most successful clubs in the world in the 20th century. According to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics, Ajax was the seventh-most successful European club of the 20th century and ''The World's Club Team of the Year'' in 1992. According to German magazine Kicker, Ajax was the second-most successful European club of the 20th century. The club is one of five teams that have earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear a multiple-winner badge. In 1972, they completed the continental treble by winning the , KNVB Cup, and the European Cup. They also won the first (albeit unofficial) European Super Cup against Rangers in January 1973. Ajax's most recent international trophies are the 1995 Intercontinental Cup, 1995 UEFA Super Cup and the 1995 Champions League, where they defeated Milan in the final; they lost the 1996 Champions League final on penalties to Juventus. In 1995, Ajax was crowned as World Team of the Year by World Soccer magazine.
Ajax is also one of four teams to win the continental treble and the Intercontinental Cup or Club World Cup in the same season/calendar year; this was achieved in the 1971–72 season. Ajax is one of five clubs to have won all three major UEFA club competitions. They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, as well as the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962. Ajax plays at the Johan Cruyff Arena, which opened as the Amsterdam ArenA in 1996 and was renamed in 2018. They previously played at and the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium (for international matches). Throughout their history, Ajax have cultivated a reputation for scouting, spotting and developing young talent, and have remained focused on developing a youth system.
History
Ajax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918–19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.
Throughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at the national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942–43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946–47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.
In 1956, the first season of the Netherlands' new professional league, the , was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions 6–2 on aggregate at the quarter-final stage. The team was again champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.
played at Ajax from 1959 to 1973, and from 1981 to 1983, winning 3 European Cups; his No. 14 is the only squad number Ajax has ever retired. Cruyff came back to manage the club from 1985 to 1988.]]
]]
In 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national team. A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become widely regarded as the greatest Dutch footballer of all time, made his debut. Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups.
Ajax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup final, losing to Milan. During the 1966–67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969–70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league matches and scoring 100 goals.
The 1970–71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup final, where they defeated 2–0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s.
In 1973, Michels' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to Catalonia. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.
In 1976–77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the and KNVB Cup two years later.
The early 1980s saw the return of Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence of young players Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard. The team won back-to-back titles in 1982 and 1983, with all three playing a significant role in the latter. After Cruyff's sale to rivals in 1983, van Basten became Ajax's key player, top scoring in the for four seasons between 1983–84 and 1986–87.
and Rijkaard, returned as manager in 1985.]]
In 1985, Cruyff returned to Ajax as manager and the team ended his first season in charge with 120 goals from 34 matches. However, Ajax still finished as runner-up to PSV by eight points. The following season, Ajax again lost out on the title to PSV, but won the European Cup Winners' Cup, its first continental trophy in 14 years. After this, Cruyff left the club to become manager of Barcelona and Rijkaard and van Basten were sold to Sporting CP and Milan respectively. Despite these losses, Ajax reached a second consecutive Cup Winners' Cup final in 1988, where they lost to Belgian club .
The 1988–89 season saw Dennis Bergkamp, a young forward who had first appeared under Cruyff in 1986, establish himself as a regular goalscorer for Ajax. Bergkamp helped Ajax to the title and was the top scorer in the division in 1990–91, 1991–92 and 1992–93. Under the management of Louis van Gaal, Ajax won the UEFA Cup in 1992 to become the second club, after , to have won all three major European club competitions.
After the sale of Bergkamp to in 1993, van Gaal re-signed the experienced Rijkaard to complement his young Ajax team featuring academy graduates Frank and Ronald de Boer, Edwin van der Sar, Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger and Winston Bogarde, as well as mercurial foreign talents Finidi George, Nwankwo Kanu and Jari Litmanen, and veteran captain Danny Blind. The team regained the Dutch championship in 1993–94, and won it again in 1994–95 and 1995–96 to become the first Ajax side to win three back-to-back championships since 1968. The height of van Gaal's success came in 1994–95, where Ajax became the first, and to date only, team to complete an entire season unbeaten. The team also won its first European Cup since its 1970s era, defeating Milan in the 1995 UEFA Champions League final 1–0, with the winning goal scored by 18-year-old Patrick Kluivert. Ajax again reached the final one year later, and was defeated on penalties by .
Ajax's return as a European force was short-lived, as van Gaal and several members of the squad soon departed to some of the continent's biggest clubs. The 2000s was a lean decade for the club, with only two championships won. However, Ajax's academy continued to produce star players such as Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart.
In 2010, Frank de Boer was appointed manager of Ajax and led the club to its first league title in seven years, and record 30th title overall, in the 2010–11 season. This was followed by back-to-back wins in 2011–12 and 2012–13 to match his three consecutive titles as a player in the 1990s. In 2013–14, Ajax was again champions, winning four consecutive league titles for the first time in club history. After finishing as runner-up to PSV in both 2014–15 and 2015–16, de Boer resigned as Ajax head coach in May 2016.
Peter Bosz took over the club and led them to the 2017 UEFA Europa League final, their first European final in 21 years. They lost to Manchester United with a lineup that was the youngest ever in a European final, averaging an age of 22 years and 282 days. For the third consecutive season, they finished runner-up in the , this time to .
The 2018–19 season for Ajax involved a remarkable run in the UEFA Champions League. Due to their runner-up finish in the 2017–18 Eredivisie, Ajax entered the tournament in the second qualifying round. After successive victories against Sturm Graz, and , they qualified for the group stage. Ajax was drawn in a group with German champions Bayern Munich, Portuguese side Benfica and Greek champions AEK Athens. Ajax finished runner-up in this group, qualifying for the knockout stages, where it was drawn against three-time defending champions Real Madrid. After losing 1–2 in the first leg, they defeated Real Madrid 4–1 in the away match, stunning the defending champions in their own stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, with an aggregate score of 5–3. Dušan Tadić was awarded a perfect score of 10 by following the match.
Thus, Ajax progressed to the quarter-finals and was drawn with Italian champions . In the first leg in the Johan Cruyff Arena, they drew 1–1. In the second leg at the Juventus Stadium, Ajax came from behind to win 2–1 and 3–2 on aggregate. Matthijs de Ligt scored the winning goal for Ajax to help the team advance to its first Champions League semi-final since 1997. There, they would face English side Tottenham Hotspur.
In the first leg of the semi-final, Ajax beat Tottenham 1–0 away from home. In the second leg, Ajax scored twice in the first half to generate a 3–0 lead on aggregate. However, in the second half, Lucas Moura scored three times, including in the 6th minute of added time, resulting in Ajax losing via the away goals rule.
Ajax was in first place on goal difference when the was declared void, preventing them being Dutch champions for the 35th time, but still qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League.
In this, it was eliminated again, but in 2021 it reached the quarter-finals of the Europa League. It was eliminated against AS Roma. That season, it again won both the national title and the KNVB Cup.
In the 2021–22 AFC Ajax season Ajax again became champion of the Netherlands. It had to give up the KNVB Cup and the Johan Cruijff Shield to competitor PSV because it came out on the losing end in both finals. In European terms, Ajax achieved first place in the Champions League group, all six matches were won, mostly by a wide margin. After the winter break, Ajax was narrowly eliminated in the eighth finals by the Portuguese Benfica Lisboa (Lisbon) (2–2 away, 0–1 at home).
As of July 1, 2022, Alfred Schreuder succeeded Erik ten Hag, who left for Manchester United, as Ajax's coach. Most of the key players from previous seasons left during the summer transfer period, but there was also a lot of reinvestment. Ajax started the 2022/23 season relatively well with six consecutive victories in the Eredivisie. But Ajax was eliminated from the Champions League quite quickly in a group with Liverpool FC, SSC Napoli and Rangers FC. At home against Napoli on October 4, 2022, they even lost by 5 goals (1–6), Ajax's biggest defeat ever in European competition. After seven consecutive matches without a win head coach Alfred Schreuder was dismissed. John Heitinga succeeded Schreuder as interim. Under Heitinga, Ajax failed to turn things around despite a good start with seven wins in a row. Ajax finished third in the Eredivisie, behind champions Feyenoord and runners-up PSV. This was the club's lowest final ranking since the 2008/09 season, in which it also finished third. After the winter break, Ajax was eliminated in the first knockout phase of the Europa League by Union Berlin (3–1). Ajax did reach the final of the KNVB Cup, but lost to PSV on penalties (3–2).
On May 19, 2023, Sven Mislintat took over as Ajax's sports director. He succeeded Marc Overmars, who left in early 2022. Mislintat appointed Maurice Steijn as head coach. Mislintat spent approximately 111 million euros on transfers. Ajax had its worst start to the season in fifty-nine years. On October 29, 2023, Ajax reached a historic low. Ajax lost 5–2 to PSV in Eindhoven. This put Ajax in last place, 18th place in the Eredivisie, for the first time since the club was founded.
The position of director Mislintat became an embarrassment after it emerged that he had arranged a transfer through a player agent who was an investor in his company. In the evening of 24 September Mislintat was fired with immediate effect, among other things a lack of broad support within the club was one of the reasons. A day after the loss against PSV it was announced that John van 't Schip would become the head coach until the end of the season. Under the leadership of Van 't Schip Ajax managed to climb to 5th place in the Eredivisie. In the Europa League Ajax finished third, which meant a sequel in the Conference League, were it eventually lost to Aston Villa in the round of 16. In the cup Ajax was eliminated 3–2 by the third division amateurs of USV Hercules.
In the summer of 2024 a rebuild began, with a new board of directors and Alex Kroes and Marijn Beuker as Technical Director and Director of Football. They hired Francesco Farioli as new head coach, the first foreign coach since 1998. Under his leadership Ajax reached the league phase of the Europa League where it finished 11th. On the 9th of February 2025 Ajax finished the weekend on the first place for the first time since November 2022.
UEFA ranking
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
|29
||
|Ajax
|66.250
|}
Academies
The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years – Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Gerald Vanenburg, Frank Rijkaard, Dennis Bergkamp, Rafael van der Vaart, Patrick Kluivert, Marco van Basten, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, Nigel de Jong, Frenkie de Jong, and Matthijs de Ligt have come through the ranks and are just some of the talents who have played for Ajax. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local talent.
Due to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina, representing Curaçao.
Ajax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was set up with the help of Rob Moore. Ajax has also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, until it filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the squad, such as South African internationals Steven Pienaar and Thulani Serero and Cameroonian international Eyong Enoh.
In 1995, the year Ajax won the UEFA Champions League, the Netherlands national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with van der Sar in goal; players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defence; Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield; and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack.
In 2011, Ajax opened its first youth academies outside the Netherlands when the club partnered up with George Kazianis and All Star Consultancy in Greece to open the Ajax Hellas Youth Academy. The offices are based in Nea Smyrni, Attica, with the main training facility located on the island of Corfu, hosting a total of 15 football youth academies throughout Greece and Cyprus. Eddie van Schaik heads the organization as coach and consultant, introducing the Ajax football philosophy at the various Greek football training camps.
In 2016, Ajax launched the ACA (Ajax Coaching Academy) with the intention of sharing knowledge, and setting up a variety of camps and clinics for both players and coaches.
Stadiums
Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion (English: The Wooden Stadium). Ajax later also played in the Olympic Stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known in Dutch as . In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, close to the location of Het Houten Stadion. It was designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures, the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators.
In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam Arena, since 2018 known as the Johan Cruyff Arena. This stadium was built by the Amsterdam city authority at a cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding 55,865 spectators. The Arena has a retractable roof and set a trend for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena earned a reputation for a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. During the 2008–09 season, ground staff introduced an artificial lighting system that finally reduced this problem considerably.
The much-loved De Meer Stadion was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters "AJAX", which nowadays is in place on the façade of the entrance at the Johan Cruyff Arena and a replica of the letters are at De Toekomst, near the Johan Cruyff Arena.
Crest and colours
Crest
In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club's new outfits. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990 into an abstract version of the previous one. The new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just 11 lines, symbolizing the 11 players of a football team. On 17 November 2024, Ajax announced on its official website that the classic logo of 1928 will return for the 2025–26 season, making a comeback after 34 years.<gallery>
File:Ajax Crest from 1928-1990.png|Crest of Ajax (1928–1991, 2021–2022)
File:Ajax Amsterdam.svg|Crest of Ajax (1991–present)
</gallery>
Colours
Ajax originally played in an all-black strip with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that strip was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. Under manager Jack Kirwan, however, the club earned promotion to the top flight of Dutch football for the first time in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or 'First Class', later named the ), Ajax was forced to change its colours because Sparta Rotterdam already had exactly the same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit.FinancialAFC Ajax N.V.
AFC Ajax is the only Dutch club with an initial public offering (IPO). The club is registered as a Naamloze vennootschap (N.V.) listed on the stock exchange Euronext Amsterdam, since 17 May 1998. With a launch price of ƒ25,- (Guilders) the club managed to a bring its total revenue up to €54 million (converted) in its first year on the market. After short-lived success, however, the rate dropped, at one point as low as €3.50. Criticism was brought forth that the legal grid for a naamloze vennootschap would not be suitable for a Football club, and that the sports related ambitions would suffer from the new commercial interests of the now listed Ajax. Shares of the company in the year 2008 were valued at approximately €5.90 per share.
In 2008, a Commission under guidance of honorary member Uri Coronel concluded that the IPO was of no value to the club, and that measures should be taken to exit the stock exchange by purchasing back all public shares. Ajax remain on the stock exchange.
Sponsorship
Ajax's shirts have been sponsored by TDK from 1982 to 1991, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON then replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of seven years. On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo, Florius. Florius is a banking programme launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match.
The shirts have been manufactured by Le Coq Sportif (1973–1977), Puma (1977–1979), Cor du Buy (1979–1980), Le Coq Sportif (1980–1984), Kappa (1985–1989) and Umbro (1989–2000) in the past, and by Adidas since 2000 (until at least 2025).
At the conclusion of the 2013–14 season, Ajax won the Football shirt of the Year award for its black and rose colored away shirt by Adidas. The annual award was presented by Subside Sports, which had previously given the award to Internazionale, Juventus and the Belgium national team. It was Ajax's first time winning the award.
On 7 November 2014, it was announced that Ajax had agreed to a four-and-a-half-year contract worth €8 million annually with Dutch cable operating company Ziggo as the new shirt sponsor for the club. Having extended its contract with AEGON for half a season until December, the club featured Fonds Gehandicaptensport, a charitable fund for handicapped sports on its away shirts for a six-month period before transitioning to Ziggo in 2015.
Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"text-align: center"
|-
!Period
!Kit manufacturer
!Shirt sponsor
|-
|1973–1977
|Le Coq Sportif
|rowspan=4|none
|-
|1977–1979
|Puma
|-
|1979–1980
|Cor du Buy
|-
|1980–1982
|rowspan=2|Le Coq Sportif
|-
|1982–1984
|rowspan=3|TDK
|-
|1985–1989
|Kappa
|-
|1989–1991
|rowspan=2|Umbro
|-
|1991–2000
|rowspan=2|ABN AMRO
|-
|2000–2008
|rowspan=4|Adidas
|-
|2008–2014
||AEGON
|-
|2014–2027
|Ziggo
|-
|2027–2031
|}
Kit deals
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: left"
|-
! Kit supplier !! Period !! Contract<br />announcement !! Contract<br />duration !! Value !! Notes
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Adidas
|style"text-align:center;" | 2000–present
|style"text-align:center;" | 13 July 2018
|
|-
|}
Other teams
Reserves team
Jong Ajax (formerly more commonly known as Ajax 2) is the reserve team of AFC Ajax. The team is composed mostly of professional footballers, who are often recent graduates from the highest youth level (Ajax A1) serving their first professional contract as a reserve, or players who are otherwise unable to play in the first team.
Since 1992, Jong Ajax competed in the Beloften Eredivisie, competing against other reserve teams such as Jong PSV, Jong FC Groningen or Jong AZ. They have won the Beloften title a record eight times, as well as the KNVB Reserve Cup three times, making them the most successful reserve squad in the Netherlands. By winning the Beloften Eredivisie title, Jong Ajax was able to qualify for the actual KNVB Cup, even advancing to the semi-finals on three occasions. Its best result in the Dutch Cup was under manager Jan Olde Riekerink in 2001–02, when a semi-final loss to Utrecht in a Penalty shoot-out after extra time, which saw Utrecht advance, and thus preventing an Ajax–Jong Ajax Dutch Cup final.
The 2013–14 season marked the Jupiler League debut of the Ajax reserves' squad, Jong Ajax. Previously playing in the Beloften Eredivisie (a separate league for reserve teams, not included in the Dutch professional or amateur league structure), players were allowed to move around freely between the reserve team and the first team during the season. This is no longer the case as Jong Ajax now registers and fields a separate squad from that of Ajax first team for the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of professional football in the Netherlands. Its home matches are played at Sportpark De Toekomst, except for the occasional match in the Johan Cruyff Arena. Now regarded a semi-professional team in its own respect, the only period in which players are able to move between squads are during the transfer windows, unless the player has made less than 15 appearances for the first team, then he is still eligible to appear in both first team and second team matches during the season. Furthermore, the team is not eligible for promotion to the or to participate in the KNVB Cup. Jong Ajax was joined in the Eerste Divisie by Jong Twente and Jong PSV, reserve teams who have also moved from the Beloften to the Eerste Divisie, in place of VV Katwijk, SC Veendam and AGOVV Apeldoorn, increasing the total number of teams in the Jupiler League from 18 to 20.
Ajax reserve squad Jong Ajax left the Beloften Eredivisie in 2013, having held a 21-year tenure in the reserves league, having also won the league title a record eight times (1994, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2009).Women's team
AFC Ajax Vrouwen (English: AFC Ajax Women) is the women's team of AFC Ajax, competing in the women's eredivisie, the highest level of women's football in the Netherlands. Founded on 18 May 2012, the women's team saw Ajax attracting many of the Netherlands top talents, with International players such as Anouk Hoogendijk, Daphne Koster and Petra Hogewoning joining the Amsterdam club in its maiden season in women's professional football. The team won its first piece of silverware when they defeated PSV/FC Eindhoven 2–1 in the final of the KNVB Women's Cup.Amateur team
AFC Ajax Amateurs, better known as Ajax Zaterdag, is a Dutch amateur football club founded 18 March 1900. It is the amateur team of the professional club AFC Ajax, playing its home matches at the Sportpark De Toekomst training grounds to a capacity of 5,000. The team was promoted from the Eerste Klasse to the Hoofdklasse ahead of the 2011–12 season, the league in which it is currently competing. The team has won the Eerste Klasse title twice, as well as the *KNVB District Cup West I on two occasions as well.
Furthermore, Ajax Zaterdag has also managed to qualify for the KNVB Cup on its own accord on three occasions, namely in 2004, 2005, 2008 and 2021. Even advancing to the second round before bowing out to Vitesse on 24 September 2008.
Other sports
Baseball
Ajax HVA (1922–1972) was the baseball team of AFC Ajax founded in 1922, and competed as founding members of the Honkbal Hoofdklasse, the top flight of professional baseball in the Netherlands. Ajax won the national baseball title a total of four times (1924, 1928, 1942, 1948) before the club opted to no longer field a baseball team, and to focus solely on football in 1972. Ajax spent a total of 50 years at the top flight of Baseball in the Netherlands from 1922 to 1972. The dissolution of Ajax baseball club resulted in the players finding a new sponsor in a mustard manufacturing company called Luycks, while merging with the Diemen Giants to become the Luycks Giants, thus replacing both former clubs.
Esports
In 2016, Ajax launched an esports team, with Koen Weijland as the club's first signing, making its debut on the Global stage of professional gaming. They have since signed the likes of Dani Hagebeuk, Lev Vinken, Joey Calabro and Bob van Uden, the latter spent his first season on loan to the esports team of Japanese club Sagan Tosu.Affiliated clubs
The following clubs are currently affiliated with AFC Ajax:
* Almere City (2005–present)
* Barcelona (2007–present)
* Cruzeiro (2007–present)
* Beijing Guoan (2007–present)
* Palmeiras (2010–present)
* AS Trenčín (2012–present)
* Guangzhou R&F (2017–present)
* Sagan Tosu (2018–present)
* Sharjah FC (2020–present)
* Sydney FC (2018–present)
* Sparta Rotterdam (2019–present)
* Various HETT-clubs (See main article)
The following clubs were affiliated with AFC Ajax in the past:
* Germinal Beerschot (1999–2003)
* Ashanti Goldfields (1999–2003)
* Ajax Orlando Prospects (2003–2007)
* HFC Haarlem (2006–2010)
* Volendam (2007–2010)
* Ajax Cape Town (1999–2020)
Rivalries
As one of the traditional big three clubs in the Netherlands, Ajax have amassed a number of intense rivalries over the years. Listed below are the most significant of the rivalries involving Ajax.
Rivalry with Feyenoord
Feyenoord from Rotterdam is Ajax's archrival. Every year both clubs play the De Klassieker ("The Classic"), a match between the teams from the two largest cities of the Netherlands. Till the 1973/74-season, Ajax and Feyenoord were the only two clubs in the Netherlands who were able to clinch national titles, as well as achieve continental and even global success. From the 1974/75-season on, PSV (Eindhoven) and AZ (Alkmaar) too, competed with Ajax and Feyenoord. A meeting between the two clubs became the measure for who was truly the best club in the Netherlands. The Klassieker is the most famous of all the rivalries in the Netherlands and the matches are always sold out. The fixture is seen in the public eye as "the graceful and elegant football of Ajax, against the indomitable fighting spirit of Feyenoord"; the confidence of the capital city versus the blue collar mentality of Rotterdam. Matches are known for their tension and violence, both on and off the pitch. Over the years, several violent incidents have taken place involving rival supporters, leading to the current prohibition of away supporters in both stadiums. The lowest point was reached on 23 March 1997, when supporters of both clubs met on a field near Beverwijk, where Ajax-supporter Carlo Picornie was fatally injured, the incident is commonly referred to as the "Battle of Beverwijk".Rivalry with PSV
PSV is also a rival of Ajax, but in terms of tension and rivalry, these matches are not as loaded as the duels with Feyenoord. The rivalry has existed for some time with PSV and stems from various causes, such as the different interpretations of whether current national and international successes of both clubs correlates and the supposed opposition between the Randstad and the province. The matches between these two teams is commonly referred to as "De Topper" ("The Topper"), and involves the two most trophy-laden sides in Dutch football and is essentially a clash of two competing schools of thought in Dutch football. Historically, PSV compete with a workmanlike ethic, preferring a more robust 4–3–1–2 or 4–2–3–1, typically shunning the frivolous 4–3–3 approach favoured in Amsterdam. While Rinus Michels and Johan Cruyff helped to innovate Total Football in the sixties and seventies, a different philosophy was honed in Eindhoven by Kees Rijvers and Guus Hiddink in the late 1970s and '80s. This in turn has created one of the more philosophical rivalries in football, an ideological battleground, which is gradually becoming as heated and intense as the matches Ajax and Feyenoord partake in.
Rivalries with other clubs
Aside from Feyenoord and PSV, Ajax have several other rivalries, although in most cases the sentiment is mostly felt by the opposition and is more directed towards Ajax, with one of them being Utrecht. Although the rivalry is more felt on the Utrecht side then with Ajax, matchups between the two sides are often quite intense. Both teams have fanatic supporters, and clashes off the pitch are more often the rule than the exception. The same goes for ADO Den Haag, with both supporter groups often getting in conflicts, when ADO-Hooligans set fire to the supporters home of Ajax, and Ajax hooligans subsequently broke into the Supporters home of ADO tensions between the two clubs rose. In 2006, supporters from both clubs were banned from attending away matches for five years due to frequent violent outbreaks and clashes.
Further teams who share a rivalry with Ajax include Twente, Vitesse Arnhem, Groningen and AZ, although the latter is often regarded by Ajax supporters as the club's "little brother". With AZ being from nearby Alkmaar and therefore situated in the same province as Ajax, match-ups between the two sides are commonly known as the "De Noord-Hollandse Derby" ("North Holland Derby") and are often very competitive, intense and loaded fixtures.
Past rivalries include local Amsterdam derbies between Ajax and clubs such as Blauw-Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers (which later merged to become FC Amsterdam in 1972). However, the tension between the local sides lessened as the division of the clubs through playing in different leagues over time became greater. Years of not competing in the same league resulted in less frequent match-ups, until tensions finally settled between the Amsterdam clubs. The last Amsterdam derby to take place in an official league match was when Ajax defeated FC Amsterdam 5–1 on 19 March 1978.Supporters
Ajax is known for having fanatic core supporter-groups, of which F-Side and VAK410 are the most famous. The F-Side was founded on 3 October 1976, and is situated right behind the goal in the Johan Cruyff Arena, on the southern end of the stadium in rows 125–129. Its name is derived from the group's former location on the F-side of the old De Meer Stadion. The F-side supporters are responsible for a big part of the atmosphere in the stadium, and are also known for rioting during and after matches. If in any match Ajax should win the coin toss, the second half of the match Ajax always play towards the south-end of the stadium. VAK410 (English: Row 410) was founded in 2001 and is situated in the Zuidhoek (South corner) of the stadium on the upper ring in rows 424–425. The group was originally situated on the North-West side of the stadium in row 410, from where it derives its name, until relocating to their current place in the stands in 2008. Members of VAK410 are known to perform various stunts, which include massive banners, to enhance the atmosphere in the stadium. Neither F-Side or VAK410 have seats in their sections of the stadium, and both groups stand for the duration of the match.
Through the official Football Top 20 of Dutch sports research group SPORT+MARKT, it was revealed in 2010 that Ajax had approximately 7.1 million supporters throughout Europe. This is significantly more than rivals Feyenoord and PSV (each 1.6 and 1.3 million, respectively), which puts Ajax as the club with the 15th-most supporters across Europe. The study also revealed that approximately 39% of the Netherlands were Ajax supporters. Not only does Ajax have many supporters, but several fans attend their matches in European competition, with an average attendance of 48,677 spectators for every international match Ajax played, putting the team at 12th place in Europe for highest attendance, ahead of high-profile clubs such as Milan and Chelsea. It is noteworthy that not all stadiums share the capacity of the Johan Cruyff Arena.Supporters clubs
The Supporters Club Ajax () is officially the largest supporters club in the Netherlands with 94,000 members. Founded on 7 May 1992, the supporters club organize big monthly events throughout the Netherlands, and particularly around the official Ajax Open Training Day, which attracts thousands of supporters each year. Furthermore, the supporters group is responsible for the Ajax Life website, as well as the fanzine which is issued 20 times a year.
In 2006, the AFCA Supportersclub was introduced as the club's second official supporters' association, through the merger of the Onafhankelijke Fanclub Ajax (OFA) and the Ajax Supporters Delegatie (ASD). The AFCA Supportersclub has a reported 42,000 members, as well as a former member on the Board of Administration of Ajax, in Ronald Pieloor.
The third official supporters club is the Ajax Business Associates (ABA). Founded in 1991 the ABA is the Business club of Ajax. Members occupy the skyboxes in the Stadium and can make use of the clubs' amenities and luxury suites including the ABA club and lounge. The ABA is also responsible for hosting the annual Ajax Business Golf Trophy, an amateur golf tournament where several active and former Ajax players, as well as prominent people and members of the ABA, participate.Average attendance
This graph displays the average attendance for home matches of Ajax from 1988 to 2018, whereby the difference in capacity of the De Meer Stadion and the Johan Cruyff Arena (est. 1996) is clearly visible.
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Mascot
* Lucky Lynx, is the official team mascot. (2000–present)Jewish connection
in 2008]]
Historically, Ajax was popularly seen as having "Jewish roots". While it had fewer Jewish players than WV-HEDW, Ajax has had a Jewish image since the 1930s when the home stadium was located next to a Jewish neighbourhood of Amsterdam-Oost and opponents saw many supporters walking through the Nieuwmarkt/Waterloopleinbuurt (de Jodenhoek—the "Jews' corner") to get to the stadium. The city of Amsterdam was historically referred to as a Mokum city, Mokum (מקום) being the Yiddish word for "place" or "safe haven", and as anti-Semitic chants and name calling developed and intensified at the old De Meer Stadion from frustrated supporters of opposing clubs, Ajax fans (few of whom are Jewish) responded by embracing Ajax's "Jewish" identity: calling themselves "super Jews", chanting "Jews, Jews" ("Joden, Joden") at games, and adopting Jewish symbols such as the Star of David and the Israeli flag, similar to what supporters of the English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur did with the term "yid"
This Jewish imagery eventually became a central part of Ajax fans' culture. The eventual result was that many genuinely Jewish Ajax fans stopped going to games. In 2013, a documentary titled Superjews was released by NTR and Viewpoint Productions which premiered at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA). The film was directed by Nirit Peled, an Israeli living in Amsterdam, and an independent film maker who offers a very personal view into the game, the lore of Ajax and its relation to Judaism from both the supporters as well as from a Jewish perspective.
Before and after a UEFA Europa League game between the Israeli team Maccabi Tel Aviv and Ajax on Thursday 7 November 2024 in the Johan Cruyff Arena, tensions surrounding the Gaza war erupted into violence.
Players
Current squad
}}
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Players out on loan
}}
}}
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}}
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}}
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}}
Retired numbers
*14 – Johan Cruyff (Forward, 1964–73, 1981–83). ''Number retired on 25 April 2007 at Cruyff's 60th birthday celebration match.
Notes:
Youth/reserves squadFor the reserve squad of Ajax see: Jong Ajax.Notable former players
Board and staff
Current board
;Executive Board
*Chairman: Ernst Boekhorst
**Board members: 7 – ( John Busink, Marjon Eijlers, Giovanni Fränkel, Pim van Dord, René Zegerius, Edo Ophof, Christian Visser.
;Board of Directors
*Chief executive officer: Menno Geelen (ad interim)
*Chief financial officer: Baboeram Panday
*Chief commercial officer: Cas Biesta (ad interim)''
*Technical Director: Alex Kroes
*Director of Football: Marijn Beuker
;Supervisory Board
*Chairman: Carolien Gehrels
**Board members: 4 – ( Danny Blind, Sirik Goeman, Dirk Anbeek, Hermine Voûte.
Current staff
;Coaching staff
*Head coach: Francesco Farioli
*Assistant coaches: Daniele Cavalletto<br /> Dave Vos<br /> Felipe Sanchez Mateos
*Goalkeeping coach: Jarkko Tuomisto
*Goalkeeping coach: Erik Heijblok
*Performance coach: Sam Feringa
*Video analyst: Osman Kul
*Video analyst: Kevin Keij
;Medical staff
*Team doctor: Bas Peijs
*Head physio: Maarten Gozeling
*Club doctor: Niels Wijne
*Fitness coach: Callum Walsh
*Fitness coach: Maikel van Wijk
*Physiotherapist: Frank van Deursen
;Accompanying staff
*Team manager: Jan Siemerink
*Players supervisor: Herman Pinkster
*Loan coach: Michel Kreek
*Press officer: Miel Brinkhuis
List of Ajax chairmen
* Floris Stempel (1900–08)
* Chris Holst (1908–10)
* Han Dade (1910–12)
* Chris Holst (1912–13)
* Willem Egeman (1913–25)
* Frans Schoevaart (1925–32)
* Marius Koolhaas (1932–56)
* Wim Volkers (1956–58)
* Jan Melchers (1958–64)
* Jaap van Praag (1964–78)
* Ton Harmsen (1978–88)
* Michael van Praag (1989–2003)
* John Jaakke (2003–08)
* Uri Coronel (2008–11)
* Hennie Henrichs (2011–20)
* Frank Eijken (2020–2023)
* Ernst Boekhorst (2023–present)
List of Ajax coaches
* Jack Kirwan (1910–15)
* Jack Reynolds (1915–25)
* Harold Rose (1925–26)
* Stanley Castle (1926–28)
* Jack Reynolds (1928–40)
* Vilmos Halpern (1940–41)
* Wim Volkers (1941–42)
* Dolf van Kol (1942–45)
* Jack Reynolds (1945–47)
* Robert Smith (1947–48)
* Walter Crook (1948–50)
* Robert Thomson (1950–52)
* Karel Kaufman (1952–53)
* Walter Crook (1953–54)
* Karl Humenberger (1954–59)
* Vic Buckingham (1959–61)
* Keith Spurgeon (1961–62)
* Joseph Gruber (1962–63)
* Jack Rowley (1963–64)
* Vic Buckingham (1964–65)
* Rinus Michels (1965–71)
* Ștefan Kovács (1971–73)
* George Knobel (1973–74)
* Bobby Haarms (1974, interim)
* Hans Kraay (1974–75)
* Jan van Daal (1975, interim)
* Rinus Michels (1975–76)
* Tomislav Ivić (1976–78)
* Cor Brom (1978–79)
* Leo Beenhakker (1979–81)
* Aad de Mos (1981, interim)
* Kurt Linder (1981–82)
* Aad de Mos (1982–85)
* Antoine Kohn, Tonny Bruins Slot and Cor van der Hart (1985, interim)
* Johan Cruyff (1985–88)
* Kurt Linder (1988)
* Antoine Kohn, Bobby Haarms and Barry Hulshoff (1988–89, interim)
* Leo Beenhakker (1989–91)
* Louis van Gaal (1991–97)
* Morten Olsen (1997–99)
* Jan Wouters (1999–2000)
* Hans Westerhof (2000, interim)
* Co Adriaanse (2000–01)
* Ronald Koeman (2001–05)
* Ruud Krol (2005, interim)
* Danny Blind (2005–06)
* Henk ten Cate (2006–07)
* Adrie Koster (2007–08, interim)
* Marco van Basten (2008–09)
* John van 't Schip (2009, interim)
* Martin Jol (2009–10)
* Frank de Boer (2010–16)
* Peter Bosz (2016–17)
* Marcel Keizer (2017)
* Erik ten Hag (2017–2022)
* Alfred Schreuder (2022–2023)
* John Heitinga (2023)
* Maurice Steijn (2023)
* Hedwiges Maduro (2023, interim)
* John van 't Schip (2023–2024, interim)
* Francesco Farioli (2024–present)
Honours
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
!style="width: 10%;"|Type
!style="width: 10%;"|Competition
!style="width: 5%;"|Titles
!style="width: 30%;"|Seasons
|-
| rowspan="3" |Domestic
! scope=col| Eredivisie
|style="background-color:gold"|36
|
1917–18, 1918–19, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1933–34, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1946–47, 1956–57, 1959–60
, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82 , 1982–83, 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2010–11 , 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2018–19, 2020–21, 2021–22
|-
! scope=col| KNVB Cup
|style="background-color:gold"|20
|
1916–17, 1942–43, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1969-70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1992–93, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2018–19, 2020–21
|-
! scope=col |Johan Cruyff Shield
|9
|
1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2013, 2019
|-
| rowspan="4" |Continental
! scope=col|UEFA Champions League
|4
|1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1994–95
|-
! scope=col|UEFA Europa League
|1
|
1991–92
|-
! scope=col|UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
|1
|
1986–87
|-
! scope=col|UEFA Super Cup
|2
|
1973, 1995
|-
|Worldwide
! scope=col|Intercontinental Cup
| 2
|1972, 1995
|}
*
* shared record
Ajax also won in 1972, however UEFA only sanctioned the UEFA Super Cup for the first time in 1973 so the 1972 edition was an unofficial one. Played against Rangers, winners of the 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, it went ahead as 'a celebration of the Centenary of Rangers F.C.' (see below) because Rangers was serving a one-year ban at the time, imposed by UEFA for the misbehaviour of its fans. That victory meant Ajax had won every tournament (5 in total) they entered that year, a feat Celtic achieved in 1967 (with 6 trophies), Barcelona in 2009 (6 trophies), and Bayern in 2020 (also 6 trophies).
Other trophies
Ajax have won numerous friendly tournaments, unsanctioned by UEFA or FIFA, including the Amsterdam Tournament, Bruges Matins Trophy, Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, Eusébio Cup, Ted Bates Trophy, Jalkapalloturnaus and Chippie Polar Cup (for a complete list, see: list of AFC Ajax honours).
Club awards
*'''World Soccer World Team of the Year : 1
:: 1995
*France Football European Team of the Year : 4
:: 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973
*Dutch Sports Team of the Year : 5
:: 1968, 1969, 1972, 1987, 1995
*Sports Team of the Year : 1
:: 1990
*IFFHS The World's Club Team of the Year : 1
:: 1992
*Dick van Rijn Trophy : 1
:: 1995
*Amsterdam Sportsteam of the year: 3
:: 2011, 2013, 2014
*ING Fair Play Award : 2'
:: 2013, 2014
*Fair Play Cup : 1
:: 1995
*FIFA Club of the Century : shared 5th place
:: 20th Century
*'kicker Sportmagazin Club of the Century: 2nd place
:: 20th Century
*Best Dutch club after 50 years of professional football : 1
:: 2004
*Football shirt of the Year : Ajax away shirt by adidas
:: 2013–14
*The Four-Four-Two Greatest Club Side Ever : Ajax (1965–1973)
:: 2013
*VVCS Best Pitch of the Year : 1'''
:: 2012
Honorary club members
Ajax have a total of 50 honorary club members, from people who have been invested within the club's administrative engagements, to committed players who have excelled in the athletic department. Of those 50 members 41 have since died. Nine members still remain, including Louis van Gaal. He was made honorary member in 2024.
* Hennie Henrichs
* Arie van Os
* Michael van Praag
* Rob Been sr.
* Sjaak Swart
* Hans Bijvank
* Leo van Wijk
* Jan Buskermolen
* Louis van Gaal
The remaining 41 honorary members who have since died:
* Floris Stempel
* Han Dade
* Chris Holst
* L.W. van Fliet
* K.W.F. van der Lee
* Henk Alofs
* Frans Schoevaart
* Jan Grootmeijer
* J. Oudheusden
* Willem Egeman
* Jan Schoevaart
* Marius Koolhaas
* Jordanus Roodenburgh
* Theo Brokmann
* F.H.W. de Bruijn
* Jan de Boer
* Frans Couton
* A.L. Desmit
* Wim Anderiesen
* Wim Volkers
* Jan Elzenga
* Roef Vunderink
* Kick Geudeker
* G. de Jongh
* Jack Reynolds
* Ferry Dukker
* Arie de Wit
* W.F.C. Bruijnesteijn
* Jan Westrik
* Jaap van Praag
* Henk Hordijk
* M.J.W. Middendorp
* Rinus Michels
* Henk Timman
* Jan Potharst
* Bobby Haarms
* André Kraan
* Willem Schoevaart
* Johan Cruyff
* Uri Coronel
* Tijn Middendorp
Results
Domestic results
Below is a table with Ajax's domestic results since the introduction of the in 1956.
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"width: 100%; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=5 | Domestic results since 1956
|-
! style="width:20%;"|Domestic league
! style="width:20%;"|League result
! style="width:20%;"|Qualification to
! style="width:20%;"|KNVB Cup season
! style="width:20%;"|Cup result
|-
|2023–24 Eredivisie
| 5th
|Europa League (Q2)
|2023–24
|second round
|-
|2022–23 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|Europa League (Q4)
|2022–23
|style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|2021–22 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2021–22
|style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|2020–21 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2020–21
|style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2019–20 Eredivisie
| 1st (no title awarded)
|Champions League
|2019–20
|style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|2018–19 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2018–19
|style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2017–18 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q2)
|2017–18
|round of 16
|-
|2016–17 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2016–17
|third round
|-
|2015–16 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2015–16
|third round
|-
|2014–15 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2014–15
|round of 16
|-
|2013–14 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2013–14
|style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|2012–13 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2012–13
|style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|2011–12 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2011–12
|fourth round
|-
|2010–11 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2010–11
| style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|2009–10 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q2)
|2009–10
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2008–09 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|Europa League (Q4)
|2008–09
|third round
|-
|2007–08 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup (after losing CL-play-offs)
|2007–08
|round of 16
|-
|2006–07 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3)
|2006–07
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2005–06 Eredivisie
|4th
|Champions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3)
|2005–06
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2004–05 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2004–05
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|2003–04 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2003–04
|round of 16
|-
|2002–03 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2002–03
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|2001–02 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|2001–02
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|2000–01 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|Champions League (Q3)
|2000–01
|round of 16
|-
|1999–2000 Eredivisie
|5th
|UEFA Cup
|1999–2000
|round of 16
|-
|1998–99 Eredivisie
|6th
|UEFA Cup
|1998–99
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1997–98 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|1997–98
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1996–97 Eredivisie
|4th
|UEFA Cup
|1996–97
|second round
|-
|1995–96 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|1995–96
|round of 16
|-
|1994–95 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|1994–95
|quarter final
|-
|1993–94 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|Champions League
|1993–94
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|1992–93 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1992–93
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1991–92 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1991–92
|quarter final
|-
|1990–91 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1990–91
|quarter final
|-
|1989–90 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|DSQ
|1989–90
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|1988–89 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1988–89
|quarter final
|-
|1987–88 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1987–88
|second round
|-
|1986–87 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1986–87
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1985–86 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1985–86
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1984–85 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1984–85
|round of 16
|-
|1983–84 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|UEFA Cup
|1983–84
|round of 16
|-
|1982–83 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1982–83
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1981–82 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1981–82
|round of 16
|-
|1980–81 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Cup Winners' Cup
|1980–81
| style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|1979–80 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1979–80
| style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|1978–79 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1978–79
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1977–78 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|UEFA Cup
|1977–78
| style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|1976–77 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1976–77
|second round
|-
|1975–76 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|UEFA Cup
|1975–76
|quarter final
|-
|1974–75 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|UEFA Cup
|1974–75
|round of 16
|-
|1973–74 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
|UEFA Cup
|1973–74
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|1972–73 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup (R2)
|1972–73
|second round
|-
|1971–72 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup (R2)
|1971–72
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1970–71 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|European Cup
|1970–71
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1969–70 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1969–70
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1968–69 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
|Inter-Cities Fairs Cup
|1968–69
|round of 16
|-
|1967–68 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1967–68
| style="background:silver;"|final
|-
|1966–67 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1966–67
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1965–66 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1965–66
|quarter final
|-
|1964–65 Eredivisie
|13th
| –
|1964–65
|first round
|-
|1963–64 Eredivisie
|5th
| –
|1963–64
| style"background:#cd7f32;"|semi-final
|-
|1962–63 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
| –
|1962–63
|round of 16
|-
|1961–62 Eredivisie
|4th
| –
|1961–62
|?
|-
|1960–61 Eredivisie
| style="background:silver;"|2nd
| –
|1960–61
| style="background:gold;"|winners
|-
|1959–60 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|not held
|not held
|-
|1958–59 Eredivisie
|6th
| –
|1958–59
|?
|-
|1957–58 Eredivisie
| style="background:#cd7f32;"|3rd
| –
|1957–58
|?
|-
|1956–57 Eredivisie
| style="background:gold;"|1st
|European Cup
|1956–57
|?
|}
Continental results
Team records
* Most match appearances: 463 – Sjaak Swart
* Most goals scored: 273 – Piet van Reenen
* Most goals scored in a season: 41 – Henk Groot
* First Ajax player to receive an International cap: Gerard Fortgens for the Netherlands in 1911
* First Ajax player to score a goal for the national team: Theo Brokmann for the Netherlands in 1919
Club van 100
The Club van 100 is the official list of Football players who have appeared in one hundred or more official matches for AFC Ajax. The club currently has a total of over 150 members. The record for league appearances is held by Mr. Ajax himself Sjaak Swart, who appeared in 463 league matches for Ajax. There is a beneficiary team called Lucky Ajax, which was initiated by Sjaak Swart. Lucky Ajax participate in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity, and commonly at football ceremonies to bid farewell to retiring players. One of the prerequisites for playing on Lucky Ajax, which is invitational only, is that you are a member of the Club van 100, having made at least 100 official match appearances for Ajax in the first team of the club.
Lucky Ajax
Lucky Ajax is a beneficiary team that was initiated by Sjaak Swart in the seventies, competing in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity and/or to bid farewell to retiring former Ajax players. The team is made up of various members of the Club van 100 of Ajax who will come out of retirement for this match to face the Ajax squad that is current of that year. Past participants have included Barry Hulshoff, Sonny Silooy, Simon Tahamata, Ronald Koeman, Tscheu La Ling, Gerrie Mühren, John van 't Schip, Brian Roy, Stanley Menzo, Peter van Vossen and Fred Grim. The name Lucky Ajax is derived from the famous "Lucky Ajax" nickname from how people used to refer to the club when Ajax would either win a match by chance, by a decision of a referee, or by coincidence such as was said to be the case during the infamous Mistwedstrijd ("Fog Match").
Number 14 shirt
As of the 2007–08 season, no player could wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax after the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for Johan Cruyff, "the legendary number fourteen". Cruyff himself laughed off the tribute, saying the club had to let its best player play with number 14. Spanish midfielder Roger was the last player to wear the number. Marvin Zeegelaar wore the shirt number in preparation for the 2011–12 season in one preseason match, while Aras Özbiliz wore the number 14 shirt in one pre-season match ahead of the 2011–12 season as well. The club stated that this was, in fact, not done in error.
Below is a list of all players to wear the number 14 shirt since Johan Cruyff's departure.
{|
| valigntop width450 |
* Zoltán Varga – 1973–74 season
* Jan Mulder – 1974–75 season
* Geert Meijer – 1975–76 season
* Frank Arnesen – 1976–77 and 1977–78 seasons
* Tscheu La Ling – 1978–79 season
* Karel Bonsink – 1979–80 season
* Frank Rijkaard – 1980–81 season (uncertain)
* Sonny Silooy – 1981–82 season
* Marco van Basten – 1982–83 season
From 1983 to 1997, reserves no longer received permanent shirt numbers.
| valigntop width450 |
* Dani – 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons
* Martijn Reuser – 1999–00 season
* Brutil Hosé – 2000–01 season
* Shota Arveladze – 2001–02 season
* Jan van Halst – 2002–03 season
* Jelle Van Damme – 2003–04 season
* Thomas Vermaelen – 2004–05 season
* Maxwell – 2005–06 season
* Roger – 2006–07 season
|}
Former captains
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable"
|-
!scope="col"|Tenure
!scope="col"|Player
|-
|1964–1967
|scope="row"| Frits Soetekouw
|-
|1967–1970
|scope="row"| Gert Bals
|-
|1970–1971
|scope="row"| Velibor Vasović
|-
|1971–1972
|scope="row"| Piet Keizer
|-
|1972–1973
|scope="row"| Johan Cruyff
|-
|1973–1974
|scope="row"| Piet Keizer
|-
|1974–1980
|scope="row"| Ruud Krol
|-
|1980–1981
|scope="row"| Frank Arnesen
|-
|1981–1983
|scope="row"| Søren Lerby
|-
|1983–1985
|scope="row"| Dick Schoenaker
|-
|1985
|scope="row"| Frank Rijkaard
|-
|1985–1987
|scope="row"| Marco van Basten
|-
|1987–1990
|scope="row"| John van 't Schip
|-
|1990–1999
|scope="row"| Danny Blind
|-
|1999–2001
|scope="row"| Aron Winter
|-
|2001–2003
|scope="row"| Cristian Chivu
|-
|2003–2004
|scope="row"| Jari Litmanen
|-
|2004–2005
|scope="row"| Rafael Van der Vaart
|-
|2005–2006
|scope="row"| Tomáš Galásek
|-
|2006–2007
|scope="row"| Jaap Stam
|-
|2007–2009
|scope="row"| Klaas-Jan Huntelaar
|-
|2009
|scope="row"| Thomas Vermaelen
|-
|2009–2011
|scope="row"| Luis Suárez
|-
|2011
|scope="row"| Maarten Stekelenburg
|-
|2011–2012
|scope="row"| Jan Vertonghen
|-
|2012–2014
|scope="row"| Siem de Jong
|-
|2014–2015
|scope="row"| Niklas Moisander
|-
|2015–2017
|scope="row"| Davy Klaassen
|-
|2017–2018
|scope="row"| Joël Veltman
|-
|2018–2019
|scope="row"| Matthijs de Ligt
|-
|2019–2023
|scope="row"| Dušan Tadić
|-
|2023–2024
|scope="row"| Steven Bergwijn
|-
|2024–
|scope="row"| Jordan Henderson
|}
Team tournaments
Amsterdam Tournament
Established in 1975 as the Amsterdam 700 Tournament to celebrate 700 years of history in the city. The tournament was hosted annually each summer by Ajax until 1992, when the last edition of the original tournament was played. It returned in 1999 with the backing of the International Event Partnership (IEP). Four teams participated in the competition, played in a league format since 1986. the tournament used an unusual point scoring system. As with most league competitions, three points were awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. An additional point, however, was awarded for each goal scored. The system was designed to reward teams that adopted a more attacking style of play. Each entrant played two matches, with the winner being the club that finished at the top of the table. The original competition was held at Het Olympisch Stadion where Ajax played the bigget games until 1996. The Amsterdam Arena (now Johan Cruyff Arena) played host to the event since its return until the last edition was played in 2009. Ajax is the most successful team of the tournament, having won it a record ten times, while Benfica from Portugal was the last team to win the tournament, in 2009.
Copa Amsterdam
Established in 2005, the Copa Amsterdam is an international friendly football tournament for Under-19 youth teams, that is organized by Ajax and the Amsterdam city council, which takes place at the Olympic Stadium as part of the annual Amsterdam Sports Weekend, a citywide sponsored initiative to promote 'sports and recreation' within the city of Amsterdam. Each Summer the city of Amsterdam and Ajax invite U-19 teams from various top clubs from around the World to participate in the tournament. Seven teams are invited and play in the competition every year. Over the years, clubs such as Barcelona, Juventus, Chelsea and Real Madrid have had their senior youth teams participate in the tournament. Cruzeiro from Brazil is the most successful club in the history of the tournament, having won it three times in total.Future Cup
Established in 2010, the AEGON Future Cup is an international friendly tournament for Under-17 youth teams, which is organized by AFC Ajax and their main sponsor, the insurance company AEGON. The tournament is held each year at the Johan Cruyff Arena and at the Sportpark De Toekomst, the team's training ground, which also inspired the name of the competition, since De Toekomst in Dutch means The Future. Every year during the Easter weekend, six U-17 teams are invited to participate in the competition, while the seventh place for the contesters is reserved for the winners of the "Craques Mongeral AEGON Future Cup" in Brazil, the sister competition of the tournament in South America. Youth teams from top clubs such as Manchester United, Bayern Munich, Milan and many more have participated in the competition over the years. Ajax is the most successful club of the tournament, having won the trophy a total of five times.
See also
* List of football clubs in the Netherlands
* List of world champion football clubs
Bibliography
* David Endt, De godenzonen van Ajax, Rap, Amsterdam, 1993,
* Jan Baltus Kok, Naar Ajax. Mobiliteitspatronen van bezoekers bij vier thuiswedstrijden van Ajax, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1992,
*Simon Kuper, Ajax, The Dutch, The War. Football in Europe during the Second World War, Orion Books, London (Translation of: Ajax, de Joden en Nederland ("Ajax, the Jews, The Netherlands)", 2003,
* Evert Vermeer, 95 jaar Ajax. 1900–1995, Luitingh-Sijthoff, Amsterdam, 1996,
External links
*
*[http://www.weltfussballarchiv.com/club_profile.php?ID3661 AFC Ajax] at weltfussballarchiv
*[https://int.soccerway.com/teams/netherlands/afc-ajax/1515/ AFC Ajax] at soccerway
References
}}
Category:Football clubs in Amsterdam
Category:Football clubs in the Netherlands
Category:1900 establishments in the Netherlands
Category:Association football clubs established in 1900
Category:G-14 clubs
Aj
Aj
Aj
Aj
A | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFC_Ajax | 2025-04-05T18:25:58.958215 |
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